Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research 2007

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EDITORIAL POLICY The Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is open to the global community of scholars who wish to have their researches published in a peer-reviewed journal. Contributors can access the Website: www.liceohighereducationjournal. com. The Editorial Board invites guest editors and peer reviewers for every issue of the journal.

As stipulated in the Research Manual (2009) of the Liceo de Cagayan University, the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is viewed as a premier journal that publishes peer-reviewed higher education researches. Publishable research articles embrace any research methodology as long as the articles meet the publication standards of the journal. The journal primarily has, as its audience, academicians, graduate students, and other individuals interested in pushing the frontiers of higher education research.

The primary criterion for publication in the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is the significance of the contribution an article makes to the body of literature. The content areas of interest include the various disciplines of knowledge in higher education.

The efficiency and effectiveness of the editorial review process are critically dependent upon the actions of both the research authors and the reviewers. An author accepts the responsibility of preparing the research paper for evaluation by independent reviewers. The responsibility includes subjecting the manuscript to evaluation by peers and revising it prior to submission. The review process is not to be used as a means of obtaining feedback at early stages of developing the research paper.

Reviewers and editors are responsible for providing constructive and prompt evaluation of submitted research papers based on the significance of their contribution and on the rigors of analysis and presentation.

The Peer Review System Definition. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author’s scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field. Peer review requires a community of experts in a given v

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

(and often narrowly defined) field, who are qualified and able to perform impartial review. Peer review refers to the work done during the screening of submitted manuscripts and funding applications. This normative process encourages authors to meet the accepted standards of their discipline and prevents the dissemination of unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations and personal views. Peer review increases the probability that weaknesses will be identified, and, with advice and encouragement, fixed. For both grant-funding and publication in a scholarly journal, it is also normally a requirement that the subject is both novel and substantial.

Type. The double-blind review process is adopted for the journal. The reviewer and the author do not know each other’s identity.

Recruiting Referees. The task of picking reviewers is the responsibility of the editor. When a manuscript arrives, an editor solicits reviews from scholars or other experts to referee the manuscript. In some cases, the authors may suggest the referees’ names subject to the Editorial Board’s approval. The referees must have an excellent track record as researchers in the field as evidenced by researches published in refereed journals, research-related awards, and an experience in peer review. Referees are not selected from among the author’s close colleagues, students, or friends. Referees are to inform the editor of any conflict of interests that may arise. The Editorial Board often invites research author to name people whom they consider qualified to referee their work. The Author’s input in selecting referees is solicited because academic writing typically is very specialized. The identities of the referees selected by the Editorial Board are kept unknown to research authors. However, the reviewer’s identity can be disclosed under some circumstances.

Peer Review Process. The Editorial Board sends advance copies of an author’s work to experts in the field (known as “referees” or “reviewers”) through e-mail or a Web-based manuscript processing system. There are two or three referees for a given article. Two are experts of the topic of research and one is an expert in research and statistics who shall review the technical components of the research.

These referees return to the board the evaluation of the work that indicates the observed weaknesses or problems along with suggestions for improvement. The board then evaluates the referees’ comments and notes opinion of the manuscript before passing the decision with the referees’ comments back to the author(s).

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Acceptance or rejection finally rests on the decision of the Editorial Board. The referees’ evaluations include an explicit recommendation of what to do with the vi

manuscript or proposal, often chosen from options provided by the journal or funding agency. Most recommendations are along the following lines: • to unconditionally accept the manuscript or proposal, • to accept it in the event that its authors improve it in certain ways, • to reject it, but encourage revision and invite resubmission, • to reject it outright During this process, the role of the referees is advisory, and the editor is typically under no formal obligation to accept the opinions of the referees.

Furthermore, the referees do not act as a group, do not communicate with each other, and typically are not aware of each other’s identities or evaluations. There is usually no requirement that the referees achieve consensus.

In situations where the referees disagree substantially about the quality of a work, there are a number of strategies for reaching a decision. When the editor receives very positive and very negative reviews for the same manuscript, the board will solicit one or more additional reviews as a tie-breaker. In the case of ties, the board may invite authors to reply to a referee’s criticisms and permit a compelling rebuttal to break the tie. If the editor does not feel confident to weigh the persuasiveness of a rebuttal, the board may solicit a response from the referee who made the original criticism. In rare instances, the board will convey communications back and forth between an author and a referee, in effect allowing them to debate a point. Even in such case, however, the board does not allow referees to confer with each other, and the goal of the process is explicitly not to reach consensus or to convince anyone to change his/her opinions.

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Vol 5 No.1 December 2007 ISSN: 2094-1064

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

New Records of Philippine Mosses from Mindanao Island LESLEY C. LUBOS Dawsonia@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University

Date Submitted: January 14, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: July 16, 2007 Abstract – The study identified the record status of the collected species of mosses found on selected mountains in Mindanao. Field collections of mosses were conducted in Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province and Mt. Matutum, South Cotabato Province at 10 meters on each side of the trails.

The study sites were labeled Southeastern, Northeastern and Western Sloes. The moss specimens were collected, classified and described.

Using the key of Bartram (1939) and other literatures, the specimens were identified. The study revealed 137 species, 87 genera and 33 families of mosses. Of the 137 species, 109 were found in Mt. Kalatungan and 59 in Mt. Matutum. Assessment of conservation status revealed seven new records of Philippines mosses namely: Acroporium ramicola, Garovaglia bauerlenii, Hypnodendron auricomum, Leucobryum boninense, Meiotheciella papillosa, Neolindbergia cladomnioides, and Symphysodontella parvifolia are reported. The annihilation of the mountains is basically caused by human activities such as land clearing, slash and burn method for expanding crop plantation, urbanization, firewood consumption, over collection of moss plant materials of horticulture, landscaping and other commercial purposes. Some species are epiphytes on tree trunks or branches of live trees while others are on rotten logs, rock surfaces, moist stones along the stream banks and some grow well on soil.

Key words - Mosses,Acroporium ramicola, Garovaglia bauerlenii, Hypnodendron auricomum, Leucobryum boninense, Meiotheciella papillosa, Neolindbergia cladomnioides, and Symphysodontella parvifolia.

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INTRODUCTION The large and diverse Philippine (Fig 1) moss flora has a modern checklist (Tan and Iwatsuki 1991). The history and progress of Philippine bryology were reviewed and summarized by Tan (1992) who discussed in detail the floristic composition and affinity of the archipelagic moss flora (see also Tan 1984). In Tan’s publications, Mindanao was cited as an important island, albeit with a still incompletely known flora, which may hold critically the key to a better understanding of the origin and evolution of the entire Philippine moss flora.

In recent years, the Island of Mindanao (Fig 2) has been alleged to have a different geological origin and plate tectonic history from the rest of the islands forming the Philippine archipelago (Hall 1998). As such, this second largest southern island of the country may harbor important floristic and bryogeographical information that needs to be documented before the local forests become completely decimated.

To date, Mindanao Island has a total of 187 genera and 314 species of mosses (cf. Tan and Iwatsuki 1991), 50 of which are known only from this island. The rest are found also in Luzon and the Visayas Islands. Among the 50 species of Philippine mosses known from Mindanao, 4% are widespread in the tropics, 60% are Malaysian taxa, 21% have an Australasian link, 10% have a Bornean link, and only 6% have a continental Asiatic connection. Clearly, the moss flora of Mindanao has a strong southern and Australasian influence compared to other large islands in the country (see also Tan 1998).

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY The objective of the study is to identify the record status of the collected species of mosses found in selected mountains in Mindanao.

MATERIALS AND METHODS Survey Establishment of the Study Sites Survey of mosses in Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province (Fig 3); and Mt. Matutum (Fig 4), Tupi, South Cotabato Province, was conducted at the three slopes or areas of the forest reserve: western slope, northern slope, and southeastern slope. Furthermore, a compass was used to determine the exact direction of the slopes or areas. These areas were selected because of their accessibility.

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Collection of Specimens Representative species of mosses whether terrestrial, epiphytic or petrophytic, were collected at 10 m of each side of the trail from base to the upper portion of the three selected areas. The collection was done using a knife and a bolo and was placed in a plastic bag, labeled with following data: altitude, collection number, date of collection, and their associated habitat.

Classification, Identification and Description The specimens collected were classified and identified using the taxonomic keys of Bartram (1939). Each species identified was described morphologically using the gametophyte characters (leaf arrangement, midrib, base, apex, margin, cells, and shape) and sporophyte characters (size, shape, texture of capsule and seta, number of teeth).

Data Sources In addition to the researcher’s collections, data from the electronic database of Dr. Benito C. Tan of the National Herbarium in Singapore, where the researcher’s duplicate specimens were deposited for identification and analysis, were used.

Photographs A camera was used for documentation. Stereomicroscope and trinocular microscope were also used to describe the morphology of the species.

Record Status A New Annotated Checklist of Iwatsuki and Tan (1991) were used to determine the record status of the species.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The study found out that there are new records of mosses found in Mindanao Mountains (Fig 5), six in Mt. Kalatungan and one in Mt Matutum.

1. Acroporium ramicola (Hampe) Broth. [Family Sematophyllaceae ] According to Tan (1994), this is a difficult species to interpret and identify.

Having erect, spreading and acicular leaves when dry, it is like a large version of the common A. diminutum (Brid.) Fleisch. The leaf cells of Acroporium ramicola are clearly unipapillose, whereas the leaf cells of A. diminutum are generally smooth and occasionally prorate. Acroporium ramicola also looks like A. convolutum (Bosch & Sande Lac.) Fleisch. The latter, however, has ovatelanceolate leaves, quite unlike the narrowly lanceolate and tightly involutes leaves of A. ramicola.

The present species was first described in Sarawak of Borneo and later reported in Papua New Guinea (Tan 1994). The new Philippine (Mindanao) record would seem to indicate that the species is probably widely scattered across the region but 3

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overlooked by plant collectors.

Specimens Studied: Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province 2. Garovaglia bauerlenii ( Geh.) Par. [Family Pterobyaceae] This is a large and beautiful species of Garovaglia characterized by a tumid foliation with strongly rugose as well as plicate leaves. The leaves are broadly ovate. The leaf apices are abruptly acute to gradually acuminate and the leaf base has neither auricular nor decurrent development. The species seems uncommon in the Malaysian region having been collected sporadically from Peninsular Malaya and Papua New Guinea, and now, Mindanao. It is a new moss record for the Philippine archipelago.

Specimens Studied: Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province 3. Hypnodendron auricomum Broth. & Geh. [Family Hypnodendraceae] Hypnodendron auricomun is a relatively common Malaysian species found in many high mountains south of the Philippines. Hence, it is most welcome to see this among our Mindanao collections.

Among its congeners, the species is distinctive in having an umbellate branching habit with a long stripe and numerous appressed stripe leaves (Norris and Koponen 1996). In New Guinea, the species is reportedly rather variable in plant size, being larger at higher elevations (Touw 1971).

The addition of this species to the Mindanao flora highlights the past Gondwanic connection of the island flora.

Specimens Studied: Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province 4. Leucobryum boninense Sull. & Lesq. [Family Leucobryaceae] This species is new to the Philippines. The size of Mindanao plants approaches that of L. javense (Schwaegr.) Mitt., but the plant habit looks more like a L. bowringii Mitt. The species identity was confirmed by Dr. T. Yamaguchi (1999, pers. comm.) who wrote that “although the (Mindanao) plants are larger that those of typical L. boninense; the leaf shape and the proration of abaxial leaf cells are similar to the typical form.� Although the species was reported in Yamaguchi (1993) as ranging from Japan, China to Taiwan, it is probably well distributed in Malaysia. Leucobryum boninense appears to be new not just to the Philippines, but also to Malaysia.

Specimens Studied: Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province

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5. Meiotheciella papillosa (Broth.) B. C. Tan, Schof. & Ramsay [Family Sematophyllaceae] Meiotheciella is a segregate genus of Meiothecium characterized by having unipapillose leaf cells, among other characters. The genus and the species are both new records for the Philippine flora. The plants are small, half the size of the widespread Meiothecium microcarpum (Hook.) Mitt, or about the size of M. bogoriense Fleisch. The leaves of the Mindanao plants are ovate and narrowly recurved on both sides. The leaf cells are mostly short oval becoming oblong at leaf base. Tan, Schofield and Ramsay (1998) provided a good illustration of the taxon.

Meiotheciella papillosa is now known in the Philippines (Mindanao), Java, New Caledonia, and Australia (Queensland). It should be sought for from the intervening islands in the Malaysian region.

Specimens Studied: Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province 6. Neolindbergia cladomnioides Akiyama [Family Prionodontaceae] The species is new to the Philippine flora. It was first described in Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah of Malaysia by Akiyama et al. (1991) and subsequently found also in East Kalimantan. Its presence in Mindanao is an indication of the close phytogeographical relationship between Mindanao and Sabah State of Borneo. The species is unique, having rather large, stout and ascending shoots with strongly plicate and serrate leaves. The erect shoots measure to 8-10cm long and 2-3 mm wide. This species is best illustrated by Akiyama et.al (1991).

Specimens Studied: Mt. Matutum, South Cotabato 7. Symphysodontella parvifolia Bartr. [Family Pterobryaceae] This species is unique in the genus, having distinctly long apiculate leaf apices. The ascending shoots of the Philippine (Mindanao) plants are fiabellate in branching pattern. Several flagellate tertiary branches are conspicuously formed distally. The species is known in the Lesser Sunda Islands, Moluccas Islands, and New Guinea (Magill 1980; Touw 1992). It is reported for the first time in the Philippines.

Specimens Studied: Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province CONCLUSION The study found out that there are new records of mosses found in Mindanao, particularly in Mt.Kalatungan in Bukidnon, and Mt. Matutum in South Cotabato.

These Philippine mountains need to be protected and preserved in order to ensure mosses’ growth and abundance. Protection of the mosses is protection of our forest ecosystem.

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LITERATURE CITED Akiyama, H., T. Koponen and D. H. Norris. (1991).Bryophyte flora of the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. XLV, Neolindbergia (Prionodontaceae, Musci). Acta Bot.Fennica 143: 77-89.

Hall, R. (1998). The plate tectonics of Cenozoic SEAsia and the distribution of land and sea,pp. 99-131. In: R. Hall & J. D. Holloway(eds.), Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia. Backhuys Publisher,Leiden.

Magill, R. (1980). A monograph of the genus Symphysodontella (Pterobryaceae, Musci). J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 48: 33-70.

Noguchi, A. (1976). A taxonomic revision of the family Meteoriaceae of Asia.

J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 41: 231-357.

Norris, D. H. and T. Koponen. (1996). Bryophyte flora of the Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. LVIII. Hypnodendron (Hypnodendraceae, Musci). Acta Bot. Fennica 156: 23-48.

Tan, B. C. (1984). A reconsideration of the affinity of Philippine moss flora. 3.

Hattori Bot. Lab. 55: 13-22.

Tan, B. C. (1992). Philippine muscology (1979-1989).In: T. Koponen and J. Hyvรถnen (eds.).Proceedings of the Congress of East Asiatic Bryology, Helsinki, August 12-19, 1990. Bryobrothera 1: 137-141.

Tan, B. C. (1994). The bryophytes of Sabah (North Borneo) with special reference to the BRYOTROP transect of Mount Kinabalu. XIX. The genus Acroporium (Sematophyllaceae, Musci) in Borneo, with notes on species of Java and the Philippines. Willdnowia 24: 255-294.

Tan, B. C. (1998). Noteworthy disjunctive patterns of Malesian mosses, pp. 235241. In: R. Hall & J. D. Holloway (eds.), Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia. Backhuys Publisher, Leiden.

Tan, B. C. and Z. Iwatsuki. (1991). A new annotated Philippine moss checklist.

Harvard Papers Bot. 3: 1 Tan, B. C., W. B. Schofield and H. Ramsay. (1998). Miscellanies of Australian Sematophyllaceae with a new genus, Meiotheciella. Nova Hedwigia 67: 2 13-223.

Touw, A. (1971). A taxonomic revision of the Hypnodendraceae (Musci).

Blumea 19:211-354.

Touw, A. (1992). A survey of the mosses of the Lesser Sunda Islands (Nusa Tenggara), Indonesia. 3. Hattori Bot. Lab. 71: 289-366.

Yamaguchi, T. (1993). A revision of the genus Leucobryuin (Musci) in Asia. 3.

Hattori Bot. Lab. 73: 1-123.

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Fig. 1 Philippine Map

Fig. 3 Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon Province

L.C. Lubos

Fig. 2 Mindanao Island

Fig. 4 Mt. Matutum, South Cotabato

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Fig. 5 Seven New Records of Philippine Mosses

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Ectoparasites and Endoparasites among Oreochormis Niloticus (tilapia) EVA GLADYS B. BADAR gladys_badar@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: February 26, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: June 3, 2007 Abstract - The study investigated the parasites affecting Oreochormis Niloticus (tilapia) from the Cagayan de Oro River. The study revealed that there were ten (10) species of parasites infecting the different organs of the fish samples, namely Protozoans: Oodinium pilluris (egg), Chilodonella sp., Coccidia sp.and,Cryptobia sp.; Nematodes: Capillaria sp., Procamallanus sp.,Spirocamallanus sp. and Camallanus sp.; Cestode: Hymenolypis nana; and Acanthocephala: Acanthocephalus sp. The skin, gills, and fins were the organs harboring most protozoan parasites. The internal parts most infected with the different parasites were the stomach and intestine of the fish. Two species of parasites, cestode and acanthocephalan, were found to harbor pigs as part of their life cycle. Among the three water sources, the highest incidence rate of infection with Protozoan, Nematode, Cestode, Acanthocephalan parasites was in Barangay Carmen. Aside from the piggeries put up along the riverbanks, Barangay Carmen also receives all the wastes coming from the upper parts of the Cagayan de Oro River, thus making the rate of infection high. Lowest incidence rate of infection with the parasites was in Barangay Consolacion. This is due to the salinity of the water. Most fish health problems occur because of environmental problems such as poor water quality and existence of parasites.

Key words - Ectoparasite, Endoparasite, Protozoa, Nematoda, Cestoda, Crustacea, Acanthocephala, Monogenean Digenea

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INTRODUCTION Tilapia (Oreochormis niloticus) is considered as the second most popular cultured fish in the Philippines after milkfish. It provides Filipinos with animal protein of low price and of excellent flesh quality. Liao and Chen, as cited by Acac (1990), said that tilapia is no longer an African fish but an international fish. It is believed that in the future, it may also become the most important finfish in the world.

However, with the increasing popularity of tilapia as a source of food, its natural habitat, which includes rivers and lakes, is not entirely free from pathological organisms such as parasites. Parasites of fish are integral parts of aquatic ecosystems. Especially in water bodies with poor environmental conditions, they can exert a strong regulatory effect on population. Environmental stresses can depress host immunity. Fish become more susceptible to infections and these can become more severe, even fatal. Sick and dead fish become a source of disease for the consumers. It cannot be denied that once the fish become infected with parasites, it would become a health threat to those who consume them. Also, profits start to decline.

Some symptoms of parasitic infections to human are unusual gastrointestinal problems such as bloating, cramping, diarrhea or unusual bowel movements. What makes the diagnosis difficult is that the symptoms may occur many hours or days after the consumption of the fish. Also, many people might mistake the symptoms simply as a case of “stomach flu” or other short-lived stomach problem. Other infections that people should be aware of is fish poisoning. Typical symptoms are like an allergic reaction: skin flushing, headache, oral burning, cramps, nausea, diarrhea, and itching. Symptoms may occur 10-30 minutes after ingestion and may last 6-10 hours.

Parasitology in tilapia is neglected. People raise and consume the fish without the knowledge of the parasites’ presence and the parasites’ harmful effect on human health. Eating raw tilapia, which is a delicacy among Filipinos, could be dangerous since the parasites could cause serious diseases. Considering the harmful effects of the parasite on the fish and on the human health, the researcher conducted this study to find out the parasites present in tilapia from the different areas of Cagayan de Oro River.

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Ectoparasites and Endoparasites among Oreochormis Niloticus (tilapia)

E.B. Badar

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This study aimed at identifying the parasites present in Oreochormis nilotiicus (tilapia) from the selected areas of the Cagayan de Oro River. The objectives are: (1) identify the ectoparasites and endoparasites found among fish sample according to organ and water source/station; (2) determine the incidence rate of infection with Protozoans, Nematodes,Cestodes,Crustaceans, Acanthocephalans, Monogeneans, and Digeneans according to the organs and source of tilapia; and (3) make morphological descriptions of the different parasites collected and identified from the fish samples.

MATERIALS AND METHODS In determining and identifying the parasites present in tilapia from the Cagayan de Oro River, the experimental research design, based on the Southeast Asian fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) Handbook published by Lacierda and Pagador (1999), was used in the study. Ocular inspections of the Oro River and an interview with the fish catchers were conducted to assess the areas where the fish would be collected. After which, three sampling stations were selected.

The stations, which covered the whole water vicinity of the three barangays, were Station 1 – Barangay Carmen, Station 2 – Barangay 13 (Isla de Oro), and Station 3 – Barangay Consolacion (see attached map). The detection, examination, and identification of the fish parasites were conducted at the Zoology Laboratory of Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro City.

Reagents and Materials The following chemicals were used in the study: alcohol-formalin-Acetic (AFA) - a mixture of 60 ml formalin, 500 ml 95% ethyl alcohol, 40 ml glacial acetic acid, and 400 ml distilled water, 5% glycerine alcohol - a mixture of 95 ml 70% ethyl alcohol, 55 ml glycerin, 70% methyl alcohol – a mixture of 70% ml methyl alcohol and 30 ml distilled water, Methanol, Giemsa stain, and Canada balsam.

The following materials were used: Aerator, Four big basins, Tray, Binocular electric microscope, Photomicrograph microscope, Scalpel, Dissecting needle, Forceps, Pointed scissors, Glass slides, Cover slips, Medicine dropper, and Petri dish.

Sample Collection

Ninety (90) live tilapia (Oreochormis niloticus) were randomly collected regardless of age, size, and sex from the three assigned stations in the Cagayan de Oro River. The sample collection was done three times at a two-week interval, 11

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which started from the second week of August to the second week of September 2005. For every sampling period, ten (10) fish were collected from each station.

These were transferred separately to aerated big plastic cellophanes with their natural water to keep the fish alive. The samples were transported to the Zoology Laboratory and transferred to four separate big basins with an electrical aquarium device (air pump) to obtain maximum aeration and to keep the fish alive longer.

Immediate and detailed parasitological examination of the fish samples was performed to avoid contamination.

Experimental Procedure A. Fish Parasite Detection and identification This procedure was based on the Fish Health Management Handbook of Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD). The fish samples were immobilized first by placing them in NSS (natural saline solution) for 3-5 minutes. The fish were kept wet at all times during the examination.

Examination of Skin and Eyes - Individual scrapings of mucus including under and corner of skin and eyes were done using the dull side of scalpel blade in an anterior and posterior direction. The mucus scrapings were spread thinly on a glass slide with physiological saline solution (NSS) using a dissecting needle.

These were then examined under a binocular electric microscope, starting from low to high power objective (10X, 40X, and 100 X) for parasite identification.

The identification was referred to and based on the SEAFDEC Handbook and Invertebrate Zoology books. The parasites were identified while still alive and not yet deformed. The parasites were stained on a glass slide. The glass slides were then mounted and covered with a cover slip for documentation.

Examination of Gills - The left and right gills were removed and placed in a petri dish with NSS. Gill scrapings were made by holding the gill with forceps and running it with a blunt needle along the filaments gently to prevent excess blood in the sample. The mucus was spread on a slide using a dissecting needle. Five (5) slides of mucus scrapings were prepared for each fish sample and examined under the microscope. The same method of identification and data gathering in number 1 was used. The identified parasites were then stained, mounted, and covered with a cover slip for documentation.

Examination of Flesh and Internal Organs - The visceral cavity was dissected carefully by making a slit, using a pair of sharp-pointed scissors, from the anal opening to beneath the heart. One side of the body wall was removed to expose the viscera. The entire digestive organ was removed by cutting the esophagus close to buccal cavity and the rectum right at the anus. The entire components were 12

Ectoparasites and Endoparasites among Oreochormis Niloticus (tilapia)

E.B. Badar

placed in a petri dish with NSS, and each component (liver, heart, and intestine) was separated. Contents of the intestine were scraped and spread in a slide. These were examined under the microscope. Fresh squash preparations of the heart and liver were made. A piece of tissue from the specimen (3 mm in diameter) was compressed between the slide and cover slip. Microscopic examinations were done. The flesh behind the head was sliced in a posterior direction by filleting.

The fillets were spread with the skin downward. The flesh was squashed in a slide for examination under the microscope. The cranium was opened by making a horizontal incision beginning just above the eyes. The brain was removed and spread on a slide. All the parasites found in the different organs were identified and recorded. Blood samples were obtained from the experimental fish and were spread thinly on a slide for examination and identification of parasites under the microscope.

B. Fixation, Staining, and Storage of Parasites All the parasites observed were fixed and stained for storage and documentation. Each of the parasites was subjected to different fixation, staining, and storage process.

Protozoan - the parasite samples were smeared and air dried. They were then fixed with methanol for one minute. After which, the samples were stained with Giemsa and mounted with Canada balsam.

Nematode - the samples were fixed with a hot glycerin alcohol and were mounted with Canada balsam.

Monogenean - the parasites were fixed in a hot water and transferred to cold alcohol-formalin-acetic acid (AFA) overnight. They were then mounted with Canada balsam.

Digenean - the parasites were cooled with alcohol-formalin-acetic acid (AFA) overnight in a refrigerator and were then stored with 70% ethyl alcohol and mounted with Canada balsam.

Photomicrography of the Identified Parasites

Photographs of the parasites were taken using a photomicrograph microscope for documentation, which served as evidence to support the authenticity of the study.

Statistical Tool

The weighted mean was used to show the incidence rate of infection among fish samples.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Identification of Ectoparasites and Endoparasites A total of ninety (90) tilapia from Barangay Carmen, Barangay Isla de Oro, and Barangay Consolacion were subjected to parasitological examinations using the direct microscopic technique and different staining methods published in the SEAFDEC Handbook. The parasites that were found on the external surface (ectoparasites) and in the internal parts (endoparasites) of the host fish were identified and recorded. Table 1 show that there were ten (10) species of parasites infecting the different organs of fish samples collected from the water vicinity of Barangay Carmen, Barangay Isla de Oro, and Barangay Consolacion. There were four species of Protozoans observed. Oodinium pilluris (egg) and Chilodonella sp., which were ectoparasitic, infected the skin, fins, and gills, which are major respiratory organs for young fish. The infection may suppress respiratory functions and cause fish suffocation. On the other hand, Coccidia sp. and Cryptobia sp., which are endoparasitic, affected the stomach and intestine of tilapia.

Furthermore, three species of Nematodes were observed. Capillaria sp. and Procamallanus sp., both endoparasitic, were found infecting the intestine and stomach, while Spirocamallanus sp., found to be both ectoparasitic and endoparasitic, infected the skin, fins, and gills. They burrowed the intestinal wall and encyst in flesh and liver tissues of the host fish. Cestode had only one speciesthe Hymenolypis nana, a flattened and tapelike worm- infesting the intestine of the fish samples. Acanthocephalus sp. of Class Acanthocephala, which is a spiny headed worm, infested also the intestine of the fish samples. All the fish samples from the three different water sources were free of Crustacean, Monogenean, and Digenean parasites. The specificity of parasite to host explains this. Organs of Oreochormis niloticus (tilapia) might not be their intermediate or final host to complete their life cycle. It might not be the kind of fish that nourishes them.

In terms of source, the Oodinium pilluris and Chilodonella sp. were observed in the fish samples collected from the three Barangays. Coccidia sp. was present only in fish from Barangay Carmen and Barangay Isla de Oro, while Cryptobia sp. was present in fish coming from Barangay Carmen and Barangay Consolacion. The Capillaria sp. was common among all fish samples. Camallanus sp. was observed in Barangay Consolacion and Isla de Oro; Spiracamallanus sp.and Acanthocephalus sp., in Barangay Carmen and Barangay Isla de Oro; Procamallanus sp. in Barangay Consolacion and Carmen; and Hymenolypis nana, in Barangay Carmen. It might be the salinity of the water, other physico-chemical factors of the water, and the host specificity of the parasites that affected the diversity of the parasites.

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The Protozoans infestation was widely distributed in most organs of the fish. However, the eyes, liver and flesh of the fish were free of the infection. The highest incidence rate of infection was on the gills (83.3%). The infection on the skin (78.86%) and fins (76.63%) were also very high. These organs were infected with the protozoan ectoparasites, the Oodinium pilluris and Chilodonella sp. (see Table 1). According to Prescott (1997), the favorite sites of attack of Oodinium pilluris are the gills, skin, and fins of the fish. The most observed sign of the attack is panting. This parasite eats into the cells of the epithelial layer of the sensitive tissue and destroys them in the process. After the parasite has matured, it falls off the fish and, within the space of one day, finds another fish to infect causing heavy mortalities of the fish. Chilodonella sp., on the other hand, causes infected fish to secrete excessive mucus. Infected fish may flash and show similar signs of irritation. Many fish die when the infestation gets severe.

Of the fish sampled, 76.63% were also infected with the protozoans in the intestine and 74.53% were infected in the stomach. The organs were infected with Coccidia sp. and Cryptobia sp. (see Table 1). Fish affected with these parasites become thin, lethargic, and develop dark skin pigmentation. These parasites will not harm human because they are host specific. Their intermediate hosts are cattle, sheep, goats, swine rabbit, and dog (Floyd and Klinger, 2001). Therefore, internal organs should not be fed raw to animals, especially to pet animals. In terms of the source area, the data reveal that the highest incidence rate of infection with protozoan parasites was in Barangay Carmen (59.15%). The rate of infection was 45.85% in Barangay Isla de Oro and 41.23% in Barangay Consolacion. Barangay Consolacion, which had the lowest rate of infection, is close to the sea, thus the salinity of the water is high. According to Ronquillo and Borja (1975), the appearance of parasites is first noted when the salinity is low.

Table 3 reveals that the internal organs of the fish had a higher rate of infection than the external organs. The highest incidence rate of infection was in the stomach (83.33%). The intestine also had a high rate of infection (75.53%). The presence of the parasite in the flesh, however, was examined. As also shown, the fish were infested with Capillaria sp., Procamallanus sp., Spirocamallanus sp. ,and Camallanus sp. (see Table 1). According to Floyd and Klinger (1997), heavy infestations of Capillaria are associated with debilitated fish. Infected fish may appear unsuitable for retail sales. The Camallanus sp., which is present in the intestine, flesh and liver of tilapia, develops with the aid of an intermediate and a carrier host (Bajao et al., 2002). The larvae are passed into the water with the feces of fish thus eaten by crustaceans, which, in turn, are eaten by the young fish in which the parasites do not proceed with development. By eating the fish, the final host including human, becomes infected with the parasite. It affects the stomach and intestine 16

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of the fish, resulting to the discoloration of the body surface. In human, its symptoms are similar to malaria. The early acute infection can be fatal. In this phase, parasites invade most organs of the body with irreversible damage to the heart and intestine. The patient becomes progressively weaker and may die from heart failure. Therefore, undercooked fish should not be eaten.

External parts of the fish, such as the fins (17.76%) and gills (13.33%), were also infected with nematodes, but of minimal incidence. In terms of the source area, the fish from Barangay Carmen (42.48%) was the most infected with Nematode. Fish from Barangay Isla de Oro (17.5%) and Barangay Consolacion (20.82%) had very low rate of infection.

The only Cestode parasite that infested the fish was the Hymenolypis nana (see table 1), which is a flattened and tapelike hermaphroditic worm that is intestinal in human and other animals. As observed, it minimally infected only the intestines of the fish collected from Barangay Carmen. Other organs were not infected.

According to Prescott (2001), intestinal cestodiasis, in which the mature worm lives in the intestine, produces eggs that are evacuated in the feces and develops further in human host and in other animal hosts such as cow and pig. It is possibly the most common cestode found in humans, affecting chiefly children. Symptoms of intestinal cestodiasis include abdominal pain that may be relieved by eating 17

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and that may be associated with distention, flatulence, nausea, or even more severe health problems. Only the fish in Barangay Carmen were infected with the parasite. The piggery, which animal wastes contaminated the water, might be one of the causes of the infestation.

The same with the Cestode, only the intestine (27.77%) of the fish was infected with Acanthocephalus sp. The infection was observed among the fish from Barangay Carmen (6.25%) and Barangay Isla de Oro (4.16%). According to Roberts (2000), Acanthocephalans are cosmopolitan parasites of pigs. When eggs are eaten by grubs (larvae of the beetle family Scarabaeidae), they hatch in the midgut within an hour. Pigs are infected by eating grubs or the adult beetles.

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Tables 6, 7, and 8 shows that Crustacean, Monogenean, and Digenean parasites did not infect the fish collected from Barangay Carmen, Barangay Isla de Oro, and Barangay Consolacion. It might be that tilapia is not a host for their life cycle, or their intermediate hosts are absent in the vicinity, thus they cannot be developed.

This could also be attributed to the physic- chemical factors of the water.

Morphological Descriptions of the Parasites The parasites were identified while still alive to avoid the deformation stage.

The photographs of these parasites, which are presented in this chapter, were taken using a photomicrograph microscope.

PROTOZOA Oodinium pilluris This protozoan parasite (eggs) has an ovular shape of varied sizes. It can measure, in some instances, more than 100 microns though more typical sizes are 50-70 microns. The observed parasite is both in free swimming flagellated stage and in parasitic stage when attached to the fish. The organism contains a form of chlorophyll. This gives the parasite its typical gold or rust color, and also enables it to obtain food as do plants by the process known as photosynthesis. However, when in the parasitic form, almost all of its nourishment is obtained at the expense of the host, and this causes tremendous damage that leads to death once the fish is heavily parasitized.

Plate1. A Photomicrograph of Oodinium pilluris in the Skin Mucous (1000X)

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Chilodonella sp.

Cholodonella sp. is a ciliated protozoan (see plate 2). It is a large, heart -shaped ciliate (6 to 80 m) with bands of cilia along the long axis of the organism. The organism is easily recognized at 100X magnification. It has an anterior mouth or cytostome. It has macronucleus at the posterior part of the body. It usually reaches 0.5-1mm in diameter. The observed parasite is in trophic nourishment stage.

Chilodonella is easily identified using a light microscope to examine scraping of skin mucus or gill filaments.

Plate 2. A Photomicrograph of Chilodonella sp. (Protozoan) (400X)

Coccidia sp.

Coccidia are intracellular parasites. The observed species are in the spore stage in which the cells are highly resistant to environmental conditions and can survive for long periods. Spores can be observed in squash preparations of the affected area (see Plate 3). The organisms are fusiform 10X1.5 um, no locomotory organelles, conoid at one end which serves to penetrate host cells, and with single nucleus. The species are found in the intestine. Inflammation and death of the tissue can occur, which can affect organ function.

Plate 2. A Photomicrograph of Chilodonella sp. (Protozoan) (400X)

Cryptobia sp.

Cryptobia sp. is a flagellated ptotozoan common in cichlids. Cryptobia are more drop-shaped, with two flagella, one on each end. They wiggle in a dart-like manner. It is typically associated with granulomas in which the fish “walls off� the parasite. These parasites have been found primarily in the stomach, but may be present in other organs.

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Plate 4. A photomicrograph of Cryptobia sp. Seen in a Wet Mount of Stomach (Unstained Section – 400X)

Capillaria sp.

Capillaria is a large roundworm commonly found in the gut of the fish.

Capillaria species are relatively transparent. Capillarid infection is relatively easy to diagnose when females containing the typical barrel-shaped eggs with a polar plug on each end (opercula) are present in the intestinal tract or the eggs alone are present. Heavy infestations are associated with debilitated fish, but a few worms per fish may be benign. This parasite is small; male measuring 2.3 mm to 3.2 mm, and female measuring 2.5 mm to 4.3 mm long. The male has small caudal alae and a spineless sppicule sheath. The esophagus of the female is about half as long as the body.

Plate 5. A Photomicrograph Showing Capillaria Female Showing Eggs With Plug-like Structures at Each End (100X)

Plate 6. A Photomicrograph of Female Capillaria (40X)

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Procamallanus sp.

This worm is active and has cylindrical body. It is also transparent. Its body cuticle is finely striated. It is usually 15 mm to 25 mm long. Its mouth is enclosed in a buccal capsule. Its esophagus has also two parts, the glandular and muscular parts. There is a presence of nerve ring at the muscular esophagus at the midanterior portion. Tail is also curved ventrally.

Plate 7. Photomicrograph of a Procamallanus sp. at 1000X (posterior portion)

Spirocamallanus sp.

The worm is transparent. The one recovered is an adult form that has slender and cylindrical body. Its body cuticle is finely striated and usually measures from 10 mm to 20 mm long. Its mouth is enclosed by a buccal capsule. Anterior is usually narrower than posterior. The parasite enters the human body when meat is inadequately cooked. It burrows the intestinal wall and encysts in muscular tissues.

Plate 8. Photomicrograph of a Spirocamallanus Showing a Typical Nematode Shape (100X)

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Camallanus sp.

Camallanus sp. can be identified by its red color and its location which is further toward the posterior of the intestinal tract than other worm-like parasites (typically very near, and often protruding from the anus of the fish). The presence of a buccal capsule (mouth structure), which is divided into two lateral valves, gives the mouth a slit -like appearance.

Plate 9. A Camallanus Nematode without Larvae Inside

CESTODA Hymenolypis nana The parasite, which is flattened and tapelike hermaphroditic worm that is intestinal parasite in human and other animals, produces larvae that can invade body tissues. It is also known as dwarf tapeworm, only a few cm long. It releases eggs that require no intermediate hosts. It has scolex with hooks and suckers and an armed rostellum. The body is termed as proglottids arranged in a linear series.

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Plate 10. Adult Hymenolypis nana, Stained Mount Showing Scolex (40X)

Plate 11. Body of Hymenolypis nana Showing Proglottids (40X)

ACANTHOCEPHALA Acanthocephalus sp.

The spiny headed worms live in the intestine of vertebrates (pig) attached to the wall by a protrusible proboscis usually covered with recurved hooks. The adults vary in length from several mm to cm. A layer of circular muscles and an inner layer of longitudinal muscles are between the epidermis. Because they are parasitic roundworms, they are considered closely related to nematodes.

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Plate 13. Acanthocephalus sp.’s spiny head with proboscis (400X)

CONCLUSIONS There were ten species of parasites infecting the different organs of the fish samples, namely Protozoans: Oodinium pilluris (egg), Chilodonella sp., Coccidia sp., and Cryptobia sp.; Nematodes: Capillaria sp., Procamallanus sp., Spirocamallanus sp., and Camallanus sp.; Cestode: Hymenolypis nana; and Acanthocephala: Acanthocephalus sp. There was no infection with Crustacea, Monogenea, and Digenea in all fish samples from all water sources. The findings of the study revealed that the internal organs most infected with different parasites were the stomach and intestines of the fish. Thus the internal organs are not safe for human consumption. Also, they are not safe for domestic animals. The findings also showed less infection (10%) in the flesh of the fish; therefore, the tilapias from the Oro River are very safe for consumption provided that the fish are thoroughly cleaned and cooked. The ectoparasitic species infected the skin, gills, and fins. The endoparasitic species infected the intestine and stomach, while only a few infected the flesh and liver. Protozoan infection was widely present in most organs except the eyes, liver, and flesh.

The highest incidence of infection was in the gills (83.33%). There was also a high rate of infection on the skin (78.86%) and fins (76.63%). Intestines and stomach were also infected with protozoan parasites with an incidence rate of 76.63% and 75.53% respectively. The highest incidence rate of infection with Protozoan parasites was in Barangay Carmen (59.15%). Protozoan infections were mostly in the internal organs.

The highest incidence rate of infection was in the stomach (83.33%). The intestine 25

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(75.53%) also had a high incidence rate of infection. However, the external parts had minimal incidence rate of infection. The fish from Barangay Carmen (42.48%) were infected with nematodes the most. The only Cestode observed was Hymenolypis nana, which infected the intestine (20%) of the fish from Barangay Carmen. Other organs were not infected. Only one species of Acanthocephala was observed, the Acanthocepahlus sp. It infected only the intestine (27.77%) of the fish coming from Barangay Carmen (6.25%) and Barangay Isla de Oro (4.16%). It was also found out that the water vicinity of Barangay Carmen had the most infected fish. The presence of piggery along the river banks and of the wastes coming from the upper part of the river highly polluted the river along Barangay Carmen. The salinity of the river along Barangay Consolacion has protected the fish from severe infestation with the parasites. The salinity of water is high because the river is estuarial.

LITERATURE CITED Acac, P.L. (1990). Protozoan parasites of the gills, fins, and skin of tilapia at Pulangui River, Bukidnon. Undergraduate Thesis, Central Mindanao University, Musuan, Bukidnon.

Bajao, J. (2002). A comparative study of parasites present in selected freshwater fishes Cyprinus carpios (carp) and Oreochormis niloticus (tilapia) in Anibongan, Kitcharao, Agusan del Norte and marinewater fishes chanos chanos (bangus) and Mugil cephalus (gisaw) in Masao and Buenavista, Agusan del Norte. Undergraduate Thesis, Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro City.

Floyd R.F. and Klinger, R.E. (2001). Introduction to freshwater fish parasites.

Retrieved June 20, 2005, from http//edis.ifas.ufl.edu/BODY_FA041.

Lacierda, E.C. & Pagador, G. (1999). Fish health management: SEAFDEC Aquaculture Department, Tigbuan, Lolo.

Prescott S. (2000). Diseases of fish part 8: The Aquatic Animal Research Institute.

Retrieved, June 22, 2005.

Roberts L. S. (2000).

Foundations of parasitology (6th edition).

Singapore:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Ronquillo, I.A.(1975). Infestation of Chanos chanos (Forskal) by a parasite isopod.

National Bargus Symposium: Manila

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Vol 5 No.1 December 2007 ISSN: 2094-1064

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Graduate Education Policy Framework for Developing Countries ROBERTO N. PADUA rnpadua@yahoo.com TERESITA T. TUMAPON ttumapon@gmail.com MARIANO M. LERIN president_liceo@yahoo.com.ph Date Submitted: August 18, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: November 15, 2007 Abstract - The paper examines worldwide patterns of operations of graduate education using 40 countries’ data on advanced education focusing on contexts, inputs, processes and outcomes of graduate education with a view to deriving sets of national policies in advanced educatFinal Word Formation for the Philippines. In all, 10 variables were used as multivariate inputs to a cluster analysis algorithm that aims to cluster countries in terms of a 10 x10 similarity matrix with a hierarchical cluster method. Data per variable needed in the cluster analysis were obtained from the net and confirmed through e-mail communication with key informants in at least 20 of the 40 countries identified. Results revealed that developing countries’ graduate education differed from the graduate education of developed and less developed countries in terms of : contexts (mainly full-time or part-time, external support to graduate education), inputs (admission standards, controls), process (academic advising, research focus, graduate teaching, quality assurance mechanisms), and outcomes (employment of Ph.D.’s, indicative economic contributions of Ph.D.’s). On the basis of the hierarchical cluster analysis performed, policy recommendations are given to enhance the delivery of graduate education in the Philippines and to sharpen its contribution to national development.

Key words - cluster analysis, hierarchical method, graduate education, systems analysis, policy framework 27

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INTRODUCTION Graduate education is a relatively young addition in the landscape of higher education; yet, its quality also appears to define the overall perception of quality for the entire educational system itself. Developed countries, for instance, have higher education systems that are worldwide respected which can be mainly attributed to their extremely competitive, refined graduate education systems. Without fear of contradiction, it may therefore be surmised that graduate education lies at the apex of the entire higher education system (CHED-OPPRI, 2001).

While generally recognized as the main source of scientific and technological breakthroughs, graduate education is also the least structured among the different subsystems of educational systems in the world. Graduate education is an educational subsystem that possesses the following characteristics: (a) emphasis on research and independent study, (b) relatively unstructured curricula and course of study that mainly support student research, (c) minimal faculty supervision on classroom work, and (d) high reliance on peer review for quality assurance. Within this rather broad characterization of graduate education emerges three distinct types of graduate programs: (a) graduate programs that are essentially research-based with practically no course work relying mainly on specialized seminar courses that relate directly to the students’ research, (b) graduate programs where there is heavy reliance on course work (actual classroom lectures) and where research constitutes a mere 10% of the entire program of study i.e. thesis/dissertation writing phase only, and (c) graduate programs where there is practically no research and students concentrate on course work and lectures (often called “practitioner’s degree”).

The last category of graduate programs appears to have been developed in response to the growing clamor for more advanced degrees to satisfy requirements of regulatory bodies and agencies and in situations where research is perceived to be a mere barrier to that attainment of a master’s or doctoral degree (www.aau.ac).

A nation’s system of graduate education delivery depends on its level of development and need for high level of expertise in the attainment of its national goals and objectives. For instance, graduate education in the United States is widely recognized as the best in the world, yet it is far from perfect and will remain in a leadership position only by continual self-examination and improvement. Criticisms commonly heard today include overproduction of Ph.D.s; narrow training, emphasis on research over teaching, use of students to meet institutional needs at the expense of sound education, and insufficient mentoring, career advising, and job placement assistance. Its emphasis on the production of highly qualified Ph.D.’s with very narrow specialized training 28

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stems from the demand of large corporations and business establishment in the US requiring the top caliber research expertise of young Ph.D.’s, e.g., genetic research, pharmacological research, computer-related research, etc. (Association of American Universities, Committee on Graduate Education, 2000).

On the other hand, less developed countries, whose needs for highly specialized Ph.D.’s are not as urgent, tend to de-emphasize narrow and specialized training in research. Instead, graduate education in these countries is perceived to be an opportunity to augment a rather inadequate training and instruction at the undergraduate level.

Consequently, high variance is noted in the type and quality of graduate education outputs of various universities in different parts of the world. This paper posits that such “ variances may be essentially explained by the nation’s level of development and national priorities and perspectives that influence the context, inputs, processes, and outputs of their graduate education programs”. Section 2 provides the research and analytical framework; section 3 provides the cluster analysis results on 40 countries included in the study; and section 4 provides conclusions and policy recommendations for consideration by the Philippine Commission on Higher Education.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND FRAMEWORK The study is anchored on the premise that variances in the contexts, inputs, processes, outputs, and outcomes of graduate education in different universities in various parts of the world are attributable to the varying national perspectives held by the countries’ leadership in education. Ultimately, such national perspectives are motivated by mainly economic, social or political considerations in pursuit of the collective ideals of the nations. The nations’ differential characteristics in terms of inputs, processes, outputs, and outcomes of graduate education will, therefore, form natural bases with which to cluster or aggregate the countries. To this end, the study utilized the descriptive analytical method of research, extensively utilizing the method of cluster analysis.

The term cluster analysis [first used by Tryon (1939) cited by Johnson and Wichern (1998)]encompasses a number of different algorithms and methods for grouping objects of similar kind into respective categories. A general question facing researchers in many areas of inquiry is how to organize observed data into meaningful structures, that is, to develop taxonomies. In other words cluster analysis is an exploratory data analysis tool that aims at sorting different objects into groups in a way that the degree of association between two objects is maximal if they belong to the same group and minimal otherwise. Given the above, cluster analysis can be used to discover structures in data without providing an explanation/interpretation. In other words, cluster analysis simply discovers structures in data without explaining why they exist. At the 29

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initial stage, all the observations represent their own clusters. Using a distance measure, those that are within a specified distance from each other are grouped together. In this study, the weighted averages (centroid) of the groups are used to further group the observations into larger clumps. The process is built in almost all modern statistical software packages.

Variables Used for Cluster Analysis The following variables were used as basis for k-means clustering: Context: x1: graduate student status (mainly part-time/full-time), x2: federal /government support to graduate research (from low to high); Input: x3: admission standards(rejection rate), x4: graduate faculty qualification (%doctorates); Process: academic advising (present or absent),x6: research-based or non-research based curricula, x7: quality assurance system (voluntary or required); Output: x8: volume of Ph.D.’s produced to number of undergrads; Outcome: x9: % employment of Ph.D.’s, x10: % Ph.D.’s employed in other economic sectors.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Data on the ten (10) variables obtained through data mining and correspondences with key informants from the forty (40) countries involved in the study were subjected to cluster analysis using the (weighted) average hierarchical cluster algorithm with k = 3 mean (centroids). Figure 1 shows the resulting dendrogram.

Figure 1: Dendrogram of forty (40) countries Three (3) clusters were identified as shown in Table 2 with seventeen (17) countries belonging to cluster 1, eighteen (18) in cluster 2, and five (5) in cluster 3. Countries belong to the same cluster are more homogenous in terms of the variables considered than are countries belonging to other clusters. The countries that belonged to each cluster are also shown in the same table. It may be noted that the Philippines is found in cluster 1 in the same league as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, India, Brazil, Italy, Taiwan, and Argentina. The United States is located in cluster 2 together with Ireland, 30

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Finland and the other Nordic countries, France, Japan, Austria, Israel, South Korea, Germany, and China. The third cluster has Spain, South Africa, Russia, Poland, and Hungary.

With the exception of Vietnam, countries in cluster 2 have developed economies while countries in cluster 1 (where the Philippines is located) have either a developing or less developed economies. On the other hand, countries categorized in cluster 3 have economies similar to cluster 1 yet may actually be more similar to cluster 2 in terms of the variables considered in clustering them as evidenced by the cluster’s distance from the centroid. Further analysis is needed in order to identify the variable or driving variables that forced these countries into the third cluster as illustrated in the next subsection.

Cluster Graduate Education Outcomes The graduate education outcomes of the clusters were analyzed in terms of the last two variables: x9 (percentage of employment of Ph.D.’s) and x10 (percent of Ph.D.’s employed in other economic sectors). While all the clusters have generally high values for x9, i.e. high employment profile for Ph.D. graduates, they vary significantly in terms of x10 (percent of employment in other economic sectors). The ratio x10: x9 expressed in percent provides a good descriptive picture of the extent to which the outputs of advanced education are put to more economically productive use by the different countries. Table 3 summarizes this information:

Tabular values indeed indicate that clusters 1 and 3 are more similar in terms of the contribution of Ph.D.’s to the various countries’ economies (17.53% for cluster 1 and 12.89% for cluster 3). Ph.D.’s have maximal economic contribution to countries belonging to cluster 2 (more than double the contribution of Ph.D.’s in the other two 31

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clusters). It can be surmised from this information that Ph.D. graduates from clusters 1 and 3 tend to be employed in universities and academic institutions more than the cluster 2’s Ph.D.’s who venture into R & D jobs in the other economic sectors of their countries.

Consequently, both the technological advancement and economic development of nations in cluster 2 are significantly higher than in the countries belonging to clusters 1 and 3.

Unfortunately, it is also noted that opportunities for PhD graduates to participate in the R & D activities of large business corporations and firms are severely limited in countries found in clusters 1 and 3. Such large corporations tend to locate their offshore R & D Divisions in cluster 2 countries where the production of high quality PhD’s appears to be ensured. As a result, PhD graduates of clusters 1 and 3 countries find themselves teaching or doing research in universities and academic institutions therein located. Furthermore, since the needs of universities and academic institutions are really only for “good teachers”, research becomes a mere appendage to most graduate programs in clusters 1 and 3.

Policy Variables Next examined were the variables used for contexts, inputs, processes, and outputs of graduate education programs in the various clusters to explain the graduate education outcomes noted. Table 4 shows the centroids (weighted averages) of the aforementioned variables per cluster.

Context Cluster 1 countries have graduate programs that cater mainly to part-time (weekend) graduate students while graduate students from countries in clusters 2 and 3 are mainly full-time students. The full-time status of graduate students in the other two clusters allows them to better concentrate on their studies. Similarly, there appears to be minimal external support for research (from government or external agencies) for graduate programs in countries belonging to cluster 1 where , in the same context, graduate programs in cluster 2 countries obtain greater support for research either 32

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from federal or government coffers or from other external agencies.

Inputs Clusters 2 and 3 countries have highly selective graduate programs with rejection rates hovering close to 50%, whereas countries in cluster 1 have graduate programs that admit almost everyone who applies for admission (rejection rate of only 15%, on the average). Consequently, graduate programs in clusters 2 and 3 have better quality graduate students who benefit most from advanced training and research. This could, in part, be explained by the level of the nations’ economic development, and, in part, by the overall philosophy adopted for higher education, i.e., massification vs. selectivity in higher education.

Similarly, the percentages of Ph.D.’s teaching in graduate programs for cluster 2 countries are in the high 90’s while only a little over 50% of the faculty of graduate programs in cluster 1 countries hold doctorate degrees. If a doctorate degree possessed by the teachers were to be a measure of the quality of instruction being given by these countries, then cluster 1 countries would be way off the desired mark in this dimension.

Processes Graduate programs in cluster 2 countries have, with high probability, an academic advising system for graduate students. On the other hand, such an academic advising service may be found in universities found in cluster 1 countries with 53% probability (like tossing a coin) – sometimes they do, sometimes they do not. Academic advising is a very important aspect of operating graduate programs for it serves several purposes.

First, it helps the student plan a course of study with the guidance of an expert. Second, academic advisers are tasked to monitor and evaluate the progress of a graduate student.

Finally, through academic advising the student is guided on possible adjustments and re-adjustments to this original plan or course of study based on performance.

Data likewise reveal that cluster 2 countries have predominantly research-based graduate curricula while those in cluster 1 either have pure coursework or a combination of 90% coursework and 10% research. Graduate students from cluster 2 countries are, thus, trained to be more independent than are students from cluster 1 countries.

Thirty five percent (35%) of the countries in cluster 1 opted for voluntary accreditation of their graduate programs as a means to ensure quality while about twothirds (66.67%) of the countries in cluster 2 have some form of voluntary accreditation among peer universities. However, since the norms and standards used in accreditation are, by nature, country-based (as there appears to be no international standard for graduate education that is universally accepted), the value of accreditation in a global analysis such as this cannot be accurately gauged.

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Output

The output indicator of graduate education used in this study is the ratio

of the number of Ph.D.’s enrolled to the undergraduate enrollment in universities.

Data reveal that such a ratio is high for countries belonging to cluster 2 (1 Ph.D. per 10 undergraduate students) while quite low for cluster 1 countries (1 Ph.D. per 30 undergraduate students).

CONCLUSIONS Analysis of the worldwide patterns for advanced education reveals three distinct clusters of countries with the clustering mainly driven by the way that their advanced education outputs are being utilized to contribute to national economic development and by the countries’ national perspectives on graduate education. More economically developed nations tend to be clustered together while the developing and less developed nations are similarly clustered together. The study found out that the clustering of countries may actually be attributed to the differential characteristics of graduate programs in these countries in terms of their contexts, inputs, processes, and outputs.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS In view of these, the following policy recommendations are suggested for consideration by the Philippine Commission on Higher Education: The Commission on Higher Education may facilitate the crafting and definition of a national vision for graduate education outcomes similar to the clear and unequivocal national perspectives of developed nations, e.g., USA. Such a national vision translates into institutional policies on admission, processes and outputs for graduate education. The short basic education cycle of the Philippine educational system forces its higher education system to compensate by providing for general education courses in college curricula that could otherwise have been used for specialized trainings. Graduate level programs which presumably are highly specialized should therefore be made more intensive To this end, full-time graduate studies need to be encouraged in order to ensure high quality training of specialists. In particular, graduate level scholarship programs in the S & T areas will have to be expanded and sustained in order to develop better equipped scientists and engineers to handle R & D in business and industry. Advanced education, in general, needs to be more selective (at least a 33.33% rejection rate is desirable) in order for the country to benefit most out of its outputs. To this end, a national Graduate Record Examination (GRE) may be centrally administered by the Commission on Higher Education for this purpose. The national GRE coupled with the 34

Graduate Education Policy Framework for Developing Countries

R. Padua T. Tumapon, M Lerin

individual institutional admission requirements should be the bases for admission in graduate programs.

Research-based graduate curricula, particularly in the Science, Mathematics and Engineering, need to be supported by establishing more such programs in selected graduate schools in the country through special grants from the Commission on Higher Education. While some fields are oversubscribed e.g. 85% of all doctorate degrees are in the field of education and management, the S & T graduate programs are currently severely undersubscribed.

The processes adopted by recognized graduate schools in the Philippines need to be standardized in such a way that academic advising becomes an integral part of the process. As already mentioned, academic advising contributes to the overall quality of graduate education outcomes.

Research needs to be treated not as a mere appendage to graduate programs but as a centerpiece of all graduate programs. While the pressure to confer advanced degrees in a shorter period of time may be quite strong, producing advanced education graduates who cannot do independent work will, in the long run, be counterproductive to the Philippine higher education system.

LITERATURE CITED CHED-OPPRI (2001), “Accomplishments of CHED: 1994-1999�

Johnson, R. and Wichern J.(1998). Applied Multivariate Statistical Analysis. New York: Wiley and Sons Inc. DATA MINING SOURCES http://www.open.ac.uk http://www.aau.ac.in http://www.graduate.japan http://www.graduate.nordic http://www.graduate.aust

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Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Vol 5 No.1 December 2007 ISSN: 2094-1064

Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research

The Culture of Excellence of Private Higher Education Institutions GENARO V. JAPOS genarojapos@gmail.com Liceo de Cagayan University

Date Submitted: September 25, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: November 28, 2007 Abstract - The study investigated the culture of excellence of six top performing private higher education institutions in Northern Mindanao.

These descriptive study respondents involved 80 academic administrators and program chairpersons as respondents. The frequency, percentage, weighted mean, and analysis of variance were used. These are the conclusions of the study. The culture of excellence is largely a function of efficient and effective quality assurance management systems such as voluntary accreditation and international certification. The external evaluation in the quality assurance audits promotes the achievement of comparable standards with the best practices in the Philippines and abroad. Some accredited schools have acquired ISO certification, a move that enhances the quality assurance management system. The schools’ culture of excellence generates the intended teaching and learning outcomes manifested through integral development of graduates, high performance in licensure examinations, high employability, and global competitiveness. The efficiency and effectiveness of the governance and management of the schools have an overriding influence on the quality of teaching and research, support to students, relations with the community, and management of resources. Generating higher research productivity among the faculty, fund sourcing from partnership and entrepreneurial activities that generate non-tuition revenues remain the serious challenges of the school management.

Key words - Culture of excellence, governance and management, teaching and research, quality assurance 36

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INTRODUCTION The greater bulk of the responsibility to educate college-bound students falls squarely on the more than 1,000 higher education institutions, 85 percent of which are private colleges and universities. (Alcala 2000). Of this number, less than five percent have reached Level III accreditation, have been cited for excellence in licensure examinations by the Professional Regulation Commission, and have been conferred deregulated or autonomous statuses by the Commission on Higher Education (Valisno 2000).

Despite serious constraints brought about by limited resources in the operations of private schools, handfuls have achieved quality and excellence through sincere commitment and dedication to serve the students. These few schools have developed their own quality assurance programs honed for years of accreditation and compliance with CHED standards.

In Caraga Administrative Region, Fr. Saturnino Urios University has been in existence for 104 years. Founded by Fr. Saturnino Urios SJ, the school has been ranked 14th among the top 20 schools in the country in a 10-year study by the CHED and the PRC. The St. Joseph Institute of Technology has existed in Butuan in less than three decades, yet is has dominated the landscape of technological education in the region. It is ISO Certified by the Dets Norske Veritas. The St. Paul University has had tremendous growth since the transfer of ownership from the Diocese of Surigao when it was still San Nicolas College to the Daughters of St. Paul Congregation. Its college of education is a Center of Development.

In Region 10, Liceo de Cagayan University towers among her peers as Center of Excellence in Nursing Education in two regions. It has been granted deregulated status in 2003. The College of Arts and Science and Commerce are due for Level III Accreditation in December of 2005. Capitol University was granted the deregulated status in 2002. Most of its academic programs are accredited. It has its own hospital for its nursing students and has three other branches in the Philippines. Lourdes College has achieved Level III accreditation. The school has consistently excelled in the licensure examination for teachers.

Each of these excelling schools provides inspiring models for other private schools to emulate in Northern Mindanao.

The results of the study are significant to the following sectors: The Commission on Higher Education. The findings of the study can serve as vital inputs on the monitoring of educational quality among schools with track record of excellence. The documented best practices would serve as models for other educational institutions.

The Selected Private Higher Education Institutions. The conclusions 37

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generated from the study will serve as affirming feedback on the impact of the implementation of their quality assurance system as basis for future enhancement of their culture of excellence.

The Communities of Northern Mindanao. The study can serve as a form of advocacy of the private HEIs to the communities of Northern Mindanao regarding the effectiveness of their educational services.

The Educational Researchers. The results of the study can generate fresh insights into the promotion of excellence in higher education. The study can provide new leads for research on quality and excellence. The study focused on the culture of excellence among private higher education institutions of Northern Mindanao.

It investigates the aspects of governance and management, quality of teaching and research, support to students, relations with the community, and management of resources. The study is limited to private higher education institutions that have been certified as having demonstrated track record of excellence through conferment of deregulated or autonomous status and high performances in the national licensure examinations. The coverage of the study was the first semester of 2005. The respondents of the study were the 80 administrators and faculty chairpersons. For ethical reason, no individual school was identified in the data analysis.

FRAMEWORK The culture of excellence has its legal mandate in Article XIV, Section 1 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution that states, “The state shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all�. This is the declared policy of the Commission on Higher Education to support and value the significant role of higher education institutions, academic community, and other stakeholders in establishing a quality assurance system for the higher education sector. It looks at the effectiveness of an institution in its entirety, particularly, the development of institutional systems that ensure the quality and standards of programs (CHED Memo No. 15 Series of 2005).

Quality assurance is fundamental in the pursuit of quality in higher education.

It has a vital role in the success of higher education institutions. It is focused on developing and managing educational programs and services, thus, enabling them to attain standards comparable to national, regional, and international higher education. Fostering, managing, and governing a quality learning environment through effective structures and mechanisms require collaboration among policy 38

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makers, educators, and other stakeholders. It considers continuous improvement and draws on best practices in delivering and improving educational provisions (CHED Memo 16, Series of 2005).

The Primer on Quality Assurance, Monitoring and Evaluation of HEIs (2005) stipulates that a higher education institution, which has a powerful culture of excellence, is able to maintain, develop, and continually appraise its cultural values.

It provides skills and expertise to support the economic and development needs of the Philippines. It develops individuals to be self-reliant and entrepreneurial. It prepares individuals to play an active role in civil society. It provides the country with a pool of knowledge and expertise that will contribute to all aspects of social and economic development.

The framework of a culture of excellence takes into consideration five performance measures identified by the Commission on Higher Education: governance and management, quality of teaching and research, support to students, relations with the community, and management of resources.

Governance and management includes the institution’s governance arrangements that demonstrate probity, strategic vision, accountability, awareness and management of risk, and effective monitoring of performance. It examines the institution’s management, financial control, and quality assurance arrangements whether these are sufficient to manage existing operations and to respond to development and changes (Thompson and Strickland III 2001).

Quality of teaching and research looks into the institution’s efforts to set and achieve program standards, to maintain its status as center of excellence and center of development, and to enhance research capability.

Support for students analyzes the provision of scholarship and study grants on merit to support the most able students in programs that develop competences needed to support the Filipino economy and to enable the country to compete in global labor markets. It also examines the provisions of equity and access seen in the light of recruiting, admitting, and supporting students from indigenous groups, low income classes, and other special groups such as the handicapped and foreign students. It also deals with programs for student services to support the non-academic needs of the students.

Relations with the community involves best practices in programs that take into consideration the social, cultural, economic, and developmental needs of the country at the local, regional, and national levels. It also includes networking and linkages with other institutions and organizations in the country and abroad. It embraces extension programs that are responsive to the needs of the community for people empowerment and self-reliance (Layton 1995).

Management of resources focuses on the institution’s faculty profile with respect 39

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to the adequate number of faculty with appropriate expertise and competence to teach the courses offered by the institution. It also documents practices on the effective use of information and communication technology to support standard learning and to manage its academic affairs. It also looks at sustainable and appropriate income generating strategy to support its development plans.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study pursued the following objectives: (1) to describe the extent of the practice of a culture of excellence of the private higher education institutions as rated by the administrators and faculty chairpersons; (2) to determine the differences in the practice of a culture of excellence among the private higher education institutions; and (3) to trace emerging trends of practices of a culture of excellence in the private schools.

METHODOLOGY The study used the descriptive design involving survey, interviews, and documentary analysis. It is descriptive because it sought to portray the culture of excellence among the private higher education institutions in Northern Mindanao.

The study covered the top performing schools in Region 10 and Caraga Region.

The respondent schools met one or more of the following criteria: (1) topperforming school in board examination as cited by the Professional Regulations Commission, (2) Center of Development or Excellence, and (3) Deregulated and/or Autonomous.

The study used the non-probability sampling design. The respondents were the academic administrators and program chairpersons who the most knowledgeable persons are concerning the implementation of quality assurance program that promotes a culture of excellence.

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The items in the research instrument were taken from the institutional quality assurance, monitoring and evaluation of CMO No. 16 Series of 2005. The researcher designed the format of the instrument by adding the rating scale and the corresponding descriptions.

Performance Measure No. of Indicators I. Governance and Management 17 II. Quality of Teaching and Research

32 III. Support for Students 14 IV. Relations with the Community 14 V. Management of Resources

18

Total 95

The researcher contacted the administrators of the respondent schools and he conveyed the idea of conducting a study on the culture of excellence of the institutions as a baseline data in the preparation of IQUAME. To give flesh to the responses, the researcher made a documentary analysis of existing evidences.

Interviews were done to generate explanations on the gaps in the ratings of the items and the documents.

The frequency, percentage, weighted mean, and analysis of variance were used.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Governance and Management

Governance as a criterion stipulates that the institution’s governance arrangements demonstrate probity, strategic vision, accountability, quality assurance and management of risks, and effective monitoring of performance (Table 2).

Generally, the schools’ governing body demonstrates integrity and objectivity in the transaction of its business, and follows a policy of openness and transparency in the dissemination of its decisions (4.19 VS). This indicator is accomplished through the use of democratic processes such as budget hearing for all offices, regular state-of-the-institution addresses of the President to inform the academic community of the progress, general assemblies to bring directly to the people the issues, regular dialogues, and publication and dissemination of decisions of the top management. Some schools have strategic plans that identify financing, physical resource and staff, and strategies necessary to achieve the objectives of the plans. All schools have development plans made by middle managers, but few schools have strategic plans crafted by the top management.

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The regular meetings of the governing body are means of monitoring regularly the performance of the institution against its planned strategies and operational targets. Middle managers are convened to discus issues and concerns directly affecting them so that necessary support can be given.

The six schools have sound financial management, insuring the solvency and safety of its assets (4.49 VS). They have internal and external auditors and a panel of consultants to help them arrive at sound decisions. There are investments of the schools in banks and other financial institutions. The governing body of sectarian schools meets more frequently and is able to function more actively than the governing body of nonsectarian schools. When the President is the Chairman of the Board, decisions are made that may not require Board meeting.

The governing body approves the financial strategy, annual operating plans and budgets of the institution, and ensures the existence and integrity of financial control systems (4.38 VS). This indicator is done during summer before the 42

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opening of the first semester to make these ready for the next school year. The approval usually is preceded by a performance review of the operations of the current school year. The lessons learned are used in the next school year.

The governing body insures that funds provided by CHED and other funding bodies are used in accordance with the terms and conditions specified when these funds were made available (4.44 VS). The schools observe fiscal autonomy wherein funds allocated for a specific purpose can not be used for other programs. The schools present liquidation papers for funds entrusted to them such as scholarship funds for tuition.

Most schools employ the services of the Sycip Gorres Velayo, Punongbayan and Araullo and other local auditing firms in the area. In some cases, the internal auditor is not a full-time employee but contracted for such purposes. Most schools have consultants who provide for matters needed by the management.

The schools exercise oversight of the strategic management of land and buildings (4.63 E) by optimizing their use and profitability. Also, employment policies are reviewed to see if these are updated and competitive. There is limited arrangement for student representation in the governing body, often invitational only as the need arises (4.25 VS). There are clear provisions for student governance and student discipline, which is supervised by the dean of student affairs. The procedures to safeguard health and safety of employees, students and other individuals are very satisfactory. Notices for proper evacuation are posted in strategic places. There are fire and earthquake drills (4.36 VS).

Criterion 2 focuses on the institution’s management, financial control, and quality assurance arrangements. There are sufficient mechanisms to manage existing operations and to respond to development and change.

The schools’ academic, financial, and quality assurance and resource allocation policies are coherent and appropriate and relate to their mission and objectives. Half of the schools have ISO certification. However, all of them have accreditation by PAASCU and PACUCOA. One school is accredited by both accrediting agencies. ISO and accreditation are quality assurance programs that aim to promote efficiency and effectiveness of governance and management.

The framework for ISO and accreditation proceeds from the vision, mission, and quality policy of the institution.

The schools have involved the stakeholders - the administrators, faculty, staff, and students - in the implementation of policies and systems (4.24 VS). There is a culture of dialogue among the stakeholders. As part of the requirements for accreditation, purposes and objectives are constantly reviewed, disseminated, and evaluated to make sure these are understood, internalized, and lived by the academic community (4.23 VS).

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The quality assurance programs are responsive to national policies and international development in higher education (4.47 VS). The benchmarking of best international practices contributes to this direction. The communication channels are operational and allow for free flow of ideas. The culture of dialogue promotes peace and solidarity within the institution (4.21 VS). The schools have effective systems in place to monitor the implementation of their policies and the performance of their programs (4.48 VS). This is done through formal evaluations, focus group discussions during council meetings, and self surveys for accreditation and compliance of ISO. For governance and management, the strengths of the schools are the following: approval of strategic plan of the institution, internal and external audit, strategic management of land and buildings, monitoring of the implementation of policies and performance of programs, and responsiveness of the quality assurance programs to national and international developments in higher education.

The growth points include the following: transparency in business transactions, student representation in governance, effective channels of communication, and awareness, internalization and demonstration of vision, mission, policies and systems.

Quality of Teaching and Research There are three indicators that measure quality of teaching and research: setting and achieving program standards, centers of excellence and development, and research capability (Table 3).

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Indicator B. Center of Excellence and Development

There are three criteria for this indicator: program approval, program monitoring, and action to strengthen programs.

Before any degree can be offered, the schools have to meet the minimum standards of CHED unless they are granted autonomous status. The data (4.45 VS) reveal that they have complied with the assessment standards of the Regional Quality Assurance Team that visited them to verify the documents submitted.

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The course descriptions are in consonance with technical panel recommendations for general education and major subjects. Such matching ensures that subjects are credited when students transfer to other school.

One benefit also of accreditation is comparability standards wherein the subjects taken in one school are credited by another school. The limitation, however, is that the schools have not established comparability standards with schools abroad.

The practice of most schools is to evaluate individual programs three years after the first batch of graduates and when there is a need for revision of the curriculum. The system of evaluation is operationalized by the academic curriculum committee composed of deans and chairpersons together with the vice president for academic affairs. The procedures for initial approval and periodic review of academic programs are contained in the administrative manual and the curriculum committee is reflected in the organizational chart.

Some schools invite employees and alumni to review the academic programs to meet the expectations of relevance (4.37 VS). Then, as part of accreditation requirements, the curricula are evaluated in relation to intended learning outcomes such as performance results in the board exams and current developments in pedagogy. The objectives of the programs are evaluated regularly. Programs with multiple elements like several majors are examined to avoid duplication of content. Programs with multiple pathways or ladderized like AHSE are given adequate attention. Some schools apply value-added tests to see the impact the curriculum has on intended learning outcomes. Others have comprehensive exams and interviews before students are accepted in the third year and every semester thereafter to see if there is mastery and retention of learning.

Most schools do not maintain test banks. They do not usually conduct item analysis for the examinations made. However, student assessment for aptitude test in nursing, education, accountancy, law, and engineering is done by the Center for Educational Measurement, an external testing agency based in Makati. The results are included as basis for acceptance of students in the major field.

The practice of schools is that deans and chairs make plans as basis for the budget for the next school year, and then the deans defend their budget before a budget committee. Priorities are determined. Hence, there is an effective link between academic planning and resource allocation (3.96 VS). In some schools, researches among graduate students follow the institutional research agenda.

There are scholarship grants given by the Civil Service Commission, the LGUs, and private agencies. These arrangements indicate that graduate programs are supported by relevant research or other advanced scholarship (3.72 VS).

The second criterion is program monitoring. The institutions have effective 46

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arrangements for monitoring the effectiveness of their programs.

The teachers use syllabi that outline class activities. ISO certified schools have IGs or instructors’ guides that specify what will be done during class. The chairs and deans monitor the lesson coverage either through weekly checking or through classroom observation. During examination time, the teachers make a table of specifications as basis for the construction of test content. For basic courses, departmental tests are given to see the performance of students under different teachers. The results of the exams are processed by department/college and become the basis for subsequent remedial instructions for the slow learners. Thus, the effectiveness of teaching and learning is monitored in relation to curriculum content and the learning outcomes of programs (4.30 VS).

The entry requirements for different courses vary with respect to high school grades, aptitude, and intelligence. There are cut-offs by program to match students’ aptitude with their abilities. Board courses have more stringent requirements (3.87 VS). In most schools, program chairs monitor the progress of the students in major subjects (4.11 VS); for general education, the faculty adviser. Attendance is closely monitored. Those whose absences have reached the tolerable limit are required to present re-entry form from the guidance counselor. The deans inform the parents of the status of the students. Grades are given every grading period. Another practice is the semestral deliberation by the faculty to determine who should be retained. Thus, students receive timely and effective monitoring in their programs (4.02 VS).

In compliance with accreditation standards, schools have accumulated adequate learning resources to support each program (4.08 VS). Some schools provide subsidy to the library and laboratories if the collected fees are not enough.

The supervision of CHED and the regular visits of accreditors have assured a culture of continuous improvement in the delivery of programs (4.04 VS).

Action to strengthen programs addresses weaknesses, builds on strengths, and enhances performance by the dissemination of good practice.

The academic chairperson meets regularly with the faculty. The concerns generated are discussed in the monthly meeting with the deans. The Deans’ Council meets once a month. Results of classroom observations are discussed with the teacher in a post conference within 72 hours of the visit. Results of semestral evaluation are given to the teachers with corresponding conference to map out plans for the next semester’s adjustments. Self- survey teams present their findings to the big group for validation. Weaknesses in the self- survey are communicated to the management for immediate action. The VPAA monitors the progress of the deans against the plans and the Gantt chart of activities. The deans submit semestral and annual reports to the VPAA. The external review is done 47

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by RQUAT for new programs and by accreditors of programs under accreditation.

The recommendations are translated into plans of action that are implemented and documented. Thus, effective action is taken in response to matters raised through self-evaluation, formal internal monitoring, or external review (4.45 VS).

Getting feedback on students’ progress is secured in a number of ways (4.01 VS). One is from partner institutions abroad for HRM students. Hotels and restaurants are asked for evaluations of the performance of the trainees. In the local front, the immediate supervisors give evaluation of the on-the-job trainees.

These are channeled through the OJT faculty coordinator or through the dean.

Tracer studies elicit feedback from employers. These feedback mechanisms serve as basis for improvement of program content and processes.

The dissemination of good practice is done in various ways such as a demo on the latest teaching method by senior faculty. Research dissemination across departments is another good practice. Cross-departmental composition of inhouse accreditation teams allows for sharing of good practice. The in-house publications also carry good practice. Professional sharing by invited experts allows for transfer of knowledge. Thus, the dissemination of good practice is very satisfactory (4.15).

The weakness in student performance is identified through the results of diagnostic tests, periodic examinations, content area analysis of board examinations, and performance in competency tests. The findings are the basis for remedial programs. Thus, the assessment results are properly acted upon (3.80 VS). 2. Centers of Excellence and Centers of Development The institutions are able to sustain high levels of excellence in teaching, research, and extension services.

In CARAGA Region, St. Paul University System is the Center of Development for Teacher Education. In Region 10, Liceo de Cagayan University is the Center of Excellence in Nursing Education.

For purposes of documenting practices, the six schools were made to answer this section.

The schools claimed they benchmark their performance regularly against international best practices (3.67 VS). Since graduates find employment abroad, the curricula take into account international standards. For instance, Capitol University, St. Joseph Institute of Technology, and St. Paul University System of Surigao City have ISO certifications while Liceo de Cagayan University is deregulated and Lourdes College and Urios College are on their way to higher levels of accreditation. ISO and accreditation standards are benchmarked from international best practices. Recently, the quality assurance program of CHED, which mandates compliance of all schools, has its origin in Europe’s practices.

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St. Paul University System, as Center of Development, has done its share as a teacher training institution in the region. Teachers in the region go there for further trainings. Liceo de Cagayan University serves Regions 9, 10, and 13 as Center of Excellence in Nursing Education. Other schools also disseminate good practices by sponsoring trainings tapping in-house experts as well as national and international experts. Every year, Liceo de Cagayan University has activities conducted by the Office of International Affairs for HEIs in the region. Other schools also send their experts to other schools and agencies.

The six schools have publications both instruction and research. However, few schools have internationally serialized research journals and books. Most schools have journals, locally refereed. The schools have publication exchange program with other schools here in the Philippines. However, few schools have international publication exchange program. The schools are valued partners of government and semi government agencies. Such partnerships build the prestige of the schools. Industrial organizations have sought partnerships with these schools both for research and on-the-job trainings. The centers of excellence and development have faculty development program in the form of trainings, thesis/ dissertation grant, and graduate degree programs. They also have funding for publications to disseminate good practice (3.85 VS).

Research capability insures that the school has a research community of faculty, post-graduate students, and post-doctoral research students that fosters and supports creative research and other advanced scholarly activity.

The schools have strategy for the management and development of their research facilities (4.08 VS). There is a research office with budget and material logistics and technology necessary to support research program. Research agenda serve as framework in the design of researches. Few schools charge their students for refereed publication to generate income other than the institutional allocation. The research activities include training of teachers, publication, and public dissemination of research findings. There are research policies to guide their operations.

Most researches address only institutional needs since teachers do schoolbased research. Few studies done outside of the schools address national needs and priorities (3.42 S), and their outcomes are utilized. The satisfactory rating for researches being at par with international excellence (3.29 S) indicates that the research centers have not reached a level by which they have forged international partnerships, or at most, local partnerships. This is affirmed by a lack of funds for research activities (3.06 S) since researches are supported primarily by schoolgenerated funds.

Few of the faculty members have research experience in universities here and 49

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abroad (3.06 S), limiting their ability to support post graduate research students (3.34 S). Most studies are surveys that do not contribute much to the body of knowledge.

Among the strengths of the schools as regards teaching and research are the following: compliance of degree programs with standards of CHED, effective system for evaluation of individual programs, system of monitoring teaching and learning in relation to curriculum content and learning outcomes, a culture of continuous improvement in the delivery of programs, effective actions to meet findings of self- evaluation, formed internal monitoring and external review, dissemination of best practice, and a strategy for the management and development of research activities, and provision of facilities.

The development concerns are the following: support of relevant research to graduate programs, matching abilities and aptitudes of students to the demands of the programs, assessment as a tool to identify weaknesses of student performance, publication of best practice for other schools to learn from, partnership with scientific and industrial organizations, benchmarking of performance against best international practices, making researches address national needs and priorities, dissemination and utilization of research outcomes, raising research quality to international level, sourcing of funds to support research, expanding research experience of faculty to other universities in the Philippines and abroad, and support to post-graduate research students.

Support for Students Support for students has three indicators: student scholarships, equity and access, and student services (Table 4).

1. Student scholarships The schools have scholarship coordinators who implement the various grants sponsored by the administration and those sponsored by external agencies. There are clear guidelines for eligibility criteria and procedures for selection of the scholarship awards. Most of the scholarships are intended for access to higher education. Scholarships on merit system have grade requirements like no grade below 1.5. However, there are few scholarships for the indigenous peoples and the handicapped.

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Most of the time, the scholars receive minimal supervision as they are usually self- driven and fully aware of the requirements. Some finished their studies while on grant despite the relative absence of a strong tracking system. They passed licensure exams and brought honors to their school. Some were hired after graduation to teach in their alma mater. Generally, the scholars on merit had higher employability and found job on the first year after graduation.

2. Equity and Access The institution is effective in recruiting, admitting, supporting, and graduating students, who are from indigenous groups, handicapped, from low-low income class, and foreign students. The schools have scholars who are from the low income class and take on the task as working students. They have free tuition and, in some cases, they receive compensation. However, they have to maintain the grade requirements.

Most schools practice open admission. Students take intelligence and aptitude 51

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tests and are guided in the choice of course that matches their ability. Those with low entry skills are made to take remedial courses like English O or English Plus and Math O. Remedial reading is offered in some schools using the SRA. It is evident that the private schools strive to provide access to education with structures and processes that insure the quality of education. Some schools use diagnostic tests like the ones from the Center for Educational Measurement to find specific knowledge or skills that need remedial instruction or enrichment. The guidance center provides the necessary assistance in helping students cope with adjustment problems. The government agencies offer opportunity for access such as the Rebel Returnees Grant, the National Integrated Study Grant, and National Commission for Indigenous Peoples Grant, and the private education students’ financial assistance, among others. Despite the programs available, only a very small percentage of the student population is served by these grants.

Generally, the physical structures of the buildings are not yet handicapfriendly. In one university, however, wheel-chaired students can use the flatsurfaced ways in going up or down the buildings.

3. Student Services The institutions have programs for student services to support the nonacademic needs of the students.

The schools have adequate orientation program on student services at the start of classes for new students and transferees. School offices have brochures and bulletin displays for information. The student services complement the academic needs of the students. The guidance center has career orientation and job placement program for graduating students to prepare them for the world of work.

In terms of support to students, the strengths of the schools include the following: clear guidelines on eligibility criteria for selection of students for scholarship grants, guidance to support students in their studies, strong student services orientation program, and continuing guidance for students.

The areas that may need enhancement include the following: scholarship assistance, work placement after graduation, provision of physical facilities for students with disabilities.

Relations with the Community This KRA has one core indicator (relevance of programs) and two supplemental indicators (networking and linkages and extension programs).

Relevance of programs means that the institution offers programs that take into account the social, cultural, economic, and development needs of the country at local, regional and national levels as well as the need for the country to compete effectively in global markets.

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The schools are offering programs that contribute to the achievement of national priorities such as poverty alleviation, environmental management, and health (4.12 VS). Both soft and solid courses are offered by the schools from liberal arts to education, commerce and accountancy, criminology, maritime, nursing, and engineering, computer science, and the like. There is hardly a course on environmental management, but most courses contain environmental topics. The programs are accredited by the PACUCOA and the PAASCU. Three of the six schools have ISO certification.

There are partnerships with professional organizations and industries that enrich content and design of programs. Organizations like PICPA, PAFTE, PAGE, BIOTA, MSEP, and PICE contribute to the enrichment of content in the curricular design. The Council of Deans for each discipline also helps a lot in the relevance of programs.

To some extent, the schools elicit the participation of employees and practitioners on curriculum development, determining the needs and expectations of the community. The schools also have tracer studies that track the employment 53

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of their graduates. These studies are used by the deans, the Alumni Office, and the Placement Office.

2. Networking and Linkages The schools are partners of other HEIs, government, and non-government institutions, and industries, and organization here and abroad.

Most schools have partner organizations and consortium arrangements appropriate to their mission and programs. These are usually with local government and national government offices such as DOST, DOLE, DTI, CHED, TESDA, and DENR. The arrangements concern scholarships, community extension, facilities, faculty development, financing and others.

Faculty and student exchanges are rarely, if ever, resorted to. What is common is visiting professorship where in only the actual services rendered are contracted.

There are academic networks at subject and institutional levels, such as, the College English Teachers Association, PICPA, and Biology Teachers Association for academic network and CEAP, COCOPEA, and PACU for institutional levels. Various concerns on policy, standards, programs, and teaching and learning are raised, discussed, and acted upon. Project fundings are available through partnership (3.28 S). The findings suggest that networking and linkages are in place. However, these have not been optimally utilized to generate funds for projects and faculty-student exchanges.

Networking and linkages are rated very satisfactory.

3. Extension Program This criterion stipulates that the institution is valued by its local community as provider of extension programs that are responsive to the needs of the community for people empowerment and self-reliance.

The schools generally contribute to the local community through programs designed to transfer technology and knowledge to individuals and organizations (3.73 VS). The schools have installed extension programs from the time they applied for accreditation. They have adopted communities and have used COPAR technology. There are needs analyses, community involvement of residents/ beneficiaries, and inputs from the barangay leaders. The academic expertise of the faculty and students are utilized in the community. There is a 5-year period for the withdrawal of community extension programs to allow communities to adopt the program and manage it on their own. The local government units are consulted in the identification of barangays as beneficiaries so as not to duplicate existing intervention programs and to make sure the barangays do need external assistance.

The schools have regular budget to run the yearlong operations. There are provisions such as an office, a coordinator, staff, and material logistics. Teachers are trained for extension work and students are given orientation for community 54

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extension. Other schools involve only the third to fifth year students who have already studied their major subjects that equipped them to serve better. The extension programs usually include livelihood, housing for the poor (Habitat), health services, leadership training, entrepreneurship, literacy, spiritual enrichment, environmental management, and academic development of students like tutorials for English, Science and Math, and coaching for competitions.

The schools reported that the experiences learned by the teachers and students are integrated into classroom instruction and research. Such learnings find their way into the enrichment of the syllabi, design of instructional materials, and content of research. Regular evaluations are conducted to elicit feedback from beneficiaries and implementors.

Extension program is rated very satisfactory.

Among the strengths of the schools in terms of relations with the community are the following: matched academic programs and national development goals, links with local government and community organizations for extension programs, and contribution to the local community through programs designed to transfer technology and knowledge to individuals and organizations.

The areas that need improvement include the following: employability of graduates by developing abilities the community demands, faculty and student exchange and placement projects with partner organizations, project funding through partnerships, and utilization of lessons learned in the community for research and instruction.

Management of Resources The KRA on management of resources has three core indicators: faculty profile, use of information and communication technology, and income generation (Table 6).

1. Faculty Profile The six schools generally complied with the minimum requirements of CHED and accreditation on relevant professional qualifications (3.90 VS). Completion of a masters degree is a requirement for tenure. There is a faculty development program that provides for the advanced education of teachers. There are some limitations however. Some teachers have MAs not in line with their specialization because their major fields are not offered in the graduate programs of the schools in the local area.

Only a few have been sent for full-time study since the school pays for the salaries of the grantees and their substitutes. Some grantees have not returned while the others have failed to finish the study. Others have not yet completed the study; hence the study has been extended. Rarely do schools hire PhD holders from outside.

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Generally, the PhDs are homegrown; that is, they studied while on active duty. The financial support is also limited so that only those whose fields of priority studied first. The rest paid on their own. Many were recipients of CHED scholarship grants administered through FAPE. There are in-service trainings conducted among teachers, but often these are of general nature or interdisciplinary to minimize cost (3.87 VS). Updating is done through peer sharing, echo seminar, and other sessions. The Council of Deans and professional organizations also conduct trainings and updates. There are more opportunities for general education than for the specialized fields.

There is a comprehensive evaluation of instructional performance (4.25 VS) for students, chairpersons, and deans. There is a diminishing importance given to selfevaluation because such is subjective. The evaluation results serve primarily for ranking purposes and, at certain times, as basis for training.

Faculty members join professional organizations and interagency committees (3.69 VS). There is generally a spirit of volunteerism and willingness to accept nonteaching assignments to serve others. The interagency committees are covered by official agreements between the schools and their partners.

Faculty profile obtained a very satisfactory rating.

2. Use of Information and Communication Technology This criterion specifies that institutions must make effective use of information and communication technology to support student learning and to manage their academic affairs.

There has been an effective linkage between academic planning and the allocation of ICT resources (4.10 VS). The practice of schools is to subsidize the cost for ICT resources to augment the laboratory fees paid for by the students. The costs of hardware, software, and licensing have risen over the past years to an extent that the rates are higher than the rates of increase in school and ICT fees. Schools shifted to Linux software in the wake of raids conducted by the NBI. ICT is an important feature in the academic planning because schools want their students to have adequate ICT exposure. Teachers have been trained for computer-aided instruction.

The support of ICT to student learning (3.77 VS) is exemplified in a number of ways.

One is through the Internet as the window for knowledge acquisition and sharing.

Libraries have on-line public access system (OPAC) and have Internet terminals.

There are students who prefer surfing the net to borrowing books in the library.

Few teachers use laptop in their classes. When using LCD, they need to book its use ahead of time because the use of the LCD is limited. However, they can use the school’s laptops whenever a reservation for use is made.

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The training of students on the use of ICT is formal and done in computer classes. Students have varying needs when they attend computer classes. Others are advanced while others are barely literate. The training is more on computer operations. The use of LCD and other sophisticated gadgets is limited among students.

There are adequate terminals for students’ use of ICT. However, the repair of equipment is sometimes inadequate due to limited number of computer technicians.

There are enough teachers but not enough technicians in some schools. The logistics vary. Laboratory fees range from P1, 200 to about P4, 000 per subject. Schools that collect more are better able to replace non-usable equipment and hire adequate 57

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personnel.

The schools covered in the study generally have high ICT capabilities due to rising competitions among them. Schools in CARAGA Region, however, generally collect lower lab fees in consideration of the paying capacity of the students.

However, their facilities pass the requirements of the accrediting bodies.

The use of ICT is generally very satisfactory.

3. Income Generation The criterion states that the institutions must have viable, sustainable, and appropriate income-generating strategy to support development plans.

Generally, the schools are largely tuition-dependent to support their operations.

Most of them adopt a no- tuition fee increase upon first time enrollment until graduation. There are increases in miscellaneous items but these are inadequate to meet the rising cost of operations. The revenues from tuition can support shortterm liabilities. Over the years, the schools have accumulated assets good for future expansion. Some schools have businesses having separate juridical personalities.

School-related businesses usually include canteens, bookstore, uniforms, and school supplies.

New increases come from new miscellaneous fees, but these are rarely resorted to keep the gross fees manageable and competitive. Most schools have minimal investments in financial institutions. Most investments have low risk and low yield like time deposits. Some schools have investment managers and consultants that optimize the yield of the school’s profits. The profit margin generally is conservative for about 10 percent. Some schools have higher profit margins that are plowed back to the school in the form of investments in real property and academic programs.

The schools use strong and active banks to meet their needs. Most prefer private banks to government banks. All schools have utilized the services of several banks to spread their investments. There has been limited inflow of funds from funding agencies. These funds are for research, facilities, and infrastructure. The schools have been responsible in dispensing financial accountability of funds received or entrusted to them. There are also means to monitor and evaluate income-generating activities such as periodic reports, meetings, and dialogues with partners and school providers.

On the whole, the three indicators are rated very satisfactory. The highest rating went to ICT and followed by faculty profile. Income generation was rated the least.

The trend is that institutions generally serve the needs of their clients. The emphasis is more on social responsibility rather than on profit. This trend has also limited the entrepreneurial activities of schools. However, as organizations, they also need 58

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reasonable return of investment.

The strengths of schools are that they are able to implement a systematic evaluation of performance of teachers, they are willing to accept full range of responsibilities, have trainings for students on ICT use, and they are prudent in the management of financial matters.

For development purposes, they need to address issues of limited involvement of teachers in professional organizations and interagency committees and appropriate incentives for teachers for their achievements. They need to explore ways to motivate teachers to use ICT in teaching and to provide the means by which teachers can use ICT such as LCD, laptop, and Internet. There are limited sources of funds from the outside though the faculty has the expertise. The search for new revenues to augment tuition poses a challenge to the administrators.

The analysis of test of difference in the practice of culture of excellence among the schools is presented in Table 7.

Among the five KRAs, the schools differed significantly in quality of teaching and research, support to students, and management of resources. The schools have different quality assurance systems: three with both accreditation and ISO and three with accreditation only. Also, three are sectarian while three are nonsectarian. These elements may have caused the variances in the culture of teaching and research, support to students, and management of resources. This means that the practices may be different in form but may be similar in substance as these are designed to produce intended learning outcomes. On the basis of the findings, the null hypothesis is rejected.

Emerging Trends in Practices of a Culture of Excellence in the Private Schools 1. Schools have been internationalizing their quality assurance programs since they achieved higher levels of accreditation. Two schools had ISO to fulfill a mandate for maritime education. One school did not have maritime program yet it secured the ISO Certification. One reason cited the quality of education is recognized abroad when the ISO seal is marked on the transcript of records, thus, the curriculum is accepted and the graduates are preferred for employment. ISO brings in new “software� of management which perspective to school management is global.

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2. The strongest KRA is on governance and management. It is an inspiring revelation that quality assurance has enhanced the ability of the governing body to implement a quality system that can produce intended outcomes. As long as there is a quality assurance system, a school can be efficient and effective in the delivery of its services.

3. Support for students was the second best KRA, an indication that schools make a difference in the lives of the students by providing them with equal opportunitiesregardless of their state of being.

4. Management of resources was the third best KRA though schools are almost wholly tuition-dependent. Most schools offer zero tuition fee increases. Their astute sense of financial management enables them to develop their faculty and ICT capabilities, and to come up income-generating activities to augment their tuition revenues.

5. Relations with the community were the fourth best KRA. The schools demonstrate relevance of their programs to the communities they serve bolstered by strong extension programs. However, the schools have limited networking and linkages although the opportunities abound.

6. The schools’ main expertise is teaching. The faculty has limited research productivity despite provision for research opportunities. Since research is a defining character of a university as differentiated from teaching for a college, universities must implement a strong research culture if it has to actualize its raison d etre. Since the structure and resources for research are in place, schools must find effective ways to inspire and capacitate teachers to create knowledge that they can ably teach to their students.

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(Table 8. Continued)

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CONCLUSIONS The culture of excellence is largely a function of efficient and effective quality assurance management systems such as voluntary accreditation and international certification. The external evaluation in the quality assurance audits promotes the achievement of comparable standards with the best practices in the Philippines and abroad. Some accredited schools have acquired ISO certification, a move that enhances the quality assurance management system.

The schools’ culture of excellence generates the intended teaching and learning outcomes manifested through integral development of graduates, high performance in licensure examinations, high employability, and global competitiveness. Thus, the implementation of quality assurance management system enables schools to achieve their vision-mission –goals in higher education.

The efficiency and effectiveness of the governance and management of the schools have an overriding influence on the quality of teaching and research, support to students, relations with the community, and management of resources. Despite limited resources, schools are able to optimize their resources for the promotion of quality and excellence in education.

Generating higher research productivity among the faculty, fund sourcing from partnership and entrepreneurial activities that generate non-tuition revenues remain the serious challenges of the school management. Forging networks and linkages strengthens their resource capabilities.

LITERATURE CITED

Alcala, A. C. (2000). Graduate education in the Philippines: strategies for reforming higher education towards global excellence. The Cebu Doctors College Graduate Journal Vol. 4 SY 1999-2000.

CHED MEMORANDUM Order No. 15 Series of 2005. Implementing rules and regulations of CMO No. 15 series of 2005.

CHED Memorandum Order No. 16 Series of 2005. Implementing rules and regulations of CMO No.15 series of 2005.

IQUAME Operations handbook for the review team. (2005). The Commission on Higher Education.

Layton , S. (1995). Competitive strategy: planning your organization’s success.

CA: Crisp Publications, Inc. Primer on IQUAME (2005). Commission on Higher Education.

Thompson, A. A. & Strickland, A.J. III(2001). Strategic management: concept and cases: USA: McGraw Hill Higher Education 12 Ed. Valisno, M. D. (2000). Moving towards comparability: strengthening human resources development in the Philippines. The Cebu Doctors College Graduate Journal Vol. 4 SY 1999-2000.

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Vol 5 No.1 December 2007 ISSN: 2094-1064

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Research Performance of Higher Education Institutions BIENVENIDO L. GREGORIO drblgregory@yahoo.com Universidad de Zamboanga Date Submitted: January 11, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: May 3, 2007 Abstract - Higher education institutions in Zamboanga Peninsula continue to have low participation in research among their members of the faculty, which in turn affects the research outputs of Research Centers (RCs). The study assessed the research performance and outputs of teachers and RCs among HEIs in Zamboanga City. Public and private schools have similar research performances in terms of the number of researches performed by each teacher-researcher; and with the number of researchers per research. In both cases however, HEIs with university status performed better than the colleges in research.

Most of the researches can be classified as institutional, descriptive in type, mostly published in in-house journals and not peer reviewed.

Utilization of research outputs is limited much as most researches are school-funded. CHEDRO and ZRCs lacked coordination and initiative to take the lead in building the culture of research among the HEIs in the city. Access to foreign funding, international refereed journals and genuine utilization of research outputs are for the moment marginal.

Concluding, the HEIs in Zamboanga City have relatively low research outputs even more among the colleges.

Key words - Research performance, research centers, peer review

INTRODUCTION Research is one of the tri-fold functions of every higher education institution. Like instruction and community services, research holds a significant role in the furtherance 63

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of the teaching-learning process. Despite this significance, research has not been well understood or accepted as a component of higher instruction by some members of the academe. Factors like teachers’ teaching loads and lack of administrative support are common reasons among teachers in teaching-based higher education institutions not to get involved in research works. Empirical research has not yet been widely considered as part and parcel of the teaching function of teachers in higher education institutions.

The Commission on Higher Education made research a criterion in the grant of university status as well as in the conferment of de-regulated and autonomous status.

CHED Memorandum Order Number 8, series of 2000, was issued to further the role of research among higher education institutions by creating Zonal Research Centers or ZRCs in the country and providing subsidy to Zonal Centers in the pursuit of research undertaking following the adoption of the National Higher Education Research Agenda or NHERA. Despite this policy, only twelve (12) higher education institutions qualified as Zonal Research Centers.

For Region IX, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology is designated as Zonal Research Center despite its being outside the political subdivision of the Zamboanga Peninsula and the presence of three (3) universities in Zamboanga City. Higher Education Institutions in Zamboanga City have yet to begin establishing their Research Centers (RCs) or Research Offices (ROs) to institutionalize research in their priority programs. To do this, each institution has to harness the best talents among its members of the academe and instill capability building to sow the seeds for the Culture of Research, a task that requires investment in human resource. Evaluation of research outputs has been crucially crafted in such a way as to make research productivity more relevant and useful. Research outputs must impact society by the generation of more concrete and empirical explanations to knowledge formation or theories that have practical applications. Because research capability among teachers and financial resources are scarce commodities, only few higher education institutions in the country could be acclaimed as research-based institutions.

At present, still many of the higher education institutions are teaching-based although efforts have been expended to cope with the requirements of CHED on research especially the provision on research in the IQuAME. For this reason, there is a need to take an empirical look at the higher education institutions’ status in terms of research performance of their research centers and faculty.

FRAMEWORK The study adopts the following theories explained below in an effort to help in the contextualization of the research framework and variables used in the study.

Capability and Performance. In terms of capability and performance as variables of this study, the research adopts the Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory of 64

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Learning. Performance of researchers is the result of processed inputs that lead them to generate certain research outputs. Therefore, it is very significant that capability building must be an essential phase of any research effort. Skinner (2007) developed his theory in the 1930s in an attempt to analyze how animals and humans alike undergo the process of learning. Focus was, however, made on the learned behavior rather than on cognitive learning that makes his theory a behavioral approach. The theory on learning espoused by Skinner (2007) equally applies in research capability building and performance much in the same way as in any learning process for which the theory was first developed. The theory is best explained following the five (5) basic Principles of Operant Conditioning, namely Reinforcement; Punishment; Shaping; Extinction; and Generalization-Discrimination.

Accordingly, learning starts with reinforcement. By reinforcement is meant that learners are introduced to a learning situation by way of experience. Experiences must be as pleasant as possible so as to strengthen or sustain the performance of similar behavior.

Huberman (1995), explaining reinforcement as used by Skinner and Thorndike, shows two (2) types of reinforcement - Positive Reinforcement and Negative Reinforcement.

It is positive when a pleasant stimulus is presented every time the expected behavior is performed. It is negative when certain behavior is discouraged. Turnbull (1992) explains, however, that there are two (2) components of Negative Reinforcement. The escape component of Negative Reinforcement suggests that certain behavior is performed to escape experiencing unpleasant stimulus while the avoidance or omission component of Negative Reinforcement suggests that certain behavior is performed to avoid experiencing unpleasant consequences. Applied in the area of research performance, the theory explains that the reward system in the institutional policy may be an agent of reinforcement by which researchers are motivated to undertake research works.

It is, however, more of a positive rather than a negative reinforcement. As in theory, motivation in practice is important to lead people to undertake research. This comes in forms of additional monetary incentives and increase in academic rank of teachers in college. But as a prelude to actual performance, teacher-researchers must first have enough grounding to undertake research works whether through formal studies or training.

Fuhrman (1992) emphasizes that punishment performs learning role. Punishment as agent of learning means that a behavior is weakened by delivering an unpleasant stimulus or consequence as a result of the continuous performance of the discouraged behavior. It comes in the same mode as reinforcement. It is a Positive Punishment when behavior is reduced through the instigation of unpleasant stimulus like inflicting pain for a wrong act done. It is a Negative Punishment when the behavior is reduced through removing the pleasant stimulus as a result of the continuous behavior like taking out a privilege previously granted. This principle in Operant conditioning is 65

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neither particularly relevant in research capability building nor in actual research performance because non-performance in research is not a punishable omission.

Shaping as a principle in Operant Conditioning means introducing the simplest things where humans have never encountered before. From the simplest idea, learners are introduced to the more complex of things until they get mastery of the learned behavior. This kind of principle is used to teach children in the preschool level to prepare them for higher school tasks. When applied to research, this is a very good preparation in capability building although since researchers are professionals, they are presumed to have prior knowledge of research even though they may not have the experience in performing it extensively.

Extinction as another principle in Operant Conditioning means the reduction of reinforcement causing the decline in the learned behavior. Huberman (1992) explains that learned behavior is not permanent. As such, its performance is diminished over time with the reduction of the required reinforcement that first led to that behavior.

Forgetting replaces memory of the thing, reduces behavior. As in any learning process, constant and regular capability building in research is essential until mastery is achieved. Research is an applied science that means theories learned must be applied in actual research performance; hence, constant practice is essential to avoid the loss of mastery needed in actual performance. Re-training is an important strategy in this case.

Generalization as another principle in Operant Conditioning means that a behavior learned in one situation is applied to other similar situation whereas Discrimination is its exact opposite. Given prior knowledge in research work, teacher-researchers will find it easy to acquire momentum to undertake research when reinforced with proper motivation and preparation. This behavioral approach in learning is found to be relevant in research capability building and performance as a theory because research is performance-oriented. This means that learned ideas about research are simply tools to facilitate actual research undertaking. Repeated research undertaking is significant to research mastery. The lure to undertake more research works only stems from the person’s constant attachment to doing research work. No amount of research knowledge learned will lead to a heightened performance without the actual experience of doing research.

Output. In terms of research output as a variable, this study adopts the concept espoused by Cross (2000), which states that research findings and practice are interrelated and inseparable. Unless research outputs are translated to operational policy for development, research efforts are meaningless. Cross (2000) explains that research findings that are not shared with practitioners in ways that foster application are ineffective. Educational institution must keep itself abreast with the latest knowhow in teaching and learning that is abundant in the environment. More than the 66

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packaging of the findings, the engagement of the researcher in disseminating findings has an impact on whether those findings are acknowledged and considered by potential users (Huberman, 1992). Research findings must be translated to policy for eventual implementation whenever the situation calls for development change. This presupposes that researchers (teachers) must have a link with the end-users or stakeholders.

Huberman (1995) claims that researchers and their research benefit from engaging in dialogue, over time, with practitioners who have experienced the phenomena in which the researcher is interested and that which fosters him with challenges. This will bring about utilization of research findings.

In this framework, it is significant that teacher-researchers must have good research working knowledge, experience in research work, and the required training that supports research performance. These factors must translate into actual engagement in research and actual collaboration with stakeholders and practitioners for research to be meaningful and valuable. Turnbull (1992) says that teachers and policymakers do learn from research but not in a linear way. Teachers scan the environment for new ways of thinking and are most apt to apply those ways if they have the chance to “work on increasing their professional competence in settings of collaboration and mutual support�. Collaboration must be close to home. Teachers seek approval from each other, particularly from colleagues they consider more experienced. This is essential because teachers perform not only teaching function but likewise research function. These two functions complement for a relevant higher education instruction. The degree of working knowledge in research affects the significant involvement of teachers in the undertaking. Experience in research undertaking underscores the quality output of research and its eventual utilization. Research training is geared towards improving techniques and skills in research. These fundamental factors cannot be dispensed with in the attempt to perform quality researches.

In order for research outputs to reach its intended beneficiaries, research utilization is indispensable. In fact, utilization is the first phase upon which stakeholders shall have the baseline to comprehend, analyze, and actually use the output in its desired mode. According to Fuhrman (1992), providing research information to practitioners in an accessible form is only the beginning: providing venues for exploration, reflection, implementation, and more reflection are necessary for educational change and improvement to occur. It is in this way that research output becomes valuable. In an educational system where changes are ensued through experimentation and with deliberate care, research basically becomes a tool to instigate the needed academic change that is founded on empirical observation. In a constructivist approach to research utilization, the practitioner constructs meaning out of the research, taking into account the context of her setting and her prior knowledge (Fuhrman, 1992).

Policy makers must in fact start listening to the classroom situations as the focus area 67

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of development in education. Integration of policy into the curriculum without valid referral from the classroom level is definitely misleading and could not guarantee the occurrence of development change.

In its entirety, researches cannot reach their intended beneficiaries without adequate grounding in terms of institutional support and linkages. Inevitably, any research undertaking requires financial support. This support enables researchers to bring research to its intended beneficiaries. However, the lack of this support jeopardizes any research undertaking no matter how crucial and beneficial the effort would be. The way each institution looks at support to research depends on its thrust (including financial capability and willingness) and the academic community undertakes research in ways it appreciates this support. In some instances, schools undertake research only to pay lip service to satisfy minimum government regulations.

The true essence of research is utility that serves as the means through which development policy may be instituted for change. It is this change that serves as the end purpose of every research effort. The school system as a whole must understand this research-utility relation. Huberman (1995) believes that teachers seek out truth and utility. They look for research findings that fit with their experience, and, better still, are vouched for by trusted colleagues. On the utility side, teachers look for research findings that can help them improve their current practice. If they can easily implement suggestions and then quickly see results with their current students, they are more likely to continue to implement the new approach or idea.

According to Garner, Bingman, Comings, Rowe, & Smith cited by Fetalver (2003), policymakers look for research that demonstrates high technical quality and findings that fit with their understanding of the issue. At the same time, the research must provide explicit policy direction. Suitability and appropriateness to the situation matter a lot in the utilization of research output. Research results must bring something out of the ordinary. In fact, according to Weiss (1999), if the findings challenge convention, all the better. A study that says “more of the same” is not as exciting to policymakers as one that forges a new path. “Keep doing what you’re doing” does not provide a framework for legislation.

Higher education institutions or HEIs are classified into public and private school types and further classified into college and university according to status.

All respondent schools have certain number of research-performing teachers and functional research centers that differ from each other in research performance and research output aspects. Research performance is measured in three (3) ways, namely: the number of researches undertaken by each teacher-researcher, the number of researchers per research, and the average number of research-performing teachers in the five year period. A school may have more completed researches than the other but with fewer researchers or more researchers with fewer completed researches.

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Research outputs specifically relate to completed research works of each of the school respondents, which are operationally classified into nature of research, type of research, type of funding source, type of publication, and extent of research utilization.

The nature of research outputs may be classified into institutional, social, and grant. The type of research output may be classified into descriptive, historical, and experimental research. The descriptive type is further classified into quantitative research, qualitative research, and mixed. Funding source is categorized into self-funded research, schoolfunded research, outsourced research, and other types while type of publication is categorized into school journal (in-house), refereed journal (peer reviewed), and other types. Outputs are also classified in terms of research utilization, either school-utilized or agency-utilized.

All performances and outputs are operationally affected by two important factors: namely: obstacles faced by each school and the current research programs in place. Obstacles are varied but may be classified into three broad areas: research and publication, research dissemination, and research linkage and networking. All other obstacles may fall in one or the other of these categories. Present research programs largely depend on the existing institutional policies, plans, and programs designed to enhance, improve, and develop current research climate in the institution. In view of all these variables, the research findings of this study are considered significant in the development of policies by each of the respondent schools and concerned government agency like the Commission on Higher Education or CHED in an effort to make higher education institutions research-productive and responsive.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study had the following objectives: (1) to determine the research performance of the faculty; (2) to compare research performance of schools; (3) to describe the research centers’ outputs; (4) to characterize the established mechanisms and research agenda across all schools; and (5) to identify the current obstacles experienced by researchers.

METHODOLOGY The study used the evaluative-descriptive design utilizing both quantitative and qualitative research types. It is evaluative-descriptive because the data gathering made an evaluation of the variables used in the study with particular reference to official documents of the Research Centers (RCs) of each respondent HEI. This evaluation took into consideration recent records covering a five-year period. The study is 69

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partly quantitative because it partly relied on quantitative data elicited through questionnaires analyzed by the use of descriptive statistical tools. The study is also partly qualitative because it used some techniques, which are inherently qualitative to answer some problems of the research, which are better done in narrative rather than in statistical form. The use of these two methods was significant as one data source reinforced the other, making research findings more comprehensive and in-depth. The respondents or sources of the study included the following: (a.) Persons: Directors of Research Centers or Deans of Colleges Concerned, Faculty of the Different Colleges; (b.)

Documents:Research Output Records, Publication Media, Funding Source DocumentsMemorandum of Agreements, Research Utilization Records, Institutional Research Agenda, and Manual of Regulations.

At present, there are a total of 63 higher education institutions throughout Region IX. Of this number, 79.37% or 50 are private schools and 20.63% or 13 are public schools.

In terms of percentage distribution by province and type of school, Zamboanga del Norte has 14 private schools or 28% out of 50 while 5 or 38.46% out of 13 are public schools. Zamboanga del Sur has 12 private schools or 24% out of 50 schools while 3 or 23.08% are public schools. Zamboanga Sibugay has 8 private schools or 16% out of 50 and has only 1 or 7.69% public schools. Isabela City has 3 private schools or 6% with only 1 public school or 7.69 out of 13. Zamboanga City has 13 private schools or 26% with 3 or 23.08% of the 13 public schools in the region.

Of these higher education institutions in the region, only five universities and colleges actually located in Zamboanga City were included as research sites: the Western Mindanao State University, Ateneo de Zamboanga University, and Universidad de Zamboanga for universities; Zamboanga State College of Marines Sciences and Technology and the Zamboanga City State Polytechnic College for the colleges. Their selection was principally based on the presence of research proofs and functional research centers. Table 1 shows the total number of higher education institutions in the whole of Region 9.

Area

Total

Four (4) different sets of instruments were utilized in this study. The first was a researcher-constructed matrix designed to gather data on the frequency of research undertaking per teacher/researcher, number of teacher/researcher per research work, 70

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and number of teachers undertaking research per school year. This matrix was designed to provide data for the first research problem, letters a, b, and c. The second instrument was also a researcher-made matrix designed to classify research undertakings and outputs. It classified data by title of research, year started and completed, type and nature of research, funding source, publication and utilization. It was designed to provide data to the third research problem, letters a, b, c, and d. The third instrument was a simple researcher-constructed two-question survey form designed to elicit existing research mechanisms and research agenda among the institutions included in the study. It was also designed to gather and provide data to the fourth problem of the research. The fourth instrument consisted of guide questions referred to as semistructured interview schedule designed to provide data on the obstacles encountered in undertaking research among teachers/researchers and on the ongoing programs for research development among the research directors or deans. The first part consisted of seven (7) guide questions for the respondent-teachers/researchers and the second part consisted of ten (10) guide questions for the research directors/deans. These guide questions were intended to provide answers to research problems 5 and 6. Appendix A shows samples of the instruments.Content validity of all the parts of the matrices and semi-structured interview schedule were referred to a committee of three (3) experts whose recommendations were incorporated into the instruments prior to their actual administration. No test of reliability was conducted since the main instruments simply classified data taken from documents of the participating institutions except the semi-structured interview schedule, which consisted of seventeen (17) open-ended questions.

Of the areas in Region IX or the Zamboanga Peninsula, only the area of Zamboanga City was purposively chosen as the research locale since the other HEIs in the region do not have proofs of research and functional research centers. The purposive sampling was also used in the selection of respondents such as the research directors or deans and teachers/researchers with actual research outputs. Frequency and percentage were used to quantify data for the first and third research problems. Mann-Whitney U Test was used to test the significant differences of variables in the second research problem.

Document analysis was resorted to answer the fifth and sixth research problems of the study. Data for Mann-Whitney U Test treatment were input for SPSS generated results.

Data taken from the semi-structured interview schedule were transcribed, analyzed, and interpreted along emerging themes. Data taken from document analysis, research directors-deans, and teachers/researchers though intended to answer different research problems were triangulated. Approval to undertake the research was secured from the Research Council of the Universidad de Zamboanga that funded the study. Letters seeking approval to conduct the research were sent to the different heads of schools included in the study. Documents used in the analysis were also specified. Appointments 71

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were made with respondents for the distribution of the instruments, which were later retrieved. Upon retrieval of instruments, tabulations and interpretation ensued.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Faculty Research Performance 1. Number of Researches undertaken per Faculty a.1 By Type of School (Public/Private) This section refers to the number of researches conducted by each teacher/ researcher in a given year over five (5) school years (2002 to 2007). In terms of school type, data revealed that across the five-year period, the number of teachers/researchers who conducted one research each year was greater than the number of those who conducted more than one research. Of the 175 teachers/researchers across the five year period, 46.3% or 81 teachers/researchers in public HEIs did only one research each year while 40% or 70 teachers/researchers in the private HEIs also undertook one research each per year. Across the same period, only 4.6% or 8 of public HEIs’ teachers/ researchers and 4% or 7 of private HEIs did two researches a year. Further, only 1.7% or 3 teachers/researchers in public HEIs and 2.3% or 4 teachers/researchers in private HEIs did three researches in a given school year. Of the teachers/researchers in public HEIs, 1 did four researches and 1 with five researches in a given year.

Based on the 94 teachers/researchers who undertook research works across the fiveyear period, 6.2% or 5 teachers/researchers did one research for SY 2002-2003. In school year 2003-2004, the number increased to 14.8% or 12 teachers/researchers and further increased to 18.5% or 15 teachers/researchers in the subsequent year. In school year 2005-2006, 29.6% or 24 teachers/researchers each had one research output. However, in school year 2006-2007 had the highest percentage of teachers/researchers (30.9% or 25) who did one research. The number of teachers/researchers who undertook two researches in a year was very minimal. For instance, there were only 37.5% (3) in 20022003, 12.5% (1) in 2003-2004, 12.5% (1) in 2004-2005, 12.5% (1) in 2005-2006, and 25% (2) in 2006-2007. Only in school years 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 where 1 and 2 teachers/ researchers did three researches, respectively. Only in 2004-2005 where one teacher/ researcher did four researches in that year and 1 did five researches in 2002-2003. The number suggests that these researches must have been conducted in collaboration with other researchers since it would be difficult for one researcher to do it alone.

In the private HEIs among the 81 teachers/researchers who did reveal across the five-year period, 11.4% or 8 of them completed one in SY 2002-2003. The number spiraled to 28.6% or 20 in 2003-2004, higher than that in the public HEIs. A further increase of 31.4% or 22 teachers/researchers completed one research each in 200472

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2005, still higher than that of the public HEIs. However, the number of the researchers decreased (17.1% or 12) in 2005-2006, this time lower than that of the public HEIs. Only 11.4% or 8 teachers/researchers completed one research in 2006-2007. In 2002-2003, 14.3% or 1 did two researches, while only 1 did three researches in 2003-2004 and 20042005. No teacher/researcher completed 4 or 5 researches in a year between school years 2002-2007 in the private HEIs. Overall, most of the 175 teachers/researchers across the five-year period completed only one (1) research a year. This situation may be attributed to a number of factors that hinder research performance. A positive reinforcement is essential to improve productivity (Mazur, 2007).

b.1By Status of School (College/University)

By status of school, the data revealed that the universities far outweighed the colleges in terms of the number of teachers/researchers who undertook researches across the five-year period. Of the 54 teachers/researchers in the colleges, 26.9% or 47 teachers/researchers completed one a each year over the five-year period, while 59.4% or 104 of the teachers/researchers in completed one research a year five universities.

Among the colleges, 2.9% or 5 teachers/researchers did two researches. However, the number of university teachers/researchers who completed two researches a year doubled (5.7% or 10) that of the college teachers/researcher. Only 0.6% or 1 college teacher/researcher undertook 3 and 1 completed 4 researches in different year, but none did five or more researches. In 3.4% or 6 teachers/researchers undertook 3 researches a year while none did four researches in a row. Lastly, only 0.6% or 1 actually completed five researches in 2002-2003.

Of the 54 college teachers/researchers 2.1% or 1 undertook research work in 20022003 while 19.1% or 9 in 2003-2004 and 2004-2005. The bulk of teachers/researchers (46.8% or 22) who undertook one research work a year were in 2005-2006. Around 12.8% or 6 teachers/researchers did one research work in 2006-2007. Across the five73

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year period, only 1 teacher/researcher did two researches a year while 1 researcher did 3 and 1 did 4 research works in 2005-2006 and 2004-2005, respectively. In the colleges, none did five or more researches in one year.

In universities, 11.5% or 12 out of the 104 teachers/researchers did one research in 2002-2003. The figure increased to 22.1% or 23 in 2003-2004 and further increased to 26.9% or 28 in 2004-2005. This figure has, however, decreased to 13.5% or 14 in 20052006. But then, an increase was noted in 2006-2007 (26.0% or 27).

Few researchers completed more than one research in a given year. For instance, in 2002-2003, only 30.0% or 3 out of 10 teachers/researchers did two researches in a given year. The figure inversed to 40.0% or 4 in 2003-2004, but none in 2004-2005 and 20052006. Again, only 30.0% or 3 did two researches in 2006-2007.

Therefore, the number of teachers/researchers doing one research a year is far greater than those doing more than one among the universities.

2.

Number of Teachers/Researchers per Research Work

a.2 By Type of School (Public/Private)

By type of school, data showed that out of 140 researches, 43.6% or 61 came from the public HEIs while 56.4% or from the private HEIs. In both cases, the number of researches with single authorship outweighed those with more than one author. Among the public HEIs, 39.3% or 24 researches were undertaken with single authorship, while 69.6% or 55 researches were undertaken by two or more authors among the private HEIs. The public HEIs had higher number of researches with two authors (27.9% or 17) than the private HEIs (16.5% or 13).

Likewise, public HEIs had higher number of researches with three authors (24.6% or 15) than private HEIs (11.4% or 9). The data showed that private HEIs have more researches with one author than public HEIs. The difference may be attributed to the availability of research funds for single authorship in the private schools.

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A closer look at the data from the public HEIs showed that in 2002-2003, 8.3% or 2 researches out of 24 had single authorship and 20.8% or 5 in 2003-2004. Again, in 2004-2005 only 8.3% or 2 researches had single authorship, but it increased to 33.3% or 8 researches in 2005-2006. The 2006-2007 had 29.2% or 7 researches with single authorship. Of the 17 researches with two authors, 17.6% or 3 researches were done in school year 2002-2003, 11.8% or 2 in 2003 to 2006, and 47.0% or 8 in 2006-2007. Fifteen researches with three authors were done as follows: 6.7% or 1 in 2002-2003, 20.0% or 3 in 2003-2004, 33.3% or 5 in 2004-2005, 20.0% or 3 in 2005-2006 and 2006-2007.

Data from the private HEIs revealed that the bulk of the researches were single authored. Of the 55 researches with single authorship, 9.1% or 5 were done in 20022003, 40.0% or 22 in 2003-2004, 21.8% or 12 in 2004-2005, 18.2% or 10 in 2005-2006, and 10.9% or 6 in 2006-2007. Researches done by two authors were relatively lower in private schools (13 researches) than those in the public HEIs. Of the total number, 38.5% or 5 were done in 2003-2004, 23.0% or 3 in 2004-2005, and 38.5% or 5 in 2005-2006. Only 9 researches were authored by three researchers.

Overall, the number of researches with single authorship was highest across type of school and equally highest among the private schools. More teachers/researchers in the private schools did research individually than those in the public schools.

b.2 By Status of School (College/University) Of the total researches, 73.6% or 103 researches came from the universities while 26.4 % or 37 from college in terms of the number of authorship per research in a year, of the 37 researches in the colleges, 54.1% or 20 were done with single author while 57.3% or 59 out of 103 researches in the universities were done with one author. Among the colleges, 10.8% or 4 researches had 2 authors, 21.6% or 8 had 3, 2.7 or 1 had 4, and 10.8% or 4 had 5. On the other hand, among the 75

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universities, 57.3% or 59 researches had single author, 24.3% or 25 had 2, 15.5% or 16 had 3, 0.7% or 1 had 4 and 1.9% or 2 had 5 more.

Still among the colleges, of the 37 researches, 50.1% or 20 researches had 1 author. In 2002-2003, 10.0% or 2 researches had one author each; 2003-2004, 20.0% or 4; 2004-2005, 10.0% or 2; 2005-2006, 40.0% or 8; and 2006-2007 20.0% or 4.

Around 10.8% or 4 had 2 authors and were distributed by year as follows: 50.0% or 2 in 2003-2004, 25.0% or 1 in 2004-2005, 25.0% or 2 in 2005-2006, and 12.5% or 1 in 2006-2007. Of the 8 researches with 3 researchers each, 12.5% or 1 was done in 2003-2004, 50.0% or 4 in 2004-2005, 25.0% or 2 in 2005-2006, and 12.5% or 1 in 2006-2007. There were only 1 and 4 researches with 4 and 5 or more researchers, respectively.

Of the 103 researches in the universities, 57.3% or had one author, of which 8.8% or 5 were done in 2002-2003, 40.4% or 23 in 2003-2004, 21.0% or 12 in 20042005, 14.0% or 10 in 2005-2006, and 15.8% or 9 in 2006-2007. There were 24.3% or 25 researches with two authors, which 12.0% or 3 were done in 2002-2003, 20.0% or 23 in 2003-2004, 16.0% or 4 in 2004-2005, 20.0% or 5 in 2005-2006, and 32.0% or 8 in 2006-2007. There were 15.5% or 16 researches with 3 authors, of which 10.0% or 1 was done in 2002-2003, 20.0% or 2 in 2003-2004, 30.0% or 5 in 2004-2005, 10.0% or 5 in 2005-2006, and 30.0% or 3 in 2006-2007. There were only 1 and 2 researches that were conducted by 4 and 5 or more researchers, respectively.

3. Number of Teacher/Researcher Undertaking Research Each Year a.3. By Type of School (Public/Private) On the average, the public schools employed greater number of teachers (795) across the five-year period than the private schools (607). The average number of public teachers who undertook research was 20 against 12 private teachers.

The public schools showed an average percentage of 2.5% research-performing teachers, slightly higher than the 2.0% for private schools.

The public schools employed a total of 748 teachers in 2002-2003, of whom only 1.2% or 9 actually did research. In 2003-2004, the number increased to 772, of whom 1.7% or 13 teachers did research. The number increased to 779 in 20042005, of whom 2.4% or 19 did research. In 2005-2006, there were 785 employed public schools teacher, of them 3.6% or 28 did research. And in 2006-2007, of the 893 employed teachers, 3.4% or 30 of them did research. A steady increase in the number of public school teachers doing research over the five-year period was noted.

In contrast, a reverse trend was observed in the private schools. While there was an increase in the number of teachers doing research in the first three years, a decline was observed of in the last two years. In 2002-2003, of the 641 teachers 76

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private school teachers, 1.2% or 8 of them did research. An increase was seen in 2003-2004 when out of the 616 teachers 3.6% or 22 did research. As the number of employed teachers declined to 613 in 2004-2005, 2.4% or 15 undertook research. In 2005-2006, of the 560 employed teachers, 1.6% or 9 did research while only 1.2% or 7 did research in 2006-2007. As observed, the public schools employed more teachers than the private schools and actually have slightly higher number of teachers with research outputs than the private schools.

b.2 By Status of School (College/University)

It is evident that the universities not only had higher number of employed teachers but also higher number of teachers with research works than the colleges.

Across the five-year period, an average of 206 teachers were employed in the colleges while 1,150 in the universities. The colleges had an average of 4.3% or 11 teachers who did research over the five year period while an average of 2.9% or 21 university teachers did research for the same period. Although lower in average percentage, the universities had higher number of teachers who did research than the college.

By year, among the colleges, out of the 251 employed teachers in 2002-2003, 0.8% or 2 did research. The percentage increased to 3.9% or 10 in 2003-2004. A slight increase was noted in 2004-2005 with 252 employed teachers of whom 4.4% or 11 did research. A further increase was observed in 2005-2006 with 252 employed teachers of whom 9.5% or 24 did research. But in 2006-2007, a marked decline in the number of teachers doing research was observed with 252 employed of whom teachers only 2.8% or 7 did research.

Among the universities, of the total number of employed teachers in 20022003, only 1.3% or 15 did research while 2.2% or 25 did research in the subsequent year. In 2004-2005, of the 1,140 employed teachers, 2.0% or 23 did research. In 20052006, a marked decline in the number of employed teachers and in the number of teachers doing research was also (6.7% or 13 teachers). SY 2006-2007 saw the highest number of employed teachers as well as the number of those who did research (2.4% or 30 teachers). As noted, the universities employed more teachers and had more teachers with research outputs than the colleges. This finding may be attributed to the research requirement imposed on the faculty in universities.

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Comparing Research Performances of Schools 1.a Number of Researches Undertaken by Teacher-Researchers

a.1.

According to Type of School (Public/Private) As shown in Table 8, there was a significant difference in the number of researches undertaken by the faculty in private and public schools as revealed by the Z value of –1.982 at .05 level of significance, which led to the rejection of the null hypothesis. However, based on the mean rank, the public schools had a slightly lower number of researches conducted than the private schools across the five-year period. The private school research outputs had a mean rank of 74.73 while the public school outputs had a mean rank of 63.28.

2. According to Status of School (College/University) Results of the Mann-Whitney U Test for Two Independent Samples revealed a significant difference in the number of researches colleges (m = 54.86) and universities (m =75.25). A Z value of –3.337 at .05 level of significance was recorded, thus rejecting the null hypothesis. This finding implies that the number of researches in the universities is significantly higher than that in the colleges across the five-year period.

Classification of Research Centers’ Outputs 1.a Nature and Type of Research

a.1.

By Type of School (Public/Private) Of the 104 researches considered institutional in nature, 55.8% or 58 researches were from private schools while 42.2% or 46 were from the public schools. By comparison, the private schools had more institutional researches than the public 78

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schools. Of the 32 social researches, 65.6% or 21 researches were from the private schools while 34.4% or 11 researches were from the public schools. Comparatively, the private schools had more social researches than the public schools. However, only the public schools had 4 researches on grants based on available data.

As to the type of research, most researches across types of school were descriptive. Of the 100 descriptive researches, 26.0% or 26 were quantitative and of which 65.4% or 17 researches were from the private schools and 34.6% or 9 from the public schools. Qualitative researches accounted for 35.0% or 49 of which 87.8% or 43 were from the private schools while 12.2% or 6 from the public schools. The remaining 25.3% or 25 researches were a combination of quantitative and qualitative research of which 48.0% or 12 were from the private schools while 52.0% or 13 from the public schools. Only 1 research from the private school was historical while 84.6% or 33 out of the 39 experimental researches were from the public schools and 15.4% from the private schools. Overall, most researches were institutional and few were social and grants. Also, most were descriptive and few were experimental and historical across types of school.

As to the nature of research, most researches were institutional (74.3% or 104) period. Universities had higher number of institutional researchers (68.3% or 71) than the colleges (31.7% or 33). Among the 32 social researches, 93.8% or 30 were from the universities and only 6.2% or 2 from the colleges. However, in terms of grants, 75.0% or 3 researches comes from the college while only 25.0% or 1 research from a university.

As to the type of research, 18.6% or 26 researches were quantitative, 35% or 49 were qualitative, and 17.9% or 25 were a combination of quantitative and qualitative. Only 0.7% or 1 was historical and 27.9% or 39 were experimental. Of the 26 quantitative researches, 65.4% or 17 were from the universities while 34.6% 79

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or 9 by the colleges. All of the 49 qualitative researches were conducted by the universities. Combination of research type was mostly done by the universities, 88.0% or 22 of their researches were under this type.

One historical research was done a university (1 research). Colleges did more experimental researches than the universities (66.7% or 26 and 33.3% or 13, respectively). On the one hand, the findings suggest that the colleges were more specialized in their choice of research type than the universities, which in part determines the nature of the institutions. On the other hand, the universities were more varied in their fields of specialization as reflected by their research output types.

2.

Type of Funding Source

2.a.

By Type of School (Public/Private)

Out of 140 researches, 76.4% or 107 were school-funded, of which 63.6% or 68 were researches of the private schools while 36.4% or 39 were researches of the public schools. As revealed, private schools have more school-funded researches than the public schools. On the other hand, self-funded researches were higher in public schools (87.5% or 7) than in private where 87.5% or 7 out of the 8 researches were from public schools and only 12.5% or 1 was from the private schools (40.0% or 10). Institutional funding of researches depends largely on the budgetary allocations of the institutions and on school’s priority thrust. The presence of a large number of institutionally funded researches reveals that schools in the area lack linkaging and networking with funding agencies.

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2.b By Status of School Most researches in universities and colleges were school-funded. Out of the 140 researches, 76.4% or 79 researches were school-funded. Universities funding for their researches accounted for 73.8% or 79 of their researches. The colleges funding for their researches accounted for 26.2% or 28 of their researches. However, the colleges had higher self-funded researches (75.0% or 6) in comparison with the universities. Of the 25 outsourced researches, 88.0% or 22 were researches of the universities while only 12.0% or 3 were researches of the colleges. The lack of outsourced funding may be attributed to poor linkaging or networking. Fetalver’s (2003) study cited similar analysis in which schools were found to be weak in research networking and linkaging.

3. Type of Publication

3.a.

By Type of School HEIs published their research outputs in school journals (in-house) and refereed journals (external). Based on the data, 92.1% or 129 researches across types of school were published in school journals (in-house) while only 7.9% or 11 researches were published in refereed journals. The term school journal may include other type of in-house publications that are not necessarily termed journal.

Of the 129 researches published in-house, 60.5% or 78 researches while 39.5% or 51 researches were that of the private schools while 39.5% or 51 were the public schools. While the number of refereed researches was minimal, most of them (90.9% or 10 out of 11) were from the public schools. Only 9.1% or 1 research of one college was published in refereed journal. HEIs did not have their own refereed journal that conforms to international standard and has ISI certification.

3.b. By Status of School University researches (73.6% or 103) far outweighed college researches (26.4% or 37). But, still 92.1% or 129 researches were published in-house while 81

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7.9% or 11 were published in refereed journals. Of the researches published in in-house journals, 78.3% or 101 were university researches and 21.7% or 28 were college researches. However, of the 11 researches that were published in refereed journals, 81.8% or 9 were college researches while only 18.2% or 2 were university researches.

Overall, most research outputs were confined within the institutions and had limited circulation. In-house publication does not have national or international appeal, hence limits the possibility of a wider utilization of research outputs.

According to Huberman (1992) and Kaestle (1993), more than the packaging of the findings, the engagement of the researcher in disseminating findings has an impact on whether those findings are acknowledged and considered by potential users.

4.

Stakeholders of Research Outputs 4.a. By Type of School As to the type of school, the private schools (58.2% or 57 of researcher) had higher institutional utilization than the public schools (41.8% or 41 of their researchers).

However, public schools had more researches (68.7% or 46 researches).

The more research outputs are confined within the school, the more is the possibility of its non-utility or at least its limited utility. Since more researches are simply presented within the sponsoring schools, research disseminations are then limited to the policy-makers only when such outputs relate to the institutional priority. In this case, Furhman (1992) explained that providing research information to practitioners (in wider area and scope) in an accessible form is only the beginning; providing venues for exploration, reflection, implementation, and more reflection are necessary for educational change and improvement to occur.

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4.b. By Status of School Of the 98 school-utilized research outputs, 38.8% or 38 were college researches while 61.2% of 60 were university researches. The quantity of university researches presented for utilization to other agencies was slightly higher (50.7% or 34) than the college researches (49.3% or 33). Overall, the number of researches (98) presented for school utilization was far greater than those (67) presented to other agencies for utilization.

Research Agenda and Established Research Mechanisms 1. Vision, Mission and Research Agenda All HEIs covered in the research have their respective vision, mission, and research agenda. Generally, the research agenda of all HEIs have marked similarity, that is, the focus is the generation of empirical knowledge as aid to the academic disciplines. Reliance is laid on linking academic and external knowledge.

Similarities were also evident in the manner how the nature of the school and the curricular offerings reflected in the research agenda. However, in terms of specific research priorities, HEIs showed marked differences in their research agenda.

For instance, the Zamboanga State College of Marine Sciences and Technology or ZSCMST, being a maritime state college, includes research topics that are specifically related to maritime disciplines and marine biology issues.

The issues addressed are strictly scientific that included development of a monitoring system for EEZ and off-shore fisheries, oceanographic investigation, exploratory fishing for tuna and tuna-like species, fish aggregating devise (FAD), socio-economic and investment studies, development of value-added products, development of new processing technologies, processing of seaweeds, development of quality standard, characterization and control of fish spoilage, detoxification of biologically and chemically contaminated fish and fishery products, and related fields. Appendix F shows the Research Agenda of the ZSCMST. The Western Mindanao State University or WMSU, being a state university of diversified disciplines, possesses research agenda enriched with multi-disciplinary research topics ranging from educational research, agricultural research, health 83

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research, socio-economic, political and cultural research, science and technology research, and environment studies. Appendix D shows the Research Agenda of WMSU. The Zamboanga State Polytechnic College or ZSPC, also a government school, has a more explicit and integrated research agenda. It has rather broad research issues that do not simply relate to its course offerings. The college integrated the concerns of CHED, DBM, PASUC, and its own research thrusts as its research agenda, which covered science and technology agenda for national development, Zonal Research Center prioritized research and development, the National Research Council of the Philippines, National Science and Technology Plan, and research and development priorities of the college, each with more specific sub-issues. Appendix E shows the Research Agenda of ZCSPC. The Ateneo de Zamboanga University or ADZU has a short but general list of research priorities, which are multi-disciplinary, covering topics on peace and development, sustainable development, health and development, education and development, business and entrepreneurship, science and technology, gender and development, history and culture. Its research agenda are geared towards social and qualitative researches. Appendix B shows the Research Agenda of ADZU. The Universidad de Zamboanga or UZ has mainly two (2) research priorities divided into institutional and social priorities, each with sub-themes. The institutional research priorities include instruction and curriculum; physical plant, research and extension, and entrepreneurial management education whereas the social research priorities include economic development, political development, social development, and environmental protection, conservation and development.

Sample evidence of all these Vision, Mission, and Research Agenda are appended in this study.

2. Research Proposal Application System Each of the procedures involved in the processing of research proposals in each HEI is uniquely different, the reason being institutional differences. These procedures are briefly treated below. In the case of the ZSCMST, a memorandum, 84

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Guidelines on the Conduct of Research and Extension Activities and Related Programs of the College, provides for the specific procedure in the treatment of research proposals. The College President and the Head of the Office of Research and Extension are key figures in this process.

All proposals both internally and externally funded have to go through the Office of the Research and Extension for the initial stage and the Office of the College President for final approval. A special body similar to what is commonly called as Research Panel, which in this case has been termed Research Commodity Review Group or RCRG, assists in the review of the submitted proposals before they are implemented. The primary function of the RCRG is to assist in the review and evaluation of Research and Development Programs/Projects/Studies submitted to the Research and Extension Department both for local and foreign funding as well as assist in the evaluation of On- going Research and Development Programs/Projects/Studies both conducted in the College.

The RCRG is composed of academic Program Advisers and the Head of the Research and Extension Office of the College. For purposes of operationalizing its research agenda, the RCRG has to delve into the priorities in terms of commodities, that is, clustering the priority issues into groups under which research proposals are considered and classified. For this purpose, fields of specialization were devised such as Marine Fisheries, Aquaculture/Inland Fisheries, Processing Technology, Social R and D Priorities, and Education.

In the case of the WMSU, a separate department is created headed by the Vice President for Research and Development as the overall administrative officer of the university in all matters related to research and development. The Dean/ Director for Research heads the R & D Department that supervises the actual flow of proposals as assisted by a Research Council Panel in reviewing proposals and the Technical Evaluation Group (TEG).

Research proposals undergo three (3) stages in proposal presentation to qualify for availment of institutional funding support. The stages include the Department Level, College/Unit Level, and the University Level. The application stage starts at the Department Level where the Department Chair with the assistance of the Department Research Committee endorses the proponent’s research proposal to the Dean of the College.

With suggestions embodied in the proposal, the College Dean with the assistance of the College Head approves the proposal for inclusion in the Agency In-house Review of Proposals for funding by the university, CHED, DOST, DOH, or the proponent’s funding agency. Upon passing the college/unit level, the proposal is scheduled to pass through the University Level where the Dean of Research transmits the proposal to the Technical Evaluation Group for evaluation whereupon 85

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suggestions and recommendations are considered. The Dean of Research schedules the proposal presentation before the Research Council Panel, which is tasked to evaluate the proposal before it is recommended for implementation.

For its part, the ZCSPC undergoes simple procedure in the conduct of research. In the College, there is created the position of the Dean of the Academic Support Group that is responsible for evaluating research proposals of teachers.

For funding purposes, all research proposals have to pass through this office, which forwards the purposed to the Budget Officer for the release of approved funding support.

The ADZU adopts its own rules in proposal presentation. It starts with the submission of proposals by teachers and its referral to the Research Review Committee for its initial evaluation. The proposals are then returned to the proponents for improvement. After which, the proponents sign the Term of Reference or TOR. This is a research contract binding the teachers and the university. Data collection follows after the signing of the contract. Under specified time, the proponents submit the first draft of the research to the Ateneo Research Center or ARC. Thereafter, the proposal pre-presentation is scheduled before the Research Review Committee for revision of the draft report. After the approval with modification, the proponents present the research findings in a research utilization forum with stakeholders and later submit the final report to the ARC for publication.

The Universidad de Zamboanga defines its procedure in its Manual of Operation called the URC Manual of Regulations. For purposes of proposal submission, all proposals are classified either as self-funded, school-funded, or outsourced. All proposals are to be submitted to the University Research Center or URC for pre-evaluation before they are calendared. In the case of self-funded proposals, proponents have to present their proposals before the Research Panel, and thereafter proceed to data collection.

However, proposals that are school-funded in addition to presentation before the Research Panel are presented before the Research Council being the highest approving body of the university in all research-related matters.

Proposals that are outsourced are simply evaluated by the URC without the need of presentation before the Research Panel or Council. However, these proposals have to be conferred with the funding agency concerned and culminate in the signing of memorandum of agreement.

In the case of the school-funded researches, all proponents have to be bound by a contract with the university. Research monitoring is done by the URC under a prescribed period as approved during the Council presentation except for the outsourced researches in which case stipulations of length of 86

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time and other pertinent provisions are governed by the terms of the MOA. All research outputs are presented in utilization forums as a requirement.

3.. Faculty-researcher Benefits and Incentives The ZSCMST has provision for researcher’s benefits or incentives that include de-loading of teaching hours with full pay as regular faculty members. These faculty researchers are only required to handle 9 to 12 hours of teaching per week.

They are given incentives and honorarium, the amount of which depends on the amount of the research budget. The Project Leader receives Php 3,500.00, the Study Leader receives Php 3,000.00, and the Research Aid is paid on a salary basis.

In WMSU, incentives for research undertaking include de-loading, leave credit, term insurance ownership of patent, and the grant of finders’ fee. Finders’ fee is given to faculty researchers who draft research proposals for funding agencies. Depending on the amount of the grant, the researcher receives his fee on two installments, first after the draft of the proposal and second upon signing of the MOA. The faculty researchers are also entitled to receive the Best Paper Award and Special Award based on the quality of the research work. They are also entitled to receive all other existing university and national incentives such as hazard fees. The university adopts the de-loading system with the following equivalents: Program Leader for 9 teaching units, Project Leader for 6 units, Study Leader for 3 units, Research Chair/Coordinator/Head and R & D Research Services Office for 3 units, Co-study Leader for 2 units, and College Research Committee Member for to 2 units.

The ZCSPC has a different policy in which only faculty members with the rank of Assistant Professor and higher are required to undertake research. However, they are still given the option to indulge in community extension service, production, or research. Experience shows that teachers prefer research to extension services and production. In any case, teachers are given incentives for doing research. Research undertaking is a plus factor in academic rank evaluation.

The ADZU adopts a de-loading system for faculty researches (6 units to full deloading) depending on the nature of the research. For those de-loaded, a favorable schedule of classes is arranged. A teacher-researcher enjoys his full salary released on schedule and a monthly stipend equivalent to 15% of the basic salary for 2 deloaded to be released upon completion of specific tasks like data gathering. An honorarium equivalent to three times the amount of the stipend is released upon submission of the final report. All teacher-researchers with completed researches are given recognition for research accomplishment that includes presentation of the results to the community, awarding of financial incentives, and possible publication of completed researches in Periodikit, Research Digest, ADZU Journal, 87

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Multidisciplinary Journal, and other publications released by the Ateneo Research Center. Likewise, research accomplishment is a key toward advancement in academic rank. Involvement in research works is crucial to qualify for associate professorship, achieve opportunity to harness research capability, and opportunity to present papers in national and international conferences.

The UZ adopts no subject de-loading as a matter of policy, but grants full deload to teachers depending on the nature and type of researches undertaken. For full de-load, the teacher-researchers are paid based on a fullload (24 units) salary.

Teacher-researchers are given an approved budget for the research project, the amount of which depends on the scope and nature of the research. The budget is exclusively intended to finance the research projects and subject to the usual accounting requirement.

The budget is released on three installments of which 40% is released upon approval of the proposal, another 40% upon data collection, and the remaining 20% upon completion of the research project. An honorarium not less than Php 5,000.00 but not more than Php 25,000.00 is given for each completed research regardless of the number of researchers. The Research Council determines both the budget allocation and the amount of the honorarium. Proof of research work qualifies teachers to apply for re-classification of academic rank. The honorarium and budget for research proposals with outsourced funding is shouldered by the funding agency through contract stipulations.

4. Research Publication Except for the ZCSPC, all schools in this study have their in-house official publication. All of the in-house researchjournals are non-refereed. The ZSCMST has two (2) releases of their school journal a year or one a semester. Although the ZSCMST has no refereed journal of its own, 9 of its research outputs were published in refereed journal from school year 2002-2007. The WMSU publishes its research journal once a year. The ADZU mainly has four different types of publication while the UZ has three.

All these journals print researches and scholarly works of their own faculty researchers. The distribution is uneven since there is no mutual understanding among HEIs to share their journal publication with one another on a regular basis.

There is also no effort to jointly create a peer-reviewed journal. The recipients or end users of the journals depend upon the determination and choice of the school for which copies are distributed. School journals vary in the number of articles they print, ranging between 7 to 10 articles per publication.

There is also, a low turnout in the number of researchers who sent their research articles to international refereed journals. This is so because of the 88

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small number of completed researches per year, low acceptance rate imposed by sponsor-institutions, and the lack of exposures of researchers in publishing their research works in venues other than their own school journals, among others. The schools have not yet used their websites as medium for their research publication.

5.. Linkage and Networking Only two universities have the long list of research partnerships. The WMSU has partnership with Manos Unidos in Spain, Asia Pacific Policy Center or APPC, Center for the Welfare of Children or CWC, DOH, DOST, TESDA, POPCOM, PCARRD, Volkwagen Foundation, DAR Basilan, and the local government of Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga City, the Province of Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi. WMSU has also established networking with UP Pahinungod and John Hopkins University.

The ADZU for its part has maintained partnership with several institutions such as the Australian Agency for International Development or AusAID, the World Bank, Asian Institute of Management (AIM) Policy Center, Multi-faith Center in Griffith University, Australia, International Christian University in Tokyo, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization or UNESCO, United States Agency for International Development or USAID, The Asia Foundation or TAF, Philippine Council for Health Research and Development or PCHRD, Tabang Mindanao/Assisi Development Foundation or ADF, Nagdilaab Foundation, Inc. or NFI, Notre Dame University or NDU, Notre Dame of Jolo College or NDJC, Silsilah Dialogue Movement, Catholic Relief Service or CRS, and the Notre Dame Foundation for Charitable Activities-Women in Enterprise Development or NDFCAI-WED, among others.

The other school with limited networking and linkages include the Universidad de Zamboanga and ZSCMST. Because of its late inception in 2004 as a Research Center, the Universidad de Zamboanga has established partnership with few organizations like the Philippine Society for Educational Research and Evaluation or PSERE based in Centro Escolar University, Manila. It has spearheaded the organization of the Zamboanga Peninsula Research Society or ZPRS in Region IX. The URC is a member/officer of the newly organized Philippine Association of Institutions in Research or PAIR based in Liceo de Cagayan University. It has established partnership with the local governments of Isabela and Zamboanga City. Likewise, it has established partnership with Liceo de Cagayan University, The Asia Foundation or TAF, Global Development Network or GDN, the Nippon Foundation, and Luma Ma Dilaut, among others.

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The ZSCMST has research networking with the Bureau of Agriculture and Research or BAR, PCAMARD, DOST, BFAR, Growth Equity for Mindanao or GEM, and the local government of Zamboanga City. The ZCSPC had acknowledged networking partnership with the Asian Development Bank or ADB for funding of its research.

6.. Research Utilization Forum The conduct of research utilization forums is very much dependent on the availability of completed researches. As such, all except the WMSU are flexible in scheduling of their research utilization forums. The WMSU has a regular schedule of research presentation as stipulated in its Manual of Regulations. Most recently, WMSU held a two-day forum in May where 24 researches were presented.

7. Plans for Improved Teacher Participation in Research Capability building and improved incentives for researchers are common strategies among HEIs in their attempt to generate more teacher participation in research undertaking. Each institution, however, has its own plans and specific attention as to the nature of training and incentives. In all cases, teacher participation in research may be considered minimal in relation to the total number of teachers per institution.

The ZSCMST looks at capability building and immersion as two important plans for improved participation. The plan is designed to direct attention to marine science researches. Immersion, for instance, is necessary for actual experience in hatchery sites such as in Iloilo and the presence of research station in Cebu.

The WMSU has a Ten-Year R & D Plan for 2005-2014. The Plan serves as basis for all development policies of the Office including upgrading of the office equipment as well as the grant of incentives and awards to the researchers. The ZCSPC undertakes capability building for its faculty members; however, the college administration admits that despite the grant of incentives, it is difficult to get faculty to do research.

The ADZU undertakes capability building among its faculty to strengthen the culture of research. It supports its faculty researchers in the conduct of their own choice of research by providing materials, equipment, and manpower as well as training in terms of seminars and workshops.

The Universidad de Zamboanga’s plans are contained in its Research Action Program for 2005-2010. The Program is mainly divided into three parts: Research and Publication, Dissemination and Publication, and Linkaging and Networking, each with specific objectives, strategies, key indicators and resource-designate.

Among its most common programs are capability building and strengthening the culture of research among its faculty members.

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Current Obstacles Experienced by Researchers The difficulty in doing research among the faculty may be categorized in terms of the three main areas of the research cycle: Research and Publication, Research Dissemination and Utilization, and Research Linkaging and Networking.

1. Research and Publication Firstly, teachers found it difficult to undertake research due to their regular teaching loads (between 21-24 units regular/full-time teaching). Although, there is some kind of de-loading system among most institutions, there is not enough time to faithfully do research in its genuine sense. A de-loading of 3 or 6 units may not allow teacher researchers to proceed to research sites outside the school campus since they worry about their teaching time immediately thereafter. Some teacher researchers undertook research for the love of it while still others did research for academic compliance with accreditation or evaluation.

Secondly, most teachers did not have the readiness to undertake research work due to their insufficient formal training in research. The inculcation of research in undergraduate curriculum came about lately. Teachers had research training in the graduate school while others simply possessed personal skills in doing research. Some teachers lacked the experience and exposure to research since they simply concentrated on their teaching function. Research seminars and workshops were occasionally held within the locality. Research culture among most colleges and universities in the city has yet to be developed. Teaching or classroom instruction is believed to be the main task of a college faculty. The relation of research to instruction has not been fully understood. In fact, research is prioritized for accreditation and evaluation purposes rather than for actual generation of empirical knowledge for academic use.

Thirdly, the lack of financial and logistics, support from the administration was believed to be an obstacle in research. It has become a policy this time that research is a criterion for academic ranking and in some cases sine quo non for evaluation. Nonetheless, the financial assistance given was not viewed as remunerative enough. Hence, research undertaking from the point of view of the faculty was unattractive. Full-time teaching was, in fact, preferred to doing research works with subject de-loading. Some schools lacked the facilities and for research equipment. Government schools have to go the process of bidding as required by law, causing delay in the procurement of necessary technology. Fetalver’s (2003) cited that the system of research funding, availability of research facilities and research journals and publications, and availability of library facilities, holdings and materials were areas that urgently needed improvement in an attempt to improve research productivity.

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Lastly, most teacher-researchers did not have access or exposure to funding agencies for some obvious reasons- lack of tract record and linkaging. As such, researchers undertook researches within the bounds of the allotted school budget or financed their own researches for topics that were not institutionally endorsed and funded.

The low turnout of teacher researchers relatively affected research publication.

As a rule, publication follows the quantity and quality of research outputs. Most completed researches of schools in the locality are printed in in-house journals.

While all these journals are ISSN registered, they were not posted in the school websites for wider dissemination. As such, research outputs lose the opportunity to be quoted as literature by other researchers dealing with similar studies. In other words, their dissemination goes as far as their circulation or distribution goes. All HEIs in the city did not have their refereed journal. Only few of their researches were published in external refereed journals.

2. Research Dissemination and Utilization Except for ZCSPC, all others have their medium of dissemination of research findings. Dissemination of research findings is limited to their own publication.

Utilization forums were conducted only when there were completed researches.

Most schools did not have regular presentation of findings. Utilization forums were used to showcase findings more for presentation’s sake than for actual utilization- where stakeholders are present to analyze how the findings can be applied to their respective fields. Only researches that were funded by funding agencies were taken for utilization. Generally, few researches of these institutions were approved for presentation in national and international forums.

3. Research Linkaging and Networking All institutions have their respective linkages and networking with other research institutions outside the city and abroad. However, these schools lacked research networking with one another. Among them, no collaborative research works has beenconducted. In the case of external linkaging and networking, some HEIs availed of some fundings for some of their researches though some linkaging and networking did not necessarily entail funding support. Linkaging and networking provide access for wider cooperation in research-related activities in terms of undertaking, publication, and funding.

Generally, HEIs had difficulty generating funding support because of the lack of tract record in research and exposure of their researchers. While there are regional, national and international research bodies with which cooperation may be sought, HEIs, however, secured membership only with few research societies.

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Of these research societies, only one of them is based in the city. The Zamboanga Peninsula Research Society or ZPRS is spearheaded by the Universidad de Zamboanga and was organized through and in consultation with the Commission on Higher Education in Region IX and participated in by HEIs in the region. The ZPRS is the only organized research society in the Zamboanga Peninsula for now.

Ongoing Programs in Research In the case of the ZSCMST, its institutional priority lies in its efforts to instill capability building and immersion among its faculty members. It is intended to give teacher-researchers an actual experience by having exposures to sites that are relevant in the nature of their future researches being a marine science institution.

Capability building is likewise the overall priority of the ZCSPC. Despite this effort, it was revealed that only a handful of teachers engage in research work. The difficulty is partly curved by the allocation of budget for research.

The WMSU has defined its priority programs in its Ten-Year R & D for 20052014 that includes upgrading of its facilities in research. The university is working on to improve its incentives, reward, and award system to generate more teacher participation. For its part, ADZU continues to follow its approved programs to get more faculty members into research. One program is the provision of material support, equipment, and manpower training as well as continuous reward system.

The UZ also continues its capability building as one mode of establishing the culture of research among its faculty. Continuous training and improvement in reward system and detailing qualified faculty members in URC with full deloading are among the latest trends to attract teachers to do research work. Overall, capability building has been considered as the priority effort by all institutions in the attempt to generate more teacher participation in research. It confirms the earlier finding that teachers are yet in the process of appreciating research as part of their functions in higher education institution. Of course, other mechanisms are in place to assist teacher-researchers in this effort, which vary from one institution to the other.

CONCLUSIONS The public and private HEIs have relatively low average percentages of teachers with research works over the five-year period. An average of 2.5% of the teachers in the public schools in the five-year period did research works while only 2.0% did in the private schools. Analyzed in terms of school status, universities only have an average 2.9% faculty researches in the five-year period while the 93

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colleges have 4.3%. These percentages must not be confused with actual number of teachers performing research works because as stated elsewhere, the universities showed higher teacher percentage performing research works and showed greater quantity of research outputs than the colleges.

Public HEIs do not significantly differ from private HEIs in terms of the number of researches undertaken by each faculty-researcher, although the former showed more research outputs than the latter. This is so because one (1) public HEI does not have extensive research outputs, which as a group affected the research outputs of the entire public HEIs in the city causing their research outputs to be statistically similar to those of the private HEIs. However, in terms of school status, the research outputs of the universities undertaken by each of their facultyresearchers significantly differ from those of the colleges because the universities combined have higher research outputs since only one of the colleges is researchperforming.

The number of researchers involved per research in the public HEIs is statistically similar with those in the private HEIs. This is parallel to the above finding since in terms of type of school, public and private HEIs are similar in their quantity of research outputs as in the number of faculty involved in research.

But again, the case is different when HEIs are compared according to status because universities show greater number of teacher participation in research than the colleges. Aside from the reason cited in earlier conclusion, there are only two colleges in the city with evidence of research work. Despite the differences in the number of research outputs and the number of researchers per research work between private and public HEIs and between the colleges and universities, the statistics of faculty members (including researchers of RCs) who undertook research works were basically similar.

In terms of the nature of research, institutional researches characterized most of the researches of HEIs in Zamboanga City. In part, this may mean that schools take institutional researches as a priority over other researches. This being the case, other kinds of researches may have not yet been explored for reasons that HEIs either lack expertise in other fields of research or lack the need for them at the onset. By implication too, this may mean limited research utilization as well as exposure to regional, national, and international presentations of research outputs.

While mostly being institutional, most of these researches are simply descriptive in type. Few are experimental and historical. Institutional descriptive researches abound across type and status of school.

Since many researches are school-funded, expectedly most research outputs are published in in-house journals. For this reason, most research outputs are locally disseminated as well as utilized. International refereed journals impose very low 94

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acceptance percentage and are not readily available to HEIs in the city. HEIs have to create their own peer review system to gain access to refereed publication. No HEIs, however, showed proof of in-house refereed publication system.

Each HEI enjoys full autonomy in devising its own research vision, mission, and agenda. For this reason, research agenda of each school reflect the priority and academic discipline that characterized each institution. Technical HEIs have more specialized research agenda than do the multi-disciplinary schools. All HEIs regardless of type and status follow a prescribed and approved research procedure, but financial allocations for research proposal proved to be quite difficult among the public HEIs. In terms of benefits and incentives for researchers, most HEIs provide incentives and benefits to chairmanship in research that include budget for the research, honorarium, de-loading of academic or teaching loads, guarantee in research presentation, copyright, and material or office equipment assistance.

The current obstacles of all the HEIs can be classified into three (3) categories: Research and Publication, Research Dissemination and Utilization, and Research Linkaging and Networking. These areas are found to be interrelated and development in one has consequential effect on the others. The low participation of teachers in research and the eventual low research outputs are concerns of all the HEIs. They attribute this condition to teachers’ academic loading and less attractive package of incentives, among others. This in effect negatively affects dissemination and utilization since most HEIs’ researches are institutional, thus may impact the possibility of schools getting funding from outside sources.

Therefore, all HEIs must take these three areas into consideration when coming up with innovative measures.

LITERATURE CITED Cross, K.P (2000). The educational role of researchers. In A. Kezar & P. Eckel (eds.), Moving beyond the gap between research and practice in higher education.

San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Fetalver, M. Jr. A. (2003). Research culture in state higher education institutions (SHEIs) in Region IV: proposed research program for institutional research development. Dissertation , (Ph D) University of Santo Tomas. Manila, Philippines.

Fuhrman, S.H. (1992). “Uniting producers and consumers: challenges in creating and utilizing educational research and development.” Washington, DC: Paper presented at the International Seminar on Educational Research and Development.

Huberman, M. (1992). “Linking the practitioner and researcher communities 95

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for school improvement.” Victoria, British Columbia: Keynote Address, International Congress for School Effectiveness and Improvement.

Huberman, M. (1995). “What knowledge is of most worth to teachers? a knowledge-use perspective.” Teaching & Teacher Education, 1 (3), 252-262.

Turnbull, B. J. (1992) “Research knowledge and school improvement: c an this marriage be saved?” San Francisco: Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.

Weiss, C. (1999) “Congressional committees as users of analysis. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management., 8(3) 411-431.

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Learning Styles and Study Skills among Nursing Students DONNA LOU E. NERI donnaevasco@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: June 2007 Final Revision Accepted: October 2007 Abstract - This study described the learning styles and study skills among Nursing students in five (5) Nursing colleges in Northern Mindanao, namely Liceo de Cagayan University, Central Mindanao University, Mountain View College, Misamis University, and Christ the King College. Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory and Study Skills Inventory were used to gather data from the 300 respondents. Data gathered were subjected to descriptive statistics and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. The data revealed that the Nursing students have diverging learning style. This learning style is associated with valuing skills, helping others, and sense making. Teaching strategies appropriate for such learning styles must be employed by the faculty to create a match with the students’ learning needs. In terms of study skills, the Nursing students are good in note-taking, textbook reading, memory, test preparation, and concentration. However, they are weak in time-management skills. There is a significant relationship between time management skills and Abstract Conceptualization (AC).

This underscored the importance of developing time management skills for a student to be able to cultivate his or her critical thinking skills such as synthesis, analysis, and the integration of the concrete experience after reflective observation.

Key words - learning styles, study skills, diverging learning style, abstract conceptualization, teaching strategies

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INTRODUCTION Baccalaureate nursing program today is becoming more heterogeneous.

There is already a mixture of students with increasing number of adults (age 25-50), married and single, male and female, and shiftees and second-coursers who are seeking admission to the Nursing program (Nagata 1996). With this phenomenon, nurse-educators nowadays often find that students are unprepared for the demands of a rigorous Nursing curriculum. Inadequate reading, writing, and study skills hamper their ability to master Nursing and successfully pass the licensure examination (Blowers, Ramsey, Merriman & Grooms 2003).

Harvey (1995) defines learning styles as those “educational conditions under which a student is most likely to learn.” Thus, learning styles are not really concerned with “what” learners learn, but rather “how” they prefer to learn.

Learners are helped to succeed in their chosen courses by identifying their preferred learning styles, developing their study skills, and helping them understand how they benefit from various learning materials and activities. Along this insight, the researcher deemed it important to describe the preferred learning styles of Nursing students as well as their study skill for better knowledge acquisition.

Integrating the preferred learning styles of the students into Nursing education program may promote satisfying learning experiences and, at the same time, result in formulation of criteria for academic excellence (Kolb 1984).

Moreover, results of Plovnick’s research in 1975 (as cited by Nagata 1996) on cognitive theory and occupational roles suggest that people choose fields that are consistent with their learning style and are further shaped to fit the learning norms of their field once they are in it. If a mismatch between an individual’s learning style and occupation occurs, the person either changes that style or leaves the field, the latter being more likely.

Kolb (1984) also suggested that different disciplines have inclinntion to different styles of learning. Over time, selection and socialization pressures combine to produce an increasingly impermeable and homogeneous disciplinary culture and correspondingly specialized student orientations to learning. This process, which Kolb calls accentuation, promotes an educational system that emphasizes specialized learning and development through the accentuation of students’ skills and interests. Students’ developmental pathways are a product of the interaction between their choices and socialization experiences in academic fields and lead them to choose educational experiences that match those 98

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dispositions.

Kolb hypothesized that different learning styles may be used to formulate criteria for academic excellence, which in turn may lead to increased productivity in various disciplines. Mismatches between learning style and discipline demands are likely to affect a student’s social adaptation to the educational environment and help to explain variations in academic performance. He maintained that there is a strong relationship between how people learn and how they respond to life situations. Performance is limited to short-term adaptations to immediate circumstances, while development is evaluated based on achievement in all life situations (Kolb, 1984). In Kolb’s (1984) structure of careers as related to structure of learning knowledge, the discipline of nursing is depicted as an assimilative learning discipline.

Literature has established that both learning styles and study skills influence academic performance. Poor academic performance among nursing students is a common occurrence in the country and even globally. Poor academic performance serves as a predictor on the attrition and employability of students in the future. When students perform poorly in class, the chances are that they will be retained in the program and have difficulty finding work (Stanley, Slate & Jones 1999). Thus, this study is deemed beneficial to both the nursing students and the Nursing schools in Northern Mindanao. Results of this study can be used as basis in the promotion of appropriate study skills among the students to assist them in coping with the demands of the course, as well as in the development of a curriculum which matches the learning styles of the students.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study pursued the following objectives: 1) to describe the learning styles of the Nursing students in Northern Mindanao; 2) to determine the study skills of the Nursing students in Northern Mindanao; and 3) to relate learning styles and study skills of Nursing students in Northern Mindanao.

FRAMEWORK This study is anchored on Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory model. Experiential learning is conceived as a four-stage cycle: (1) immediate concrete experience is the basis for (2) observation and reflection; (3) these observations are assimilated into a “theory” from which new implications for action can be deduced; (4) these implications or hypotheses then serve as guides in acting to create new experiences.

The effective learner relies on four different learning modes: Concrete Experience 99

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(CE), Reflective Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation (AE). That is, he must be able to involve himself fully, openly, and without bias in new experiences (CE), he must be able to reflect on and observe these experiences from many perspectives (RO), he must be able to create concepts that integrate his observations into logically sound theories (AC), and he must be able to use these theories to make decisions and solve problems (AE).

A high score on Concrete Experience represents a receptive, experiencebased approach to learning that relies heavily on feeling-based judgments. High CE individuals tend to be empathetic and “people-oriented.” They generally find theoretical approaches to be unhelpful and prefer to treat each situation as a unique case. They learn best from specific examples in which they can become involved. Individuals who emphasize Concrete Experience tend to be oriented more towards peers and less toward authority in their approach to learning, and benefit most from feedback and discussion with fellow CE learners. A high score on Abstract Conceptualization indicates an analytical, conceptual approach to learning that relies heavily on logical thinking and rational evaluation. High AC individuals tend to be oriented more towards things and symbols and less towards other people. They learn best in authority-directed, impersonal learning situations that emphasize theory and systematic analysis. They are frustrated by and benefit little form unstructured “discovery” learning approaches like exercises and simulations.

A high score on Active Experimentation indicates an active, “doing” orientation to learning that relies heavily on experimentation. High AE individuals learn best when they can engage in such things as projects, homework, or small group discussions. They dislike passive learning situation such as lectures.

These individuals tend to be extroverts. A high score on Reflective Observation indicates a tentative, impartial and reflective approach to learning. High RO individuals rely heavily on careful observation in making judgments and prefer learning situations such as lectures that allow them to take the role of impartial objective observers. These individuals tend to be introverts.

Researches and clinical observations came up with four (4) basic learning style types based on the patterns of LSI scores. The first type is the CONVERGER. The dominant learning abilities of a converger are Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Active Experimentation (AE). This person’s greatest strength lies in the practical application of ideas. A person with this style seems to do best in those situations like conventional intelligence tests where there is a single correct answer or solution to a question or problem. This person’s knowledge is organized in such 100

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a way that through hypothetical-deductive reasoning this person can focus it on specific problems. Research on this style of learning shows that converger’s are relatively unemotional, preferring to deal with things rather than people. They tend to have narrow technical interests and choose to specialize in the physical sciences. This learning style is characteristic of many engineers.

The second type is the DIVERGER, who has the opposite learning strengths of the converger. This person is best at Concrete Experience (CE) and Reflective Observation (RO). This person’s greatest strength lies in imaginative ability. This person excels in the ability to view concrete situations from many perspectives.

He/she is labeled as diverger because he/she performs better in situations that call for generation of ideas such as a “brainstorming” idea session. Research shows that divergers are interested in people and tend to be imaginative and emotional.

They have broad cultural interests and tend to specialize in the arts. This style is characteristic of individuals from humanities and liberal arts backgrounds.

Counselors, organization development specialists, and personnel managers tend to be characterized by this learning style.

The third type is the ASSIMILATOR, with dominant learning abilities of Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Reflective Observation (RO). This person’s greatest strength lies in the ability to create theoretical models. This person excels in inductive reasoning and in assimilating disparate observations into an integrated explanation. This person, like the converger, is less interested in people and more concerned with abstract concepts, but is less concerned with the practical use of theories. For this person, it is more important that the theory be logically sound and precise; in a situation where a theory or plan does not fit the “facts,” the assimilator would be likely to disregard or re-examine the facts.

As a result, this learning style is more characteristic of the basic sciences and mathematics rather than the applied sciences. In organizations, this learning style is found most often in the research and planning departments.

The last type is the ACCOMMODATOR who has the opposite learning strengths of the assimilator. This person is best at Concrete Experience (CE) and Active Experimentation (AE). This person’s greatest strength lies in doing things, in carrying out plans and experiments, and involving oneself in new experiences. This person tends to be more of a risk-taker than people with the other three learning styles. This person is labeled as “accommodator” because this person tends to excel in those situations where one must adapt oneself to specific immediate circumstances. In situations where a theory or plan does not fit the “facts,” this person will most likely discard the plan or theory. This person tends to solve problems in an intuitive trial-and-error manner, relying heavily on other people for information rather than on one’s own analytic ability. The 101

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accommodator is at ease with people, but is sometimes seen as impatient and “pushy.” This person’s educational background is often in technical or practical fields such as business. In organizations, people with this learning style are found in “action-oriented” jobs, often in marketing or sales.”

On the other hand, study skills are measured in terms of textbook reading, note-taking, memory, test preparation, concentration, and time management among selected nursing students in Northern Mindanao. The proven technique to sharpen textbook reading skills is the SQ3R which stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review (Harvey 1995).

In college, students are frequently assigned multiple chapters of course books that can be quite complicated. SQ3R helps make reading purposeful and meaningful, so time is used most effectively. The second study skill investigated is note-taking, which is the practice of writing pieces of information often in an informal or unstructured manner. One major specific type of note taking is the practice of writing in shorthand, which can allow large amounts of information to be put on paper very quickly.

The third variable is the memory, which is crucial to effective use of study skills. The memory system is located in the brain and the brain stem at the top of the spinal cord. The temporal lobes are also involved in registering memories as well as the frontal, parietal, and occipital areas and cerebellum. Memory fails when it does not register something, does not retain over time that which was registered, or fails to remember. Another variable is test preparation that depends on many factors: importance of regular attendance, keeping up with reading assignments, taking notes in class, and doing assignments on time. Each of these contributes toward laying a firm foundation for test preparation. The last variable on the study skills is concentration. Concentration is defined as the ability to direct thinking. The art or practice of concentration is to focus on the task at hand and eliminate distraction. Students have the ability to concentrate sometimes because of worries, outside distractions, and the kind of material they deal with that may be boring, difficult, or uninteresting.

Numerous studies (as cited by Harvey 1995) have had demonstrated the link between study skills and academic success (e.g., GPA) among college students. In terms of the relationship between specific study skills and college achievement, time management has emerged as a predictor of college GPA and quality of academic performance (Britton and Tesser 1991; Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, and Phillips 1990). Moreover, there is a significant relationship between college GPA and students’ information processing skills, ability to select main ideas, selftesting, motivation, time management, and concentration. Note-taking has also been found to be related to academic achievement; more specifically, one study 102

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indicated that the amount of note-taking is positively correlated with performance on tests of lecture material (Kiewra, Benton, and Lewis 1985; Baker and Lombardi 1985). The quality of a student’s notes is also related to achievement. Overall, it has been suggested that these and other types of study skills account for approximately 15% of the variance in the academic achievement of undergraduates.

METHODOLOGY This research employed the descriptive-correlational method. The researcher described the learning styles preferred by the Nursing students, their study skills, and the relationship between learning styles and study skills. Specifically, the study was conducted among nursing schools in Northern Mindanao: Liceo de Cagayan University (Cagayan de Oro City), Central Mindanao University (Musuan, Bukidnon), Mountain View College (Valencia, Bukidnon), Misamis University (Ozamiz City, and Christ the King College (Gingoog City). The respondents, who was third and fourth year Nursing students, were selected using the purposive and quota sampling. Sixty (60) students were taken from each school (30 third year and 30 fourth year), hence a total of 300 respondents.

They were requested to answer two standardized questionnaires, the Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory and the Study Skills Inventory (Harvey, 1995). Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory (LSI) is a self-description test based on experiential learning theory designed to determine the strengths and weaknesses of a learner. The Study Skills Inventory, on the other hand, contains 51 questions divided into the following subscales: textbook reading (8 items), note-taking (5 items), and memory (9 items), and test preparation (13 items), concentration (10 items), and time management (6 items). The rating scale reflects how often items in each subscale are being applied by the respondent as: 5 – almost always, 4 – more than half of the time, 3 – about half of the time, 2 – less than half of the time, and 1 – almost never.

The researcher personally administered the questionnaires. The students were asked to answer the questionnaire as honestly as possible and must not leave any items blank. The data collected were then analyzed using the following statistical tools: the weighted mean for Objective 1 and 2 and Pearson r Product Moment Correlation Analysis at 5% level of significance for Objective 3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The data on students’ learning styles revealed that the Nursing students mostly preferred the reflective observation mode of learning. Reflective 103

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Observation (RO) means taking a time-out from “doing” and stepping back from the task and reviewing things that have been done and experienced. This learning style projects a “passive” nature of the student since there is no actual participation involved.

According to Kolb (1984), a high score on Reflective Observation (RO) is indicative of an impartial and reflective approach to learning. High RO individuals rely greatly on careful observation before making any judgments. They also like learning situations such as lectures which allow them to be neutral objective observers. In the Nursing, the teaching strategy being used most often is lecture since there is a large amount of information to be taught to the students with very limited time. From this realization, it can be said that the lecture-type of teaching may just be an appropriate strategy among these group of nursing students with high RO. The second preferred learning style was Concrete Experience (CE). A high score on Concrete Experience (CE) represents a receptive, experience-based approach to learning that relies heavily on feeling-based judgments. High CE individuals are more likely to be empathetic and are “people-oriented”. They find theoretical approaches unhelpful and prefer to take each situation as a unique case. They learn best from specific examples in which they can become involved.

Individuals with high CE tend to be peer-oriented rather than authority-oriented.

They often learn more from giving feedback and having discussion with fellow CE learners.

Furthermore, the highest mean in CE among the Nursing students was learning through hands-on experience had the highest mean while learning effectively from peers had the lowest mean. “Hands-on activities mean students have objects (both living and inanimate) directly available for investigation”.

Other terms for hands-on activities are materials-centered activities, manipulative activities, and practical activities. In the Nursing curriculum, starting from the second year, students are already exposed to actual healthcare settings. They spend about 50 percent of their time in clinical duties, otherwise termed as related learning experiences (RLE).

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Table 1. Learning styles of nursing students in Region 10

Interpretation: 1.00-1.74 – Never; 1.75-2.49 – Sometimes; 2.50-3.24 – Almost always; 3.25-4.00- Always From the follow-up interview conducted, the students showed preference for teaching strategies that are designed to be touched or handled and that develop their muscles, perceptual skills, psychomotor skills, etc... They also value their peers as a source of knowledge. In many cases, they regard them as a learning resource that is more useful than book learning or laboratory exercises.

The topmost preferred learning styles among the respondents were Reflective Observation (OR) and Concrete Experience (CE). The combination of the two, however, describes the DIVERGER style of learning (Kolb, 1984). Individuals with diverging style are best at viewing concrete situations from many different points of view. According to the profile, these are people who have broad cultural interests and like to gather information. They are interested in people and tend to be imaginative and emotional. They also tend to specialize in the arts. This finding is quite consoling as nursing has long been viewed as an art, the art of taking care of both the well and the sick (Kozier & Erb 2004).

As expected in a human service profession, nursing learning environments have been found to have a predominantly concrete learning press, matching the predominating concrete styles of nurses. This finding is consistent with the study 105

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of Nagata (1996). On the contrary, the learning styles least preferred by the Nursing students were the Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Active Experimentation (AE). In combination, these two learning preferences (AC and AE) give birth to a CONVERGER (Kolb, 1984). Convergers’ are described as relatively unemotional, who prefer to deal with things rather than people. They tend to have narrow technical interests and choose to specialize in physical sciences. This learning style is characteristic of many engineers. This is another reassuring finding as no client or patient would want to have a nurse who is a converger. The Nursing profession is for individuals with “big” hearts since TLC (tender loving care) is a must for a nurse to possess.

Objective 2 of this study sought to determine the study skills among nursing students in Northern Mindanao. The data show that the Nursing students were good at note-taking. They specifically take note during lectures and when they read textbooks. They likewise compare notes with their classmates to check on completeness and accuracy. However, they no longer rewrite lecture notes because, according to them, they do not have the time to do so.

Moreover, the Nursing students also did well in test preparation, memory, concentration, and textbook reading. Nevertheless, there were some study skills that need to be improved. These shills are highlighted in Table 2. The area in which the Nursing students were least skillful was on time management. Specifically, they generally need to be taught on making a calendar/schedule of daily, weekly, or monthly activities so they can prepare well for other academic or personal activities. Also, they usually do not have short-or long-term goals to help those set priorities. Since the Nursing program involves a lot of subjects with theory and clinical teaching conducted in simulation, proper management of time is very important. Poor time management is sometimes the cause of students’ academic failure. Hence, nursing students must be adequately armed with time management skills for them to cope with the demands of the course.

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(Table 2. Continued)

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As to the relationship between learning styles and study skills among the Nursing students, only one significant relationship existed and it was between time-management skills and Abstract Conceptualization (AC), P-value (0.029) ‚ the alpha (0.05). Abstract Conceptualization (AC) involves synthesis, analysis, and the integration of the concrete experience after reflective observation into new theories.

Students are involved with abstract conceptualization in lectures, papers, projects, and analogies (Gadzella & Williamson 1984). These critical thinking activities entail effective time management skills. Becoming involved in the critical thinking process is more than cognitive activities such as logical reasoning or scrutinizing arguments for assertions unsupported by empirical evidence. Thinking critically involves recognizing the assumptions underlying beliefs and behaviors. It means justifications for ideas and actions could be given. Most importantly, it means judging the rationality of these justifications. Thinking through, projecting, and anticipating the consequences of those actions need to be done with careful time management (Gleason, Archer & Colvin 2002; Elliot, Mc Gregor & Gable 1999).

It is vital for nurses to develop Abstract Conceptualization (AC) since they are dealing with human lives. Professional nurses must be able to develop critical thinking skills to make sound judgments and provide the safest and best care for their patients in everyday nursing practice (Mouw & Khanna 1993). The findings of this study confirm that having time management skills influences the development of Abstract Conceptualization (AC) among nurses.

CONCLUSIONS The nursing students have DIVERGING learning style. This learning style is associated with valuing skills, helping others, and sense making. Teaching strategies appropriate for such learning style must be employed by the faculty to create a match with the students’ learning needs.

The Nursing students have good study skills such as note-taking, textbook reading, memory, test preparation, and concentration. However, they are having poor time-management skills. The items highlighted in Table 2 can help in the development of a Study Skills Training for nursing students.

Time management skills influence the enhancement of Abstract Conceptualization (AC) among nursing students. If student nurses can manage their time wisely, they have the time to think critically and rationally.

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LITERATURE CITED Baker, L., & Lombardi, B. R. (1985). Students’ lecture notes and their relation to test performance. Teaching of Psychology, 12(1), 28-32.

Blowers, S., Ramsey, P. Merriman, C. & Grooms, J. (2003). Patterns of peer tutoring in nursing. Journal of Nursing Education, 42 (5) 204-211.

Britton, B. K., & Tesser, A. (1991). Effects of time-management practices on college grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(3), 405-410.

Elliott, A. J., McGregor, H. A., & Gable, S. (1999). Achievement goals, study strategies, and exam performance: a mediational analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 549-563.

Gadzella, B. M., & Williamson, J. D. (1984). Study skills, self-concept, and academic achievement. Psychological Reports, 54, 923-929.

Gleason, M. M., Archer, A. L., & Colvin, G. (2002). Interventions for improving study skills. In M. R. Shinn, H. M. Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: preventive and remedial approaches (pp. 651680). Washington, D.C.: National Association of School Psychologists.

Harvey, V. S. (1995). Teaching study skills. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology (third ed., pp. 931-942). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.

Kiewra, K. A., Benton, S. L., & Lewis, L. B. (1985). Qualitative aspects of note taking and their relationship with information-processing ability and academic achievement. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 14(3), 110-117.

Kolb, D. (1984). Learning style inventory. Boston, MA:Mcber and Company.

Kozier, B. and Erb, G. (2004). Fundamentals in nursing. Philadelphia: Lippincott Publishing.

Macan, T. H., Shahani, C., Dipboye, R. L., & Phillips, A. P. (1990). College students. Time management: correlations with academic performance and stress.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 760-768.

Mouw, J. T., & Khanna, R. K. (1993). Prediction of academic success: a review of the literature and some recommendations. College Student Journal, 27(3), 328336.

Nagata, B.J. (1996). Students’ academic performance in nursing as a function of student and faculty learning style congruency. Journal of Nursing Education. v35. p69-73.

Stanley, B., Slate, J.R. and Jones, C.H. (1999). Study behaviors of college preparatory and honors students in the ninth grade. The High School Journal. 82 (3) 165-171.

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Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Vol 5 No.1 December 2007 ISSN: 2094-1064

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Information Communication Technology Adoption and Efficiency of Student Services IDENMAE M. PALOMO macabecha30@yahoo.com DENNIS G. CANAMAN denjaze@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: January 20, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: May 8, 2007

Abstract - The study investigated the influence of information and communication technology on the efficiency of student services of Liceo de Cagayan University. The descriptive research used 20 service providers and 100 clients as respondents. As rated by the clients, the university obtained a satisfactory rating for its ICT practices in terms of system restructuring, system selection, ICT staff’s skills and capabilities.

For ICT applications, as rated by the service providers, the university got a satisfactory rating on functionality, availability, maintainability, and utilization. As to the efficiency of the different departments’ student services, as rated by the service providers, the university got a very satisfactory rating for the Registrar’s Office, Cashier’s Office, Library, and Internet Services. The predictors of the efficiency of student services were ICT implementation in terms of timely provision of information to other providers with student support roles and ICT practices in terms of ICT as a tool for competitive advantage and survival, as a tool for testing and altering school’s administrators’ know-how to get things done in the existing system, and as a tool for day-to-day operation.

Key words - ICT practices and application, effeciency of student services

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INTRODUCTION Information Communication Technology (ICT) facilitates communication and the processing and transmission of information by electronic means. This broad definition encompasses the full range of ICTs from radio and television to telephones (fixed and mobile), computers, and the Internet (Cummings 2005).

The revolutionary potential of Information Communication Technologies lies in their capacity to instantaneously connect vast networks of individuals and organizations across great geographic distances at very little cost. As such, ICTs have been key enablers of development, facilitating flows of information, capital, ideas, people, and products (Cook & Finlayson 1999). An explicit focus on using ICTs in pursuit of development goals allows countries to achieve a wide diffusion of benefits from ICTs and contributes to both broad-based economic growth and specific development goals (Giarola 2004).

Moreover, a holistic approach that sees ICTs as key development enablers recognizes that the potential of ICTs is linked to a complex mixture of international, national, and local conditions. A number of interrelated factors should be addressed to maximize the benefits of ICTs for development. These include deploying ICT infrastructure, building human capacity, establishing a transparent and inclusive policy process, creating incentives for enterprise, and developing appropriate content (Pearlson & Saunders 2005).

For all these to be realized, there is a need to understand the critical relationships between various strategic interventions in the context of local conditions and to secure the participation and commitment of all key stakeholders; local communities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the government, and the private sector.

The advantages offered by ICTs are the removal of barriers of space and time in learning, opening up of different languages and cultures of the world, and creation of a more equitable learning environment. ICTs provide a means for overcoming historically intractable problems of isolation, lack of access to information and knowledge, and crucial impediments to educational and socioeconomic development (Lucas 1997). ICTs have reshaped the educational landscape by transforming the content and modes of delivery/acquisition of learning as well as how the educational institutions operate (Kallick & Wilcon 2001). The ICTs in the form of hardware and software, network devices, communication and information system development (telephones, fax machines for transmittal of documents on 111

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school to school basis), Internet, Local Area Network (LAN) to provide open communication among school employees, and software applications (Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and MS-DOS programs) are the applications mainly used by the Liceo de Cagayan University.

FRAMEWORK The independent variables included the existing practices of ICT, system restructure that examines and implements redesigned process of an organization, system selection or the procedure adopted in selected applications by ICT for the different vendors, and ICT staff’s skills and capabilities that cover experience, training, and educational background. Other independent variables were the performance level of ICT implementation, which refers to how it is implemented; functionality, which refers to the number of ICT supported functions in the system; availability, which is the property that makes data accessible and useable upon demand by the user; maintainability, which is a process that characterizes the design and installation, expressed that an item will be restored in a specific condition in a given period of time; and utilization, which refers to the assessment of the extent that functions are provided to improve process performance, ease of use, and level of knowledge among users. These independent variables were hypothesized to impact directly the efficiency of student services.

The ICT performance level was assessed in terms of its functionality, availability, maintainability, and utilization. Determining ICT performance level also included the evaluation of hardware, software, and network components and services coordination with the service provider (Giarola 2004). Basically, the key components of successful ICT implementation are system restructure, system selection, and ICT staff’s skills and capabilities (Lango 2005).

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study aimed at assessing the university’s extent of ICT practice and applications as predictors of the efficiency of student services of the Liceo de Cagayan University. Specifically, the study sought to answer the following objectives: (1) to describe the profile of the respondents; (2) to describe the university’s extent of the ICT practices for student services; (3) to assess the university’s level of the ICT applications; (4) to compare the ratings of service providers and clients on the ICT adoption; (5) to measure the level of efficiency of the student services of the 112

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departments; and (6) to find the predictors of efficiency of student services.

METHODOLOGY The descriptive research method was employed in the conduct of the study.

Zulueta and Costales (2003) stressed that the descriptive method seeks to provide information about one or more variables and is used to answer the question “what exists?” The study used the correlation technique because it traced the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The study was conducted at the Liceo de Cagayan University, specifically at the Registrar’s Office, Cashier’s Office, Library, and the Internet Services that use ICT in their daily operations.

The respondents of the study were the 20 employees (service providers) and the students (clients) of the university. The employees use the ICT in performing their assigned tasks. The researchers used the list of office staff to determine the service provider respondents. The quota sampling was employed for student respondents.

One hundred students were sampled proportionately by course.

The main instrument used in the collection of data was the standardized questionnaire on the implementation of information and communications technology. Part I of the questionnaire, which had two subparts, dealt with the respondent’s profile. Subpart 1 pertained to the employees/service providers’ profile in terms of educational attainment, field of specialization, number of inservice trainings/programs attended, and number of years in service, in-service trainings/programs attended, and services offered. Subpart 2 pertained to the clients’ profile in terms of age, sex, course, and major. Part II dealt with the practices in ICT in terms of system restructure, system selection, ICT staff skills/capabilities, and editing practices of ICT; ICT applications in terms of functionality, availability, maintainability, utilization, performance level; and the efficiency of student services in the Registrar’s Office, Cashier’s Office, Library, and Internet Services.

The instrument was adapted from “Survival of the Smartest and Do It Smart” as cited by Tiin, (2000), “Funding Guidance for Schools and Local Authorities” 113

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by Bas (2003), and the Internet articles. The researchers secured from the service offices permission to conduct the study. The heads of the service offices were then requested to assist the researchers in the administration of the questionnaires to their staff. The respondents were given half an hour to answer the questionnaires, which were then retrieved immediately.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Profile of the Respondents Table 2 presents the profile of the Liceo service providers. As shown, the majority of the respondents were college graduates (15 or 75.5%), followed by those with units in the masteral study (3 or 15.0%) and those with units in the doctoral study (2 or 10.0%). In terms of field of specialization, more than half of the providers were computer trained when assigned to the office (13 or 65.0%).

Only a very few earned a computer-related course such as information technology (4 or 20.0%), short-term computer course (2 or 10.0%), and computer engineering (1 or 2.5%). As to the service providers’ number of in-service trainings/programs attended, majority of the respondents attended for 6 to 10 times (7 or 35.0%), followed by those who attended for 10 times or more and for 1 to 5 times (3 or 15.0%). However, there were a few (5 or 25%) who had not attended any in-service trainings at all. On the number of years in service, majority of the respondents have served for 1 to 5 years (7 or 35.0%), followed by those who have served for 6 to 10 years (6 or 30.0%), 11 to 15 years (4 or 20.0%), and above 15 years (3 or 15.0%).

The findings suggest the staff had limited ICT capabilities who are assigned in offices that utilize ICT in their services.

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Table 3 shows the profile of the Liceo clients in terms of age. Majority of the respondents aged 19 to 20 years old (39 or 39.0%), followed by those who aged 21 to 22 years old (30 or 30.0%), 23 to 24 years old (15 or 15.0%), 27 to 28 years old (6 or 6.0%), 17 to 18 years old (5 or 5.0%), 25 to 26 years old (4 or 4.0%), and 29 to 33 years old (1 or 1.0%). In terms of gender, the female clients composed the majority (67 or 67.0%), while the male clients accounted for only 33 percent. As regards the clients’ course, majority were Nursing students (56 or 56.0%). Only 24% (24) were Commerce students; 8% (8), Engineering students; 7%, Education students; and 5% (5), Arts and Sciences students. The findings indicate the clients are in the age bracket which is ICT oriented and trained.

Table 3. Profile of Liceo clients

Among those in the library, the in-service trainings/programs attended were on Follet, Excel, Microsoft Word, library method, computer literacy, book indexing, on-line database, and SRC/AC. For those in the Internet Services, the in-service trainings/programs attended were on Flash guard, web page and adobe, web development, and CISCO. Those in the Cashier’s Office attended trainings/programs on computer literacy, sales advertising, and other topics conducted by the Human Resource Department. Those in the Registrar’s Office 115

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attended trainings/programs on computer literacy and other topics conducted by the Human Resource Department. The library has the following services: use of computer, locating and finding books, inventory, indexing books, use of audiovisual materials, photocopying, publication of newsletters, system updating, online database research, pathfinders (pdf), CD-Rom, book and periodical borrowing, computer-assisted research, searching, reserving books, and library instruction.

The Internet services include the Internet, network installation, web development, software and hardware installation, access, downloading, Internet mail, dial-up, computer maintenance, and networking setup. The services of the Cashier’s Office are assessment, refunding, fees payment, and issuance of certificates, transcript of records, and diploma. The Registrar’s Office offers the following services: processing of grades and NG’s and processing and release of the TOR, diploma, and certificate of honorable dismissal.

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The service providers offer such services to better serve the clients who are the direct beneficiaries of the ICT implementation.

Extent of the Existing ICT Practices Table 5 shows the Liceo service providers’ ratings on the system restructuring.

As reflected by the overall mean of 3.21, system restructuring was practiced satisfactorily. The indicators rated very satisfactory were the updating of new software (3.25) and giving importance on the efficiency of the system (3.25). Other indicators rated satisfactory included minimizing complexity (3.22), building a chain of networks (3.20), and involving users intensively in the system restructuring (3.15). The findings imply that the service providers are satisfied with the use of the system.

Table 6 discloses the Liceo clients’ ratings on system restructuring. The overall rating of 2.62 indicates that the system was satisfactory. All the indicators were rated satisfactory as well. The data imply that the clients are not intensively involved in the system restructuring of the ICT. They could hardly make suggestions to improve the system.

Table 7 reveals the Liceo service providers’ ratings on system selection. The indicators rated very satisfactory were ICT system’s adjustment to the existing system of the university (3.30), the use of standard software available in the market (3.32), and ICT system’s flexibility for any additional functions for needed services (3.25). Only one indicator was rated satisfactory-that is, the involvement of the users in the system selection (3.16). Overall, system selection was rated very satisfactory (3.25) by LDCU service providers as reflected by the overall rating of 3.25. The service providers are very satisfied with the system selection of ICT because it enables them to adjust to the existing system of the university, to get updated with new software in the market, and to add options to the software for additional services. However, they are not widely involved in the selection of the system.

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Table 8 reveals the Liceo clients’ ratings on system selection. Overall, system selection was rated satisfactory (2.69). The following indicators were rated satisfactory: the system can adjust to the existing system of the university (2.76), the system has additional functions for additional services (2.68), the system uses standard software available in the market (2.62), and the system intensity involves users in the system selection (2.66). As revealed, the clients are satisfied with the system selection of ICT especially on the system’s capacity to adjust to the needs of the clients.

Table 9 shows the Liceo service providers’ ratings on ICT staff’s skills/capabilities.

Rated the highest (very satisfactory) was the ICT staff’s ability to communicate with the end user during the project implementation (3.25). However, rated satisfactory were the following indicators: ICT staff’s creation of group to handle the operations and maintenance of the system (3.20), a good relationship with the users (3.11), letting ICT professionals handle the system (3.0), and the provision for a continued training regarding hardware and application software (3.00). Overall, the Liceo service providers rated satisfactory the ICT staff’s skills/capabilities. As revealed, the Liceo service providers are moderately satisfied with the staff’s skills/capabilities in handling the system. Highest satisfaction shown is with the ICT staff’s ability to communicate with the users. This implies that their clients understand their methods of servicing them. The ICT staff’s trainings and number of years in service enable them to maintain the system well and effectively relate themselves to the clients.

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Table 10 shows the Liceo clients’ ratings on ICT staff’s skills/capabilities. The overall mean of 2.69 reveals that the ICT staff’s skills/capabilities were perceived satisfactory by the clients. All indicators were likewise rated satisfactory. These included the staff’s expertise in handling the system (2.89), staff’s ability to handle the operations and the maintenance of the system effectively (2.70), staff’s ability to communicate with the end users during the project implementation (2.63), and staff’s having good relationships with the users (2.54). The highly rated staff’s skill is the ability to handle the systems. They can easily fix any malfunctions, thus ensuring quick normal resumption of the operation. With the lowest rating was the staff’s ability to establish good relationship with the clients. They are perceived strict when serving the clients.

Table 11 shows the Liceo service providers’ perception on the existing ICT practices. Rated very satisfactory were ICT as a tool in using resources more flexibly and economically (3.40) and as a tool for competition advantage and survival (3.40). However, rated satisfactory were the following indicators: ICT as a tool for day to day activity (3.15) and as a tool for communicating users and clients (3.05). Overall, the existing ICT practices were rated very satisfactory (3.26).

The findings imply that the service providers have easy access to the system. The existing ICT practices give the school competition advantage, thus the school attracts more customers.

Table 12 shows the Liceo clients’ ratings on the existing ICT practices. All the existing ICT practices were rated satisfactory by the clients. Rated the highest was ICT as a tool for day-to-day activity (2.71), followed by ICT as a tool for using resources more flexibly and economically (2.66), as a tool for communicating users and clients (2.64), and as a tool for competition advantage and survival (2.64). The findings imply that the clients have not maximized the use of ICT as tool for day119

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to-day activity, for communicating other users, and for accessing information.

Table 13 shows the summary on LDCU service providers’ ratings on the extent of ICT practices. Rated very satisfactory were the existing ICT practices (3.26). However, rated satisfactory were the following indicators: system selection (3.25), system restructuring (3.21), and ICT staff skills/capabilities (3.11). Overall, the extents of ICT practices were rated satisfactory. The findings imply that the ICT practices of the service providers have enhanced student services.

Table 14 shows the summary of Liceo clients’ ratings on the extent of ICT practices. The overall mean of 2.70 reveals that the extents of ICT practices were perceived satisfactory by the clients. All indicators were likewise rated satisfactory.

These included the existing ICT practices (2.80), ICT staff’s skills/capabilities (2.69), system selection (2.69), and system restructuring (2.62). Rated the highest were the existing ICT practices. This implies that the clients understand the service system used to serve them. On the other hand, rated the lowest is the system restructuring.

The clients find themselves less involved in designing the system.

Level of the ICT Applications Table 15 shows the Liceo service providers’ ratings on ICT applications in terms of functionality. The ICT applications with very satisfactory rating were word processing (3.40), spreadsheets (3.20), and Internet downloads (3.20).

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Presentations (3.00), project management (2.58), visual basic programming (2.47), java programming (2.22), power builder programming (2.22), and c++ programming (2.24) were rated satisfactory. Overall, the ICT applications were rated satisfactory (2.73) by Liceo service providers. Moreover, on information functionality, paper communication (3.40) and information sharing (3.30) were rated very satisfactory while updating and following up transactions and documents (3.00) was rated satisfactory. Word processing was rated the highest for it is used in their daily work. It is used for writing memos and reports and for compiling information. Spreadsheet is also widely used for figures and budget. The Internet is used for accessing and downloading files. Among the indicators of information functionality, paper communication is widely used. Such communication includes memos, letters, reports, and other important manuscripts.

Table 16 presents the Liceo clients’ ratings on ICT applications in terms of functionality. Overall the functionality of ICT application was satisfactory (2.77).

As revealed, all Windows-based applications, such as word processing (3.03), spreadsheet (2.89), Internet (2.88), presentations (2.85), visual basic programming (2.84), project management (2.63), power builder programming (2.66), java programming (2.65), and C++ programming (2.61) were rated satisfactory by the Liceo clients. In terms of information functionality, updating and following up transactions and documents (2.84), information sharing (2.57) and paper communication (2.49) were all rated a satisfactory. As revealed, the clients widely use word processing and Windows-based applications for updating and following up transactions and documents and for processing paper communications.

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Table 17 shows the Liceo service providers’ ratings on ICT applications in terms of availability. The availability of Windows-based applications, the availability of assistance in the event problems will occur (3.30), and the quality of data provided (3.30) were rated very satisfactory. However, the availability of data across business functions (3.16) and of workstation per user (3.15) was rated satisfactory. Overall, the service providers of Liceo rated satisfactory the availability of ICT applications...

In terms of information performance, workstation per user (3.20), availability of database and network (3.20), speed of sending and receiving information (3.20), quality of data provided (3.10), and availability across business functions (3.05) were all rated satisfactory.

The findings imply that the service providers of LDCU are highly satisfied with the quality of data being provided to their clients since the clients are always updated on matters concerning the school institution via the Internet. Also, they are highly satisfied with the availability of assistance desk since a standby unit is in place to assist whenever a problem takes place.

Table 18 shows the Liceo clients’ ratings on ICT applications in terms of availability. Overall, the availability of all Windows-based applications was satisfactory as reflected by the overall mean of 2.59. The availability of assistance 122

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desk (2.69), workstation per user (2.63), quality of data provided (2.54), and availability of data across business functions (2.49) were rated satisfactory. In terms of information performance, availability of database and network (2.73), workstation per user (2.64), quality of data/reports provided (2.58), speed of sending and receiving information (2.56), and availability of across business functions (2.50) were rated satisfactory. The clients’ low satisfaction level implies that the service providers do not respond immediately to the clients’ concerns and needs, the workstations cannot accommodate all users, and the data needed cannot be accessed fast.

Table 19 presents the Liceo service providers’ ratings on ICT applications in terms of maintainability. Overall, the maintainability of the ICT applications was rated satisfactory (3.10). Among the indicators, expandability of the system (3.25) and service maintenance (3.25) were rated very satisfactory while spares backup (hardware and software) and level of knowledge of personnel handling the system (2.95) were rated satisfactory. The findings suggest that the service providers of Liceo are able to maintain a high efficient system because of the availability of spares backup and the personnel’s knowledge on handling the system.

Table 20 shows the Liceo clients’ ratings on ICT applications in terms of maintainability of the system. Overall, the level of maintainability of ICT applications was rated satisfactory (2.60). As revealed, the uses of the current system (2.65), the observance of standards of customer care and institutional policies and regulations (2.55), and the knowledge of the personnel on handling the system (2.50) were rated satisfactory by the Liceo clients. As perceived by the clients, the 123

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system is satisfactorily maintained, the uses of the current system are satisfactorily tapped, the standards of customer care and institutional policies and regulations are satisfactorily observed, and the system is satisfactorily maintained.

Table 21 presents the Liceo service providers’ ratings on ICT applications in terms of utilization. As to the level of knowledge on applications, the overall rating was satisfactory (2.67). Rated very satisfactory was the spreadsheet (3.40), while rated satisfactory were presentations (3.15), word processing and project management (2.95), visual basic programming (2.58), Internet (2.42), power builder programming (2.37), java programming (2.28), and C++ programming (2.26). As to the system’s functions, all the indicators were rated satisfactory. Rated the highest among the indicators was the spreadsheet (3.11), while power builder programming and java programming (2.32) were rated the lowest. Moreover, the evaluation of trained staff that use Windows-based applications (3.16) and the speed of providing data (2.67) were rated satisfactory.

The service providers’ knowledge on the ICT applications is acquired through trainings and seminars they attended. Their knowledge has equipped them for the use of the system. The functions commonly used are spreadsheet for financial reports, figures, charts, and tables; presentations for presenting the required output of the department; word processing for letters, faxes, and other communications; project management for planning, and implementing; visual basic programming for the basic programming language of the system; and the Internet for downloading and searching files in the web. Power builder programming, java programming, and C++ programming are available in the system but are seldom being used.

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(Table 21. Continued)

Table 22 presents the Liceo clients’ ratings on ICT applications in terms of utilization. As to the knowledge on the applications, all ICT applications were known satisfactorily as revealed by the overall rating of 2.65. All indicators of utilization were rated satisfactory. There were spreadsheet, 2.65; presentations, 2.83; project management, 2.72; visual basic programming, 2.68; power builder programming, 2.66; word processing, 2.52; java programming, 2.60; Internet, 2.56; and C++ programming, 2.54. In terms of the functions of the system, all the applications were rated satisfactory (2.93). Rated the highest was the spreadsheet (2.85), while the Internet was rated the lowest. On the other hand, the evaluation of trained staff that use Windows-based applications (2.48) and the speed in providing data (2.69) were rated satisfactory. As found out, the service providers were trained in the proper use of the system and the proper way of serving the clients. The staffs that use Windows-based applications were evaluated satisfactorily for they were able to meet the clients’ needs.

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The Liceo service providers’ ratings on ICT applications in terms of performance level is presented in Table 3. As revealed, administrative and operational process (3.35), maintenance of operation process (3.35), ICT creating and altering employees’ know-how to get things done in the existing system (3.32), and better production process (3.26) were all rated very satisfactory. However, generating and submitting timely report to the management for decision-making (3.05) was rated satisfactory. Overall, the performance level of ICT applications was rated very satisfactory. As cited by the service providers, performance level is high because the service policies and procedures are properly implemented.

Table 24 shows the Liceo clients’ ratings on the performance level of ICT. Overall, the ICT’s performance level was satisfactory (2.75). “Maintenance of ICT makes the school more efficient” (2.90), “ICT creates and alters school administrations’ know-how to get things done in the existing system” (2.85), “ICT improves the operation of the school” (2.76), “data across business functions are available” (2.75), “Research and processing of students’ complaints are undertaken” (2.72), “Timely information is provided to other staff with student support roles” (2.70), “School policy on student exception is implemented” (2.69), and “Cases under consideration are prepared and processed” (2.64) were indicators rated satisfactory by the clients. The findings reveal that the Liceo clients are moderately satisfied with the service providers’ level of performance in the use of ICT.

Table 25 shows the summary of Liceo service providers’ ratings on the ICT applications. Overall, the ICT applications were rated satisfactory (3.01). Among these indicators, performance level (3.27) was rated very satisfactory, while availability (3.18), maintainability (3.10), functionality (2.92), and utilization (2.60) were rated satisfactory. The findings suggest that the service providers of Liceo are highly efficient in doing their tasks and handling the system.

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Table 26 shows the summary of Liceo clients’ ratings on the ICT applications.

Overall, the ICT applications were rated satisfactory (2.68). As revealed, functionality (2.77), performance level (2.75), utilization (2.72), maintainability (2.60), and availability (2.59) were rated satisfactory by the clients.

Table 26. Summary of Liceo clients’ ratings on the ICT applications

Table 27 presents the results of the t-test on the ratings of the Liceo service providers and clients on ICT adoption in terms of the existing practices. The calculated t-value of 0.53 was lower than the critical t value of 2.015; therefore, there was no significant difference in the ratings of the service providers and the clients on ICT adoption in terms of the existing practices. The clients had higher satisfaction level on the existing practices than the employees. Such is so since the students are happy to see ICT being used while employees may want a better kind of ICT being used.

Table 28 shows the results of the t-test on the ratings of the Liceo service providers and clients on the ICT adoption in terms of performance level. The calculated t-value of 3.12 was higher than the t critical value of 1.671; herefore, there was a significant difference in the ratings of the clients and providers. The higher ratings on ICT perform by clients indicate a satisfaction on the efficiency of service to match the needs of clients.

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Level of Efficiency of the Student Services Table 29 shows the efficiency ratings for the Registrar’s Office. As revealed, updating followed-up transactions and documents, knowledge on operating the system, and processing of enrollment were rated very satisfactory. However, the processing of Transcript of Records (TOR), diploma, and honorable dismissal was rated satisfactory (3.21). Overall, the rating on the efficiency of the student services of the Registrar’s Office was satisfactory. The Registrar’s Office effectively updates followed-up documents and transactions needed by the clients and processes the enrollment fast. The enrollment would take just half of the day. However, the release of records, diploma, and honorable dismissal would take a few days.

Table 29. Liceo service providers’ ratings on the efficiency of students services of the registrar’s office

Table 30 presents the Liceo clients’ ratings on the efficiency of the student services of the Registrar’s Office. Overall, the efficiency rating for the Registrar’s student services was satisfactory (2.45). As rated by the Liceo clients, the processing of enrollment (2.60), processing of Transcript of Records (TOR) and diploma and honorable dismissal (2.56), and knowledge on operating the system (2.35) were satisfactory. However, updating transactions and followed-up documents (2.31) was rated fair. The clients know for a fact that enrollment can be completed for just half of the day and that records, diploma, and honorable dismissal can be obtained within few days. However, the fair rating for the knowledge on operating the system indicates that there are times when errors are committed in the processing of their documents.

Table 31 reveals that the overall efficiency rating for the student services of the Cashier’s Office was satisfactory (3.21). Rated the highest (very satisfactory) was the updating of followed-up transactions or documents (3.26). Knowledge on operating the system (3.21) and processing of payments (3.16) were rated 128

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satisfactory. The findings imply that the Cashier’s Office performs its tasks to the satisfaction of the clients. Clients’ accounts are updated before the payments are processed fast. As observed by the clients, it would take seconds to pay their fees.

Table 32 reveals that the clients’ overall efficiency rating for the student services of the Cashier’s Office was fair (2.30). Updating followed-up transactions or documents (2.69), knowledge on operating the system (2.66), processing of payments (2.62), and fast processing of refunds (2.60) were poorly rated. The findings imply that the LDCU clients are not satisfied with the student services of the Cashier’s Office. As observed by the clients, the updating of their accounts is delayed, the processing of their fees is erroneous, and the processing of their payments and refund is slow.

Table 33 reveals that the Liceo service providers’ overall efficiency rating for the Library’s student services was satisfactory (3.21). The only indicator rated very satisfactory was updating followed-up transactions or documents (3.26). Quality of data provided (3.21) and knowledge on operating the system (3.16) was rated satisfactory. As reported by the service providers of Liceo, the library efficiently updates followed-up transactions or documents to facilitate early release of available books in the market. Library materials provided are of latest edition. The Library staff is moderately confident in operating the system.

Table 34 reveals that the Liceo’s clients’ overall efficiency rating for the library’s student services was fair (2.39). Quality of data provided (3.15) and updating followed-up transactions or documents were rated satisfactory. However, knowledge on operating the system (2.46) was rated fair. The findings imply that the Liceo client’s are not satisfied with the student services of the library. As 129

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reported by the clients, it taken time before a requested book is handed to them and there are only few providers who are highly able to operate the system.

Table 35 reveals that the Licean service providers’ overall efficiency rating for the Internet Services was satisfactory (3.14). The indicator rated very satisfactory was the processing of data from the web (3.26). The indicators rated satisfactory were monitoring the performance of the school through questionnaires (3.21), updating followed-up transactions and documents (3.11), advertising school programs (3.11), and knowledge on operating the system (3.00). As cited by the service providers, the processing of data from the web is done using advanced hardware and software. Monitoring the performance of the school through questionnaires has a big impact on the current status of the institution. Updating transactions or documents is made fast using the system. Advertising school programs has attracted students to enroll in the university.

Table 36 reveals that the Liceo clients’ overall efficiency rating for the Internet Services was satisfactory (2.51). Monitoring the performance of the school through questionnaires (2.60), advertising school programs (2.56), processing of data from the web (2.51), and updating followed-up transactions or documents (2.50) were rated satisfactory. However, knowledge on operating the system (2.36) was rated fair.

As reported by the clients, the Internet Services enables them to know the school better. The processing of data from the web is made fast using a highly upgraded hardware and software. Also made fast is the updating of transactions or documents through the dial-up system. However, the clients reported that only the student assistant does the supervision, not the provider.

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Comparison of Ratings of the Service Providers and the Clients on the Efficiency of Student Services of the Different Departments Table 37 shows the t-test results on the ratings of the clients and service providers on the efficiency of student services of the different departments. The calculated t value of 3.23 was greater than the t critical value of 1.671; thus, there was a significant difference in the clients’ and providers’ ratings on the efficiency of student services of the different departments. A comparison of means indicates that the clients had a higher efficiency rating for students’ services than the service providers had.

Predictors of the efficiency of student services Table 38 presents the results of multiple regression on the ratings of the service providers and clients on the existing practices of ICT, ICT implementation performance, and efficiency of student services. As shown by the data, only four variables predicted the efficiency of student services. These predictors included ICT’s timely provision of information to other staff with student support roles, ICT as a tool for competition advantage and survival, ICT’s capacity to create and alter school administrators’ know-how to get things done in the existing system, and ICT as a tool for day-to-day activity. Any increase of these existing practices and performance level of ICT implementation means higher efficiency of student services.

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The respondents’ socio-demographic variables did not have any interaction effect on the relationship between the independent variables and efficiency of student services. The service providers and the clients are focused on the efficiency of student services.

CONCLUSIONS The ICT practices have satisfactorily met the clients’ needs, indicating that the clients have little awareness of the service delivery mechanisms. The service staffs have the basic skills, but have not acquired advanced trainings to hoist services to an excellent level.

The practices and applications of ICT predict the efficiency of student services.

The personal characteristics of the service providers have no bearing on the relationship between the practical applications of ICT and the efficiency of student services.

LITERATURE CITED Bas, A.M. (2003). “System performance and clients’ satisfaction of the registrar’s offices of MSU system: A basis for a service delivery improvement program”, Dissertation (DM), Liceo de Cagayan University.

Cummings, M. (2005). “Management information systems for the information age.” New York: Mc-Graw Hill Companies Inc. Cook, D. and Finlayson, H. (1999). “ICT and classroom teaching” USA: Cromwell Press, Trowbordel.

Giarola, B.K. (2004) “Information and communications technology for development, a source book for parliamentarians.” New Delhi: Elsevier Publishing Inc. Lango, A.M. (2005). “IT and organizational learning.” New York: Routledge.

Lucas, H. C. Jr. (1997). “Information technology for management”, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Kallick, B. & Wilcon, J. M. (2001) “Information technology for schools” USA: A Wiley Company., Pearlson, K. E. & Saunders, C.S. (2005) “Managing and using information systems, a strategic approach.”2nd edition. USA: John Wiley and Sons Inc. Tiin, A. R. Jr. (2002)”Effects of information technology to corporate performance of National Power Corporation Mindanao: basis for corporate productivity”, Dissertation (DM), Liceo de Cagayan University.

Zulueta, F. M. & Costales N. E., Jr. (2004). “Methods of research thesis-writing and applied statistics”. Mandaluyong: National Bookstore.

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Vol 5 No.1 December 2007 ISSN: 2094-1064

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Colonial Penal De San Ramon: Images of the Oldest Existing National Penitentiary in the Philippines (Circa 1870) MICHAEL VINCENT P. CACERES mikel_vpc@yahoo.com Universidad de Zamboanga Date Submitted: August 27, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: October 18, 2007

Abstract - Based on Wilhelm Dilthey’s (1833-1911) philosophical inquiry, the study explored the history of the Penal Farm as an Institution - it survived and its role in society amidst political and social pressures.

As a historical narrative case study, it looked into the collective efforts in the establishment of the Penal Farm through a careful examination of historiography texts. The study provides basic elements in holding mounting exhibition such as intellectual element, conceptual element and practical element. The study aimed to make the people of Zamboanga fully aware of the preservation, conservation, and restoration of historical landmarks in Zamboanga. A significant finding of this research is the early historical development of San Ramon Penal Colony, reflected in the 1866 order issued by the Spanish government that is today the oldest existing national penitentiary in the country. The research highly recommends the conduct of exhibition for public viewing. The research data were taken/ verified from the Bureau of Corrections (BuCor), National Historical Institute (NHI), National Library of the Philippines (NLP), and the San Ramon Prisons and Penal Farm (SRPPF).

Key words - Colonia Penal, penitentiary, prisoners

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INTRODUCTION The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) seek to encourage the identification, protection, and preservation of cultural and natural heritage around the world that is considered to be of outstanding value to humanity.

This is embodied in an international treaty called the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage adopted by UNESCO in 1972 (http://whc.unesco.org/en/about/). This study on Colonia Penal de San Ramon does not necessarily exemplify man’s greatest achievement in architecture and design.

However, its lessons to history cannot be underestimated. In the words of Javier Perez de Cuellar- former secretary general of the United Nations, “The World Heritage Convention also recognizes that we can learn from past mistakes, from places such as Auschwitz, the NAZI death camp in Poland that claimed nearly four million victims during World War II, and Goree Island, a slave trading depot off the cost of Sengal (Our World’s Heritage, 1987).” Like any other cultural heritage sites, Colonia Penal de San Ramon must be given equal opportunity in the preservation, conservation and restoration of our cultural heritage as mirror of our past.

According to correctional experts, “Corrections” in the Philippines started in the Pre-Colonial times. The Spaniards formally organized the first correctional system in the country. In Zamboanga, correction was made possible through the Royal Decree, which in 1869 gave birth to Colonia Penal de San Ramon. It was destroyed in 1898 during the Spanish-American war and was rebuit during the American regime.

The San Ramon Prison is a highly recognized national penitentiary. Prisons are known as penitentiary or penal complex (Kransnow 1998); these are living units far larger in area compared to jail. It imposes top-security measures, secures units at all cost, and is secluded away from urban centers. San Ramon Prison houses some of the most celebrated criminal cases in the Philippines and is 22 kilometers away from the city proper.

The urban development in the area without a clear program for heritage conservation threatens its existence. With the creation of Zamboanga City Special Economic Zone (ZAMBOECOZONE) pursuant to RA No. 7903 on July 25, 1994, the area owned by the San Ramon Prison and Penal Farm was designated as part of the ZAMBOECOZONE Freeport Authority pursuant to proclamation No. 111 of President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and Proclamation No. 112 proclaiming the mountainous and forested area of Upper Bongiao and Curuan as its relocation site. At present, the colony, while awaiting its relocation, produces crops such as cassava, mangoes, vegetables and other cash crops for sale and consumption of prisoners (SRPPF files).

FRAMEWORK This study is based on Wilhelm Dilthey’s (1833-1911) philosophical inquiry on 134

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“The Understanding of Other Persons and Their Life Expressions.” This philosophy was adopted to trace the origin of San Ramon Penal Farm in Zamboanga. Dilthey’s work stresses that if we do not have access to the life of such person, we look at “life expression.” This is possible when we search for records in the archives and datable expressions (Hornedo S.N.) involving the person’s past statements and actions.

This research looked into the accomplishments of Ramon Blanco and other persons particularly that of the Americans during their occupation in Zamboanga as a collective effort to established the Penal Farm in Zamboanga and the penal system in general.

Dilthey’s work also concerns with the quality of historical materials used when doing a critical inquiry as this will affect the level of historical and philosophical inquiry. This study explored at the history of the Penal Farm as an Institution - how it survived and its role in society amidst political and social pressures during its early stage and the contemporary period.

This study is arranged into three elements - intellectual, conceptual, and practical – as standard procedure in mounting exhibition. The study begins with the intellectual element, a detailed discussion and analysis of the history of the penal system with emphasis on San Ramon. The discussion covers three significant historical developments from the introduction of punishment and confinement to the current state of the San Ramon Penal Colony and the Correctional Reforms. The conceptual element is a pictorial or graphical presentation of architectural aesthetics, visual arts and scenes. This element demonstrates areas of this cultural heritage that requires conservation, protection and preservation. The pictures serve as the main materials for the exhibition.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study was conducted in order to: (1) narrate the history of Colonia Penal de San Ramon in Zamboanga with emphasis during the Spanish time to the Post Philippine Independence; (2) document Colonia Penal de San Ramon with emphasis on its architectural aesthetics, visual arts, and scenes that will serve as baseline for the preservation, protection, conservation and restoration of cultural heritage site; and (3) provide procedures in the conduct of mounting exhibition on the San Ramon Penal Colony.

METHODOLOGY This is a historical narrative case study based on Wilhelm Dilthey’s (1833-1911) philosophical inquiry. As a historical narrative research, it looked into the collective efforts of individuals to establish the Penal Farm in Zamboanga. It laid down the historical facts gathered from the various documents, series of interviews, and fieldwork following a careful examination of historiography texts. The design of this 135

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study is based on the “Insider’s Guide to Mounting Exhibitions” designed by the Ortigas Foundation Library and the Lopez Memorial Museum.

The study provides basic elements in conducting mounting exhibition such as intellectual element, which refers to research and data gathering; conceptual element, which refers to conceptualizing an exhibition particularly choosing the materials for the exhibit; and practical element- gallery design and installation. San Ramon Prison and Penal Farm, situated at San Ramon, Barangay Talisayan, Zamboanga City, is about 22 kilometers away from the city proper, accessible by first class road.

The place is along the coast facing the South China Sea. Originally, it had a total land area of 1,414.68 hectares as defined in the Executive Order No. 47 dated November 19, 1906, of which 500 hectares was transferred to the Philippine Coconut Authority by virtue of Presidential Proclamation No. 1025 dated June 09, 1972, whereby 20 hectares has been occupied by the Western Mindanao State University (WMSU), Zamboanga City, for educational and instructional purposes. Another 250 hectares of squatted land was transferred to the Department of agrarian Reform (DAR) for distribution to CARP beneficiaries in Region IX by virtue of Deed of Transfer between DAR and BUCOR (SRPPF file paper).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Intellectual Element Analyzed based on content, their element focuses on the historical development of penology of San Ramon for mounting exhibition.

Founding of San Ramon Long before the age of exploration and colonization, prison system was somewhat informal in nature. In the case of the Philippines, it was basically a community-based, since there were no national penitentiaries. Natives who violated the local laws or certain beliefs were given corresponding penalties by the local chieftains. Political leadership was legitimized and supported by sets of custom laws called battasan in some barangays.

Incarceration in the community was only meant to prevent the culprit from further harming the local residents. This system was made up of a complex set of custom laws, which described the range and defined the limits of behavior in society. It was speculated by correctional experts that “the earliest example of classification was Spain’s separation of men and women in 1519. While in the United States, the Quakers separated the sexes in the Walnut street Jail of 1790. Children began to be segregated from adults around public juvenile training schools in Massachusetts (1848) and educational programs for juveniles at Elmira Reformatory (1876).”However, correctional experts claimed that “Bridewell” in London in 1557 is the first Penitentiary in history.

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The most concrete documentation of correctional system in the Philippines was the establishment of the main penitentiary, the Old Bilibid Prison in Oroqueta, Manila, which was established in 1847 pursuant to Section 1708 of the Revised Administrative Code. It was formally opened by a Royal Decree in 1865.

This prison was known as the “Carcel y Presidio Correccional” and could accommodate 1,127 prisoners. The Carcel was designed to house 600 prisoners who were segregated according to class, sex, and crime while the Presidio could accommodate 527 prisoners. Following the report prepared by Senator Salvador Laurel in the senate in 1969, the Old Bilibid Prison was the main insular penitentiary designed to house the prison population of the country.

The Philippines has seven national penitentiaries beginning from the first formal correctional inception introduced by the Spaniards. The Old Bilibid Prison now known as the National Bilibid Prison was said to be the first correctional system in the country in 1865. Other penal colony followed such as the Colonia Penal de San Ramon in Zamboanga City (1870), Iwahig Penal Colony in Puerto Princesa (1904), and Correctional Institute for Women in Mandaluyong (1929), Davao Penal Colony (1932), Sablayan Prison and Penal Farm (1932) in Occidental Mindoro, and Leyte Regional Prison (1973).

The penal colony in Zamboanga was made possible because of the Spanish presence primarily in 1598 with the establishment of a fortress in La Caldera, now known as Recodo. “On June 23, 1635, Fray Melchor de Vera laid the cornerstone of Fort Pilar and the Spanish government authorities changed the name of the place from Samboanga to Zamboanga. These two events are marked in history as the founding of the city.”

The Old Bilibid Prison in Manila (now the New Bilibid Prison in Muntinlupa) and the San Ramon Prison are the two oldest national penitentiaries in the country. The two penal colonies were both established by the Spaniards, contributing to the historical development of the correctional system in the Philippines. “In 1866 an order was issued by the Spanish government creating a commission to devise means for utilizing convict labor in the Philippines. The plan adopted contemplated a number of penal colonies.”In 1869 even as Bilibid was only four years old and capable of holding more, the authorities saw the need of establishing one prison separate from Bilibid for those who fought the established government.” Just four years after the Old Bilibid Prison was established, after much deliberation a colony was decided to be set up located on the coast 15 miles north of Zamboanga.

The San Ramon Penal Colony was founded in 1869 and was officially recognized and made known in 1870. San Ramon was founded by the Spanish Government but the American Government later took over after Spain lost the war against the United States.

“Esta granja fue establecida por el gobierno español en 1870, pero se encargo de ella el Gobierno Insular poco despues de la ocupacion Americana (The Farm was established by the Spanish government in 1870, but was taken over by the insular government soon after American occupation).” Strengthening the historical claim on San Ramon Penal 137

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Colony is the presence of the marker that states, Al Ilustre Fundador De Esta Colonia Exmo Senor Teniente General Don Ramon Blanco Y Erenas Marque de Pena Plata 31 Agosto 1870.

The original site of San Ramon had its natural boundaries in Talasayan River (now Talisayan River) on the South, Lubugan River on the north with the high range of mountains on the East and the Pacific Ocean on the West. “Aside from this boundary river Sax (now Sa-az River), which rises far up among the mountains, crosses the immense tract of land and empties its clear, fresh water into the sea through four splendid estuaries. This river is the chief water supply of the colony.” The colony faces Jolo Sea, as Spanish-inspired dormitories and originally sat on a 1,414 hectare property.

It was on August 21, 1869 that the San Ramon Prison and Penal Farm in Zamboanga City were established under section 1720 of the Revised Administrative Code.

“La Granja Penal de San Ramon, que comprende una extension superficial aproximada de 1,080 hectareas (2,750 acres), se halla situada a unas quince millas (veintidos kilometros) al Nordeste de Zamboanga, la capital de la Provincia Mora (hoy Departamento de Mindanao y Sulu). Teniendo en frente el estrecho de Basilan, extendiendose desde la misma orilla del mar hasta el pie de las montañas, surgiendo en una comarca de profusos bosques tropicales, constituye un paisaje precioso.”

“The San Ramon Penal Farm, comprising an area of approximately 1,080 hectares (2750 acres), is located about fifteen miles (twenty-two kilometers) northwest of Zamboanga, the capital of the Moro Province. Fronting the Basilan Straits, extending directly back from the shore to the foothills of the mountains and resting in a region of profuse tropical forest vegetation, it has indeed a beautiful setting.”

The San Ramon Penal Colony was established to imprison Muslim rebels and other reluctant political offenders opposed to the Spanish rule. It was constructed in Zamboanga because of the presence of a strong Spanish fortress capable protecting Spanish interest.

“The colony was intended to segregate of political offenders who advocated for reforms and to divert their genius to economic planning and agricultural development of the country. Dr. Jose Rizal who fought for reforms was considered against the government and was sent to Dapitan, which in Zamboanga. They did not want him to further his influence hence he was exiled alone away from San Ramon.” The Penal colony in Zamboanga was part of the Spanish grand plan to suppress Islamic believers and those against the conversion of Muslims to Christianity. The Muslims in confinement were significant result both for prisoners and the institution was oriented from fishing to farming. Thus, the Muslims prisoners contributed so much to the agricultural development and scientific experiment in San Ramon.

“La granja se establecio principalmente para los moros y la teoria de su funcionamiento se basa en el estudio de su caracter segun han podido deducirlo gobernantes experimentados de la Provincia Mora. Una de las consideraciones fundamentales para desarrollar el caracter agricola de la 138

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granja la constituye el hecho de que el moro, ni por instinto, ni por costumbre, es agricultor, y se espera estimular su interes y su actividad en esa direccion, produciendo cada año cierto numero de labradores experimentados y practices. Un factor secundario en la resolucion de crear una prision mora fue la conviccion de que podia llegar a sostenerse por si misma y de este modo descargar de las espaldas de un pueblo no muy rico el peso de mantener a sus penados. Todo el sistema penitenciario se funda en el reconocimiento de que los moros no se han puesto en contacto con las influencias civilizadoras sino en epoca relativamente muy reciente, habiendo sido durante siglos un pueblo barbaro, depredatorio y guerrero, que no tenia del bandolerismo, la pirateria y el asesinato el mismo conceopto que nosotros. Se ha comprendido que deben ser tratados de manera diferente que otras personas de mas avanzado estado moral, y gradualmente educados hasta que tengan del delito el mismo concepto que las gentes que les rodean.”

“The Farm was established principally for Moros and its theory of operation was based upon the estimate of their character formed by experienced administrators of the Moro province. One of the prime considerations in emphasizing the farm features was the fact that the Moro was not instinctively nor by practice a farmer, and it was hoped to stimulate interest and activity along this line, each year turning out a certain number of experienced, practical farmers. The second factor in the decision to initiate a Moro prison farm was the conviction that eventually the colony could be made selfsupporting, lifting the burden of supporting convicts from the shoulders of a not so rich a people. The entire prison system was founded to bring the Moros to civil influence.

It was realized that the Moros must be dealt with differently from a people of a more advanced moral status, and gradually bring them to an understanding of crime as viewed by their neighbors.”The move was intended to ensure that Christianity shall prevail in Zamboanga and eventually penetrate Sulu.

During the Spanish time, a rebel who was not shot was either sent to Guam or Marianas.” The founding of Bilibid Prison and Colonia Penal de San Ramon provided the government authorities with alternatives as to the confinement and punishment of convicted criminals and political offenders. The colony played a significant role in materializing Spanish plans in the south and it served as the center of confinement for those against the Spanish rule.

Long before the founding of San Ramon Penal Colony, prisoners were first stationed in Calarian, the present site of Western Mindanao Command (a military camp). The prisoners were later transferred to San Ramon in Talisayan, Zamboanga City. No single item was left in San Ramon to commemorate the Spanish legacy, except the name “Colonia Penal de San Ramon”, the very site where it was established, the century old trees in the area, and the celebrated feast for San Ramon Nonato.

San Ramon Penal Colony is considered by correctional experts as the second oldest penitentiary in the country. However, it is also safe to say that it is the oldest existing penal colony in the country after the closure of the Old Bilibid Prison (circa 139

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1940). Other historical accounts suggest that”San Ramon Prison was established in southern Zamboanga on August 21, 1870, through a royal decree promulgated in 1869.

It was established during the tenure of Governor General Ramon Blanco (whose patron saint the prison was named after). The facility was originally established for persons convicted of political crimes. It was also said that “la Institucion estaba destinada al principio a albergar 400 penados (the Institution was originally designed to house 400 prisoners).”

Initial research revealed that San Ramon Farm was named after the patron saint of its founder, making August 31 as the Foundation Day and Feast of Patron Saint Ramon Nonato. Accordingly, San Ramon Nonato was born at Portella, Catalonia, Spain, in 1204; died at Cardona, near Barcelona, Spain, in 1240; and canonized in 1657.

During the Spanish occupation, Zamboanga was the most advanced region in the South. “It was the center of trade and commerce, home of the Mindanao Archdiocese, seat of Spanish culture, capital of political affairs, and base of military operations among others. It was the Leal y Valiente Villa (Loyal and Valiant City), a title conferred upon it by the Spanish Crown in 1872 for the courageous and heroic defense against piracy and other forms of lawlessness.”

The Penal Colony struggled for many years, making some progress in experimental work but suffering from mismanagement. Prisoners from Zamboanga were sent out as laborers to the farm. They also set clearing ground near the beach for cultivation or planting. They also built storehouses for the produce when harvested. “For long years San Ramon was destined to be a center of experiments in agricultural and in” Authorities of the Penal Colony soon developed series of agricultural programs.

“Casi toda la instruccion que se da a los presos. Tiene caracter agricola.

Entre los trabajos a que se dedican los presos en la granja se hallan la produccion de copra, un Molino, la cria de credos y vacunos, horticultura, pesca, cesteria y construccion de caminos. Ademas del principal producto agricola, la copra, se cultiva otra gran variedad de productos, como el maiz, la piña, la papaya, el camote, el tabaco, la calabaza, etc., habiendo sido muy natable el buen exito obtenido en estas empresas.”

“Practically all the instructions given to the prisoners were along agriculture.

The activities of the farm included copra production, gristmill, hog-and stock-raising, horticulture, fishing, basket-making, and road construction. In addition to the chief agricultural product, which was copra, a great variety of other crop were cultivated such as corn, squash, pine-apples, papayas, sweet potatoes, and tobacco.

The authorities saw the success of the Penal Colony not just as a center of confinement but also as a center of the economic development in the region because of its agricultural products and intellectual development due to scientific experiments in agriculture.

“Mas del ochenta y siete por ciento de las raciones totales que se sirven a los presos estan compuestas de productos agricolas. Se ha dedicado especial atencion a la Buena alimentacion, siendo casi ideal la racion que se da, tanto 140

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por su valor natritivo como por su facil digestion. Se toman extraordinarias precauciones en la preparacion de la comida, para obtener la mayor higiene y salubridad y la ausencia casi total de enfermedades en la granja es una prueba de la minuciosidad de este cuidado y de los satisfactorios procedimientos sanitarios que se practican.”

“Over eighty-seven per cent of the total rations issued to the prisoners were composed of farm products. Particular attention was given to proper feeding, the food was nearly ideal in nutritional value. Sanitation was strictly observed as evidenced by absence of ailments among the prisoners.

Due to farming success, the prisoners were treated well by authorities. The colony became the prisoner’s found home, newly a place they called iron paradise. The place gave them the promise of an abundant life as “todo el pescado que se usa en la prision es cogido por un peloton de penados rebajados que se interna varias millas en el mar y recorre la costa con este odjecto (All of the seafoods served at the prison were caught by a squad of trusty prisoners who sailed several miles).” Therefore, the notion that those who were confined in San Ramon had miserable life is wrong. To extend their way of living was their lives were far more convenient than those in communities. They were actually given a place of their own and freedom to some extent.

The leadership of Don Felipe Dujioles bought much progress to San Ramon. He was a captain of an Infantry, an agricultural expert being a degree holder in agricultural engineering, and later appointed Director. During his administration, the boundary of the farm was extended until it covered 2,000 hectares.”The traces of scientific planning and agricultural growth can still be seen in the way the coconut trees were planted.”These trees symbolize the agricultural and scientific progress of San Ramon, reflecting the economic growth of Zamboanga. “In 1883, this captain was given sole charge of the farm, prisoners, and military detachment. When necessary, he could ask appeal to his immediate superior, the Commanding General of Mindanao, for assistance.”

Military Leadership of Ramon Blanco When Blanco served as military Governor in Mindanao, he continued the campaign against the Muslims. The peak of his military career was when he served as Governor General in the Philippines from 1893 to 1896. In 1896 Blanco was already 63 years old and speculations emerged on how his military leadership was going to be.

At the outbreak of the revolution, Gov. Gen. Ramon Blanco faced successive defeats.

In a telegram to Madrid, the Dominican archbishop Nozaleda complained on Blanco’s apathy as the situation worsened and expressed how necessary the appointment of a new leader. The friars accused General Blanco of his incompetence to handle the situation. The friars rejoiced when Gov. Gen. Blanco was relieved by General Camilo de Polavieja on December 13, 1896. Blanco was later assigned in Cuba as Governor General from 1897 to 1898.

The bombing of the American battleship Maine at Havana Harbor in the evening of February 15, 1898, caused the death of 266 Americans. On April 23, 1898, after 141

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consulting the Council of Ministers, Queen Regent Maria Cristina issued a declaration of war against the United States. On April 25, 1989, the US Congress enacted the act that formally declared war.

San Ramon during the American Administration In February 1899, Zamboanga took arms against the Spanish rule. “Three months later, on May 18, a ragtag army under the command of General Vicente Alvarez tried to repulse the new enemy but to no avail.”San Ramon was closed down during the Spanish-American war when it sustained damage. In 1899, the Spanish rule in the Philippines ceased following its defeat to the Americans. Some 1000 political prisoners in the colonia were freed by the American authorities.46The convicts, many of whom were called “deportados” from other islands, and some were criminals of the worst type and others political offenders, were them liberated. Many remained in the farm as they had been there for many years and had not intended to begin life elsewhere.47During the war, all the buildings, warehouses and other structures were burned to the ground, except the sugar and saw milling facilities. The colony was later re-established by the Americans after the war.

When the American took over in the 1900s, the Bureau of Prisons was created under the Department of Commerce and Police pursuant to the Re-organization Act of 1905 (RA 1407 dated 01 November 1905). It was on November 19, 1906, when American Governor James Smith issued Executive Order No. 47, defining the total land area of San Ramon Farm to cover 1,414.68 hectares. “Not long after the inception of the American occupation, however, all penal institutions were combined for expediency and better efficiency. On October 26, 1905, the Philippine Commission pursuant to the Reorganization Act 1407 combined the Iwahig Penal Colony, the Old Bilibid, and the San Ramon Prison and Penal Farm and placed them under the Bureau of Prisons.”

San Ramon, which was destroyed during the Spanish-American War, was reestablished in 1907 by the American administration, making it as a prison farm.

“Construidos totalmente con cemento y acero, con techo de teja, los edificios de la Penitenciarfa se hallan distribuidos de tal modo que proporcionan comodidad, ventilacion e hygiene, sin detrimento de las precauciones esenciales en cuanto a la seguridad de los penados y sin perjuicio de la belleza arquitectonica. Los presos estan acomodados en grandes brigadas de cemento, situadas dentro de un muro exterior. La perfecta ventilacion necesaria en los tropicos se obtiene sustituyendo secciones enteras de mamposteria solida con rajas de barras de acero.”

“Built entirely of concrete and steel with red tile roofing, the prison structures were so designed as to secure comfort, ventilation, and sanitation without sacrificing essential precautions as to safekeeping of inmates, and without loss of architectural beauty. The Prisoners were housed in large concrete brigades set within an outer wall.

The perfect ventilation necessary in the tropics was secured by supplanting whole sections of solid masonry with panels of steel bars.”

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attention by the Americans particularly on the protection of its agricultural design. “El interior de la carcel se halla situado apaciblemente sobre extenso cesped y sendas de grava blanca, dando al sitio la sombra deseada grandes palmeras de cocoteros (The Interior of the prison enclosure was pleasingly laid out in extensive lawns and white gravel paths and great coconut palms giving a desirable shade). It was on January 1, 1915, when San Ramon was placed under the auspices of the Bureau of Prisons and started receiving prisoners from Mindanao.

“La campaña, digna de atencion, que se ha venido realizando durante los ultimos años en los Estados Unidos a favor de la reforma penitenciaria, ha estimulado hasta tal punto el interes publico en esa labor que justifica la publicacion de interesantes datos acerca de un experimento que se ha verificado, en el trato de penados moros, en las Islas Filipinas.”

“The agitation for prison reform in the United States during the past few years stimulated public interest in prison work to such an extent as to warrant publication of interesting facts concerning an experiment in the management of Moro prisoners in the Philippine Island.”

Under the American insular government, prisoners of the colony were given employment to make them productive. “Some of them remained at their post; others took up land and built homes for themselves, while others wandered away to live without work.”Also, during the American administration many changes were introduced to the colony. “The first superintendents preserved the name “San Ramon” and the monument made of bricks in honor and memory of the founder, Lieutenant general Ramon Blanco.

This monument was originally erected by the last Spanish Superintendent.”During the American administration in San Ramon, Mr. George M. Havice was recognized as the first civilian superintendent appointed by the government in the late 1901. During his administration, many coconut trees were planted, and about 75,000 hemp plants. No record of female inmates was found in San Ramon. However, few foreigners were also incarcerated.

“La mayoria de los penados de San Ramon son moros. Hay ademas algunos paganos, unos cuantos Filipinos cristianos y poquisimos americanos y europeos. Todos los habitants de la poblacion penal son adultos y varones.” The majority of the inmates of San Ramon were Moros. There were in addition a few non-Christians other than Moros, a small number of Filipinos, and a very few Americans and Europeans. The entire prison population was adult male.”

In 1912, Gen. John Pershing, chief executive of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, classified the institution as a prison and penal colony and therein confined people sentenced by the courts under his jurisdiction. General Pershing, being the Governor of Mindanao and Sulu, renovated the penal farm and made it again fit for inmates’ occupation.

Under Pershing’s supervision, several buildings with a capacity of 600 prisoners were constructed. After several years, the colony became practically self-supporting, with 75,000 coconut trees planted at the beginning of Pershing’s administration, 143

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contributing to the colony’s self-sufficiency. Aside from coconuts, rice, corn, papaya and other crops were also cultivated. Another remarkable development of the colony in 1912 under Pershing and Dr. Walter H. Dade as superintendent of the farm was the walling of the prisons with iron bars for the confinement of prisoners who were sentenced by the courts of judicial districts of the Moro Province. The development also included the construction of superintendent’s quarter, guards’ quarter, and other buildings within the prison walls. It was during the American administration that the name San Ramon Prison was placed on the wall at the front gate and the Assistant Superintendent’s quarter was built under the administration of Mr. Cooley.

At the close of 1913 when the civil government was established in the Moro Province and named the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, Mr. Frank W. Carpenter became the first civil governor with residence in Zamboanga. The name San Ramon Prison was then changed to San Ramon Penal Farm. It was said that Governor Carpenter and other military governors before him had the authority to pardon prisoners even convicted by the courts in the judicial districts of Mindanao. Jail guards during the American administration were given special privileges and functions.

“Las funciones de la guardia estan a cargo de una compañia de 61 plazas, reculatadas entre los mismos penados y naturals todos del pais. Esta compañia se halla organizada militarmente, efectuandose los alistamientos por un año, facilitandoseles alojamiento y comida y proporcionandose a las familias de los guardias hogares comodos. Algunos guardias prestan servicion en la misma prision y el resto se utiliza para vigilar a los penados que no estan rebajados, en las faenas del campo.”

“The guard’s function was exercised by an enlisted prison guard company of 61 men, all natives of this country. This company was organized upon a military basis, enlistment being for one year, quarters and subsistence being provided, and the families of guards being furnished comfortable homes. Certain guards were on duty at the prison while other guards serve as trustees in general farm work.”

A large number of the prisoners were Muslims; this was of no surprise since the primary purpose of the colony was to confine Muslim rebels and political leaders opposed to the colonial polices during the Spanish rule and even during the American rule.

“En este sentido es interesante notar que el esesinato y el bandolerismo constituyen mas de las dos terceras partes de los delitos por los cuales los moros extinguen condenas, desde diez años de prison hasta cadena perpetua.

Es tambien significativo que entre los penados de San Ramon, mas dignos de confianza, se hallan moros cuyos crimenes son, para nosotros, los masodiosos y cuyas sentencias son las mas duras.”

“It is interesting to note that murder and brigandage constituted more than twothirds of the crimes for which Moros were sentenced, and that over twenty percent served a sentence of ten years to life. Interventingly, the most trustworthy of the prisoners at San Ramon were Moros whose crimes in our eyes were most heinous and 144

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whose sentences were the longest.”

The large number of prisoners could not be handled by the jail guards. Thus, the American authorities introduced the “trust system”. This system involved the natives and most trusted prisoners. Their role was to help jail guards secure the area for possible escape of the prisoners. The system was found to be effective those days. “En caso de fuga de penados (lo que sucede en San Ramon de tarde en tarde) se ha demostrado que el sistema de los rebajados constituye una verdadera ventaja, pues generalmente se envian en persecucion del preso escapado voluntarios rebajados. En algunos casos han seguido su presa hasta el interior de los bosques de Mindanao, demostranto diligencia y conciencia en el desempeño de su mission. En una o dos ocasiones, se han situado a alguna distancia de San Ramon, en comision especial del servicio, rebajados que han encontrado presos fugados, los cuales se habian dedicado a turbar el orden publico, y aunque algunos rebajados han estado prestando tales servicios por espacio de mas de un año, ni en un solo caso los hombres en quienes de ese modo se ha confiado han dejado de cumplir con su deber.”

“In the event of escape of prisoners - an occasional occurrence at San Ramon - the trusty system was found to be of real advantage; trusty volunteers are sent in pursuit of the escaped prisoners. In some cases the trustees trailed their quarry through the jungles of Mindanao, and proved diligent and conscientious in the performance of their mission. In one or two instances, the trustees were detailed at some distance from San Ramon to locate escaped prisoners. Although some were detailed for a period extending over a year, not one had failed in his duty.”

Zamboanga was the capital of the Moro Province from 1903 to 1913 and from 1914 to 1920; it was the seat of government of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu.

Among those who served as governor of the region at one time or another were Leonard Wood, Frank Carpenter and the famous Gen. John “Black Jack” Pershing. Each one held office in some corner of what is now the Zamboanga City Hall.”Under the American administration, Zamboanga became the first municipality to be established in Mindanao and continued to be the center of political affairs in the region. On October 12, 1936, Zamboanga was elevated to a city. Nicasio Valderosa was then the first mayor of the city.

The San Ramon marker provides adequate information about the superintendents of San Ramon Prisons beginning in 1912 until the American rule Dr. Walter Dade (19121913) was recognized as the first superintendent of the San Ramon Prisons.

“Aunque utilizada para fines penitenciarios durante algun tiempo, no se hizo gran cosa para convertirla en una verdadera granja hasta 1912, cuando el Dr. W.H. Dade, ahora Director de la Oficina de Prisiones fue nombrado superintendente de la misma. Durante el tiempo de su gestion y principalmente merced al entusiasta apoyo del general John J. Pershing, entonces Gobernador de la Provincia Mora, se construyeron casi todos los edificios, instituyendose los principios fundamentals del actual sistema. El 145

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actual superintendente, Mr. Joseph B. cooley, fue nombrado en Febrero de 1914 y bajo su direccion el sistema de rebajados se ha mejorado grandemente y se ha chapeado mayor extension de tierra virgen, dedicandola al cultivo, que en cualquier otro periodo anterior.”

“Although utilized for prison purposes for some time, little was done toward actual development of the farm features until 1912, when Dr. W.H. Dade (later the Director of the Bureau of Prisons) became superintendent. During his incumbency, largely through the enthusiastic support of General John J. Pershing, then governor of the Moro Province, practically all of the buildings were constructed and the essential features of the present system instituted. Later on, Mr. Joseph B. Cooley was appointed superintendent in February 1914. Under his direction, the trusty system was greatly elaborated and more virgin land was cleared and brought under cultivation than during any other period.”

Joseph Cooley (1914-1920) was recognized as the first director of prisons, followed

by Ramon Victorio (1920-1921). It was also during the American administration; when the prisoners were classified or graded into classes, second class and first class. The trusty system was also continued and those most trusted were permitted to live outside the prison walls.

“La practica que se sigue usualmente en el manejo de los presos de San Ramon es clasificarlos como de Segunda clase cuando entran en la carcel y pasarlos a primera clase al cumplir el primer semester, con tal que su conducta lo justifique. Despues de un año de sevir en la prision, con tal siempre que se haya demostrado satisfactoriamente que son dignos de confianza, los penados pueden ser escogidos para ser designados como rebajados. Cuando se les rebaja de esta manera quedan practicamente libres de toda vigilanca y pueden ir y venir por la reserva de la Penitenciaria. Algunos rebajados cuidadosamente escogidos obtienen permiso para vivir en la reserva, fuera de los muros de la prision, y hasta se les envia a Zamboanga y otros pueblos cercanos, en actos del servicio.”

“The usual practice of handling prisoners at San Ramon was to grade them upon entrance into prison life as second-class prisoners, advancing those to first-class at the expiration of six-months, provided their conduct warrants it. After a year’s service, provided that their trustworthiness was satisfactorily demonstrated, the prisoners might select for designation as trustees. When thus made trustees, they were practically free from restraint and free to come and go upon the prison reservation. Certain carefully selected trustees were also permitted to live on the reservation outside the prison walls and were even sent to Zamboanga and other neighboring towns on prison business.”

One of the most significant features of trust system other than living outside the prison wall was free education for the prisoner’s children. American authorities constructed a school for children of these trustees. The children were taught by the wives of the American authorities assigned in San Ramon.

“Una de las empresas mas dignas de aprecio en la Granja Penal es la 146

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escuela para los niños de los-presos rebajados. Se ha construido un solido edificio para albergar cincuenta alumnus y dirige las clases la esposa del superintendente, ayudada por la esposa del jefe del personal y por un preso rebajado capaz de enseñar nociones elementales. Estas mujeres nada cobran por sus servicios, pues acometieron este proyecto voluntariamente encontrando su recompensa en la gratitude demostrada por los niños y sus padres.”

“A Most worthy undertaking at the Penal Farm was the school for the children of trusty prisoners. A substantial building was been erected to house fifty pupils, and the schoolwork was carried on under the direction of the superintendent’s wife, assisted by the wife of the chief clerk and by a trusty prisoner capable of teaching elementary subjects. No charge was asked by these women for their services. They took the project voluntarily, finding their compensation in the gratitude shown by the children and parents.”

The advancement of scientific experiments and agricultural development in San Ramon were later on interrupted because of the Japanese invasion in Zamboanga. For a short while San Ramon was managed by the Japanese imperial army.

On the 15th of March 1995, Proclamation No. 551 declared the last week of October and every year thereafter as “National Correctional Consciousness Week” to create public awareness of and participation in the re-integration of prisoners, probationers, and parolees into society as productive and law abiding citizens. The President then issued a proclamation declaring the last week of October as National Correctional Consciousness week. Products of the seven penal farms were put into exhibit and public information campaign to the public. b. Conceptual Element This element refers to the pictorial or graphical presentation of the gathered data.

The presentation provides images of the San Ramon Penal Colony for exhibition. The following are the images of the Penal Colony, providing historical documentation. The images reflect the century old Spanish cultural heritage of Architectural Aesthetics on Visual Arts and Scenes that require preservation, conservation, and restoration.

Fig 1 Entrance to San Ramon Penal Colony 147

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Entrada (Entrance). The San Ramon Penal Farm circa 1900s. Courtesy of the Philippine National Library. La Granja Penal de San Ramon (San Ramon Penal Farm

by Dr. C. G. Homson, Assistant Director of Prisons, published by the Philippine Review).

Fig 2 San Ramon Model Buildings Algunos de los Edificios Modelos (Some of the Model Buildings). The San Ramon Penal Farm circa 1900s. Courtesy of the Philippine National Library. La Granja Penal de San Ramon (San Ramon Penal Farm by Dr. C. G. Homson, Assistant Director of Prisons, published by the Philippine Review).

Fig 3 Drives of Farm Uno de los mas hermosos Pasesos de la Granja (One of the most beautiful Drives of the Farm. The San Ramon Penal Farm circa 1900s. Courtesy of the Philippine National Library. La Granja Penal de San Ramon (San Ramon Penal Farm by Dr. C. G. Homson, Assistant Director of Prisons, published by the Philippine Review).

Fig 4 La Granja Penal de San Ramon 148

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Un producto del trabajo que con tanta eficacia hace del preso un cuidadano mejor (An output of the toil that most effectively makes a better citizen out of a prisoner). The San Ramon Penal Farm circa 1900s. Courtesy of the Philippine National Library. La Granja Penal de San Ramon (San Ramon Penal Farm by Dr. C. G. Homson, Assistant Director of Prisons, published by the Philippine Review).

Fig 5 The Prisoners of San Ramon Penal Farm Los presos (The prisoners). The San Ramon Penal Farm circa 1900s. Courtesy of Philippine National Library. La Granja Penal de San Ramon (San Ramon Penal Farm by Dr. C. G. Homson, Assistant Director of Prisons published by the Philippine Review.

Fig 6 Original Marker Original Marker of San Ramon Prison and Penal Farm in the Faรงade of the Administrative Building. Courtesy of San Ramon Prisons and Penal Farm (filed by Armando T. Miranda, Penal Superintendent II). The old San Prison and Penal Farm during the American occupation in Zamboanga circa 1912.

Fig 7 The Old San Ramon Prison 149

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Current administrative building of the San Ramon and the main gate to the prison cells constructed during the American occupation circa 1912 and had undergone series of renovation and maintains some of its original features, filed by the Universidad de Zamboanga Museum in 2008.

Fig 8 Inner structure of the old quarters Inner structure of the old quarter of the assistant superintendent constructed during the American occupation circa 1912. It had undergone series of renovation but have maintained some of its original features (filed by the Universidad de Zamboanga Museum in 2008).

Fig 9 San Ramon marker facing the sea The San Ramon marker facing the Sulu Sea constructed during the American occupation circa 1912. It has undergone series of renovation but has maintained some of its original features, (filed by the Universidad de Zamboanga Museum in 2008).

Fig 10 San Ramon fournding marker 150

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San Ramon marker indicating the founding date 31 August 1870 constructed during the American occupation circa 1912 and undergone series of renovation and maintain some of its original features, filled by the Universidad de Zamboanga Museum in 2008. c. Practical Element

This element refers to the installation and proceedings for the exhibition particularly the programme of activities. This is a practical guide needed for the actual exhibition. The following are the areas needed for the mounting exhibition: tools/ materials for the pictorial exhibits, gallery design, installation proper, and the program proper. For better understanding about the standard method used in mounting exhibition, read Running A Museum: A Practical Handbook by UNESCO-ICOM or log on; www.unesco-icom.org.

Tools/ Materials for Mounting Exhibition. These can be materialized by printing shops or digital shops. Decide on the right size of the pictures to be blotted. The following are the possible materials for the pictorial presentation: tarpaulin, pan flex with light, enlarged pictures, and digital pictures.

Gallery Design. A committee will be assigned to look for proper venue where the exhibit will be held. The gallery must be accessible to the public with enough space.

Program Proper. This is the opening and closing dates of the exhibit. Identify the needed preparations for the actual exhibition from day one to the last day. The important parts in mounting exhibition is creating committees from research to actual exhibition and preparing the program of activities.

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Committees; Research, Secretariat, Finance, Program, Invitation, Technical and Retrieval Sample Program/ Activity; Invocation, National Anthem, Welcome Address, Inspirational Message, Cutting of the Ribbon, Tour (with guided information), Refreshment and Open Forum (If necessary).

CONCLUSIONS This research highlights the importance of a cultural heritage site such as the Colonia Penal de San Ramon. It conveys to the local residence of Zamboanga the importance of the history of the colony in the development of Philippine penology.

The paper encourages all concerned individuals to preserve, conserve, and restore this century-old historical site. The founding of San Ramon Colony on August 21, 1869, is a clear indicator of Zamboanga’s strategic position in the Philippine political arena during the Spanish occupation. The data provided and verified by the Bureau of Corrections (BuCor), National Historical Institute (NHI), and the San Ramon Prisons and Penal Farm (SRPPF) strengthen the fact that San Ramon is indeed one of Spain’s greatest legacy in 1870, and its maintenance by the Americans in 1901 establishes the idea that Zamboanga has a penal institution.

The photos taken from the field are important source of documents on the history of the penal farm, serving as living witnesses to this century-old legacy. The mounting exhibition will encourage the general public to help conserve, restore, and measure the heritage sites.

LITERATURE CITED Agoncillo, T. & Guerrero, M.C. (1977). History of the Filipino people 6th edition.

R. P. Garcia Publishing Co., Q. C. San Ramon Prison and Penal Farm (SRPPF). Filed documents.

Alvor, M. & Baguilod, B.(SN). Citation as supra “the Philippine corrections system: current Situations and Issues”. P. 75.

Barnes and Teeters see Carney, Louis P. (1974). Introduction to correctional science.

McGraw-Hill Company, New York. P.80 Bureau of Corrections. Department of Justice (DOJ). Muntinlupa, Philippines (2008) Filed documents.

Caceres, M. V. P. (2008). El centenario: the life story of Engr. Arturo Francisco Eustaquio founder of Zamboanga A. E. Colleges/ Universidad de Zamboanga. Pp.5456 Carney, L.P. (1974). Introduction to correctional science. McGraw-Hill Company, New York. pp. 12, 26, 27, 31-32, 79-82, 92 Carter, R.M., Glasser, D. & Williams, L.T. ed. (1977). Correctional institutions Second Edition. JB Lippincott Company, Philadelphia. pp.5, 6 Commission on Human Rights (CHR). The situation of the Philippine penitentiaries: 152

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an update on the study on the conditions of jails and correctional institutions in the country.

Estipona, C. C. (2008). Officer in-charge of San Ramon. Interviewed on August 21.

Eustaquio, R.F. (2007) Narrative Interview. At Residence, Estrada street, Tetuan, Zamboanga City.

Fox, V. & Stinchcomb, J.B. (1994). Introduction to corrections. Fourth Edition.

Prince Hall Career and Technology, New Jersey. pp. 96-99, 101-111, http://www.doj. gov.ph/Historical%20Background.html/accessed August 20, 2008, Guerrero, L. M. (1969). The First Filipino. Manila. Pp.373-404.

Hardy, R.E. & Cull, J.G. (1973). Introduction to correctional rehabilitation. Second Edition. Illinois. pp. 4-5.

Homson, C. G. (SN). La granja penal de San Ramon. The Philippine Review courtesy by NLP. Jocano, F.L. (1998). Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering pre-colonial heritage.

Punland, pp.162, 192.

Keve, P. W. (1981). Corrections. John Wiley and Sons, USA. No page number Krasnow, P. (1998). Correctional facility design and detailing. McGraw-Hill, New York.

La Solidaridad (1894). See, La Solidaridad: Quencinario Democratico Vol. VI, June 15, 1894 translated by Guadalupe Fores-Ganzon, Fundacion Santiago, Philippines @ 1996. P. 254 Ocampo, A. Reply letter to the researcher dated July 14, 2008. National Library of the Philippines (NLP).

Orendain, A.E. II ed. (1984). Zamboanga hermosa: memoirs of the old town.

Filipinas Foundation, Inc., Mandaluyong. P. 87. National Historical Institute (NHI).

Schmallger, F. & Smykla, J.O. (2001). Corrections in the 21st Century. McGraw Hill, New York. Pp.64-79, 93.

Sue, T.R. (1981). The correctional system: an introduction. New York. pp.27, 53-54, 147.

White, W. (s.n.). The Government farm at San Ramon.� Paper: 23rd Asian and Pacific Conference of Correctional Administrators� P.1.

Zaide, G. & Zaide, S. (1990). Documentary sources of Philippine History. National Bookstore, Manila. Footnote P. 6, 93, 101.

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Community-based Forest Management Policy and the Cultural Practices of the Sama Tribe REYNALDO O. CUIZON cuizonrey@yahoo.com.ph University of Mindanao Date Submitted: August 18, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: November 9, 2007 Abstract – The forest management concept is contradictory to Sama’s forest protection and care and spirituality as confirmed by the nature and significance of the eight different rituals identified and the community’s strong confidence in the epitomes of the tribe.

The PO formation and establishment of partnership with it and with external agencies under CBFMA erode further the cultural practices of communal sharing and holding of commitment. The cultural practices of the Sama are founded on the values of sharing, commitment, and respect to the environment; CBFM promotes security of tenure and sub-contracting schemes. Sama’s culture asserts no ownership of forest resources; CBFM deputizes PO members as ENRO, cultural practices emphasize the commitment of the entire tribe to protect and care for the environment; CBFM adheres to transparent allocation of monetary gains and to profit-making through commercial plantation, the cultural practices emphasize non-commercialization and non-offering of the forest resources to global competitiveness; CBFM goes for pricing the forest resources, cultural practices adhere to valuing and respecting the forest resources; and CBFM aggresses reforestation through plantation system, the cultural practices encourage non-excessive extraction and allowing the forest to replenish itself. The study concludes that CBFM is incongruous with Sama tribe cultural practices.

Key words – Cultural practices, Sama tribe, community-based forest management, policy analysis.

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INTRODUCTION Enger and Smith (2006) have warned on the growing threat of global warming caused by human activity – a situation that calls for new approach of decision-making and interest in shaping public policy. Canadian Environment Minister David Anderson said, “The global climate change is a greater threat than terrorism because it could force hundreds of millions of people from their homes and trigger an economic and social catastrophe” (Cunningham & Cunningham, 2006).

In undertaking environmental concerns policy that is culture-sensitive is necessary and “culture matters in public policy” (Hopped, 2007). Often, economic and political and not cultural implications are taken into account in policy analysis. Public policies are supposed to evoke a unitary and consensual governance culture (Van Gunsteren, 2002), and make culture an ally instead of an enemy, Hopped (2007) emphasized.

Cultural consent solidifies government-people partnership in implementing public policy. A partnership built on respect for culture is robust (Vega, 2006). “Client analysis” to ensure cultural consent is a potent requirement in implementing public policy and one important question in evaluating such policy (Hayes, 1999).

The Philippine government responded to the global challenge of sustainable development. It committed to be “in compliance with the international commitments towards sustainable forest management” (DENR, 2005). Hence, it adopted and implemented the Community-Based Forest Management Policy.

While Werner & Wegrich (2007,) insisted that “policy-making is supposed to contribute to problem solving or at least to the reduction of problem load”, Linao (2004) and Carino (2005) respectively asserted that not all development programs or public policies are environment friendly. Some of them could be obstructive and hazardous to life and not culture friendly and could therefore be detrimental particularly to the indigenous people. It should be made sure that “development initiative will not offer the environment to the altar of global competitiveness” (Linao, 2005).

There have been several policy analysis researches done concerning forest management; however, all were within socio-economic and political realms; nothing analyzed Community Forest Management policy in the context of the cultural practices of indigenous communities.

The Tagbaobo’s Sama tribe, a forest dependent and an indigenous people community, is definitely a target of the policy. Thus, its cultural practices may be used as basis and index to determine the validity and feasibility of the said policy.

As a factor of social development, public policy has to be analyzed; hence, this study was undertaken.

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FRAMEWORK

This study is anchored on three sets of theories. First, Vega (2006) and Hopped (2007) theorized culture as a way of life and it substantially helps predict policy’s side effects and helps design policy-oriented learning experiences. It is an excellent heuristic in problem-structuring and frame-reflective policy analysis. Culture’s components are communicative, cognitive, behavioral, and material. Second, Werner and Wegrich (2007) on time-segment theory on policy analysis postulated that policy analysis can be ex ante or ex post. The study utilized Nagel’s Conceptual Theory and Policy Evaluation focused on goal, strategy, and goal-strategy connection elements using systematic and analytic method of either quantitative or qualitative or both to determine validity and feasibility of the policy (Hayes 2002). Third, are the theories that explain the acceptability of public policy on whether the interests and viewpoints of its proponents and the culture of the indigenous communities affected are aligned to it or not. Culture demands comprehensive considerations from observation to the level of in depth analysis (Enger & Smith 2006). A multidisciplinary approach is necessary if one has to examine the interrelationship of the culture-based systems and the aim and management of techno-social change as consequence of development pursuits (Yanow 2007).

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study was pursued to describe the cultural practices of the Sama tribe and to utilize such information as a contextual paradigm to determine the validity and feasibility of the Community-Based Forest Management Policy. Specifically, this study sought to achieve the following objectives: (1) to describe the demographic profile of the Sama Tribe in Tagbaobo; (2) to portray the cultural practices of Sama tribe; (3) to determine the congruence of the goals and strategies of Community-Based Forest Management Policy with the cultural practices of the Sama tribe.

METHODOLOGY This study is descriptive (Calderon & Gonzales, 1993) using qualitative-interpretive (Yanow 2007) and quantitative methods. The categorization through coding system led to quantitative interpretation of the recurring themes, compare and contrast responses, and link up information to unverified criteria (Colton and Covert 2007). Frequencies of occurrence of the coded qualitative data and statistical correlation between values were determined through tabular presentation. Convenient sampling technique was used among Sama people from Tagbaobo, Island Garden City of Samal.

The data collection procedure started from integrating in the community to reviewing the documents and synthesizing-analyzing process focused on the cultural practices of Sama people and the core and rundown goals of Community Based Forest 156

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Management. Core goals are referring to the main and specific intention of the policy.

The data analysis included documentation, transcription, and categorization using emergent coding system, validation, and complementation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Culturally, the Sama people are mountain and sea-source dependent, communal by nature, confident to their Datu, Balyan, Magbubungay and old folks as leaders, respectful to the spirits as stewards of creation, faithful to Magabaya, and protective and caring for the environment.

The Rituals with specific materials used as symbolisms are Sama’s concrete medium of its commitment to Magbabaya in protecting and caring for the environment.

The Manuwak, Magdayao, Guwang, Pangapog, Abugon, Manawagtawag, Magbana, and Manganiyani rituals manifest the significance of the environment and the values of the tribe. Performing the rituals offensive to cultural practices is wickedness. The aggressor will suffer from sapa (curse).

The Sama people practice eight rituals: Manuwak, Magdayaw, Guwang, Pangapog, Abugon, Manawagtawag, Magbana, and Manganiyani. Manuwak performed in humility during drought aims to ask for mercy and rain. People manifest and intensify their values on sharing during this crisis. Magdayaw is observed during eccentric situations to alleviate problems and promote reconciliation. Guwang is done during death of a community member to remind people the non-ownership and supremacy of land. Pangapog is celebrated for thanksgiving and sharing of bounties. Abugon is performed to cast away curse in the community through reparation and forgiveness.

Manawagtawag is honored to heal sick person. Here people learn the significance of herbs and respect indigenous way of healing. Magbana is accomplished when calamities strike the community. This ritual reminds the people the importance of caring for the environment and nature. Manganiyani is feted to truly respect and ensure the spirits of the ultimate purpose of the timber.

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The study revealed that the goals and strategies of CBFM can be divided in two levels: the core and rundown. While the core goals are all inclined to social interest, fifty seven percent (57%), twenty nine percent (29%) and fourteen percent (14%) of its rundown are political, economic and social in nature. Nothing is inclined to cultural aspect.

The three general strategies of CBFM are well distributed to economic, political and cultural aspects (Table 4). CBFM’s core strategy stating respect indigenous culture has not been justified in its rundown strategies. The rundown strategies are inclined to economic (45%) and political (45%) aspects; while less to social (10%) and nothing to cultural (Table 5). This matches and corresponds with the orientation and inclination of the CBFM goals where 86% are also biased for political and economic targets.

Table 3: Frequency distribution of the General Strategies of CBFM

The table shows that the general strategies of the Community Based Forest Management are equally focused on the political, economic and cultural aspects. There is nothing falls under social aspect. This implies that the policy does provide social benefit to the intended and affected community.

The table shows that among the societal aspects, most of the rundown strategies of the Community Based Forest Management are politically and economically intended.

Only 10% and nothing at all fall under social cultural aspects respectively. It means that the policy is culturally sensitive and responsive.

In can be gleaned from the table that more than half (52%) of the rundown strategies of Community Based Forest Management policy is articulated for organizing pursuits. This is followed by marketing/ business and funding which comprise 39% and 9%, respectively. The figures confirm that half of the concerns of the policy are money making interest related and other half is for structure and community building.

That is, the policy confides with profit-making and funding related means or activities to achieve desired targets.

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In view of the summary presentation of the Community Based Forest Management policy goals and strategies against the Sama people cultural practices (Table 6), it appears that while the policy’s core goal and strategy are congruous with the Sama cultural practices, some goals and all rundown strategies obviously do not conform to and substantiate the Sama tribes’s cultural practice. The rundown strategies do not even articulate the one considered a cultural-oriented strategy. The Community Based Forest Management has more of economic and political interests’, which are incongruent with the cultural interest and practices of the Sama people.

CONCLUSIONS The study found that the Community Based Forest Management is concerned with healthy environment and social justice through equitable access to forest resources.

Likewise, the Sama cultural practices stress the inseparability of environmental practices from indigenous spirituality and the value of communal sharing. In as far as core goal is concerned the policy is congruous with the Sama cultural practices. However, as far as rundown goals are concerned, the policy is into political and economic rather than social and cultural. It involves uplifting of socio-economic condition of the community, enhancing of private investment, economic contribution and global competitiveness, and increasing revenues and incomes of communities and LGUs. These rather reflect monetary earnings out of excessive extraction of resources. The values manifested by the rituals imbibe communal sharing within the essence of integrity of creation and minimalist character of utilizing resources.

The rundown strategies of the policy do not essentially articulate its culture-oriented core strategy. Terms like land tenure scheme, market capital and linkage, equity and share of proceeds, foreign funding, forest resource securitization strategy, incentives such as exemption from rentals and forest charges, assistance of environment-concerned agencies, pricing and commercialization of forest resources, livelihood and plantation projects, and contractual scheme have more economic and political inclination as means rather than social and cultural interventions. They do not exemplify the indigenous spirituality, values and aspirations vis-à-vis environmental concerns. The Sama people value the sharing of forest resources, and the pure intention extracting resources. Sama cultural practices curb tree plantation for commercialization and excessive extraction of forest resources. They uphold forest natural self-replenishment process.

The policy’s concept of forest management is contradictory to the cultural belief that forest should not be taken as a separate entity from the entire environmental concern. “Forest management” is incongruous with “environmental protection and care”. The policy is incongruent to the cultural practices of the Sama people.

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LITERATURE CITED Calderon, J. F., and Gonzales, E. C. (1993). Methods of research and thesis writing.

Mandaluyong City: National Bookstore.

Carino, Jill. (2005). An assessment of the implementation of the philippine government’s international commitments on traditional forest-related knowledge from the perspective of the indigenous people.

Colton, D. & Covert, R.W. (2007). Designing and constructing instruments for social research and evaluation. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Cunningham, W. & Cunningham M.V. (2006). Principles of environmental science: Inquiry and Application. New York: Third Edition. McGraw-Hill.

Defensor, M. T. (2005). National report to the fifth session of the United Nations forum on forest. Forest Management Bureau, Department of Environment and Natural Resources. Government of the Philippines.

DENR (2005). Forest Management Bureau National Report.

Enger, E.D. & Smith, B. F. (2006). Environmental Science: a study on interrelationship.

McGraw-Hill, Inc. NY Hayes, W. (2002). The public policy Web. whayes@ramapo.edu.

Hopped, R. (2007). Applied cultural theory: too for policy analysis. Handbook of Public Policy Analysis. New York: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group Linao, R. (2004). Community immersion: towards becoming agents of community empowerment. Q.C. Philippines: Great Books Trading.

Trochim, W.M. (2001). The research methods knowledge based (2nd ed.).

Cincinnati, OH: Atomic Dog. Werner, J. & Wegrich, K. (2007). Theories of the policy cycle. Handbook of Public Policy Analysis. New Yoirk: CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group Van Gunsteren, H. (2002). Regimes as cultures (unpublished paper) Vega, V. A. (2006). Social dimensions of education. Q.C. Philippines: Lorimar Publishing, Inc. Yanow, D. (2007). Qualitative-interpretive Methods in Policy Research. In Fischer, F et al. (Ed), Handbook of public policy analysis: theory, politics and methods (405-415).

FL, U.S.: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group

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Sociological and Economic Dimensions of the Clients’ Choice of Health Care Services JOFI VALDEHUEZA-MAHILUM doktorjoff@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: February 25, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: June 11, 2007

Abstract - The descriptive research design used a quota sample of 1,500 respondents. The study revealed that the respondents’ most preferred healthcare services were public community health centers, public hospitals, secondary private hospitals, and collaborative healthcare facilities. The choice of healthcare services was significantly determined by accessibility and availability of healthcare services, family size, beliefs and perceptions about health and illness, joint family monthly income, occupation of household heads, and morbidity occurrence for the last three years. Clients avail of healthcare services that are readily available when needed. Tertiary private hospital is the choice of those who greatly value health and wellness. Low-level hospitals are more preferred by large families with limited budget for healthcare. The disparity in the choice of healthcare services is largely caused by the inequality in the economic indicators specifically on income distribution and occupational categories of the household heads. People with higher income and higher occupational categories prefer healthcare centers with better facilities and services. A highlevel healthcare facility is preferred by people who have a high rate of morbidity occurrence. The concern for an extensive prevention of diseases for a better physical wellness motivates people to seek quality healthcare services.

Key words - Sociological Dimensions, Economic Dimensions, Choice of Healthcare Services, Prevention of Disease 162

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INTRODUCTION The quest for wellness and survival is man’s greatest need for existence. This life aspiration necessitates a quality system of healthcare services. Heller (1999) opined that quality healthcare services is greatly affected by changing demographic and increasing diversity of human population, family’s economic standing, shift to population-based care, alternative therapies, and increasing costs of health care. Relative to this view, Hunt (2005) stated that the growing complexity of the society’s health problems resulted in an increased demand for extensive healthcare services. The growing demand for healthcare services at affordable costs led clients to seek services from other health institutions, thus shifting the paradigm from what once was considered safe only within the hospital setting. Settings changed to the community, the home, and alternative care.

Doenges and Moorhouse (2003) argued that health care is not always synonymous with medicine or nursing, but includes other choices that the clients feel at ease and comfortable. The most important consideration is the clients’ acceptability of the healthcare facility, which they consider an effective delivery of holistic, cost-effective health care that promotes optimal client wellness disease prevention and recovery in a timely manner (Ewles & Simnett 2003). Regardless of the preferences of healthcare services, the healthcare providers have a responsibility to plan an effective care with the client and the family for the attainment of the desired outcome for an optimal state of wellness (Jitramontree 2004). Setting health goals, determining outcomes, and choosing appropriate intervention are essential to the delivery of quality health care.

The wishes of the client and family/significant others on their healthcare decision have to be respected (Arros 1995).

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study aimed at determining the sociological and economic dimensions of the clients’ choice of healthcare services. Specifically, it sought to accomplish the following objectives: (1) determine the profile of the clients in terms of the predetermined sociological dimensions, namely ethnicity, religion, place of residence, family structure - categorized into authority and household composition and family size, accessibility to healthcare institutions, availability of healthcare services, socio-cultural values, and beliefs and perceptions about illness; (2) ascertain the economic dimensions of the clients’ profile in terms of joint family monthly income, number of family members earning, occupation of household head, health insurance, biggest budget of the family, medical expenses on morbidity occurrences for the past three years, and hospitalization expenses for the past three years; (3) distinguish the clients’ choice of healthcare services; and (4) establish which of the sociological and economic dimensions significantly 163

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determine the clients’ choice of healthcare services.

FRAMEWORK The study is anchored on the “Principle of Wholistic Approach in Health Care and Capabilities derived from the Model of Sustainable Health” advocated by Hancock as cited by Palaganas (2003). The model presented four dimensions-human capitals, ecological, sociological, and economic of human development through health and wellness dimensions. This study considered the sociological and economic dimensions of health. The sociological dimensions constitute the family indicators, level of social cohesion, health beliefs, culture, social network, and participation of various family roles in healthcare management. On the other hand, the economic dimensions encompass level of economic prosperity, provisions of basic needs, and provision of social and health services. The sociological dimensions in the choice of healthcare services include the characteristics of the families living in a community, cultural variations, perceptions on health and illness, and cultural values. Leininger & Mc Farland (1995) observed that health state is strongly influenced and often primarily determined by the cultural background of an individual. The social system and the culture of the family and the client have an impact on the service needs of the family (Weber 2007).

The economic dimensions underlying the preference of healthcare services primarily focused on the family’s financial resources and healthcare funding (Hunt 2005). Economic functions encompass the allocation of adequate resources for family members, entailing the provision of sufficient income for basic necessities including expenses for health care (Duvall & Miller 1997). In this study, the economic indicators considered are joint family monthly income, number of family members earning, occupational status of household head, health insurance, and monthly financial allocation for basic needs, cost and occurrence of common diseases experienced for the last three years, and cost and incidence of hospitalization for the last three years.

According to Overfield (1995), income and allocation for health care underlie health disparities among families. Poverty increases the slim chance of seeking health professionals and healthcare institutions (Powell 2000). People with low level of health status are among those who allocate a minimal funding for health care due to limited financial resources (Leininger 1990).

METHODOLOGY The descriptive research design was used as the main scheme in conducting the investigation. A quota sample of 1,500 respondents were included in the study and were distributed as follows: 250 from Cagayan de Oro City, 250 from Misamis Oriental, 500 from Misamis Occidental, 250 from Bukidnon, and 250 from Lanao del Norte. The questionnaire was used in the gathering of data. Frequency count, percentage distribution, weighted mean, rank-order presentation, and multiple regression analysis were employed.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION On the Sociological Dimensions Table 1 portrays the respondents’ profile according to sociological dimensions.

In terms of ethnicity, almost a half of them (720 or 48%) were Mindanaoans, while the Tagalogs accounted for only 24.7% and other ethnic groups from Luzon and the Visayans for 27.3%. On religious affiliation, slightly over a half (781 or 52.1%) were Catholics, while the Christian non-Catholics accounted for 27.7% and the Muslims for 19.2%. As to place of residence, more than a half (58.9%) resided in the rural areas, while 616 or 41.1% of the respondents lived in the urban areas.

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As to family structure, a bigger number of families were patriarchal (62.7%) as compared to families that were matriarchal (37.3%). As to household composition, the nuclear families accounted for 62.5% while the extended families for 37.5%. Meanwhile, family size ranged from 5-6 children (468 or 31.2%), 3-4 children (405 or 27.0%), 1-2 children (583 or 38.9%), and childless families (44 or 2.9%). Moreover, the table shows that among the healthcare institutions, barangay health centers (32.6%) were most accessible to respondents, followed by public hospitals (28.9%), secondary private hospitals (354 or 23.6%), tertiary private hospitals (10.1%), and traditional/alternative healthcare center (4.8%). As to the availability of health care services, the healthcare services of barangay health centers (708 or 47.2%) were found most available to the respondents, followed by the healthcare services of public hospitals (20.2%), secondary private hospitals (9.0%), tertiary private hospitals (4.8%), and traditional/alternative health care (18.8%).

As revealed in Table 2 concerning the respondents’ socio-cultural values, all matters concerning the family were given more premium than matters concerning the community; that is, family comes before community. Family matters included basic needs, which was rated the highest, family health, and social solidarity. Rated highest among the indicators was the basic need. This finding conforms to Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs in which physiological needs are satisfied first before satisfying all other needs. On the respondents’ view on health, the respondents highly considered health as an essential component for longer life and as wealth though expensive. In an interview, several respondents revealed that it is very difficult to be ill because medications and hospitalization are very costly even with the aid of the Philippine Health Insurance.

Moreover, the respondents moderately considered health as an important element in attaining quality life (2.69). This means that there are other elements more important than health that defines quality life.

Table 3 discloses the respondents’ beliefs and perceptions about illness. They strongly agreed that illness is caused by poor environmental condition (3.28) and the body’s inability to resist disease-causing germs/bacteria (3.28). They strongly believed that if the physical environment is unpleasant and one’s immune system is weak, the risks of infection and contamination are high. However, the respondents disagreed that illness is hereditary (2.17) or genetically transmitted. Such belief explains their contention that illness is caused by environmental and physiological factors.

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On the Economic Dimensions In terms of joint family monthly income (Table 4), of greatest number were those who received Php 10,001.00 – 15,000.00 (32.4%), followed by those who received Php 5,001.00 – 10,000.00 (28.2%), Php 15,001.00 – 20,000.00 (26.6%), Php 20,001.00 – 25,000.00 (9.5%), and Php 5,000.00 and below (3.3%). The respondents’ income distribution observed a normal curve pattern wherein the two extremes obtained the lowest distributions. As to the number of family members earning, of the greatest number were those who had two members (44.9%), followed by those who had only one member (37.9%), three members (11.9%), four members (3.3%), and five members (2%).

The data indicate that the frequency distribution decreased as the number of family members earning increased. On the whole, the distribution was towards one to two family members earning.

In terms of the occupation of household heads, the household heads’ occupational categories widely varied. These occupations included businessmen (16.3%); professional workers, such as lawyers, engineers, physicians, and teachers (11.9%); semi-professional workers such as accounting clerks and office workers among others (8.2%). Some were businessmen, government officials, and overseas workers while others were skilled workers, factory workers, and contractual workers. However, of the greatest number were businessmen followed by fishers and farmers. The table further reveals that more than half (58.2%) of the respondents had health insurance (Philippine Health Insurance). However, still a significant percentage of the respondents (41.8%) had no health insurance. Those with insurance obtained their Philippine Health Insurance membership by virtue of being employed in a certain establishment, office, or industry.

As to the family budget, the biggest slice of the budget went to food (74.3%), then to children’s education (13.2%), to housing/lighting/water (6.4%), to medical care/health care (3.7%), and to transportation (2.4%). Respondents who own a car, multi-cab, or motorcycle on installment allot transportation with the biggest budget. Those whose biggest budget goes to education have college students enrolled in private schools, while those whose biggest budget is for housing pay the monthly amortization of their housing loan. Only few of the respondents give medication the biggest budget. These respondents are into daily medication supplementation for good health.

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The distribution of medical expenses incurred for common diseases for the past three years is presented in Table 5. The greatest number of the respondents claimed spending Php 8,001.00-10,000.00 (25.6%) for common diseases. The occurrence followed by those who claimed spending Php 10,001.00-12,000.00 (24.7%), Php 6,001.00-8,000.00 (14.9%), Php 4,001.00-6,000.00 (12.3%), Php 12,001.00 and above (9.9%), and Php 4,000.00 and below (3.3%). On the average, the respondents spent Php 10,000.00 for medication of common diseases for the past three years.

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Table 6 presents the occurrence of common diseases for the past three years. The disease that occurred most frequently was influenza/fever. Other frequently occurring diseases were cough and colds (rank 2), diarrhea/amoeba infection/stomachache (rank 3), all kinds of allergy (rank 4), toothache/tooth infection (rank 5), and arthritis/joints and muscle pains (rank 6). The respondents stricken with these diseases were mostly outpatients. Occurring less frequently were chicken pox/measles, fungi infection, sinusitis, nausea, diabetes mellitus, mumps, dengue fever, hypertension, soriasis, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and surgical cases (gallstone and appendicitis). A small number of respondents were confined at the hospital for diabetes mellitus, dengue fever, and surgery (gallstones/appendicitis). It can be noted though that none of the respondents had morbid disease for the past three years.

In terms of incidence of hospitalization for the past three years, (Table 7). As shown, more than half (56.3) of the respondents were actually confined in the hospital, while only 34.4% of the respondents were outpatients. Only a very few of the respondents (9.3%) were not hospitalized at all for the past three years. Confinement for once within the past three years had the highest frequency, while confinement for thrice within the past three years had the lowest frequency.

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Table 8 discloses the hospitalization expenses upon discharge of the patients.

More than a fourth of the respondents (300 or 35.6%) paid Php 10,001.00-15,000.00 upon discharge; 26.4%, Php 5,000.00-10,000.00; 21.1%, Php 20,001.00 and above; and 16.9%, Php 15,001.00-20,000.00. The finding reveals that the average amount paid upon discharge was Php 15,000.00.

On the Choice of Healthcare Services The respondents preferred most (Table 9) the healthcare services of Public Community Health Centers (PCHC), while the healthcare services of rehabilitation center and private hospital (tertiary) were preferred the least. The respondents’ choice of healthcare institutions is attributable to the distance of their place to the healthcare institutions and the free medical services the health centers offer. However, as reported, they avail of the healthcare services of a bigger and a more equipped hospital for serious health cases that can’t be handled by less equipped health institution. Generally, economic reason was cited for the respondents’ choice.

On the Economic Dimensions as Determinants of the Clients’ Choice of Healthcare Services The sociological dimensions as determinants of the clients’ choice of health care service are shown in Table 10.

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Table 10. Multiple regression analysis of sociological dimensions

Table 11 presents the multiple regression analysis on the economic dimensions of the clients’ choice of healthcare services. Three indicators were found significant economic determinants. These were joint family monthly income (F=39.74076), occupation of household heads (F=52.87480), and morbidity occurrences for the last three years (F=44.20499). The findings imply that the higher the family income is, the higher the choice for healthcare institution is. Financially favored families are willing to pay for health and healthcare institution that offers better healthcare services (Kiger2004). In addition, high-income families have other health insurances on top of their Philippine Health Insurance. These families tend to choose a hospital with better facilities and resources. Also, the higher the morbidity rate, the more clients choose a hospital with better facilities as a preventive measure (Blaxter 1990).

CONCLUSIONS The choice of healthcare services is significantly determined by the accessibility and availability of healthcare services. Clients avail of healthcare services that are readily available when needed. They do not want to spend much time traveling to a distant healthcare facility.

Tertiary private hospital is the choice of those who greatly value health and wellness. Low-level hospitals are more preferred by large families with limited budget for healthcare.

The disparity in the choice of healthcare services is largely caused by the inequality in the economic indicators specifically on income distribution and occupational categories of the household heads. People with higher income and higher occupational categories prefer healthcare centers with better facilities and services.

A high-level healthcare facility is preferred by people who have a high rate of morbidity occurrence. The concern for an extensive prevention of diseases for a better physical wellness motivates people to seek quality healthcare services.

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LITERATURE CITED Arros, J. (1995). Bringing the hospital home: ethical and social implications of high- tech home care. Baltimore: John Hopkins U. Blaxter, M. (1990). Health and lifestyles. London: Tavistock/Routlege.

Doenges, M. & Moorhouse, M. (2003). Application of nursing process and nursing diagnosis. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co. Duvall, E. & Miller, B. (1997). Marriage and family development. New York: Harper and Row. Ewles, L. & Simnett, I. (2003). Promoting health. London: Balliere Tindall, 1999.

Health Canada.

Heller, B. (1999). The future of nursing education. Retrieved on June 10, 2007 from http//www.hl./infotrends.htm.

Hunt, R. (2005). Introduction to community-based nursing. New York: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

Jitramontree, N. (2004). Impact of medicare reimbursement changes in home health care. Home Health Care Nurse, 18 (2) 116-121.

Kiger, A. M. (2004). Teaching for health. New York: Chuchill Livingstone.

Leininger, M. (1990). Nursing and Anthropology. New York: Wiley.

Leininger, M. & Mc Farland, M. (2002). Transcultural nursing concepts, theories and research. New York: Mc Graw Hill.

Overfield, J. (1995). Biologic variation in health and illness: race, age, and sex differences. New York: CRC Press.

Palaganas, E. C. (2003). Health care practices in the community. Manila: Educational Publishing House.

Powell, S. (2000). Case management: a practical guide to success in managed care.

Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

Weber, J. (2007). Nurses’ handbook of health assessment. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

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Vol 5 No.1 December 2007 ISSN: 2094-1064

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Local Governance of Devolved Hospital Services: The Bukidnon Model ANTONIO T. SUMBALAN atsumbalan@gmail.com Liceo de Cagayan University

Date Submitted: July 27, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: September 29, 2007

Abstract – The study is anchored on the concept of decentralization, which is to overcome the failure of central government in addressing people’s needs and priorities. Specifically it deals with devolution, which is one administrative category of decentralization that typically involves legal transfer of administrative powers to political units.

This is essentially a public administration conceptualization of decentralization to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of service provision through reallocation of decision-making and resources to peripheral areas. The conclusions of the study are the following: (1) the provision of hospital services can be a potential income center and not entirely an expense account; (2) devolved hospital services can sustain the hospital’s operation and ensure that services are accessible to the poor; (3) the translation of health development plan to improve health service delivery necessitates local government’s strong political will; (4) to operate the devolved hospitals as income centers is a major shift in governance with the view of sustaining hospital operations; (5) the Bukidnon model provides for a win-win situation for both the PhilHealth and the Provincial Government; and (6) the Bukidnon hospital system demonstrates cost-efficiency through an appropriate mix of primary, secondary, and tertiary hospitals.

Key words - Local governance, devolved hospital services. cost effeciency 173

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INTRODUCTION Health system reform has been a priority issue for governments and communities in the Asia-Pacific region. Most policies focus on reforms in the area of health services decentralization. Decentralization involves delegation of powers from central towards provincial or district departments of health. It can be defined in general terms as the transfer of power in planning, management, and decision-making from the national level to sub-national levels of government (Bossert & Beauvais 2002).

Devolution is one administrative category of decentralization that typically involves legal transfer of administrative powers to political units. In this situation, health providers then come under the management of non-health managers. This is essentially a public administration conceptualization of decentralization. The intent of decentralization and devolution is to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of healthservice provision through reallocation of decision-making and resources to peripheral areas (UNDP 1977).

Hospital services are the devolved functions to the provincial government under the 1991 Local Government Code. These services refer to medical and surgical services and the supporting laboratories, equipment, and personnel that make up the medical and surgical mission of a hospital or hospital system (R.A. 7160 1991). This study assessed the performance of the Provincial Government of Bukidnon (PGB) in its ability to operate and manage the devolved functions of providing hospital services from the Department of Health pursuant to Republic Act 7160, otherwise known as the Local Government Code of 1991. It identifies the innovative features of local governance initiatives to make devolution more successful and sustainable. The framework used in the assessment is the Fourmula One for Health.

The PGB is a first class province that operated on a Php 1,443,852,195 budget in 2007. In 1992, the Department of Health devolved 5 hospitals to PGB. These consist of a tertiary hospital (Malaybalay) with an authorized bed capacity of 100 beds; a district hospital (Maramag) with a 25 authorized 25-bed capacity; a two 10- bed authorized primary hospitals (Talakag and Kalilangan); and another two 10-bed authorized primary hospitals that are still to be completed (Kibawe and San Fernando). The Kibawe Primary Hospital was opened in 1993 while the San Fernando Primary Hospital became functional only in 1996. The province also established a 10-bed authorized primary hospital in Malitbog that was opened in 2002 but was only accredited by PhilHealth in 2004. A new authorized 24-bed capacity secondary hospital in Manolo Fortich was opened late 2007.

The documentation of the Bukidnon experience hopefully will inspire other local government units in their quest for innovations to effectively deliver government services in a devolved setting.

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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study pursued the following objectives: (1) to determine the financial resources of the Provincial Government of Bukidnon in terms of revenue generation and allocation with focus on its financing of the delivery of tertiary health services through the hospital system ; (2) to describe the initiatives of the Provincial Government of Bukidnon with regard to its devolved hospital services in terms of: a) service coverage and accessibility, b) facility development, and c) human resource development ; (3) to determine the specific actions of the Provincial Government in sustaining the cost of operations of the hospitals in terms of revenue generation and fund management; and (4) to draw out the potential best practices that may sustain the effective delivery of tertiary health services from these devolved hospitals.

Hopefully, this study will contribute to the current discussion on the wisdom of devolving the delivery of tertiary health services to the provinces and the coping mechanisms to address the issues and concerns in the operation of the hospitals.

METHODOLOGY The study used the descriptive method of research, applying documentary analysis technique that reviewed relevant documents pertaining devolution of hospital services and the annual reports of the Provincial Government of Bukidnon from 2002 to 2007 as basis for an informed assessment of hospital services performance. An interview with the Provincial Governor, the senior officers and staff of the Provincial Government of Bukidnon and a Focused Group Discussion (FGD) were also conducted.

An interview schedule and discussion topics guided the discussion during the interview and the FGD respectively. The results of these activities validated the secondary data obtained in the documentary analysis. Further, the results were used in the conduct of Consultative Planning Workshop among the key actors of the Bukidnon Hospital System. The framework for Fourmula One as developed by Herrin (2008) served as guide for the conduct of the study. This is presented as follows: FOURMULA ONE REFORMS: GOALS:

OUTPUT 1. Financing Better Health Outcomes Improved 2. Regulation Equitable Health Care Delivery Quality of Life 3. Service Delivery More responsive health system 4. Governance RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Financial Resources of the Provincial Government The actual revenue of Php 1,268,907,564 for 2007 of the Provincial Government 175

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shows that the bulk of the income generated comes from its share from the Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA) that accounted for 76.22 percent. Hospital income ranks second as major revenue contributors, chalking in 10.42 percent or Php 114,150,489.00.

It is noteworthy to find that fund transfer from the Philippine Health Insurance Corporation to the Province, the PhilHealth Capitation Fund accounted for 4.42 percent of the total revenue realized for 2007 or Php 48,379,500.00. Thus, it can be argued that the devolved tertiary health care of the province can financially stand independent of the Local Government Units.

The revenues generated from hospital operations and related health service from 2002 to 2007 suggests that the bulk of hospital income comes from the PhilHealth remittances. There are two types of these remittances to the province. The first one refers to PhilHealth Capitation Fund (PCF) that is transferred to the province with its enrolled families under the PhilHealth Sponsored Program. The PCF is a financing mechanism where an accredited publicly owned facility, the Provincial Health Station in the case of Bukidnon, is reimbursed a fixed amount of Php 300.00 for every enrolled sponsored indigent.

The second is the PhilHealth payments of provincial hospital claims for reimbursements. The reimbursements are the results of the services provided by the provincial hospitals to individuals seeking medical services who are covered by the PhilHealth insurance program. The PhilHealth reimbursements from 2002 to 2007 averaged 61.11 percent of the hospital revenue generated for the period reported. This proves that PhilHealth payment is the main source of hospital income.

However, it noted that based on the projected annual income for the hospital for 2007, the realized amount of Php 114,150,489 represented only a collection efficiency of 74.12 percent. The unrealized income was accounted for a receivable of Php 8,703,888 or 5.65 percent from the PhilHealth Corporation as reimbursement. This was the offshoot of the “No Excess Payment� policies for indigent patients. This cost the province some Php 30,813,051 or 20 percent. Thus, the province has an unrealized income of only Php 332,572 or 22 percent based on its 2007 projected income.

Moreover, the sources of the hospital-generated revenue of Php 114,150,489 for 2007 showed that the bulk of revenue was from PhilHealth reimbursement of the sponsored indigent families reaching Php 68,814,250. The paying patients contributed only Php 30,956,697. Payment from GSIS and SSS covered patients of the hospital shared the balance of Php 14,379,542. The actual collected revenue of Php 114,150,489 further showed that 68.19 percent came from medical, dental; and laboratory fees while 31.59 percent was came from hospital fees.

The participation of the province in the sponsored indigent program of PhilHealth had contributed to the income generated by the Bukidnon hospital system. The PCF from 2002 to 2007 reached Php 301,209,500 generated over the same period resulted to total revenue of Php 754,189,559 for the Bukidnon hospital system. Table 4 shows the number of families enrolled, the income generated under the PhilHealth Capitation Fund, and the reimbursement of services provided by the provincial hospitals from 176

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2002 to 2007.

Financing Delivery of Devolved Tertiary Services Financing the delivery of devolved tertiary services in the province from 2002 to 2007 is basically sourced from locally generated revenues. The province has to avail of a loan from the Land Bank of Philippines for the construction of three hospital building facilities costing Php 213,321,880 in 2004 (Provincial Accountant’s Office, 2008).

The consolidated hospital operating cost for the operation of the devolved provincial hospitals (2002 to 2007) reached to Php 857,121,344 or an average annual operating cost of Php 142,853,557. The bulk of the expenditures were accounted for Personal Services and Maintenance and Other Operating Expenses (80%). This was followed by expenditures for Drugs and Medicines (12.15%), and for medical supplies (7.85%).

Likewise, the total operating cost the Provincial Health Stations was Php 200,141,719 for 2003 to 2007. Assessment for bulk of the expenditure was the maintenance and other operating expenses (MOOE), followed by medical and dental supplies (38.86%).

Personal services accounted for only 8.69 percent.

The other cost incurred by the province was the premium payment made to PhilHealth. The payment ensures that the indigent families of Bukidnon can have access to the devolved tertiary health services. The total amount spent for premium payment to the PhilHealth Corporation from 2002 to 2007 was Php 406,596,695. However, technically the province only spent Php 105,387,116 due to the reimbursement scheme under the PCF. This amounted to Php 301,209,579.

Local Initiatives for Devolved Hospitals On health services, the Provincial Government focuses on ensuring an expanded coverage of public health through the provincial hospital system. It also strives to enhance access, especially by the poor, to personal health services as well as to reduce the financial burden of individual families. These are pursued through the all-out participation of the province in a universal coverage of the National Health Insurance Program (NHIP) in Bukidnon. On hospital reforms, the objectives are to provide fiscal and managerial autonomy to provincial hospitals to improve the way hospitals are governed and financed. The reforms are geared towards quality hospital services, cost efficiency, enhanced revenues, and reduction of dependence on direct budget subsidies.

Service Coverage and Accessibility To improve service tertiary healthcare services, the Provincial Government went into three major activities; the full participation in PhilHealth Medicare Para sa Masa Program, establishment of the Provincial Health Stations for outpatient and diagnostic services, and the formulation of hospital buildings development program. The Medicare Para sa Masa (MPM) is the PhilHealths main instrument to addresses the 177

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health problems of the poor. The Indigent Program of the National Health Insurance Program (NHIP) offers the standard benefit package to the poor without individual contribution. The package includes primary consultation with general physicians, free laboratory services such as chest x-ray, complete blood count, fecalysis, urinalysis, and sputum microscopy.

Under the program, the province enrolled a number of indigent from 155,826 families in 2002 to 161,265 in 2007. This earned the Provincial Government of Bukidnon the distinction of having enrolled the highest number of families under the sponsored program and thus fully complied with the universal coverage of its population under the National Health Insurance Program. The enrollment of 161,256 families in 2007, for example, can be translated into the province’s covering 80 percent of the population of 1,209,448 (NS0, 2007 Census of Population). This is based on the assumption that an average family size is 6 individuals.

Health Facility Development The province’s efforts on health facility development consisted of the establishment of the Provincial Health Stations and the development of hospital buildings. The health facility development has twin objective. It is aimed to provide equitable access of services among the populace especially the poor and to treat hospital expenditures as investments to generate additional income. As of December 2007, the province had an inventory of seven operating hospitals with an authorized bed capacity of 190.

This development was complemented by 15 Provincial Health Stations established in municipalities and in one city with no existing provincial hospital.

The Provincial Health Stations are PhilHealth-accredited facilities that serve as extension of the devolved Provincial Hospital. They provide the outpatient benefit (OPB) package and diagnostic services to the enrolled families and their dependents under the PhilHealth Sponsored Program.

Records from PEEDMO (2008) showed that the Province had invested Php 13,980,002 for Provincial Health Stations. The bulk of the investment was in 2003 when the Provincial Health Stations were constructed with a cost of Php 12,046,978. The following year (2004), the investment was Php 1,064,904. In 2006, the Province again invested in the repair of the PHS facilities amounting Php 452,200. Another investment for capital outlay in 2007 amounted to Php 415,920 for these facilities.

There are two major reasons why the province decided to establish the 15 Provincial Health Stations. First were the huge demands for consultation and outpatient benefit package services from the different rural health centers of the province, resulting to the City/Municipal Health Officers inability to visit their barangays to carry out their mandated preventive healthcare services. Second was to ensure that those sponsored families could readily access facilities offering outpatient and diagnostic services, and consultation packages under the PhilHealth Program. Number of indigents who have availed of the services provided by the Provincial Health Stations from 2002 to 2007 reached to 1,563,390. However, it is noted that 10.33 percent or 161,505 of the facility 178

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beneficiaries were not sponsored members.

Hospital Building Development The PGB has invested Php 45,120,005 from 2002 to 2007 for the upgrading of the hospital buildings. The capital outlay during this period had been highlighted by the construction of three major hospitals. The newly inaugurated Provincial Hospital in Manolo Fortich is a third level referral hospital with 45-bed capacity and a main building floor area of 1,902.50 square meters. The total investment cost of this new hospital was Php 45,535,267 of which 91 percent or Php 41,453,000 was funded by Land Bank of the Philippines.

The Provincial Hospital in Malaybalay is being upgraded into a third level referral hospital. The hospital with its new location outside the Provincial Capitol Compound will operate with a 200-bed capacity and with its main building’s floor area of 5,081 square meters. The total investment cost for the upgrading as of December 31, 2007, was Php 122,587,089. The Provincial Hospital of Maramag was also upgraded into a third level referral hospital with an authorized 100-bed capacity and with its main building’s floor area of 3,362.50 square meters. The total investment cost was Php 67,900,668.

Earlier in 2003, a primary 10-bed capacity hospital in Malitbog was constructed with an investment cost of Php 1,730,317.

The investments in hospital facilities aim to ease up hospital patient congestions as well as to improve hospital physical facilities. The total authorized bed capacity of the provincial hospitals is only 190, but the average hospital occupancy was 353 in 2005 to 401 in 2007. Once the upgrading of facilities is completed, the authorize bed capacity (ABC) of the provincial hospitals will increase to 410 beds from the existing authorized bed capacity of 190 beds. This will definitely ease up congestions and increase the potential income of the hospitals.

On the other hand, a detailed review of the patients admitted by the devolved hospitals from 2004 to 2007 showed that the provincial hospitals captured 37.18 percent of the total hospitalized patients in Bukidnon. Further analysis of indigent patients admitted to the different hospitals in the province showed that out of the 145,655 indigents (2004 to 2007), 50.62 percent were served by the provincial hospitals. Those indigent patients served by other hospitals in Bukidnon numbered to 71,921.

The Focus Group Dialogue with the officers and staff of the Bukidnon hospital system revealed. The following reasons why the indigent patients do not fully patronize the provincial hospitals: non-availability of drugs and medicines in the provincial hospitals and the “arrogance” of the hospital staff towards their patients.

Human Resource Development

The devolution of hospitals to the province carried with it the transfer of six hospital personnel from the Department of Health in 1992. These hospitals employed 826 personnel as of December 31, 2007. There were 400 plantilla positions, 420 on-a-job179

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order status, and six contractual posts. In terms of the medical staff breakdown, there were 129 medical doctors; 357 nurses, nursing attendants and midwives; 69 medical technologists, radiologists, and laboratory technicians among others as of December 2007.

The Provincial Indigency Health Program to which the Provincial Health Stations are attached had a personnel complement of 136. These consist of 34 technical and support staff for program management of the Provincial Indigency Health Program based at the Provincial Capitol. The different Provincial Health Stations are manned by Program Coordinators (22), Medical Doctors (15), Nurses (16), Medical Technologists (17), Midwives (16), Ambulance Drivers (14), and support personnel (2).

In terms of the financial benefits, the hospital staff enjoyed high share of the professional fees under the PhilHealth program. This is the result of the higher coverage of sponsored indigent families in Bukidnon. Records obtained from PhilHealth Provincial Office showed that for 2006 and 2007, the total professional fees paid by PhilHealth to the province amounted to Php 57,773,273 (Provincial Economic Enterprise Development and Management Office, 2008).

As employees of the provincial government, the hospital officers and personnel enjoyed the implementation of the provisions in Magna Carta for Health Workers such as laundry and subsistence allowances and hazard. They also received extra bonus, productivity incentive bonus, collective negotiated agreement and clothing allowance.

Sustaining the Cost of Operation of Hospitals In 2004, the Sangguniang Panlalawigan of Bukidnon passed the Provincial Ordinance Number 2004-8R (9th SP). The ordinance mandates that operation of the provincial hospitals has to be treated as an economic enterprise.

As an economic enterprise, efforts were exerted to ensure that the services of the hospital are improved and reimbursements from PhilHealth are maximized. As income centers, these hospitals are semi-autonomous in their financial operation with their separate appropriation, book of account (eNGAS), bank account, and financial reports.

Likewise, the hospital heads are in control of appropriation in all financial obligations (OBRE).

The province has enrolled more indigent families under the sponsored program to take advantage of the PhilHealth Capitation Fund. From 2002 to 2007, the total fund transfer (reimbursements) that the province received from PhilHealth for hospital services and the Capitation Fund reached to Php 578,019,306. However, it is disturbing to find that fund transfer from PhilHealth due to hospital services on enrolled indigent patients from 2003 to 2007 averaged only at 58 percent. The rest of the reimbursements went to other hospitals in the province.

Innovations undertaken with regard to effective fund management include the concept of bulk procurement for medicine and medical supplies. Purchases of medicine 180

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passing through the normal bidding process are scheduled semi-annually. The process has effectively reduced the price of the medicine procured. However, the process is met with a problem- the perennial failure of bidding. This problem is generally attributed to the non-availability of medicines in the provincial hospitals.

Subsidy to Hospital Operation Though the hospitals generated income, the operations are being subdidized through an inter fund transfer from its General Fund. However, the amount of subsidies as against revenue generated suggests for the possibility of a complete financial independence of the hospitals.

A review of the revenue of the hospital operations as against the annual subsidy from the General Fund provides a very encouraging trend. Comparing the annual revenue generated as against the total subsidy to the hospitals from 2004 to 2007, data showed that total hospital revenue was higher than the total annual hospital subsidy.

A detailed analysis of the 2007 statement of operations of these hospitals with regard to their recurring costs showed that personnel cost the salaries and wages of permanent and casual personnel accounted for 36.29 percent. This was followed by the costs attributed to fringe and other benefits given to the personnel such as bonuses, Magna Carta for health workers, and collective negotiated agreements that accounted for 27.23 percent. Maintenance and other operating expenditures that include wages of personnel hired on-a-job-order status ranked third accounting for 22.91 percent.

Potential Best Practices This section attempts to document potential best practices that can be drawn from the delivery of a devolved health services to the Provincial Government of Bukidnon pursuant to the devolution under the Local Government Code of 1991. The hospital reforms undertaken are be considered as potential best practices. These reforms are mainly financial. The financial reforms took steps to achieve projected hospital income levels to be used as basis for the budgetary allocation for priority capital expenditures.

Schedules of hospital fees have been increased to the level of what PhilHealth allows as reimbursable as well as what the private hospital charges. However, user fees for charity/indigent patients are not instituted. The indigent patients enjoy 100% free services in provincial hospitals. This is an attempt of the province to ensure equitable access of the populace specially the poor to tertiary health services provided by the province.

Partnership Agreement with PhilHealth Corporation The partnership of the PGB and the Philippine Health Insurance Corporation has been embodied in an agreement entered into by the Provincial Governor based on the authority given by the Sangguniang Panlalawigan with the Philippine Health Insurance Corporation. The MOA was reviewed and modified to ensure that the interests of the province are protected. The modified provisions included the use of the PhilHealth 181

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Capitation Fund at the discretion of the Province in terms of how it will be spent for accredited Provincial Health Stations, specific number of days with regard to transfer of the PhilHealth Capitation Fund to the province, and a specific provision with regard to number of days for the reimbursement of hospital services for sponsored indigent patients.

Bukidnon Model for the PhilHealth Indigent Program The Bukidnon Model is essentially a scheme in the enrollment of indigent members to the PhilHealth Sponsored Program. It has the following components: (a) one effective date, (b) one sponsor, and (c) one capitation manager. The One Effective Date concept resolves the complicated implementation of the PhilHealth sponsored program that has multiple effectivity dates and multiple batches in the enrollment of sponsored families.

It has not only minimized the practice of adverse selection but also leads to easier data management and efficient monitoring of indigent enrollment status.

The One Sponsor strategy enabled the PhilHealth to negotiate with one single sponsor, thus simplifying the process of renewal while minimizing operational costs.

This has also minimized dual membership per household as the sponsor can employ monitoring mechanisms to avoid double membership. The One Capitation Manager scheme ensures the efficient utilization and management of the PCF while providing the sponsor with the opportunity to improve the delivery of health services.

Support Mechanisms to Ensure Accessibility of the Program The province has adopted a policy that excess hospital charges normally shouldered by the sponsored patients under the PhilHealth Indigent Program will be shouldered by the province and not by the sponsored indigents or their beneficiaries.

This move has further enhanced access to health services by providing a totally free hospital services. Also, it has forced most of the private hospitals in Bukidnon to adopt the same policy that is ultimately benefited by the vulnerable groups in the province.

Likewise, the provision for financial assistance to the different municipalities and cities of the province is adopted. This was spent for enrolled families who lack documents to support their membership such as birth certificates, marriage contracts, and registrations ensuring that the indigents are fully covered by the program of the government. This move had also improved the collection efficiency of the province as it claims for PhilHealth reimbursement.

Provincial Health Stations and Hospital Facility Development The establishment of the Provincial Health Stations in municipalities where there is no provincial hospital has made the outpatient package services more accessible to the indigent families. The investment in hospital building facility development and medical hospital equipment has not only improved the capacities of the devolved hospitals but has also enhanced the ability of these hospitals to be income generators.

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covered by Philippine Health Insurance Corporation.

The province’s investment in hospital equipment and the adoption of “no excess payment” policy for indigent families have brought down the cost of hospital services in the province. The private hospitals have drastically reduced their laboratory fees and some have also adopted the “no excess policy” for the indigents enrolled by the province.

CONCLUSIONS A hefty 25% to 30% of the provincial budget goes to the devolved hospital operations. Such allocation has resulted in a major rethinking by the Province on how to sustain operation and effectively pursue hospital reform initiatives. These initiatives include financial reforms, facility upgrading, and hospital category upgrading.

The national government through the province’s share from the Internal Revenue Allotment is the main source of income of the province. The other major source is the PhilHealth’s fund transfers to the province. Hospital services are considered potential income source and not entirely an expense source. Likewise, the enrollment of indigent families under the PhilHealth-sponsored program can also be treated as a strategy to maximize reimbursements from PhilHealth to the province.

The initiatives of the devolved hospitals are geared toward sustaining the hospital operations and ensuring that services are accessible to the poor. The initiatives include massive enrollment of the poor under the sponsored indigents program of PhilHealth, the establishment of the Provincial Health Stations that provide diagnostic consultation and outpatient package, and hospital facility development to increase the authorized bed capacity of the provincial hospitals.

The implementation of the health development plan to improve health service delivery necessitates the local government’s strong political will. This requires the infusion of resources (financial, logistics, manpower, etc.), provision of mandatory benefits to the health workers, and policies that provide the legal mandates. Without political will, the realization of the intended reforms cannot be achieved.

The policy to operate the devolved hospitals as income centers is a major shift in governance with the view of sustaining hospital operations. While subsidy from the General Fund to the provincial hospitals is still substantial, the downward trend indicates attainment of financial independence over time. The financial reforms that include income retention, billing and collection system based on the financial classification of the patient demonstrate governance reforms geared towards fiscal autonomy and equity to access of services.

The Bukidnon Model provides for a win-win situation for both the PhilHealth and the Provincial Government: for PhilHealth, the opportunity to do more with less effort and resources thus enhance PhilHealth - 10 productivity; for the Provincial Government, the bulk of enrollment though a huge financial investment will eventually provide higher benefits in the form of “fee for service” reimbursement and PhilHealth 183

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Capitation Fund.

The Bukidnon hospital system demonstrates an attempt for cost-efficiency through an appropriate mix of primary, secondary, and tertiary hospitals to address the needs of its population. The province has upgraded its tertiary and secondary hospitals and has opened a new secondary hospital. Health reforms can be equated with the need for upgrading facilities and equipment, additional manpower to augment service delivery, and higher budget for drugs, medicines, supplies, and other maintenance and operating expenses.

LITERATURE CITED Bossert T, & Beauvais J (2002). Decentralization of health systems in Ghana, Zambia, Uganda and the Philippines: a comparative analysis of decision space in Health Policy and Planning; 17: 14-31. Available http://heapol.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/17/1/14. pdf.

Department of Health (1999). Health sector reform agenda, Philippines, 19992004.

Department of Health (2005). Fourmula one for health: the road map for health sector reforms in the Philippines 2005 – 2010 Available: www2.doh.gov.ph/F1/F1_ MAIN.htm - Cached.

Management Sciences for Health - Health sector reform technical assistance project (2001). Handbook on the capitation payment mechanism for the out-patient benefit package of PhilHealth.

Republic Act 7160 – The Local Government Code of 1991.Available: www.dilg. gov.ph/LocalGovernmentCode.aspx - 316k - Cached.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (1997). Human development report: South Asia Chapter IV. Available: http://hdr.undp.org/report/detail_reports. cfm?view=100.

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Flexural Strength of Concrete Beams Containing Twinned Coconut Fibers WILSON O. TABLAN wiltab_59@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University

Date Submitted: July 6, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: October 30, 2007

Abstract - The study examined the effect of twined coconut fibers as reinforcement to concrete beams on its flexural strength and cracking behavior. For treatment, 25% twined coconut fibers were added as reinforcement. The ratio of 1:2:4 mixture of concrete was used in making the specimens and a curing period of twenty-eight days was observed.

The results showed that the concrete beams reinforced with twined coconut fibers yielded a higher flexural strength compared to concrete beams without coconut fiber reinforcement. Moreover, concrete beams with twined coconut fibers indicated transformation from abrupt to gradual failure of the specimens and splitting when ultimate load was applied. Hence, the added twined coconut fibers enhanced the flexural strength of the concrete beams.

Key words- Twinned coconut fibers, Concrete mix, Flexural strength, Concrete beams.

INTRODUCTION Flexural strength is of special importance in spite of its low magnitude as compared to compressive strength. It is most commonly utilized in beams and slabs (Gambhir 1995) . Flexural loads, temperature change, uneven shrinkage, and moisture change cause undue stresses (Herubin 1977). Plain concrete is inherently weak in tension and has limited ductility and little resistance to cracking. Micro cracks are always present in concrete ( Siddique 1997). Because of its low tensile strength, the cracks propagate

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with the application of load. In general, concrete members are provided with steel reinforcement because of the latter’s high modulus of elasticity and tensile strength.

A reinforcement material with high modulus of elasticity is capable of imparting additional stiffness to the concrete, resulting to an increased cracking strength (Santha & Santha 1999).

Today, the use of coconut fibers (coir) has become very common among professionals in various industries due to its versatility. In the horticulture industry, agricultural industry, erosion control industry or construction industry for nonstructural members, coir has established a remarkable reputation for its superiority to other available natural materials. The processed coconut fibers are light in weight, strong, and elastic. They are resistant to abrasion and seawater. They have extremely low decomposition rate and have high strength compared to other natural fibers. According to Balaguru and Shah (1994), coconut fibers have an ultimate strength of 120-200 MPa and an elongation at break of 10-25% of the length.

The study on the variability in flexural strength has been lagging behind. It is clear, however, that the flexural strength has a relatively greater fluctuation than compressive strength (Montgomery 1991). The failure of the plain concrete beam in bending test is controlled by the tensile strength of the concrete. The propagation of microcracks has an important role in this respect. A simplified explanation is that as soon as the tensile stress reaches a maximum value in the bottom fiber of the beam in which the section cannot resist cracking, failure occurs (Gram 1989). It is a well-established fact that, in most cases, the failure of concrete under load takes place through progressive, rather than abrupt, internal cracking starting in the matrix portion.

The incorporation of small steel fibers to the plain concrete beam increases its local tensile strength, thus increasing the concrete bean’s flexural strength. The fibers trap cracks and reduce or delay their spread. In other words, the addition of fibers to plain concrete beam converts the abrupt failure in bending into a gradual failure (Castro & Naaman 1981). It is assumed that the flexural strength and cracking behavior of the concrete beams would be affected by the addition of twined coconut fibers.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY As generally observed, natural fibers can be used as reinforcement in cementbased composites to produce low-cost housing elements. Moreover, fiber-reinforced board costs lesser as compared to commercial board, but offers higher strength and ductility and toughness (Sera, 1990). This study was conducted to determine whether the twined coconut fibers, when added to concrete mix, would improve the flexural strength of the concrete beam. Likewise, this study also aimed to find out if twined coconut fiber would help in minimizing cracks due to load applications.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS Test specimen The cement composites for testing were prepared in the form of rectangular beams, 150mm x 150mm x 535mm, as described in ASTM C 78-84 for the determination of the standard control flexural strength. Twenty specimens of ten replicas of plain cement composites and ten replicas of 0.25% by weight of the aggregates of coconut fibers were made and tested. For each batch mixed, the slump test was conducted to measure the workability in accordance with ASTM C 143-78 (Slump of Portland Cement Concrete). The curing time of all specimens was 28 days before laboratory testing was performed.

Specimens were cured in accordance with ASTM C 31-84, the standard method of making and curing concrete test specimen in the field. The Third-Point Loading Method (ASTM C 78-84) was used for testing. The loading rate to failure applied to the specimen was 5 kN/sec.

Preparation of Test Specimens The aggregates were dried for five days to ensure a Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) condition before using them.

Weighted Ratio of Concrete Mix: 1:2:4 Cement Sand Gravel Water

: : : :

40 kg 80kg 160 kg 4OkgxO.48

=

19.2kg

Computation: Absolute Volume of Materials = weight I unit weight Cement: 4013.15 = 12.698 L or 0.012698 mm3 Sand : 80/2.64 = 30.303 L or 0.030303 m3 Gravel : 160 / 2.68 = 59.702 L or 0.059702 m3 Water : 19.2/l.0=19.2LorO.0192m3 Total Absolute Volume of Materials = 121.903 L or 0.121903 m3.

Volume of Mold: 150mm x 150mm x 535mm = 12,037,500 mm3 or 0.0 10375 m3 Total Volume of Molds: 0.010375 m3 x 10 0.10375 m3.

Volume of Materials for every Mixture: Volume of Matenals = Weight x total volume of molds Total absolute volume of materials Using 180% water absorption by weight of coconut fibers (FCR Publication, 1987) 187

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and 0.48 water-cement ratio: Water Absorbed: Weight of Fiber x 180% water absorption: Plain Concrete Mixture: Cement : 40kg x 0.10375 m3 / 0.12 1903 m3 = 34.043 kg Sand : 34.043 kgx268.086 kg Gravel : 34.043 kgx4 = 136. 172 kg Water : 19.2 kgxo.10375 /0.121903 = 16.341 kg Concrete with 0.25% Coconut Fibers Mixture: Cement : 34.043 kg Fiber : % fiber x (wt. of sand + wt. of gravel from Mixture A).

0.25% x (68.086 + 136.172) = 5.126 kg Sand : 68.086 kg Gravel : 136.172kg Water : 16.341 kg The experimental method used in this study was the comparison between control specimens (without treatment) and the experimental specimens with treatment with ten replications each. The dependent variable in the experiment was the flexural strength while the independent variable was the percentage of twined coconut fibers by weight of aggregates. The data gathered from the experiment were analyzed using t-test at 5% level of significance. This method was further used to compare the sets of specimens and to find out if there was a significant difference between their means.

Hypothesis: Ho: The use of twined coconut fibers as a concrete reinforcement does not have any significant effect on the concrete beam’s flexural strength. That is: µc=µT. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Ultimate Load Data Table 4.1 shows the ultimate load carried by each specimen.

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Ten replicas for plain cement composites and ten replicas for cement composites with 0:25% twined coconut fibers as reinforcement were tested. A total of twenty specimens were produced. The results revealed that the specimens without coconut fibers splitted abruptly into two after while the specimens with 0.25% twined coconut fibers did not split but cracked slowly. The twined coconut fibers controlled the cracking and splitting of the specimens.

Computed Flexural Strength Data The flexural strength of each specimen was computed using the third-point loading method based on the formula in ASTM C 78-84: f= PL/bd2 Where: f— flexural strength P – dead load + ultimate load of the specimen L – effective length of the span, 450mm B – width of the specimen, 150mm D – depth of the specimen,l5Omm.

The computed results of the flexural strength of every specimen using the threepoint loading equation are in Table 4.2. The variations of the computed flexural strength of the two sets of specimens were perhaps due to the manual compaction of fresh concrete.

Statistical Analysis Using T-test

Table 4.3 shows the corresponding values of the descriptive statistics of the computed flexural strength. As shown, the mean of the control set was 16.790 while that of the experimental set result reveals a difference in flexural strength for about 25%. It also reveals that the dispersion of the data for the control set was smaller than 189

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of the experimental set as indicated by standard deviation.

The normality test for control and experimental sets shows that the flexural strength data were normally distributed as evidenced by the Ryan-Joiner Normality Test. The R values of 0.9748 (control) and 0.9780 (experimental) were obtained. Table 4.4 shows the results of the analysis using t-test of the computed flexural strength.

The statistical analysis shows a T-Value of the Two-Sample t-test was -3.41 and a P-Value = 0.003 <0.05. Therefore, there was a significant difference in flexural strength between the control and experimental specimens at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the hypothesis was rejected.

CONCLUSIONS The flexural strength of the concrete beam is significantly affected by mixing twined coconut fibers Adding coconut fibers into the mixture gives a 25 % additional flexural strength to plain concrete.

The presence of coconut fibers as concrete reinforcement minimizes cracking and controls abrupt failure and splitting of the concrete.

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LITERATURE CITED Balaguru, P. N. and Sha, S. P., (1992). Fiber reinforced cement composites, Singapore, McGrawhill, Inc., pp. 20-23, 105.

Balaguru, P. N., May-Jun (1994). “Contribution of fibers to crack reduction of cement composites during initial and final setting period”, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 91, No. 3, pp 280-288.

Castro, J. and Naaman, A. E., (1981). “Cement mortar reinforced with natural fibers”. Journal of Ferrocement, Vol.11, No. 4, pp. 285-301.

Gambhir, M. L., (1995). Concrete technology, New Delhi, Tata McGrawhill Publishing Company, Second Edition, pp. 204-2 15.

Gram, H. E., (1989). “FCR and MCR — concrete roofing tiles with or without fibres”, FCR-News, FAS-Fibre Concrete Roofing Advisory. 5: 3-9.

Herubin, M. T., (1977). Basic construction materials, methods and testing, 3rd Edition, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., pp. 31-39.

Montgomery, D. C., (1991) Design and analysis of experiments, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 3rd Edition.

Santha and Santha, (1999) Facts on coir: lessons from the past, Rolanka international, Inc., 365 Toccoa Place, Jonesboro GA 30236 Sera, B. E., (1990). “Natural fibers as reinforcement”. Journal of Ferrocement, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 109-124.

Siddique, R., (1997). Concrete beams reinforced with twines of natural fibers”, Journal of Ferrocement, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 119-125.

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Menopausal Stressors as Attributes of Behavioral Changes FE S. TOLIBAS gvtolibas@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: May 20, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: September 24, 2007

Abstract - The study delved into the menopausal stressors as attributes of behavioral changes among the selected tertiary female faculty in Cagayan de Oro City. The researcher used the descriptive design. Forty- four full-time and part-time tertiary instructors in Cagayan de Oro City were chosen as respondents of the study. They experienced either premature, surgical, or normal menopause. The majority of the respondents aged between 56-60 years old, was married, has doctorates, earned between P10, 000 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; P30, 000, and went through the natural type of menopause. The respondents experienced to a low extent the mental, sexual, and physiological (pains) stressors while psychological, social and physiological (discomforts) stressors were experienced to a very low extent. There was a high positive relationship between menopausal stressors and behavioral changes experienced by the menopause women. The women who are in the teaching profession experienced little problem of discomforts brought about by menopausal stressors. The high relationship between menopausal stressors and behavioral changes shows that the higher the menopausal stressors a woman experiences, the higher the degree of behavioral change occurs.

Key words â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Behavioral Changes, Menopausal stressors, Hormonal Changes

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INTRODUCTION Women may find menopause a time to reflect on the past. They may look at their past and present relationships, choices about children, and work satisfaction. Some may experience regrets about certain decisions or unfulfilled dreams. Reflecting on past events and exploring choices made throughout life can prove difficult for some women. While some women feel relieved from regular menstruation, others develop a sense of loss.

They see menstruation as a symbol of feminity and womanliness. In silence, they begin to question their female identity. They find it difficult to accept the loss of reproduction, which triggers their feelings of loneliness.

Literally, menopause is a term which means the last menstrual period. It typically occurs in “midlife.” It is a normal event in life, characterized by hormonal changes (Dacey & Travers 2004). It is the beginning of a new phase in a woman’s life that will bring different expectations, opportunities, and experiences. The experience of menopause varies widely from woman to woman and from culture to culture. All women undergo the same basic hormonal changes during menopause. A woman’s ovaries produce three types of hormones – oestrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. These hormones play a vital role in menstruation, ovulation, and pregnancy.

Some women go through menopause in their thirties. This is called premature menopause. Just as the young girl starts her period early (anytime after nine) and still be normal, she can normally stop menstruating early. Surgical menopause results immediately after the removal of the ovaries. If only one ovary is removed and the remaining one continues to function, then one will go through menopause at the normal time. But when the remaining ovary stops functioning prematurely because of injury to its blood supply during surgery, then premature menopause occurs (Love and Lindsay 1997). Normal menopause takes place when the woman reaches the age of forty-five to fifty years old.

Behavioral changes are evident among women who are in midlife crisis, during or after menopause. Husbands, children, and colleagues can attest to this. While some are old and emotionally exhausted to rear a continuous chain of children, they still move on and even bloom after menopause. However, others feel so weary and disturbed and find themselves unbalanced in given situations that at times they get lost of the many things they ought to do in life. One may breeze through menopause with discomfort or may experience a number of physical and emotional changes.

According to Serrano (2005), changes are likely to happen such as fat accumulation in the body and emergence of facial hair due to the presence of small amounts of the male hormone testosterone. Hot flashes occur in the upper body (the face might look flushed, and red blotches may appear on the chest, neck and arms lasting from 30 seconds to as long as 30 days, one may feel chilled, weak and slightly faint). Sleep disturbances and 193

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night sweats are followed by chills. One in four midlife women experience insomnia. Lack of sleep may affect one’s mood and overall health and ultimately leads to the predictable result of stress and emotional strain (Mansfield 2006).

As a woman goes through menopause, she may experience mood swings, become more irritable or be more prone to emotional upset. An important aspect of relationship between emotion and behavior is the way a person handles menopause. The more stressful the changes take place in the woman’s life, the greater the likelihood of illness and psychological stressors to occur such as anxiety, nervousness, tenseness, anger, irritability and depression (Horan 2003). Attitudes are generally regarded to be part of personality. They show wide individual differences which are sometimes linked with actual behavior.

The researcher finds this a mystery from a purely evolutionary point of view. Young and old women have always been curious to find clues to answer few questions such as why women, who almost reach the finishing line of their motherhood or who are in it now, exhibit change of lifestyle, and apparently a sudden shift of behavior that confuses everyone surrounding them. Realizing the uncomfortable truth about this scenario, the researcher endeavors to carry out this study to particularly identify the extent of physiological, mental, psychological, sexual, and social stressors experienced by the tertiary female faculty during and after menopause and to what degree these stressors influenced their behavior in terms of anxiety, assertiveness, dominance, aggression, hostility, social withdrawal, and self-destructive behavior. The result of the sequence of events would somehow affect the behavior of teachers in their dealings with their clientele.

FRAMEWORK This study is anchored on the “Life Events Theory of Stress” as cited by Linsky.

(1995), which says that as the degree of stressful life events increases, the ability to adopt to the changes decreases. That is, if the stressors brought about by life events - divorce, unemployment, and physical health deterioration due to cessation of the menstrual cycle - the capacity of the individuals to cope diminishes. This is so because the stresses felt by the individual make them difficult to adjust to the changes. Consequently, they develop psychological state of aggression as an adaptive mechanism. Some menopausal women experience mood swings. There is a sudden change of feeling or reaction towards someone or to some given situations. Serious psychological problems, such as depression and emotional distress, are experiences to be considered. In the study of McKinley (2005), women who had a long and symptomatic premenopausal were more likely to feel somewhat distressed. Emotional stressors are considered to be internal to the person who drives the person to behave or feel in certain ways. For instance, if the individual is cheerful then it is assured that her enthusiastic behavior and manner is a reflection of this internal disposition. The facial expression is universally recognized as depicting the emotion of anger, fear, and sadness.

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The stress is felt when hormonal changes occur in the body’s equilibrium, upsetting the person. Another stressor which is related to hormones or menstrual cycle is headache.

However, this nagging discomfort tends to go away after menopause. Generally, it has to do with blood vessel constriction in the brain. The image of past menopausal women as “drying up” is experienced. It loses sexual lubrication and therefore all interest in sex. The losses of sexual interest and reduced sexual activity or declines in libido are experienced.

Women feel released from having to worry about sex. On some occasions, insomnia happens. This is a kind of disturbance of sleep. For instance, when awakened from a good sleep, it will take hours before one falls asleep again. Occasionally, when one fails to follow regular sleeping time, the succeeding nights will be sleepless nights. Hot flashes are very common. One’s face gets red and hot because blood rushes to the vessels nearest the surface to release heat more easily and sweats out. These physiological stressors give one the idea of the importance of the physiological systems. The physiological system is important to the maintenance of life. Some theories simply state that a physiological difference results in a given difference in the behavior pattern.

The concept of self-destruction is an act that is self induced. It happens in many forms and for numerous reasons. It can be as simple as not returning an important phone call or as complex as the thoughts that lead to suicide. It is a sequence of events, sometimes even subconsciously performed, but all with the same goal - to destroy some parts or maybe all of one’s life. In a lot of cases, self-destruction, self-injury and suicide have very little to do with each other in a technical sense. The only clear-cut similarity is the desire for self-inflicted harm.

A self-destructive person may stay that way for a very long time without ever becoming consciously aware of what he is accomplishing. But, almost all of the people who self injure or become suicidal know what they’re doing or end up figuring it out along the way. A large number of self injurers and the majority of those with self-destructive tendencies really have no intention of killing themselves. They actually use the action more as a way to cope or avoid dealing with their life. It’s not always the stepping stone to suicide that many people perceive it to be.

In addition, suicidal people do not necessarily exhibit obvious self-destructive behaviors before they attempt to kill themselves. Of course, sometimes the feelings of hopelessness and despair that may lead to self-destruction can elevate to the level of suicidal ideation or attempts. Dropping out of social interactions and normal activities is another sign of potential or worsening mental health problems for an older person.

Signs to watch include: having a strong preference for being alone, preoccupation with death themes, withdrawing from family, social, or volunteer activities, and not keeping appointments for medical or personal care.

Depression is a common cause of social withdrawal and is often overlooked in the elderly. It can isolate an individual. Feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness may be overwhelming. Whether mild, moderate, or severe, depression—regardless of age—can always be treated. Geriatric patients are being successfully treated with medications and various forms of psychotherapy. Another frequent—and often treatable—cause of 195

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social withdrawal among the elderly is failing hearing or vision. Sensory loss can lead to feelings ranging from embarrassment to paranoia. Real strides have been made in the fields of vision and hearing correction. Some seniors feel that an inability to transport themselves or physically keep up with younger family members will make them a burden in participating in social activities. They may imagine they are not really welcome.

Sometimes basic changes such as new glasses, a hearing aid, a less strenuous schedule, or reassurances that are wanted will enable the person to partake in and enjoy activities again. Social interactions are an important support toward wellness. They benefit both the older person and the people who care for them.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study aimed to determine the menopausal stressors as attributes of behavioral changes among the selected tertiary faculty in Cagayan de Oro City. Specifically, it sought to achieve to the following objectives: (1) to describe the profile of menopausal women respondents; (2) to determine the extent the women experienced the menopausal stressors; (3) to assess the degree of behavioral changes; (4) to relate the menopausal stressors to behavioral changes; and (5) to find interventing effects of the women’s characteristics on the relationship of the variables.

METHODOLOGY The descriptive research design was used to attain the objectives of the study. Fortyfour (44) full-time and part-time tertiary instructors were chosen as respondents of the study. They came from different schools, namely Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro College, Lourdes College, Mindanao Polytechnic State College, and Bukidnon State College. They experienced either premature, surgical, or normal menopause. They were identified by their respective deans.

The instrument used in the study was divided into three parts. Part I drew out the respondents’ profile as age, civil status, educational attainment, type of school, family monthly income, and type of menopause. Part II pertained to menopausal stressors.

Adopted from Collins (2002), it contained 18 items categorized into five headings: mental, psychological, physiological, sexual, and social. It used the 5-point rating scale – (5) to a very high extent, (4) to a high extent, (3) to a moderate extent, (2) to a low extent, and (1) to a very low extent. Part III pertained to the behavioral changes experienced by the respondents. It used the 4 – point rating scale: (4) always, (3) most of the time, (2) sometimes, (1) rarely, and (0) never.

The components of behavioral changes included anxiety and emotional states, assertive states, dominance, aggression and hostility, social withdrawal, and selfdestructive behavior. This part was adopted from de Jesus (1998). The questionnaire utilized to draw the needed data was tested to determine its validity and reliability. The questionnaire’s content was thoroughly reviewed before its distribution for testing. Thirty (30) non-career women of the Couples for Christ Organization in Kauswagan, Cagayan de Oro City were tapped for the study. The index of reliability for Part II was 0.8749, indicating a high degree of reliability. Part III showed a reliability index of 0.85, indicating 196

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still a high degree of reliability.

Since the scope of the study was citywide, the researcher distributed the questionnaires through the deans of the colleges and universities. The retrieval of the same was done through mailing, thus the deans were provided with return stamped envelope.

The obtained data were processed using the SPSS at the Research and Planning Office of Liceo de Cagayan University. The results were analyzed and interpreted. To describe the characteristics of the variables included in the study, frequency and percentage distribution were used for the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; profile, weighted mean for problems two and three, correlation coefficient to determine the relationship between the extent of menopausal stressors and the degree of behavioral changes, and partial correlation to determine the intervening effect of the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; profile on the relationship between menopausal stressors and behavioral changes.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This section discusses the answers to the problems posed in the study, interprets the tests of hypotheses and captures the highlights of the data. The order of discussion follows the sequences of the problems and the hypotheses of the study.

On Profile of Women Respondents

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Menopausal mental stressor refers to less retention and recall of facts for a definite period of time, which women experience before or after menopause. The mental stressors were experienced to a low extent as revealed by an overall mean of 1.77. Rated the highest among the items was trouble with remembering things and events (2.13), while the lowest was difficulty with diminishing reasoning skills (1.56). The mental changes associated with menopause vary from woman to woman. The data show that the respondents experienced mental menopausal stressors to a low extent. It is attributed to the fact that as teachers, they are mentally active as they exercise their academic functions. A number of studies found deterioration in some types of memory. It can be said that as women grow older, they experience memory lapses. An example is a lapse on prospective memory, a memory required to carry out planned actions at the appropriate time, such as meeting a friend for lunch, taking a medication or recalling facts and information that have been stored in the long-term memory. It is a fact that the memory declines with age (Bradberry 2005). Furthermore, Whiting and Smith found out that middle adults have more difficulty than younger adults in memory tasks requiring more cognitive effort such as recall.

The psychological stressors are associated with the possibilities for human contact and interaction. Overall, the psychological stressors were experienced to a very low extent.

Sleep problems may arise and include the viability and a generally unsatisfying sleep period, which is usually indicated by feeling tired after what seemed the proper amount of sleep (Papalia & Feldman 2004). Inferiority complex was rated the lowest. While other psychological factors, like loss of confidence, fear, confusion, and sensitivity are felt, their self-esteem remained the same. In other words, they remain productive, composed, and able to exercise their authority to perform the various activities called for their profession.

The problem on difficulty in falling asleep is attributed to some factors which are unrelated 198

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to menopause such as drinking caffeinated beverage or lifestyle modifications constrained by excessive work â&#x20AC;&#x201C; related activities or social commitments.

The physiological stressors refer to the properties in the brain, nervous system, muscles, and bones which make the movement and behavior possible with physical discomfort (Love 1997). Table 5 shows the physical discomforts were experienced to a low extent by the respondents included hot flushes (1.98), frequent urination (1.93), night sweats (1.91), and more body fat (1.83). The rest of the physical discomforts, such as coldness of hands and feet, morning fatigue, nausea, and increased acne were experienced to a very low extent.

The pains and illnesses experienced to a low extent by the respondents included headache (1.76), lower back pain (1.92), muscle and joint pains (2.07), increased blood pressure (1.84), rise in blood sugar (1.84), loss firmness and fullness of the skin (1.79), and shrinking and sagging of breast (1.88). The rest of body pains and illnesses, such as allergies (1.71), asthma (1.45), anemia (1.46), coronary disease/heart ailment (1.66), and thinning of the pubic hair (1.73), were experienced to a very low extent. As women reach the age of 40s and 50s, they undergo changes due to the decline of estrogen. They experience the ceasing of their ovariesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; normal function, which leads to a lot of physiological changes.

The onset of menopause usually lowers the level of hormones in the blood, which effects include hot flushes, night sweat, anxiety attacks, mood swings and even depression, not to mention the rise of blood sugar and lower back pain. All these come for one reason 199

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â&#x20AC;&#x201C; hormone imbalance (Linsky 1995). Menopause, nevertheless, is a psychological as well as a physical milestone in the ageing process, and such milestone may produce varying degrees of stress (Arsendatama 2005).

The sexual stressors refer to the lessening sexual desire and fantasies caused by vaginal discomfort due to dryness, thus making sexual activity painful and less pleasurable. The data in Table 6 reveal that vaginal dryness (1.95), less sexual fantasies (1.83), and less receptiveness to sex (1.76) were experienced to a low extent. On the other hand, diminished sex drive (1.70) and vaginal itching and pain (1.51) were experienced to a very low extent. The period before menopause is known as the premenopausal when some loss of libido occurs. The hormone called progesterone is responsible for this downfall and is the main cause of hormonal imbalance. The job of hormones is to regulate certain processes in the body. An insufficiency in hormones disrupts this balance and creates problems. Vaginal dryness and discomfort can force women to avoid having sex altogether (Calhoun 2000).

Estrogen is the primary sex hormone in a woman. The loss of estrogen leads to a loss of sexual desire. Women produce testosterone in low levels. Testosterone is also responsible for promoting sexual drive. The once supple tissues of the vagina that produce lubrication become thin and dry in the absence of estrogen, which normally sends messages to the genitals to prepare for sexual activity (Beckham 1995).

The social stressors refer to the loss of enthusiasm to associate with other people, less interest in joining family reunions and meeting new acquaintances. In other words, menopausal women prefer to live a quiet life (Table 7). They do not exert effort to assert for they have lost self-motivation and confidence. The data show that loss of competitive edge (1.64), loss of energy in associating with people (1.64), less motivation (1.63), loss in meeting acquaintances (1.57), less assertiveness (1.54), and loss of interest in family socialization (1.52) were all experienced to a very low extent. They are less motivated, assertive, and competitive because of the realization that life is halfway over. It involves 200

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reflection on what they have done with their lives often with feelings that they can no longer accomplished beyond the expectations of people surrounding them, hence the feeling of insecurity becomes evident. However, the respondents rated this category to a very low extent (1.57).

On Behavioral Changes

Table 8 shows that the overall degree of behavioral changes experienced by the respondents was very low (1.74). Specifically, experienced at a low degree were worry and emotional fear (1.77), persistent anger if a goal/activity is not achieved (1.76), persistent irritability and change of mood (1.83), heightened emotional tone (1.78), and agitated feelings (1.78). Experienced at a very low degree were feeling of tension/confused and disconnected thought process (1.57), apprehension and uncertainty (1.64), restlessness and unstable emotion (1.60), feeling of unexplained unhappiness (1.74), and explosive outburst (1.60).

The data indicate that when menopause hits, women go through anxiety and depression. Anxiety for most of them is an inevitable part of life. Menopausal women encounter everyday real life situations such as meeting deadlines on the submission of reports, payment of bills, rearing children, and other financial obligations to settle.

Occasionally, the real life issues that elicit deeper emotional concerns include fear of abandonment, rejection, or not being loved (Clay 2005). Though these are experienced to a very low extent, they can interfere womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s quality of life and their ability to function optimally in their daily routine.

The data in Table 9 reveal that the respondents have learned to immerse in the culture of the institutions they belong. The low degree of assertiveness indicates that the 201

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respondents are clear about what they feel, what they need, and how they can achieve their targets. They are able to communicate calmly without attacking other people. They know their boundaries, feel comfortable to defend their positions even if they provoke conflict, feel confident in handling issues if they occur, able to talk openly about themselves, and able to listen to others with appropriateness and flexibility (Salovey 2000). Overall, they are confident as they function in social institutions.

In terms of dominance (Table 10), the respondents experienced to a low extent the desire to excel in solving problems that other people have difficulty with (1.95) and the persistent desire to direct the action of other people (1.78). The rest of the items, such as like to be the center of attention in a group (1.38), feeling of superiority complex (1.53), desire to be recognized at all times (1.50), like to ask questions which no one will be able to answer (1.38), and too proud to have done a difficult job well (1.68), were rated to a very low extent. Menopausal women tend to be dominant due to the decline of hormones and other related hereditary factors (Birren & Schiae 1997). Since the respondents are mostly educated, they feel that their experience in life clothed them with the authority to direct the actions of other people and feel proud to have accomplished well a job and eventually expect due recognition. However, as the findings indicate, they allow others to play their role in life, indicating that they still recognize their peers, colleagues, family, and other members of the society.

On the behavioral change of the respondents in terms of aggression and hostility, physical violence directed at others (1.24), intrafamily assault (1.26), criticizing others publicly (1.33), and blaming others when they go wrong (1.49) were all rated to a very low extent (Table 11). It is a reaction to circumstances in which essential requirements of our nature remain unfulfilled, which may lead to quarrel as a result of arguments due to differences in ideas, and, when not settled appropriately, may eventually end up in 202

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physical violence. The respondents rated these variables to a very low extent because they are teachers and are considered role models in the community. They respect personal boundaries of others and are aware of the liabilities should they harm others. Extra care must be exercised in their behavior as this is linked to self-esteem. They tend not to cause stress on others and experience decreased levels of stress on themselves to avoid relational conflict that may hinder the realization of some personal goals. This involves expressing their own needs while respecting the rights of others. Maintaining the dignity of both parties will undoubtedly develop healthier and more satisfying relationship (Olsen 2006).

As to the degree of behavioral change in terms of social withdrawal, Table 12 shows the respondents rated to a very low extent feeling timid in the presence of other people (1.67), avoiding responsibilities and obligations (1.50), desiring towards exclusiveness and isolation (1.67), neglecting of personal grooming (1.30), loss of spontaneous desire to interact with others (1.55), and unfriendly attitude towards others (1.25). The data suggest that women go through changes in their behavior during pre - and post - menopausal stages.

The stereotypes of a woman - sociable, interactive, friendly, daring, and concern for beauty tips - start to diminish. They are startled by the change in their feelings towards social responsibilities. They prefer to be in what we call â&#x20AC;&#x153;quiet nest;â&#x20AC;? nevertheless, they are still involved in school activities to keep themselves preoccupied in order to make their midlife years still productive and enjoyable. They are on the edge of a major life reassessment that makes them better persons and helps them keep a good relationship with the people around them (Papalia 2006).

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Table 13 shows the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; degree of self-destructive behaviors. Deviant behavior (1.14), drug use (1.12), smoking (1.12), and attempted suicide (1.12) were experienced to a very low extent. The data imply that the respondents are very much aware of the health effects alcoholism, drug use, and smoking. They consider selfdestructive behaviors as unhealthy patterns of responding to feelings of insecurities. It is important for them not to entertain any form of self-destructive behavior, instead apply their skills to bring about fruitful and meaningful learning experiences and continue to move around with self-assurance, confidence, and self-determination. They instill in their minds that the use of drugs, in an attempt to control emotions, would bring harmful physical effects. Smoking, alcoholism, and the display of deviant behavior are recognized as self-destructive, thus least resorted to (Mill 2004).

Table 14 presents the correlation coefficients on the test of relationship between the extent of menopausal stressors and the degree of behavioral changes among the selected tertiary female faculty in Cagayan de Oro City. The relationship between mental stressors and behavioral changes was high as disclosed by the correlation coefficient of .75. Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected in this case. Specifically, a very high positive relationship was established between mental stressor and anxiety and emotional states and a high positive relationship between mental stressor and aggression and hostility (r=.77) and self-destructive behavior (r=.79). These findings indicate that the higher the mental stress a woman experiences, the higher the degree of behavioral change occurs. As postulated

by Freud (cited by Hall 1998), anxiety, aggressive state of behavior, and physical hostility 204

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and violence are consequences of mental conflict when an individual is confronted with inevitable repression brought about by certain twarted impulses and drives. In this study, the twarted impulses and drives created a negative mental state of mind as women experienced uncomfortable menopausal syndrome. In the menopausal stage, women who cannot meet appropriate mental adjustment usually experience unrealistic fears, irrational emotional states, feeling of isolation and hostile behavior patterns.

The data further reveal that a moderate positive relationship existed between mental stressors and behavioral changes in terms of assertiveness (r=.67), dominance (r=.59), and social withdrawal (r=.67). These significant relationships indicate that behavioral changes occur when mental stress occurs. Coping with this situation, women exert effort to maintain some degree of control over their significant others by being assertive and dominant. The development of superiority complex is a denial of the lost of self-esteem during the menopausal stage. The feeling of resentment as well as concern about being treated as of no importance may result in being dominant. In addition, some may tend to develop a trait of introversion and prefer being isolated from the society and even from their families. Birren and Schaie (1997) supported the positive relationship between mental stress during menopausal stage and behavioral changes when they posited that mental stress lessens the menopausal womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s self-esteem and increases their self-doubts.

These, in turn, result in negative coping mechanisms such as exercising control over others or, in the contrary, withdrawing from others and feeling a sense of contentment of being alone.

Moreover, a significant high positive relationship was found between psychological stress and behavioral changes as disclosed by the overall correlation coefficient of .70. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected in this case. Specifically, a perfect positive relationship was established between psychological stress and assertiveness (r=1.0). A moderate positive relationship existed between psychological stress and other behavioral changes in terms of anxiety and emotional states (r=.67), dominance (r=.67), aggression and hostility (r=.69), social withdrawal (r=.62), and self-destructive behavior (r=54). The findings imply that women become assertive when they experience psychological stress caused by menopausal discomforts. Assertiveness is a denial sign of aging (Mc Connell 1996).

Furthermore, a significant moderate relationship existed between psychological stress and behavioral changes in terms of decreased participation of menopausal women in the external social environment, hypersensitivity, sleep disturbance, and mental depression. The psychological stress may have caused these women to think uncritically, even shout irrationally, and feel hostile to others. The findings find support in the statement of Lazarus (1996) that psychological stress among aging menopausal women has been linked to a variety of aggression, anxiety, irrational defense mechanisms, irritability, impulsive behavior, irrational vices, unbecoming acts, and personal disintegration.

The data further disclose that a positive relationship existed between physiological stress and behavioral changes as revealed by the overall correlation coefficient of .85.

In particular, a very high positive relationship was observed between physiological 205

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stress and aggression and hostility (r=1.0). A high positive relationship existed between psychological stress and the other indicators of behavioral changes such as anxiety and emotional states (r=.77), dominance (r=.87), social withdrawal (r=.89), and self-destructive behavior (r=.89). A moderate positive relationship was established between physiological stress and assertiveness (r=.69).

Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected in this case. The data indicate that the uncomfortable physical changes brought about by menopause cause behavioral changes. These changes included moody temperament, violent reactions, anxiety, and indulgence in some uncalled for vices which are perceived as coping mechanisms against physiological stressors.

The positive relationship between physiological stress and behavioral changes finds support in the Theory of General Adaptation Syndrome formulated by Dohrenwend (1998). Moreover, a high positive relationship existed between sexual stress and behavioral changes as revealed by the overall correlation coefficient of .81. Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected in this case. The findings indicate that the higher the sexual frustration occurs, the more women experience anxiety and emotional states, assertiveness, dominance, aggression and hostility, social withdrawal, and self-destructive behavior. Women who experience cessation of the menstrual cycle feel a decline in sex drive that leads to real physical incapacity and gynecological discomfort. This type of frustration often leads to depression over the loss of ability in the sexual function. These women may become moody and feel less in control of themselves. The womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hormonal cycle ceases at the onset of menopause and sexual receptivity and sexual attractiveness diminish. Coelho (1998) stated that women become temperamental, violent, and manifest control over other things when the sexual drive is thwarted.

Furthermore, the relationship between social stress and behavioral changes was established to be highly positive as disclosed by the overall correlation coefficient of .82.

The findings indicate that as social stress increases, the behavioral changes also increase.

The effect of social stresses on the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; behavior could be attributed to the sense of meaninglessness that the menopausal women feel which decreases their interest in associating with people (Larson and David, 2004).

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Table 15 presents the partial correlation analysis on the intervening effect of the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; personal profile on the relationship between menopausal stressors and behavioral changes. The data disclose that the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; profile did not have significant intervening effect on the relationship between menopausal stressors and behavioral changes. The findings imply that the interplay between the menopausal stressors and behavioral changes is not affected by the womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s age, civil status, type of school, family monthly income, educational attainment, and type of menopause.

CONCLUSIONS Women who are in the teaching profession experience little problem of discomforts brought about by menopausal stressors. This is attributed to their constant interaction in the academe and in the community, thus the identified stressors are less felt and well handled.

The manifestation of anxiety, dominance, aggression/hostility, social withdrawal and self-destructive behavior is also to a very low extent among educators. As role models, they, under any circumstances, have to restrain their behavior to gain the respect of people around them.

The high relationship between menopausal stressors and behavioral changes shows that the higher the menopausal stressors a woman experiences, the higher the degree of behavioral change occurs. Therefore, a menopause woman exerts much effort to maintain some degree of control over her behavior. She takes confidence of the knowledge that this experience is simply part of aging and happens to every woman regardless of age, civil status, educational attainment, and income. It is important for her to know how to cope with particular changes in her life. One of the coping mechanisms is the language of normality that allows her to basically accept the reality with open arms and to go through it gracefully.

LITERATURE CITED Arsendatama, R. (2005). Menopause and anxiety: how to bring natural relief.

Retrieved from: http://www.article country.com/category 188.htm.

Beckham, N. (1995). Natural therapies for menopause. Penguin books, Australia Lld. Birren, J.E. & Schaie, R.W. (1997). Handbook of the psychology of aging. New York: Van Nostrand Leinhold Inc. Bradberry, T. (2005). The emotional intelligence. Quick Book USA Copy Wright Simon and Schuster.

Calhoun, J. F. (2000). Psychology of adjustments. 3rd edition. Mc Graw Hill 1221 Ave-New York.

Clay, R. A. (2005). Replace midlife myths with facts. Retrieved from: http://www. apa.org/monitor/apro3/researchers.htmlResearch.

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Coelho, G.V. (1998). Coping and adaptation. New York: Basic Books.

Dacey, J. & Travers, J. (2004). Human development across the life plan. Mc Graw Hill Company.

Dubrin, A. J. (2005). Fundamentals of organizational behavior. South-Western of Thomson Corp.

Hall. L. C. (1998). Theories of personality New York: Solomon Guggenheim foundation, Horan, L. (2003) Hormones and menopause. Retrieved from: http://www. myctm.org/articles/LH-hormonesandmenopause.php.

Larson, R. & David, B. (2002). Personality psychology. Mc Graw-Hill Inc. Avenue of the American, New York.

Lazarus, R.S. (1996). Psychological stress and the coping stress. New York: Mc Graw-Hill.

Linsky, A.S. (1995). Stress, culture and aggression. London: Yale Publicity.

Love, S. (1997). Dr. Susan Loveâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hormones book. Random House Inc., New York, USA. Mansfield, D. (2006). Educational resources: sleep disturbance during the menopause. Retrieved from: http://www.menopause.org.au/public/professional development low libido.asp.

Mc Connell, J. (1996). Understanding human behavior. 5th edition. CBS College Publishing.

Mc Kinley, F. (2005) Menopause and Anxiety How To Bring Natural Relief.

Retrieved from: http://www.content-syndication.org/health/diseases.htm.

Mill, D. J. (2004). About menopause ending confusion about menopause symptoms and treatment. Retrieved from: http://www.womentowomen.com/menopause/ endingconfusion.asp.

Olsen, D. (2006) Signs and symptoms of menopause. Retrieved from: http://www. menopause atoz.com/00086.

Papalia, D. (2004). Human development. 9th Edition. Mc Graw-Hill Co., Inc., 1221 Avenue of the American, New York, New York.

Papalia, D. & Feldman O. (2004). Human development. 9th Edition. Mc Graw-Hill 1221 Avenue of the American, New York.

Salovey, R. (2000). Emotional state and physical health. American Psychologist.

Serrano, J. (2005). Biological and social constructions of menopause. Retrieved from: http://www.phssa.org/pubs/nchssl/biological and social.htm.

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Vol 5 No.1 December 2007 ISSN: 2094-1064

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Influence of Cooperative Learning on Chemistry Students’ Achievement, Self-efficacy and Attitude RICHIE GRACE M. LAGO richie_lago@yahoo.com ABUNDOL A. NAWANG Bundxix613@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan Universito

Date Submitted: February 4, 2007 Final Revision Accepted: June 8, 2007 Abstract - The study utilized the quasi-experimental research design and it also made use of non-equivalent comparison group design. The experimental group was taught using the cooperative learning method while the comparison group was taught using the lecture-discussion method. The respondents consisted of 112 first year Associate in Health Science Education (ASHE) students who were enrolled in General Chemistry classes at Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro City during the second semester of school year 20052006. The experimental group was first oriented with cooperative learning method using numbered heads together model for two weeks and was taught using numbered heads together strategy for six weeks. The comparison group was taught using the lecture-discussion approach for the same period of time. Findings show that there is a significant difference in the students’ achievement for both groups. Ttest revealed that there is a significant difference in the student’s selfefficacy for both groups. Furthermore, the study also revealed that there is a significant difference on students’ attitude towards chemistry for both groups. However it was found out that the experimental group had a more positive attitude towards chemistry.

Key words – Numbered-Heads Together Model, cooperative learning, chemistry students’ achievement

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INTRODUCTION Over the past twenty years studies in chemistry teaching have revealed that majority of chemistry students at all levels, including the graduate level, learn chemistry concepts by rote and solve chemistry problems by using algorithmic methods. Although many students perform satisfactorily on examinations, it was found in interviews that students have gross misconceptions regarding chemical phenomena. The challenges of finding effective teaching strategies that address individual differences have been foremost in the minds of educators for some time, and the challenges are increasing (Bodner 1986). Several studies have stressed the importance of students’ active role in the learning process (Brown and Campione, 1986; Fraser 1988). In particular, from a constructivist’s perspective, student interaction with one another, with the learning material or with the teacher is a significant activity for effective learning. (Bishop 1985; Clement 1991; Jaworski [1992], as cited by Webb 1991).

As educational research expands its view of the impact of new programs and practices, the new ways of characterizing and measuring progress are being discovered.

It may be too early to say with certainty that, as a result of widespread use of cooperative learning, dramatic improvements have occurred in addition to individual student learning. However, the evidence of improvement is promising in three dimensions of schooling. First, school wide programs that apply cooperative learning strategies across the curriculum have begun to document substantial gains in student achievement.

Second, greater use of cooperative learning is being perceived as a sturdy and empowering context for peer mediation and conflict resolution among students. Third, adoption of cooperative learning strategies in the classroom is providing a nurturing and stimulating context for the collaboration that underly successful school reform.

Cooperative learning is a strategy that involves students in established, sustained learning groups or teams and one of the most popularly validated teaching strategies used for group instruction or for peer tutoring. This technique requires that student should work together in usually mixed ability groups (Orlich and Harder 1994). The group work is an integral part of, not an adjunct to, the achievement of the learning goals of the class. Cooperative learning fosters individual accountability in a context of group independence in which students discover information and they teach that material to their group, and perhaps to the class as a whole. The teacher’s role changes as Alison King (1993) said, “From sage on the stage to guide on the side.” Although they learn in groups, the students are evaluated individually on the learning they have achieved.

According to Slavin (1990), there are two cognitive theories - the developmental and elaboration - that are directly applied to cooperative learning. The developmental theory assumes that interaction among students around appropriate task increases 210

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their mastery of critical concepts. Damon (1984) also stressed that when students interact with other students, they have to explain and discuss each others’ perspective leading to greater understanding of the material to be learned. Slavin (1990) added that the struggle to resolve potential conflicts during cooperative activity results in the development of higher level of understanding and thinking. On the other hand, the elaboration theory suggests that one of the most effective means of learning is to explain the material to others. Cooperative learning activities enhance elaborative thinking and more frequent giving and receiving of explanations have the potential to increase depth of understanding, the quality of reasoning, and the accuracy of long-term retention (Johnson 1986). Therefore, the use of cooperative learning methods should lead to improve student learning and retention from both the developmental and cognitive theoretical bases (Flowers 1994).

Student interaction makes cooperative learning powerful. To accomplish the group’s task, students must exchange ideas, make plans, and propose solutions. It is the teacher’s job to encourage such exchange and to structure the student’s work so communication is on-task and productive. Teachers who use this type of active learning believe that knowledge is gained through the interaction of students with others and with the material being taught (Breslow 1999). Researchers have seen that when students are actively involved in the learning process, their learning is improved. Motivational theorists often stress the role of rewarding in explaining the effect of small-group interaction. They tend to stress the importance of grades and other incentives as the causal agents responsible for the power of small-group interaction. Such theorists tend to emphasize individual accountability and rewards for appropriate group functioning in small-group learning and to be critical of undifferentiated group grading for team work, where all team members receive the same grade regardless of differences in contribution to the total-effort (Cooper and Robinson 1998).

Cooperative learning has many outcomes. It helps students build a feeling of community in the classroom and fosters a warmer classroom climate, thereby promotes learning and achievement. By challenging and encouraging each other to truly understand the material. Students strive to understand different ways of explaining concepts and different perspectives on solving problems, thus they become more willing to take on tough tasks because they expect to succeed and their attitude towards the subject becomes more positive. Their potential for achievement becomes enormous (Towns 1998). Cooperative learning, however, is a complex activity that looks daunting from the start. One learns eventually that developing the perfect lecture or test is also a quite complex undertaking, but one sees at the very beginning that cooperative learning strategies require careful planning. Those who use cooperative learning routinely discover in the long term that their investment of time pays off. The students soon become active learners, applying their own energy to lessons and moving forward at their own momentum.

There are three types of student learning situations, according to Johnson (1991). College instructors may structure their lessons according to these three types 211

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of situations: competitive, individualistic, and cooperative. The competitive learning situation develops the student’s competitiveness. It is like a win-lose situation where students work to outperform their classmates, creating a negative interdependence as the best grades are seen as very limited. The individualistic situation emphasizes selfinterest: where students work on their own and ignore others. They have independent learning goals and have their own set of materials. Their success depends on how they achieve their assigned goals. Cooperative learning situation emphasizes students’ working together to achieve common or shared goals. In cooperative learning, students learn to work together in group towards accomplishing goals that benefit each member of the group. The strategy is to use small groups to achieve the learning goals-members of the group “sink or swim together” (Rule and Lassila 2000).

Teachers who use cooperative learning believe that knowledge can best be gained through the interaction of the students not only with them, but also with the material being taught (Breslow 1999). Facilitating interaction among students is not enough since students’ activeness is often expressed in personal interaction unrelated to school work, perhaps in negative behavior that leads to discipline problems. The desired outcome is to increase task-related interaction that promotes learning. Although most teachers are implementing a variety of new instructional formats made possible by advances in technology and training, many find that a well-balanced program still includes on a regular basis occasion when students are all attending to the same instructional event at once. When implementing cooperative learning, the first step is to specify clearly the academic task, and the cooperative learning structure is explained to the students (Gokhale 1993).

As part of the instruction, students are encouraged to discuss solutions to the problems and to listen carefully to the comments of each member of the group and to willingly consider their own judgment and opinions. Promoting students’ activeness in learning chemistry in small-group cooperative setting seems to be more feasible for high-ability students. The real challenge remains among low-ability students.

Cooperative learning strategies are strengthened by their reliance on the social aspect of learning. Students like to socialize, and acquiring academic competence often involves skills better nurtured in groups where modeling and feedbacking occur frequently than in independent work. Cooperative learning, as an instructional methodology provides opportunities for students to develop skills in group interactions and in working with others that are needed in today’s world (Kerka 1990).

According to Johnson and Johnson (1986), cooperative learning experiences promote more positive attitudes towards the instructional experience than competitive or individualistic methodologies. In addition, cooperative learning has positive effects on students’ achievement or retention of information. According to Mckeachie (1986), students are likely to acquire critical thinking skills and metacognitive learning strategies, such as learning how to learn in smallgroup cooperative settings as opposed to listening lectures. Cooperative learning encourages students to participate actively in the learning process. In a successful case, students promote each other’s success by 212

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helping, supporting, encouraging, and praising each other to learn. When students have to organize their thoughts to explain ideas to teammates, they must engage in cognitive elaboration that enhances their own understanding (Aksela 2000).

Cooperative learning is very versatile. It complements virtually every pedagogical approach known to promote effective learning, and it works in all subjects area at all levels of education. This learning encourages students to verbalize and compare their ideas with the ideas and feelings of other students, which is useful when they solve problems. Cooperative learning can change the verbal interaction patterns, so that they make greater use of specific verbal patterns believed to be related to increased learning (Dumas 2003).

Cohen (1994) stated that cooperative learning represents a valuable strategy for helping students attain high academic standard. After nearly fifty years of research and scores of studies, there is a strong agreement among researchers that cooperative method usually has positive effects on the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; achievement. However, achievement effects are not seen for all forms of cooperative learning. It depends on the implementation of cooperative learning methods that are characterized by at least two essential elements: positive interdependence an individual accountability (Slavin 1990). Gokhale (1995) in his study, Collaborative Learning Enhances Critical Thinking, revealed that students who participated in collaborative learning had performed significantly better on a critical thinking test than students who studied individually. It was also found that the groups did equally well on the drill-and-practice test.

Recent research by Cornelly (1998) indicates that as students solve a case, they develop higher order thinking skills of analysis and application. Moreover, collaborative group work provides scaffolding for lower achieving students as sharing and comparing of responses evolve through discussion. It has been reported that smallgroup cooperative instruction has a powerful effect on a variety of additional outcome measures, including higher-order (critical) thinking skills and cognitive development.

There are several theories regarding the impact of small-group instruction. In the cognitive perspective, small-group instruction allows students to rehearse and relate course material into existing schema or conceptual framework, thus producing a deeper, contextualized level of content understanding. When peers work together there is a great deal of modeling, cognitive, disequilibria, feedback and perspective taking that emerges as students explain and receive explanation from their colleagues (Cooper and Robinson 1998).

The main goal of cooperative learning is to help students expand their repertoire of problem-solving approaches, while its minor goal is to help them develop collaborative skills - leaderships, decision-making, communication, etc. These goals can only be achieved if students have enough time to develop group dynamics, and overcome difficulties in working together.

Cooperative groups should remain together for at least a month for the dynamics to develop. Many researches have shown that students who learn cooperatively get higher grades than students who try to learn the same material individually. This 213

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was supported by Tschumi (1991) who experimental once with the students working individually and twice using group work. In the first class, only 39% of the students earned grades of C or better. However, students in classes taught had earned better grades. Those earning Aâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in the course included 6.4% (first offering) and 11.5% (second offering) of those who worked cooperatively and only 3% of those who worked individually. There was student resentment about group work in the first cooperative offering and almost none in the second offering, presumably because Tschumi showed the students the comparison between the grades for the lecture class and the first cooperative class.

Felder (1994) stated that obstacles to the widespread implementation of cooperative learning at the college level are insignificant however. The approach requires faculty members to move away from the safe, teacher-centered methods that keep them in full control of their classes to methods that deliberately turn some control over to students. Although studies have been conducted on small-group instruction for many years, there has been a dramatic increase recently. For example, a preliminary report of the NISE (National Institute for Science Education) meta-analysis group indicated a doubling of research reports from the 1987-1989 period to the 1990-1992 period in both engineering and science, and another doubling from 1990-1992 to 1993-1995. For the years prior to 1987, there was very little work reported in the data bases utilized (Cooper and Robinson 1998).

Despite the relative increases in the number of reports on small-group instruction in SMET (Science, Mathematics, Engineering and Technology) disciplines in the last 5-7 years, the absolute number is still small. The studies, which meet traditional standards of quantitative research control, are very limited particularly in physics, chemistry, biology and engineering. The quantity and quality of research reports in mathematics is generally better, perhaps due to the early and powerful influence of Uri Treisman and the various math reform movements. In a recent search of the ERIC (Educational Resource Information Center) data base, the number of reports listed under the descriptors cooperative learning and higher education was 699. The time period covered in the search was 1992 through August 1996. Of these 699 reports, covering a nearly five-year span, only 11 were in chemistry, 12 in physics, 13 in biology and 19 in engineering. In contrast, 58 citations were found in mathematics (Cooper and Robinson, 1998).

There is less preliminary evidence that cooperative, small-group procedures can affect a wide range of outcome measure such as achievement, liking for science and math, critical thinking and retention. There is evidence that this technique may be particularly effective for women and minority students. There is also evidence that cooperative techniques may increase the likelihood that bright students who historically avoid SMET disciplines may be attracted to cooperatively-taught SMET courses (Tobias 1992). There is a considerable empirical evidence at the precollegiate level and some evidence at the collegiate level that cooperative procedures can have significant impacts on such prosocial outcomes as active listening, altruism, and teamwork both 214

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type of self-concept (performance based and reference based) increased at significant level for students who were exposed to cooperative learning as compared to students in a traditional classroom.

The study of Kiokaew (1998) revealed that students in both public schools and Islamic private schools taught by using cooperative learning method had a significant higher achievement than those taught by the IPST (Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology) teacher’s manual method. It was also observed that students in the experimental group had good attitudes towards cooperative learning. It was believed that cooperative, small-group instruction can have a powerful impact on a large number of educational outcomes for many students.

The study of Luna (1998) revealed that cooperative learning groups learned better than the students exposed to traditional method. This was due to the fact that the students were made to discuss and interact among themselves and the lesson was better retained in their minds. Likewise, Herrera (2002) concluded in his study, “Group Activity Method: Its Influence on Students’ Performance in Elementary Statistics and Attitude towards Mathematics”, that group activity method has significantly influenced the performance scores of the students. Students in the group activity method performed better than students in the traditional method of teaching. Casinillo (1999) in his study, “Gender and Groupings: Their Effects on Problem-Solving Achievement Scores”, concluded that achievement and attitudes of the students are positive when they solve problems cooperatively.

Tandog, as cited by Herrera (2002) in his study, “The Effect of Cooperative Learning on Students Achievement in Plane Trigonometry and their Attitude”, found that there was no change in the attitude of the students towards mathematics as affected by cooperative learning method. Nonetheless, there was an improvement in the analysis and application domain of the students towards mathematics as influenced by cooperative learning method. Thus, there was a significant change in the performance of the learners when they were exposed to cooperative learning setting of instruction than the traditional method.

The review of related studies reveals that only very few studies on cooperative learning in chemistry were made. Thus, this study is deemed necessary to help chemistry students learn effectively by finding the learning method that works effectively.

There are three popular models of cooperative learning, each with a prominent advocate among successful others. The models overlap significantly in their research base and to some extent in their practice. Nevertheless, they have their own distinctive qualities. Student Team Learning Model / Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD), promoted by Slavin, focuses on task structure, team composition, and reward systems. In most forms of Student Team Learning, task structure ensures that every team member participates. Team’s composition is carefully determined to create learning groups. The skills of teamwork are taught and nurtured as needed to support the academic work. Academic success the goal of teamwork; social coherence is more and intended side effect.

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One of the widely used programmatic version of this model is Numbered-HeadsTogether, makes drills and quick reviews of facts engaging and productive for the whole class. It will add depth to students’ participation in more complex academic work as well. Learning Together, advocated by Johnson and Johnson, is more directly concerned with group process and interpersonal skills. While group skills are taught in the context of learning activities, social coherence is viewed as an important goal in itself.

Structural Approach advocated by Kagan, aims for improved efficiency in academic learning and improved social skills. This model views lessons as compositions of interlocking parts, some of which demand cooperation while others do not. The cooperative structures he uses serve different purposes, which he classifies as team building, class building, mastery, thinking skills, information sharing, and communication skills (Leighton 1999).

Although most teachers are implementing a variety of new instructional formats made possible by advances in technology and training, many find that well-balanced programs still include on a regular basis occasions when students are attending to the same instructional event at once - a lecture, demonstration, or film, for example. Several very simple tactics can ensure that students maintain engagement and integrate lesson content with their prior knowledge. Like more elaborate cooperative learning strategies that are used over a longer period, Numbered-Heads-Together Model provides an incentive for students to harness their interest in socializing to an academic agenda, to invest in the learning of their teammates, and to work hard by themselves.

FRAMEWORK This study is anchored on the cognitive theory of Jerome Bruner. To Bruner, the acquisition of knowledge, whatever its form, is a dynamic interactive process.

To him, “learning at its best is thinking”. An individual learns best when he can share cooperatively in the selection, organization, and management of the learning experiences. Cooperation enhances learning in several ways. In engaging the students to work in an interactive process, the teacher does not have to condition them to do it because they are already interacting in their daily school activities. There is always an exchange of ideas when they are talking about current issues they are trying to settle.

Questions are raised and information is gathered particularly on troublesome aspects of the subject; intellectual work occurs in this situation.

When the students’ concentration is evident, the seriousness of the matter is real.

The groups’ exchanges of questions and explanations intensify the dynamic interaction.

Students develop intellectual independence in expressing themselves to others to verbalize their ideas and to compare their ideas and feelings to that of the others. The interactive process can also help students to learn respect for one another’s strengths and limitations and to accept these differences. In the interactive process, the students can develop creativity and the ability to work cooperatively. The students’ ability to 216

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interact is enhanced when there is a real group work.

In cooperative learning, Bruner’s theory is applied because students learn to ask questions and to verify answers with group mates. Aside from thinking and processing information, they also learn to express themselves in brainstorming session, thereby solving some posted problems. Cooperative learning, therefore, is a dynamic process.

The benefits of cooperative learning are much more likely to emerge in the classroom if students have the opportunity to be actively involved with each other, have frequent dialogues and discussions, and form close relationships within the class.

Cooperative learning activities provide more of the opportunities than wholeclass learning. Cooperative learning is both an instructional technique and a teaching philosophy encouraging students to work together to maximize learning. There are two essential components in all cooperative learning methods: a cooperative task (which is a feature of most group work) and cooperative incentive structure (which is unique to cooperative learning). This means that students carry out a task in groups of two or more, and they are encouraged and motivated to help one another to learn (instead of competing with one another). Furthermore, they are dependent upon the efforts of one another to achieve success and that they are rewarded on the basis of the learning of all team members.

According to Sutton (1992), there are five basic elements that need to be included for small-group work to be considered truly cooperative (Killen 1996). The first element is positive interdependence; students within groups must truly be dependent on one another. Second element is face-to-face interaction - the interaction and verbal interchange among students that are promoted by positive interdependence which have the greatest effect on educational outcomes. The third element is individual accountability. All students within a group are responsible for learning the material.

The fourth element is the appropriate use of interpersonal skills in the group. Finally, students must be given enough time for analyzing how well their groups are functioning (Killen 1996).

The best argument for cooperative learning is that it increases cognitive achievement.

Robert F. Slavin reported that 49 out of 68 studies have results that favored cooperative learning method over traditional methods. Achievement gains can be found across a wide range of subjects and cognitive levels. Another powerful argument for cooperative learning is that it promotes affective achievement. When students begin to succeed, then they begin to feel more confident, which leads to a higher self-esteem and efficacy.

It is the teacher’s job to encourage such exchange and to structure the students’ work so their communication is on-task and productive.

Introducing students to interpersonal skills is the first step to get the group work together by making eye contact, encouraging fellow group members, using quiet voices, and disagreeing without hostility. These habits will become part of the cooperative group repertoire, but the students will need practice. Frequent monitoring and reinforcement are essential to assure that learning is actually occurring in the groups. Establishing rules for group behavior that will promote equal exchanges among members must be 217

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implemented.

Cooperative learning as a strategy can be used in abstract concepts in chemistry such as matter, energy, and atomic structure. To be more effective in this strategy, the teacher should give emphasis on the students’ role as member of the group to ensure better interaction with one another. With this, solving problems and presentation of ideas in the group will give them confidence to finish the task assigned to them.

As illustrated in the schematic diagram, the study’s independent variables were the methods of teaching, namely lecture-discussion method and cooperative learning method using the Numbered-Heads-Together model. The researchers introduced two topics in chemistry (Matter and Energy and Atomic Structure). One group used the lecture-discussion method while the other groups used the Numbered-Heads-Together method. The dependent variables were the students’ cognitive achievement, selfefficacy and attitude towards Chemistry.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study determined the effect of cooperative learning method using the Numbered-Heads-Together model on the students’ achievement, self-efficacy, and attitude towards Chemistry. Specifically, this study sought to achieve the following objectives: (1) to compare the students’ achievement as influenced by cooperative learning and lecture – discussion methods; (2) to measure the effects of cooperative learning strategy on the students’ self – efficacy; and (3) to determine the effect of cooperative learning method on the students’ attitude towards chemistry.

METHODOLOGY The study employed the quasi-experimental research design involving two groups: experimental group and comparison group. The two groups were intact classes of the Associate in Health Science Education freshmen enrolled during the second semester of SY 2005-2006 at the Liceo de Cagayan University. No pre-experimental sampling was done since the two groups were both intact classes. Thus, the following non-equivalent comparison group design was adopted: Experimental Group O1 X O2 Comparison Group O1 O2 X stands for the experimental treatment (cooperative learning method) while O1 and O2 stand for the pretest and posttest respectively. The experimental group was taught using the Numbered-Heads-Together model for cooperative learning method while the comparison group was taught with the same topics using the lecturediscussion method. There were 64 students for the experimental group and 48 students for the comparison group. Both groups were matched based on the schedule of classes, teacher handling the subject, and classroom assignment.

An achievement test was developed by the researchers to measure students’ 218

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performance freshmen enrolled in the selected topics. The T2-item instrument (see Appendix D) was pilot tested to Engineering freshmen General Inorganic Chemistry. A pretest and posttest were then conducted to measure the achievement of the students.

A table of specification (see Appendix B) showing the distribution of the test items on the two topics and the cognitive skills to be tested was made. The cognitive skills tested were knowledge, comprehension, application and analysis. The instrument’s computed reliability coefficient using Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 was 0.52, indicating that the instrument was reliable (see Appendix C). The data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Qualitative analysis of the test included content validation. The achievement test was item-analyzed by a Mathematics professor of Mindanao Polytechnic State College for the correctness of content, representation of the chemistry concepts used, and appropriateness of language used.

Self-efficacy and attitude towards Chemistry among the students were measured using the Chemistry Self-Efficacy, Attitude and Experiences Questionnaire (CSEAEQ) which was administered to both groups. The instrument was taken from the study of Dagcuta (2003). The self-efficacy scales contain twenty (20) statements while the attitude scale contains twenty-two (22) statements. Attitudinal and self-efficacy responses were measured using a seven-point semantic differential scale (1.0 – 3.99 = positive, 4.0 – 7.0 = negative). Results of the self-efficacy and attitude test are shown in appendix E. One of the researchers handled both the experimental and the comparison groups.

The study was conducted for six weeks, from the first week of December to the last week of January. The use of the Numbered-Heads-Together model observed the following steps: planning, forming teams, numbering the students, posing the questions, putting heads together, and calling the students’ number.

In step 1, the researchers planned the lesson and identified appropriate practice materials for the implementation of the new teaching strategy. The Numbered-HeadsTogether model was presented to the experimental group. In step 2, the researchers assigned fourmembers for each team. In forming the teams, the researchers followed the following procedure: (1) identify the population of the class where the study was conducted and (2) select team leaders. The selection of team leaders was based on grades in Algebra since the concepts discussed in the study deal with mathematical manipulation. Hence, the top students in the class were selected as leaders.

In step 3, the researchers provided all team members with numbers by letting each team member and the leader drew numbered small balls inside the beaker. The balls were numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4, which correspond to the number of members for each team. Each leader then submitted the list of the team members. Since the member identifier was a number, the group identifier was a letter. In step 4, the instructor posed questions for discussion. In step 5, the groups were given time to “put heads together”, that is, to and figure out and discuss the answer to each question.

In step 6, the instructor called a number at random and the student with that number had to answer the question. Each group was scored based on how its group member answered the question. In the comparison group, the students were taught 219

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by the same instructor. The topics were given and the discussion (interaction between students) and evaluation followed. The experiment was done for six weeks, three (3) hours per week.

After the equipment, the experimental and the comparison groups were given post achievement, self-efficacy, and attitude tests.

The data analysis and interpretation were facilitated using the following statistical treatment: the ANCOVA to compare means in achievement tests, the mean and standard deviation to determine the effect of cooperative learning on teaching, and the t-test to determine the difference in self-efficacy and attitude towards chemistry subject between the two groups.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Comparison of student achievement Table 1 shows the mean score of the two groups in the pretest. As revealed, the comparison group obtained a mean score of 24.67 while the experimental group got a mean score of 24.35. The scores were comparable since the difference was only 0.32. The scores further reveal that the two groups’ achievement was below the passing mark, suggesting that the students had inadequate knowledge in chemistry.

As also shown in Table 1, in the posttest, the experimental group got a mean score of 39.81, which was higher than the comparison group’s mean score of 32.44. This implies that both comparison and experimental groups had difference in mean scores was 9.92. The difference of the pretest and posttest of control group is 4.98, while the experimental group is 10.37. The finding implies that both groups had improved in knowledge on chemistry after the presentation of the topics. However, the experimental groups had higher knowledge increment (10.37) than the comparison group (4.98). This finding suggests that cooperative learning method had greater influence on learning chemistry concepts than the discussion method. Comparing the standard deviations in the pretest and posttest of the experimental and comparison groups, the experiment had lesser spread groups indicating that’s a homogeneous group while the comparison group spread indicating a heterogeneous group.

Table 2 shows the result of the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) of the respondents’ pretest and posttest scores in General Chemistry. The analysis yielded a computed F-Ratio of 40.93, which was greater than the critical F value of 3.02, which led to the rejection of the null hypothesis. Therefore, there was a significant difference in the achievement scores between the two groups of the students taught through cooperative learning method using the Numbered-Heads-Together model learned 220

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more than the students taught through the lecture-discussion method. The result of this study is supported by the findings of Flowers (1994) and Cohen (1994) that the use of cooperative learning method led to learning and retention improvement.

Table 2. Summary of one-way ANCOVA on students achievement score in general chemistry taught with numbered heads together model and traditional method

Effect of Cooperative Learning Strategy on Students’ Self-efficacy On the students’ self-efficacy, Table 3 shows that the students taught on lecturediscussion method got a mean score of 3.48 while those taught using the cooperative learning got a mean score of 3.19. The lesser the number, the more efficient is the result; therefore, those in the experimental group had higher self-efficacy than those in the comparison group. This means that the students exposed to correction learning was more efficient and confident while learning than those students exposed to the lecturediscussion method.

To determine any significant difference in the means, the T-test was used. The computed t-value was 12.08, which was higher than the critical value of 2.0 at 0.05 level of significance. Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. In other words, there was a significant difference in the self-efficacy of both groups. Therefore, the self-efficacy of the students was influenced more when cooperative learning method was used.

Effect of Cooperative Learning Strategy on Students’ Attitude On students’ attitude towards chemistry, Table 4 shows that the control group got a mean score of 2.45, which was higher than that of the experimental group (2.29).

However, the difference, which was 0.16, was slight. The scores of the two groups indicated positive attitude. The lesser the value within the scale, the more position is the attitude; therefore, the students exposed to cooperative learning method developed a more position attitude towards chemistry than those exposed to lecture-discussion method.

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The T- test yielded a T-value 8.0, which was higher than the t-critical of 2.0 at 0.05 level of significance; hence, the null hypothesis was rejected finding that cooperative learning better develops the attitude of students toward chemistry.

CONCLUSION The findings of the study advance the conclusion that cooperative learning method using the Number-Heads-Together model significantly increased the achievement of the students in chemistry, the students’ self-efficacy in learning, and attitude towards chemistry in comparison to lecture-discussion method.

LITERATURE CITED Aksela, M. (2000). An approach to students’ thinking during experimental work through the use of cooperative learning method. York 2000 Conference.

Astin, A. W. (1993). What matters in college? Four critical years revisited. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bodner, G.M. (1986). Constructivism: a theory of knowledge. Journal of Chemical Education. pp 63.

Breslow, L. (1999). New research points to the importance of using active learning in the classroom. Teach Talk Articles in the Faculty Newsletter. Vol.XIII, No. 1, September/ October.

Cohen, E. G. (1994). Designing groupwork: strategies for the heterogeneous classroom. New York. Teachers College. Press.

Cooper, J. & Robinson, P. (1998). Small-group interaction in SMET Disciplines: a status report and an agenda for the future. Journal of College Science Teaching.

National Science Teacher’s Association, 1840. Wilson Blvd. Arlington, VA 22201.

Dagcuta, M.V. (2003). Chemistry and physics learning experiences, self-efficacies, and attitude towards the science of the students at the Mindanao Polytechnic State College, Cagayan de Oro City.

Damon, W. (1984). Peer education: the untapped potential. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 5.

Dumas, A. (2003). Cooperative learning: response to diversity. CaliforniaDepartment of Education.

Felder, R. M. (1994). Cooperative learning as a teaching strategy. Department of Chemical Engineering. North Carolina State University. Raleigh, NC. Felder, R.M., & Brent, R (1994). Cooperative learning in technical courses: procedures, pitfalls, and pay offs. Division of Undergraduate Education. Grant DUE222

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Flowers, J. & Abu, R. (1994). The effects of cooperative methods on achievements, retention, and attitudes of home economics students in North Carolina. ERIC Digest.

Gokhale, A. (1995). Collaborative learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education.

Herrera, F. (2002). Group activity method: its influence on students’ performance in elementary statistics and attitude. Mindanao Polytechnic State College, Cagayan de Oro City.

Johnson D.W., Maruyama, G., Johnson, R.T., and Skon, L. (1991). Effects of cooperative competitive and individualistic goal structures on achievement: a metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin.

Johnson, D.W., R.T. Johnson, E.J. Halubec. (1991). Circles of learning: cooperation in the classroom.

Johnson, R.T. and D.W. Johnson. (1986). Action research: cooperative learning in the science classroom. Science and Children.

Killen, R. (1996). Effective teaching strategies. Wentforth Falls, NSW, Au: Social Science Press. P. 78-95.

Leighton, M. S. (2002). Classroom teaching skills: cooperative learning. p 273-304 Luna, C.A. (1989). The effects of three methods of remedial teaching on student’s achievement in selected topics of College Algebra. Doctoral Dissertation Graduate School of Education, Arts and Sciences, De La Salle University. Manila.

McKeachie, W.J. (1986). Teaching tips: a guidebook for the beginning college teacher. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.

Orlich, D.C. & Harder, R.J. (1994). Teaching strategies: a guide to better instruction.

Fourth Ed. D.C. Heath and Company: Lexington, Ma. P. 251-263.

Slavin, R. E. (1991). Cooperative learning: theory, research, and practice. Englewood Cliff, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Slavin, R. E. (1991). Student team learning: a practical guide to cooperative learning.

Washington, DC: National Education Association. ED 339 518.

Slavin, R.E. & Robert, S.J. (1992). The cooperative elementary school: effects on students’ achievement, attitudes, and social relations. Baltimore, MD: Center for Research on Effective Schooling for Disadvantage Students. ED 349 098.

Stahl, R. J. (1994). The essential elements of cooperative learning in the classroom.

Washington DC: National Council for the Social Studies. ED 370 881.

Totten, S. & Sills,T. (1991). Cooperative learning: a guide to research. New York: Garland.

Webb, N. M. (1991). Task related verbal interaction and mathematics learning in small groups. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education. 22 (5).

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AUTHOR INDEX Vol. 5, No. 1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; December 2007 B Badar, Eva Gladys B., 9 C Caceres, Michael Vincent P., 133 Canaman, Dennis G., 110 Cuizon, Reynaldo O., 154 G Gregorio, Bienvenido L., 63 J Japos, Genaro V., 36 L Lago, Richie Grace M., 209 Lerin, Mariano M., 27 Lubos, Lesley C.,1 M Mahilum, Jofi V., 162 N Nawang, Abundol A., 209 Neri, Donna Lou E., 97 P Padua, Roberto N., 27 Palomo, Idenmae M., 110 S Sumbalan, Antonio T., 173 T Tablan, Wilson O., 185 Tolibas, Fe S., 192 Tumapon, Teresita T., 27

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GUIDE FOR AUTHORS The Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is the official research journal of Liceo de Cagayan University. The journal is published once a year. For paper submission, the paper must be an original copy, not exceeding 30 pages or 7,000 words, double-spaced, and with tables and figures. The research abstract must have 200 words and at least 5 key words or phrases.

Manuscript Preparation 1. Organize the paper following these major headings: Title, Author(s) and address (es), Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods for experimental study or Methodology for non-experimental study, Results and Discussion, Conclusions, Acknowledgment, and Literature Cited. The Literature Cited should substantially consist of articles published in current content-covered or peer-reviewed journals.

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Administrators 2007

Name Position Dr. Rafaelita P. Pelaez Chairman of the Board of Directors Dr. Mariano M. Lerin, CPA President Dr. Glory S. Magdale Vice President for Academic Affairs Mr. Fruto M. Teodorico, Jr. Vice President for Finance Mr. Rudolf Caesar P. Golez Vice President for External, Cultural and Alumni Affairs Mr. Alain Marc P. Golez Vice President for Administration Dr. Jose Vicente N. Noble Vice President for Student Personnel Services Atty. Adrian L. Barba Dean, College of Law/Presidential Assistant for

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