Editorial Board Editor in Chief Teresita T. Tumapon, Ph.D. Guest Editors Veneracion G. Cabana, Ph.D. University of Chicago, USA Benito C. Tan, Ph.D. Singapore Botanic Gardens Victor B. Amoroso, Ph.D. Central Mindanao University Imelda G. Pagtolun-an, Ph.D. Xavier University - Ateneo de Cagayan Managing Editor Genaro V. Japos, Ph.D. Finance Manager Jose Maria Z. Valdehuesa, MBA Technical Staff Salvador C. dela Pe単a III, M.A. - Copy Editor Idenmae M. Palomo - Layout and Design Jun Brian P. Tubongbanua - Webmaster Irish Jane P. Balios - Peer Review System Bernard A. Gutierrez - Plagiarism Detection Jony V. Berjes, MM - Cover Design
Aims and Scope The Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research aims to publish new discoveries from the social science, business and public policy, science and technology which provide practical and cutting edge solutions to problems and issues confronting higher education. The Liceo Journal is multidisciplinary and international in character as evidenced by an editorial board whose members are sourced from the Philippines and abroad. Contributions have come from many universities and independent research agencies. Articles have tackled the problems and issues of teachers, students, planners, administrators and other stakeholders. A precondition for publication of a research article is the transfer of copyright from the authors to the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research.
Accredited Research Journal 2009-2012 by the Commission on Higher Education Republic of the Philippines Category B, CMO 09 Series of 2010
VOLUME 6 NO. 1 2009
Liceo de Cagayan University and Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines
Š 2009
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EDITORIAL POLICY The Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is open to the global community of scholars who wish to have their researches published in a peer-reviewed journal. Contributors can access the Website: www.liceojournal.com. The Editorial Board invites guest editors and peer reviewers from the Philippines and abroad for every issue of the journal. As stipulated in the Research Manual (2009) of the Liceo de Cagayan University, the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is viewed as a premier journal that publishes peer-reviewed higher education researches. Publishable research articles embrace any research methodology as long as the articles meet the publication standards of the journal. The journal primarily has, as its audience, scientists, academicians, graduate students, and other individuals interested in pushing the frontiers of higher education research. The primary criterion for publication in the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is the significance of the contribution an article makes to the body of knowledge. The content areas of interest include the various disciplines of knowledge in higher education. The efficiency and effectiveness of the editorial review process are critically dependent upon the actions of both the research authors and the reviewers. An author accepts the responsibility of preparing the research paper for evaluation by independent reviewers. The responsibility includes subjecting the manuscript to evaluation by peers and revising it prior to submission. The review process is not to be used as a means of obtaining feedback at early stages of developing the research paper. Reviewers and editors are responsible for providing constructive and prompt evaluation of submitted research papers based on the significance of their contribution and on the rigors of analysis and presentation. v
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The Peer Review System Definition. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author’s scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field. Peer review requires a community of experts in a given (and often narrowly defined) field, who are qualified and able to perform impartial review. Peer review refers to the work done during the screening of submitted manuscripts and funding applications. This normative process encourages authors to meet the accepted standards of their discipline and prevents the dissemination of unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations and personal views. Peer review increases the probability that weaknesses will be identified, and, with advice and encouragement, fixed. For both grant-funding and publication in a scholarly journal, it is also normally a requirement that the subject is both novel and substantial. Type. The double-blind review process is adopted for the journal. The reviewer and the author do not know each other’s identity. Recruiting Referees. The task of picking reviewers is the responsibility of the editor. When a manuscript arrives, an editor solicits reviews from scholars or other experts to referee the manuscript. In some cases, the authors may suggest the referees’ names subject to the Editorial Board’s approval. The referees must have an excellent track record as researchers in the field as evidenced by researches published in refereed journals, researchrelated awards, and an experience in peer review. Referees are not selected from among the author’s close colleagues, students, or friends. Referees are to inform the editor of any conflict of interests that may arise. The Editorial Board often invites research author to name people whom they considered qualified to referee their work. The author’s input in selecting referees is solicited because academic writing typically is very specialized. The identities of the referees selected by the Editorial Board are kept unknown to research authors. However, the reviewer’s identity can be disclosed under some special circumstances. vi
Peer Review Process. The Editorial Board sends advance copies of an author’s work to experts in the field (known as “referees” or “reviewers”) through e-mail or a Web-based manuscript processing system. There are two or three referees for a given article. Two are experts of the topic of research and one is an expert in research and statistics who shall review the technical components of the research. These referees return to the board the evaluation of the work that indicates the observed weaknesses or problems along with suggestions for improvement. The board then evaluates the referees’ comments and notes opinion of the manuscript before passing the decision with the referees’ comments back to the author(s). Criteria for Acceptance and Rejection. A manuscript is accepted when it is (1) endorsed for publication by 2 or 3 referees and (2) the instructions of the reviews are substantially complied, otherwise the manuscript is rejected. Acceptance or rejection finally rests on the decision of the Editorial Board. The referee’s evaluations include an explicit recommendation of what to do with the manuscript, often chosen from options provided by the journal. Most recommendations are along the following lines: • to unconditionally accept the manuscript, • to accept it in the event that its authors improve it based on referees’ recommendation, • to reject it, but encourage revision and invite resubmission, • to reject it outright
During this process, the role of the referees is advisory, and the editor is typically under no formal obligation to accept the opinions of the referees. Furthermore, the referees do not act as a group, do not communicate with each other, and typically are not aware of each other’s identities or evaluations. There is usually no requirement that the referees achieve consensus. In situations where the referees disagree substantially about the quality of a work, there are a number of strategies for reaching a vii
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decision. When the editor receives very positive and very negative reviews for the same manuscript, the board will solicit one or more additional reviews as a tie-breaker. In the case of ties, the board may invite authors to reply to a referee’s criticisms and permit a compelling rebuttal to break the tie. If the editor does not feel confident to weigh the persuasiveness of a rebuttal, the board may solicit a response from the referee who made the original criticism. In rare instances, the board will convey communications back and forth between an author and a referee, in effect allowing them to debate a point. Even in such case, however, the board does not allow referees to confer with each other, and the goal of the process is explicitly not to reach consensus or to convince anyone to change his/her opinions. Plagiarism Detection. Contributors are advised to use a software for plagiarism detection to increase the manuscript’s chances of acceptance. The editorial office uses a licensed software to screen research articles of plagiarism. Appropriateness of Citation Format. Since the Liceo Journal is multidisciplinary, contributors are advised to use the citation format prescribed by their respective disciplines such as the Council of Science Editors (CSE) for Science, American Psychological Association (APA) for social science, Modern Language Association (MLA) for language, Turabian for philosophy, history and literature, among others. Word Count, Spelling and Grammar Checks. Contributors are encouraged to perform word count for abstract (200) and full text (5000). Spelling and grammar checks should be performed prior to submission. Journal Impact Factor and Author Citation. Researchers who cite authors in this volume for their study are requested to send an electronic copy of the published research to the liceojournal@ yahoo.com.ph for our tracer of journal impact factor and author citation.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section
The Quality of Researches of a Southeast Asian University as Evaluated by Peer Reviewers Genaro V. Japos, Ph,D. drgvjapos@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: January 18, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: April 24, 2008 Abstract - A documentary analysis of peer review results of 92 studies determined the quality of researches of a Southeast Asian university. The study found that mechanisms are in place for the development of a research culture. The strict refereeing process that yielded a high rejection rate is a sound mechanism that identifies researches with potential for utilization and publication in a refereed journal and ensures the integrity of the university’s publications. The quality of faculty and student researches is satisfactory in the substantive, methodological, and style aspects as evaluated by peer reviewers from the Visayas and Mindanao. However, the qualitative evaluation of the external referees reveals that the researches have deficiencies along research conceptualization, analysis, and interpretation of research, indicating that the studies are barely adequate to meet the requirement for refereed publication. The acceptance rate of researches is 51 percent while the rejection rate is 49 percent, suggesting that 1 out of 2 researches by faculty and students may be accepted by the referees. The quality of the researches varied significantly across colleges, indicating that the researchers’ competencies differed by disciplines. Keywords - documentary analysis, peer review, quality of researches, external referees
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INTRODUCTION The critical role of research as a defining character of a university is best experienced when an institution reaches Level III accreditation in which research is a primary area to be evaluated, IQUAME Category A(r) in which the institution is declared a research university, and Center of Development/Center of Excellence and Autonomous/Deregulated Status in which an institution is accorded special privileges by the CHED. To fulfill the research mandate as a function of a higher education institution, SEA University implemented a research program in 1997 shortly before attaining university status. After 10 years, the university has invested about PhP 20 million to run the research program entrenched in each of the eight colleges. As recognition for research capability, the PACUCOA granted the Business Administration and Liberal Arts programs Level III Reaccredited status. The College of Nursing, Master of Arts in Nursing, and Master in Management have impending visits for Level III Accreditation in December 2007. The university has submitted documents for IQUAME A(t) assessment. The university has adopted the Quality Assurance Monitoring and Evaluation (QUAME) for research since 2005. The intention is to harmonize the policies for research in all colleges to upgrade the standards of excellence. To track down the effects of the quality assurance program on the quality of research outcomes, the university invited experts from the University of Mindanao and Davao Doctors College to evaluate the university’s research program. One of the features cited by the external evaluators is the presence of a reviewing system by a board of referees both for faculty and student researches. The faculty research is propelled by an attractive compensation system while the student’s research is a degree requirement for graduation. Given the investments the university has for research, the gains, however, have been slow. So far, there have been few commissioned researches conducted and few researches accepted for national and international presentations. External agencies have utilized few of 2
The Quality of Researches of a Southeast Asian University as Evaluated by Peer Reviewers
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the studies for public policy and programs. Some students are not able to graduate for failure to finish their researches. Some faculty members paid back the initial research compensation for failure to complete the study. Few studies were utilized for academic purposes like curriculum enrichment and requirement for collateral reading. Few faculty are doing researches and the same people are into it. The reviewing system was launched in 2004. It was of free style wherein referees wrote their comments on the manuscripts. The comments were not summarized. There was no structured form that could accommodate their quantitative and qualitative evaluations. When the SEA University forged a partnership with the University of Mindanao, a structured refereeing form was adopted. Hence, in 2006, evaluations of referees were collected. When the researches were returned by the referees, almost half of them were rejected for publication. Similar comments were given to the faculty and student researches, indicating that they share similar deficiencies. In spite of the generous incentives for faculty to do research, which annual grants amount to PhP 1.5 million, the overall quality has been less than desired. Given the notion that a research work is an index of the university’s research culture, there is an exigent need to examine the quality of researches produced by faculty and students. A search for literature reveals that there has been no single study ever written that analyzed the evaluation results of external research referees here in the Philippines and abroad. This study, therefore, sets the trail for succeeding studies on external referees’ evaluations. This area in research is extremely important considering that the referees represent the best minds in the field and whose research productivity has already been proven through the publication of their work. It is profitable to understand the referees’ standards and perceptions of what constitutes a publishable peer refereed research. This study proceeds from the introduction, the conceptual framework, research methodology, results and discussion, conclusions, implications of the findings, and recommendations.
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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study pursued the following objectives: (1) to determine the quality of researches of the faculty and students along the substantive, methodological and style aspects; (2) to analyze the qualitative remarks of the referees; and (3) to compare the quality of the faculty and student researches across colleges. The study tested the hypothesis: (Ho1) There are no significant differences in quality of faculty and student researches across colleges. FRAMEWORK The concept of peer review in research is within the purview of quality assurance defined by UNESCO as an embracing term referring to an ongoing, continuous process of evaluating (assessing, monitoring, guaranteeing, maintaining, and improving) the quality of a higher education system, institution, or program. Quality assurance is a process through which a higher education institution guarantees to itself and its stakeholders that its teaching, learning and other services consistently reach a standard of excellence. Therefore quality assurance incorporates all the processes internal to the institution, whereby quality is evaluated, maintained, and improved (Duff et al, 2000 cited in the Primer for IQUAME). One of the indicators for A(r), which makes a school a research institution, is research capability. An institution should have a research program and a community of faculty, postgraduate students, and postdoctoral research workers that fosters and supports creative research and other scholarly activity. An institution is judged by high level of research skills, a strong research culture, and a fully implemented research agenda supported by adequate resources and well-defined mechanisms to ensure publication and benchmarking. The research program results in excellent outcomes as shown by regular publication of faulty researches in ISI/refereed journal and a highly relevant research program. The institution demonstrates best practices that 4
The Quality of Researches of a Southeast Asian University as Evaluated by Peer Reviewers
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make the research community a model for others. The highest standard in publication is the ISI Citation Index. For a journal publication to get an ISI, a strict refereeing process must be in place involving two to four referees for each manuscript submitted. Referees are from prime publishers in the field/subfields. Acceptance rate is less than 50 percent or much lower at 20 percent. Articles published in the ISI journals tend to be more highly cited in the field. The highest level of ISI journals typically defines the most original and important contributions in the field/subfield. Publication of a research work in the ISI journal is a very good indicator that one’s research is of significant contribution to the field/subfield. The types of articles published in ISI or other refereed journals are those that are deemed original and are of significant contributions to the research literature. A research article’s contribution in the field/ subfield has the following characteristics: (1) there is something in the research that other group of scholars will find interesting, (2) the contribution matches the research questions/problem, and (3) the contribution is very clear in terms of its relation to what the present literature is stating (Bernardo, 2006). The Philippine Association of Institutions for Research, Inc. (PAIR) adopted for use by its member-institutions a refereeing form from the Research Unit of Davao Association of Colleges and Universities Network (DACUN). A publishable peer refereed research must pass the three aspects: substantive, methodological, and style. The Substantive Aspect. This part covers the introduction, discussion and conclusion, and content and scope. The introduction must show exposition of the research problem by establishing the basis of the study. It must provide a brief review of the pertinent literature as a basis for infusing meaning and substance in the analysis, interpretation, and conclusion of the study. It must provide an overview of the plan of the study and must detail the presentation of the expected results. The Discussion and Conclusion. This concerns the overview of the findings within the context of the problem. There is a presentation of the results, implications of the findings, and discussion on how the study helped resolve the original problem. 5
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There must be evidence that the data support the conclusion, which is within the boundaries of the findings. Content and Scope. The article is enough to address the research questions effectively. Theoretical and practical implications can be drawn from the study. The results contribute to the state of knowledge in the field of study. The research possesses potential for research utilization. Methodological Aspect. There is a fully defined design for making the research question operational. The samples and the sampling method are fully described. The measures, instruments, and materials are reliable and valid. The statistical procedures are enough and are appropriately applied. Style Aspect. This part refers to editorial and writing styles. Editorial style requires that titles, headings and illustrations are related to the text. Tables and figures can stand alone without captions and convey information clearly. The format of references is standard, preferably using APA. The writing style involves the writing of the abstract with respect to length, accuracy, coherence, readability, and content. Length entails balance among different sections. There must be orderliness and logical flow in the expression of ideas. Precision and clarity in the choice of words are established. METHODOLOGY The study used the descriptive-comparative design involving the analysis of referees’ judgments containing the quantitative and qualitative dimensions. The study utilized documentary analysis of external referees’ evaluation on the researches of Liceo de Cagayan University. The study involved 276 evaluation data made by 26 referees who come from 15 colleges and universities located in Visayas and Mindanao. They evaluated 92 studies from the eight colleges of Liceo de Cagayan University. The referees were external experts tapped during the first semester of school year 2007-2008. Tables 1 and 2 have the data.
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Table 1. Distribution of referees by regional origin and school No. of Referees
A. Visayas Cebu Normal University Holy Name University University of San Jose Recoletos
1 1 1 Total
B.
3
Mindanao
Capitol University Davao Doctors College Fr. Saturnino Urios University Loudes College Mindanao Sanitarium Hospital College of Medical Arts Foundation Mountain View College Notre Dame of Dadiangas University Saint Joseph Institute of Technology Southern Christian College Universidad de Zamboanga University of Mindanao University of the Philippines–Mindanao
1 3 1 4 1 1 2 3 1 4 1 1
Total
23
Grand Total
26
Table 2. Distribution of the referees’ evaluation forms by college College Graduate Studies Nursing Business Administration Education Arts and Sciences
No. of Studies
No. of Specimen Forms
24 29 4 4 6
72 87 12 12 18 7
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(Table 2 continued) Information Technology Radiologic Technology Criminology Total
4 15 6
12 45 18
92
276
Table 3. Distribution of faculty and student researches Faculty
Students
Total
24 0 0 0 0 4 4 6
0 29 6 4 15 0 0 0
24 29 6 4 15 4 4 6
Total
38
54
92
Percentage
41
59
100
College Graduate Studies Nursing Criminology Information Technology Radiologic Technology Business Administration Education Arts and Sciences
When the researches were given to the external referees, there was no distinction whether the studies were made by faculty or students. Hence, the referees viewed the studies from a professional research perspective. Out of 92 researches, 38 or 41 percent were made by the faculty while 54 or 59 percent were written by students. The instrument was adopted from the Research Unit of Davao Association of Colleges and Universities Network (DACUN) for use by the member-institutions of the Philippine Association of Institutions for Research, Inc. For this study, it was tested for reliability using Cronback Alpha with a coefficient of 0.8229 and with standardized item alpha of 0.9837 indicating high reliability. The content validity was established by the 26 referees who are research experts in their field. They considered the instrument as adequate to measure the quality of research for refereed publications. 8
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The referees were given the form for writing the quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the researches. The forms were collected and statistically processed using the SPSS software and employing techniques such as frequency, percentage, weighted mean, Cronbach Alpha, item-total correlation, t-test, and analysis of variance one-way classification. The null hypothesis was tested at .01 level of significance. There are at least three referees for every study. The referee’s decision on the publishability of a research takes the following options: (1) the paper is recommended for publication, (2) the paper is accepted but subject to minor amendments, (3) the paper is accepted but subject to major revisions, and (4) the paper is rejected. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Quantitative Evaluation A.1. Quality of Faculty Researches Table 4 illustrates the evaluation of the faculty researches. The overall quality is 3.29, which is satisfactory. The substantive aspects received satisfactory ratings for the introduction (2.88), discussion and conclusion (2.69), and content and scope (3.29). Also satisfactory were the methodological aspects (3.25) and editorial (3.30) and writing style (3.01) under style aspect. Generally, the external referees found the studies barely adequate to meet the requirements for publication. The introduction, discussion and conclusion got the lowest ratings although satisfactory. The methodological aspects obtained the highest rating (3.25), followed by style (3.15), and last by substantive aspects (2.75). The findings suggest that the faculty have difficulties in the research conceptualization, particularly in justifying why the study was conducted utilizing the corresponding factual and literature support for the problem. In fact, the brief review of the pertinent literature was rated the least (2.60) among the indicators for introduction, indicating that the researches had limited theoretical background.
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Table 4. External referees’ evaluation of the quality of researches of the faculty
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(Table 4 continued)
Legend: 4.5-5.00 Excellent 2.51-3.50 Satisfactory 1.0-1.50 Poor
3.51-4.50 Very Satisfactory 1.51-2.50 Fair
In the discussion and conclusion, the interpretation of results obtained the lowest rating (2.80) along with implications of the findings (2.87), denoting that the analysis of the data lacked depth and connection to the literature and the actual conditions in the research site. The substance of the discussion has direct bearing on the conclusions of the study. The findings show that the data supporting the conclusion were limited (2.93). In terms of content and scope, the contribution of the studies to the state of knowledge in the field got the lowest rating (3.29). This means that the main purpose of research, which is to generate new knowledge in support for instruction and extension, was accomplished to a limited extent. The theoretical bases of the studies were found to be weak. Hence, the validation and theory generation, which contribute to the body of literature, are constrained. For the methodological aspects, the statistical procedures got very satisfactory rating (3.51), indicating that the faculty had appropriate statistical treatment of the data. On the other hand, samples, and sampling method and technique obtained the lowest rating (3.04). This finding implies that the faculty was less circumspect in the description of the respondents or subjects of the study. 11
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Along style aspects, the evaluation reveals that the faculty paid least attention to the abstract (2.82) with respect to length, accuracy, coherence, readability, and content. The orderliness and flow of ideas (3.16) was satisfactory along with precision and clarity in the choice of words (3.01). Given the experience of the faculty in technical writing, there remains a deficiency in their writing skills. On the whole, the faculty of the Arts and Sciences obtained the highest overall mean (3.46) however satisfactory followed by those in the Graduate Studies (2.14), the College of Education (3.11), and Business Administration (2.79). The vertical articulation of the advanced degrees of the Arts and Sciences faculty and their master’s degrees (with thesis) partly explain their edge over the other faculty researchers in other colleges. The performance of the Business Administration faculty could be attributed to a limited research experience. Researches by the faculty of Arts and Sciences obtained very satisfactory ratings for half of the 26 indicators. No other college came close to such ratings. The finding attests that the quality of researches of the Arts and Sciences is generally very satisfactory in the three aspects of the evaluation. In contrast, the researches of the faculty of the College of Education got “fair” rating for 11 out of 26 indicators (46%), denoting research deficiencies. A.2. Quality of Student Researches Table 5 shows the quality of student researches. The level of quality of the student researches is satisfactory (2.59). For substantive aspect, the introduction was rated satisfactory (2.66), but the discussion and conclusion (2.36) and content and scope (2.45) were rated fair. The findings reveal that the students’ researches lacked depth and substance. Furthermore, the findings suggest that poor conceptualization, analysis, and interpretation of the data were pervasive, implying that instruction and research guidance are generally deficient. The studies complied with graduation requirements rather than to push the frontiers of knowledge in the disciplines. The variables of the studies were repetitive; that is, there was a frequent use of socio-demographic data as independent variables. By nature, these data yield little causal effect on the dependent variable. The contents indicate 12
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that the studies did not emanate from the theories and concepts taught in the major subjects–a proof that the major subjects failed to nurture the research inclination of the students. The lack of research experience and skills of the faculty partly explains this phenomenon. However, along the methodological and style aspects, all indicators got satisfactory ratings. The findings suggest that the students have a good grasp of the research process. While they can write their ideas, the substance is deficient, which could be attributed to the faculty advisers’ incompetence to mentor topics beyond their field. Also, the faculty teaching research subjects do not specialize in the students’ discipline. This finding implies that there is a shortage of advisers in various fields due largely to a number of non-tenured faculty who have not finished their master’s degree. The school policy stipulates that only those who hold master’s or doctorate degree are allowed to advise researches. By comparison, studies of the Criminology Department had nine (9) or 35 percent of the indicators obtaining very satisfactory ratings. In contrast, Radiologic Technology got “fair” ratings in all indicators while Information Technology had nine indicators rated “poor” and seven indicators rated “fair.” Meanwhile, studies from Nursing got satisfactory ratings in all indicators. The findings reveal that Criminology and Nursing researches generally earned the acceptance of the external referees. Studies from Information Technology and Radiologic Technology had marks of deficiency in most of the aspects being evaluated. The deficiencies could be attributed to inadequate instruction, poor guidance, and students’ lack of attention on research. The acceptance rate (55%) of the faculty researches was higher than that of the student researches (48%). Combined, the researches’ overall acceptance rate was 51 percent, which is closer to the ISI standard of 50 percent or lower at 20 percent. The findings support the idea that the teachers have better research skills than their students.
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Table 5. External referees’ evaluation of the quality of researches of the students
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(Table 5 continued)
Legend: 4.5-5.00 Excellent 2.51-3.50 Satisfactory 1.0-1.50 Poor
3.51-4.50 Very Satisfactory 1.51-2.50 Fair
EXTERNAL REFEREES’ DECISION Table 6 presents the rate of acceptance and rejection of researches as evaluated by the external referees. Table 6. External referees’ evaluation on the quality of faculty and student researches for publication College A. Faculty Researches Graduate Studies Business Administration Education Arts and Sciences Total Percentage
Accepted
%
Rejected
%
Total
11
46
13
54
24
3
75
1
25
4
3 4 21
75 66
1 2 17
25 34
4 6 38
55
45
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(Table 6 continued) B. Student Researches Nursing Criminology IT Radiologic Technology Total Percentage Grand Total Institutional %
Accepted
%
Rejected
%
Total
12 6 2 6 26
40 100 50 40
7 0 2 9 28
60 0 50 60
29 6 4 15 54
48 47
52 45
51
49
92 100
The reasons cited by the referees for the rejection of researches include the substantive aspect: lack of compelling reasons for the conduct of the study that weakened the exposition of the research problem, lack of literature to support the problem, weak theoretical support, failure to connect the theory to the results, weak implications of the study, lack of connection between conclusions and findings, and unclear contribution of the study to the state of knowledge in the field; methodological aspect: unclear sampling procedures, weak reliability and validity procedures of the instrumentation process, inadequate statistical treatment; and style aspect: poor organization of ideas, deficient abstract, and inadequate documentation of sources. The Criminology studies had 100 percent acceptance rate while Nursing and Radiologic Technology had the lowest acceptance rate at 40 percent. Expert, thorough, and patient advising supported by adequate research instruction was the element for the high acceptance rate of the Criminology studies. There are significant variations in the external referees’ evaluation on the quality of researches of the eight colleges (F=10.2860, Prob.0.0000), which means the research competencies of the researchers differ across the eight colleges. This finding implies that capability building interventions should be tailored to the competency needs of the researchers by college. On the basis of the finding, the null hypothesis is rejected.
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Table 7. Analysis of variance of the external referees’ evaluation on the quality of researches of the eight colleges Colleges Graduate Studies Nursing Arts and Sciences Education Criminology Radiologic Technology Business Administration Information Technology
Mean
VD
3.14 2.47 3.46 3.11 3.23
S S S S S
1.94
S
2.79
S
2.40
S
F-ratio
Prob.
Interpretation
Decision
10.2860
.0000
Significant
Reject Ho
Table 8. Test of difference in the external referees’ evaluation on the quality of researches of the faculty and students Groups
Mean
VD
Tstat
Prob.
Interpretation
Decision
Faculty Students
3.49 2.57
S S
6.60
.000
Signifi-cant
Reject Ho
The faculty (3.49) and students (2.57) differed significantly in the quality of researches as evaluated by the external referees and as evidenced by the mean difference of 0.92. The faculty rating was significantly higher, indicating satisfactory skills in research. Although the difference is significant, the mean ratings for both the faculty and student researches are satisfactory. This implies that the research competence of the faculty and students do not differ much. On the basis of the finding, the null hypothesis is rejected because there exists a significant difference in the quality of researches of the faculty and students across the eight colleges. B. Qualitative Evaluation of the Sections of the Scientific Paper The researcher processed the qualitative evaluation data found on the second page of the referee form. When the referees wrote 17
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their comments, it was with the intention of pinpointing errors, weaknesses, and gaps as guides for the researchers in revising their work. Hence, this section contains the synthesis of deficiencies that the referees have observed in the manuscripts. The referees’ comments were forwarded to each researcher for the final revision of the manuscript. Abstract. Some referees found the abstracts laudable because the contents established accuracy and clarity. There was orderliness; however, the choice of words needed refinement. In some studies, the abstracts were too long. They expected an abstract consisting of 120 to 250 words or following the APA format, which is an integral part of the journal article. They clarified that an abstract restates in narrative form the statement of the problem, the methodology, the type and number of respondents, sampling techniques, procedure, results and discussion, conclusions, implications, and recommendations. Title. A referee of nursing researches noted that the titles did not catch the attention of the reader. In some instances, the length of the title was more than 15 words. The place where the study was conducted need not be included in the title. Introduction. The introduction of most researches failed to provide sufficient information that would lead to the exposition of the problem. The organization of ideas was poor, the discussion was inadequate, and the justification of the study was unclear. The conditions prevailing in the research site should have been described to give the raison d’être of the study. Hence, the results lacked the connection to the problem and the theory. They opined that since theory is the heart of the paper, it should have been given proper importance. There was a lack of literature support to the problem. The scope and limitations also were inadequately stated, too brief to clearly state the general purpose of the study, topics studied, the entity to which the data belong, the sample from which the respondents were situated, and the period of the study. The definition of terms had inconsistencies. Terms that were not variables of the study were defined. In some cases, the verb “refers to” was repeatedly used in the definitions. The referees observed that the introduction was weak and too 18
The Quality of Researches of a Southeast Asian University as Evaluated by Peer Reviewers
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long. There was inadequate discussion of the problem situation and a limited infusion of the perceived gaps observed in the workplace. These weakened the justification for the study. There is evidence that the studies were inadequately conceptualized and this weakened the rest of the parts of the research. The faculty generally had extensive research involvement in the past but such involvement did not translate into expertise in research. The comments for the faculty studies were similar to the ones given to the student researches. Framework. The link between the independent and dependent variables was not established well in some cases. Hence, there is evidence that the theories cited were provided as a separate component of the study for compliance rather than as a basis for the investigation of the problem. This is seen further in the lack of connection between the literature, analysis, and interpretation of findings. Thus, there was a need to discern the relationship of the existing variables in the conceptual framework. This is very important since the theoretical framework serves as the backbone of the study. The schema of the studies was not supported by a comprehensive discussion in relation to how the independent and dependent variables are conceptualized. Another deficiency observed was the omission of the discussion of the mediating variables that could have influenced the results of the study. These inadequacies later surfaced in the conclusions of the study. There was no statement on whether the results of the study validated the theory that guided the conduct of the research. The weaknesses in the theoretical underpinnings of the study could be attributed largely to the inadequate reading of the vast sources of research literature. The researchers used mostly printed sources particularly the studies found in the university library. The extensive use of online journals was not evident. This led some referees to remark that some studies lacked scholarly quality for publication in a refereed journal. Another referee discovered a lack of congruence in the objectives, findings, conclusions, and recommendations. Literature Review. The literature review was choppy with little attempt to write it in one continuous discussion about the problem, stating the current body of knowledge. This happened because the 19
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introduction was poorly organized and did not discuss the current knowledge about the topic, previous studies were missed, the gaps in the information about the problem were not analyzed, and the purpose of the study was not focused. Some literature presented was not relevant to the study. The readings presented in the literature were not synthesized at the end, leaving the discussion hanging. There was inadequate discussion of the major theory used. The identified theory is important as basis of the questionnaire item design/formulation. Methodology. The research methodology was also examined. Some referees observed that the descriptive design lacked specific techniques that would clarify how the study was conducted. The research environment in some studies contained information not helpful in establishing the context of the research. There was a confusion of what constitutes good research topics. Studies on Information Technology used software development. The referees congruently expressed that studies must include test runs to determine the performance of the software. How well the software performs according to its purpose and logic must be established. In some studies the population and sample were not adequately established. The unclear definition of the respondents of the studies affected the statement of the problem, hypothesis, scope and limitations, and the overall analysis and interpretation of the study. The research instrumentation was mostly made by the researcher with little discussion on reliability and validity procedures. Most researchers modified the standard instruments or created their own. However, without the corresponding tests of reliability and validity, there could be repercussions on the instrumentation process. The value of the data greatly depended on the robustness of the instrument. Hence, the conclusions could not be taken with finality since the studies suffered from low reliability and validity. Distinction of standardized and researcher-made instruments was not discussed well in some studies. Since the questionnaire was not included in some papers, it was difficult for the reader to connect the indicators and the ratings. The studies made extensive use of perception data and there were little efforts to validate perceptions with triangulated interviews and documentary sources. In one case, the researcher 20
The Quality of Researches of a Southeast Asian University as Evaluated by Peer Reviewers
G.V. Japos
used perceptions as causal factors of performance in the licensure examinations. The findings reveal that the methodology lacked depth. Little attempt was done to include interviews, focus group discussion, documentary sources, and on-site inspection. Another item observed by one referee concerned the writing of the level of significance under the hypothesis rather than in the methodology. Results and Discussion. Some referees found some papers very informative, well-written, and interesting. However, in the presentation of data, tables could have been more useful if placed ahead of the analysis and interpretation. Format of the tables was found deficient. The tables could not stand without captions. In some cases, the basis of the qualitative descriptions was not presented. In the discussion of the findings, the statistical basis of “majority” was not clear. One referee noted that a relative frequency of more than 50 percent is needed for a “majority” to qualify. Since some of the discussions were choppy, the flow in the expression of ideas was constrained by inconsistent writing style. There were serious grammatical flaws that weakened the line of argument of the researchers. There was lack of infusion of insights into the findings. Studies similar to or different from other researches were not cited, indicating a lack of dialogue between the literature and the discussion of the results. In some cases, the discussion of the results was not adequate. Simply providing citations to support the findings was not enough. There was limited attempt to substantiate implications of the data with actual observations and insights. This means the context of the data was not addressed. There is evidence that the discussion of the test of hypothesis failed to support the results obtained whether the hypothesis was accepted or rejected. In the case of Information Technology studies, the referees found out that while the software analysis design (SAD) was extensively done, the researchers were not able to satisfactorily present the (1) development which includes codes and snippets other than screen shots (methods, functions, database connectivity); (2) testing a good software development would always include documented integration and macro testing; (3) reports critical as one requirement 21
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in the solution addressing the problem; and (4) deployment evidence and document of infrastructure and architectural setup. There was a lack of in-depth analysis and interpretation. The researchers provided mere agreement to the theories cited. Explanation of the findings was found wanting as to telling the whys based on the real situation observed. Some of the findings were not corroborated by documentary evidences to gain credence and support. On the other hand, the referees noted that some conclusions were precise and the discussions were straight to the point. Conclusions. Some of the conclusions were not sufficiently supported by the data generated in the study. Erroneous conclusion resulted from faulty test of hypothesis. Implications. The theoretical and practical implications can hardly be drawn from the studies. There was no confirmation of previous assumptions. There was little discussion on the implications of the findings generated. Recommendations. The referees noted that some recommendations were not realistic because these were not parallel to the significance of the study. Some recommendations had no data to base on. Bibliography. There was inadequate documentation of sources. Some sources had no specific dates and were not cited in the bibliography. Some references were not cited in the study. The bibliography generally did not follow the APA format. IMPLICATIONS The results of the study generate the following implications: 1. With satisfactory quality of researches, the university adequately meets the research mandate of the Commission on Higher Education. The quality of researches, as evidenced by 51 percent acceptance rate, is almost at par with the 50 percent acceptance rate of ISI journals and even lower. Thus, the reviewing system is effective in screening studies for publication. 2. The quality of research output has been bolstered by the administration’s full support and the implementation of quality assurance. Attractive incentive improves research performance 22
The Quality of Researches of a Southeast Asian University as Evaluated by Peer Reviewers
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of the faculty as validated in the study of Cagabhion (2006). The university is strengthening its research program to sustain its research culture directed towards becoming robust, quality instruction and extension. This move supports CHED Memorandum 48 series of 1996 that requires Higher Education Institutions to maintain high standards of instruction through dynamic research programs. 3. The deficiencies on the basic structure of research provide avenues for research capability building program necessary to sustain and maintain the quality of research. Quality research is a necessary tool in upgrading teaching competencies, discovering new institutional strategies, and bringing scientific investigations to the classrooms. CONCLUSIONS Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are drawn: 1. The mechanisms are in place for the development of a research culture. The strict refereeing process that yielded a high rejection rate is a sound mechanism that identifies researches with potential for utilization and publication in a refereed journal and ensures the integrity of the university’s publications. 2. The quality of faculty and student researches of SEA University is satisfactory in the substantive, methodological, and style aspects as evaluated by external referees from the Visayas and Mindanao. However, the qualitative evaluation of the external referees reveals that the researches have deficiencies along research conceptualization, analysis, and interpretation of research, indicating that the studies are barely adequate to meet the requirement for refereed publication. 3. The acceptance rate of researches is 51 percent while the rejection rate is 49 percent, suggesting that 1 out of 2 researches by faculty and students may be accepted by the referees. 4. Faculty researches of the Arts and Sciences are better written than those of the Business Administration and Accountancy. Student researches of Criminology are better written than those of Radiologic Technology and Information Technology. 5. The quality of the researches varied significantly across 23
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colleges, indicating that the researchers’ competencies differed by disciplines. The quality of faculty researches is far better than that of student researches. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the following recommendations are offered for consideration: 1. The Academic Community of the University 1.1.Institutional Role of Research. The academic community should have a new mindset toward research that from compliance with the requirements for Level III accreditation and CHED to research as an aspiration of SEA University towards becoming a research university. In this case, research shall become a cornerstone of the functions of the top management whose research agenda shall be clearly defined. 1.2.Purpose of Research. There is a need for a paradigm shift in the purpose of research for students and teachers. For students, the shift is from partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree to acceptance of research by external referees for a refereed publication. For teachers, the shift is from research compensation and points for ranking and promotion to significant contribution to knowledge in the field as evidenced by publication of the research in a refereed journal. 1.3.Instruction. The content and method of instruction should shift from the teaching of basic research to passing the referees’ judgment of a research worthy of publication in a refereed journal. The syllabus, teaching materials, and learning resources should serve as enabling mechanisms. The focus of instructions should be the writing of an internationally publishable paper. 2. Vice President for Academic Affairs. A review of the policies is needed particularly in the implementation of quality assurance mechanisms for faculty and student researches to address the issue of high rejection rate of the researches by the referees.
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The Quality of Researches of a Southeast Asian University as Evaluated by Peer Reviewers
G.V. Japos
2.1. The research proposal should be evaluated based on the refereeing criteria. A researcher should start right by meeting the referees’ expectations. 2.2. For faculty researches, the presence of the editorial board during the review of the proposal is necessary to check the publication worthiness of the study. Thereafter, the editorial board shall review the completed researches to decide which are fit for peer review. 2.3. Student research should be made a collaborative research between a faculty expert in the discipline and the students. The faculty shall serve as team leader. The research output shall be deemed “passed” and credited for subject and degree requirement only after the research is accepted for publication in a refereed journal. 2.4. The final oral examination should be conducted only by published experts of the discipline, mostly invited from outside the university. The evaluation of the research shall be based on the parameters for external refereeing. The research shall be considered “passed” if the panel adjudged the research “accepted with minor revisions.” However, another research conference shall be conducted if paper is deemed “accepted with major revisions.” The student shall re-enroll the subject and conduct another study if the paper is deemed “rejected for publication.” 2.5. Acceptance of the paper by the panel during the research conference shall be for the completion of the course requirement. Acceptance of the paper by the external referees shall be a requirement to get the transcript of records. 2.6. Faculty conducting university-funded researches shall receive 40 percent of the fund upon acceptance of the proposal and 60 percent of the fund upon acceptance of the paper by external referees. 2.7. The thesis and dissertation format should be replaced by a journal format. Editors should correct the manuscripts using standard English and check on the paper’s compliance with the referees’ expectations. 2.8. A plagiarism detection test shall be required prior to the review of faculty and student research proposals and final oral defenses. This service shall be rendered by the university statistical 25
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center which shall issue the research originality report. 3. The Academic Council. The weaknesses of the researches could be addressed through evaluation. The curricula for research and statistics should be reviewed to determine the capability of the instructional system to produce quality researches worthy of publication. The syllabi for research and statistics must be reviewed for complementation and relevance in the production of a competetive publishable paper. Also, a review on thesis advising, editing, and oral defenses should be done. A policy be enacted that only researchers with publications in peer reviewed journal should be allowed to teach research and statistics subjects, advise students in their research, participate as panelists in oral defenses and edit the manuscripts. 4. The Deans and Research Coordinators. They need to examine their research program particularly the training of researchers, the utilization of research expertise, and the quality of oral examinations to produce quality and publishable researches. Research training should be anchored on the skills required to do research along the research agenda of the college. Specific researches require specific skills. 5. The Research and Planning Office. There is a need for a costbenefit analysis of the research funding in view of the researches’ high percentage of rejection by the referees. The screening of topics, the presentation of proposals, the coaching and mentoring systems, and the editing of the manuscripts should be made more stringent to upgrade quality. Teachers should be trained for external refereeing, which should serve as a framework for the various activities related to research such as teaching, advising, paneling, editing, and refereeing. 6. Editorial Board and the Peer Review System. The editorial board and the peer review system need to be internationalized by getting members from abroad to complement Filipino published researchers in the lineup. 7. For Further Research. The following topics are suggested for further study: 7.1. Replication of this study after the implementation of the interventions and recommendations to evaluate their impact on the quality of researches. 26
The Quality of Researches of a Southeast Asian University as Evaluated by Peer Reviewers
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7.2. Predictors of Research Performance of Faculty and Students 7.3. External Referees’ Evaluation of the Quality of Researches Published in Refereed Journals. 7.4. The Utilization of Researches at Liceo de Cagayan University for S.Y. 1997-2007 7.5. The Reviewing System and its Effects on the Quality of Researches in Institutions with Refereed Publications Literature Cited Arcelo, A. A. (2003). In pursuit of continuing quality education through accreditation: the Philippine experience. International Institute of Educational planning. Bernardo, A. B. (2006). From thesis and dissertation to refereed journal publication: a conceptual and practical guide to transforming graduate research to journal article. Conference Paper, Southwestern University, Cebu City. Cagabhion, J. B. (2006). Predictors of research performance of teachers in technical vocational schools of Biliran. Research and Educational Journal. Diliman, Quezon City: Research and Educational Development Training Institute. Calmorin, L. P. (2000). Educational measurement and evaluation. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: National Bookstore. CHED, Zonal Research. Elements of the higher education research ramework.File//A\DLSU,Manila%20%Research%20 Centers. html.Fantini, R. P. (2000). Regaining excellence in education. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. Gulosino, C. (2000). Evaluating private higher education in the Philippines: the case for choice, equity and efficiency. Occasional Paper No. 68, Teachers’ College, Columbia University. http:// www. worldbook.org. Mohamad, S. S. (2005). Physical plant and facilities in relation to the delivery of quality education at the MSU, Marawi City: a basis for policy and program proposals. Dissertation (DM). Liceo de Cagayan University. Shaugnessy, J. J. and E. B. Zeckmeister (2000). Research methods in Psychology. New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 Liceo Accredited Journal of HigherJournal, Education Research CHED Research Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section
Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon VIBERLINO T. YAMUT, MA yamut.lino@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: October 20, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: December 17, 2008
Abstract - This study is part of an on-going attempt to retrieve and document ethnic dances among the tribal communities in Mindanao, in particular, those in the provinces of Bukidnon and Cotabato. The fifteen dances identified with the Manubo Matigsalug Tribe of Sinuda, Kataotao, Bukidnon point to a people who are in touch with themselves and their environment. Seven of the fifteen dances, like the Binanog, Bubudsil, Inagong, Kakayamutan, Kalusisi, Saut and Sayaw Kulintang use the 2/4 beat. Five dances like Bangkakawan, Oripon, Saluray Kudlong, Titinokak and Uubol employ the 3/4 beat. The remaining three dances are Pinag-agawan, Sayaw Kubing and Talupak Mamugas are dances with the 4/4 beat. The bird dances, the monkey dances, the log dance, the rice planting dance, the head hunting reveal the Matigsalug finity with nature, with animals, with the forest and with the different activities in their lives. Keywords - Manubo Matigsalug, indigenous dances
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Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
V.T. Yamut
INTRODUCTION A tribal society is essentially a self-contained system. While it may possess sophisticated cultural and social structures, its technological and economic structures are generally primitive. Consequently by the 20th century such societies have become increasingly rare and many tribal dances either died down or become transformed. The tribal dances have been preserved, and absorbed into the social structures, as a means of preserving cultural identity and a sense of historical continuity. This is quite common in Africans states. In extant tribal societies, such as the hopi Indians of Northeastern Arizona, dance retains most of its traditional form and significance. The hopi still dance is a form of worship, with specific dances for different ceremonies. Such dances, however, as in any other traditions, have undergone inevitable change and development throughout history, and they cannot be used as accurate evidence of what the tribal dances of early men were. The Filipinos possess an inborn love of music and natural grace in dancing, they deport in their dance charm, language, grace and uniqueness. Dancing being a mode of passion is marked by distinct characteristics of the indigenous culture which contributes much to the attainment and growth of national identity. Dancing is not only common among Christian Filipinos, but also among various non-Christian tribes. Among the non-Christian tribes people, dancing continues to be closely intertwined with ritual and sacrifice. FRAME WORK Analyzing a tribal dance is relevant not only because of the lack of evidence concerning its origin and rapid dying of extant forms but also because of the fact that the term tribal covers many kinds of dances. Tribal dances not only vary from one tribe to another but also fall into many different categories such as weapon dances or war dances, fertility dances, sun and moon worshiping dances, 29
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initiation dances, hunting dances, wedding dances and mimetic dances (Gabao 1988). These dances cover the most meaningful events, costumes, and values related to the ancestral matrix of race. The following are factors that contribute to a better understanding of the dances: Origin. Studying a people’s dance entails a lot of work and studies. Goquinco (1980) author of “The Dancers of the Emerald Isles,” said that it is important to be immersed into the indigenous people’s rich origin, socio-religious and cultural background. Costumes and Accessories. Costumes and accessories are an integral part of dances. These come hand in hand with awareness of a man’s own body and the need to beautify oneself. Different groups of people vary in the costumes they wear. The Webster Third New International Dictionary defines costumes as a distinctive style and prevailing fashion of personal adornment including the study of wearing the hair jewelry and apparel of all kinds, characteristics of any period, country, class, occupation or occasion. Accessories are defined as any various article of apparel (as scarf, belt or piece of jewelry) that accents or otherwise completes one’s costume. Musical instruments/ Accompaniment. Musical instruments are devices producing sounds or rhythmic form of sound accompanying a dance or service of bodily movements that make up a dance. It is important to note that some tribal dances are accompanied by the following native instruments: drums made of animal skin, graduated-size gongs, small bells, bamboo flute, and wood blocks. Dance Steps, Body Movements and Cultural Implications. Dances of any given country evolved naturally and spontaneously in conjunction with the pattern of daily living. Hence, each group of people possesses diverse history, customs, tradition and character traits that are reflected in their dances. Such diversity contributes to the uniqueness of each group. So (1984) stated that characteristic body movements are based on the ways of the natives. Goquinco underscored that one must reinforce characteristic body movements, dance steps and arm/ hand movements to reflect custom, tradition, and character. 30
Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
V.T. Yamut
Encyclopedia Britannica defines dance as the movement of the body in rhythmic way, usually to music and within a given space for the purpose of expressing an idea or an emotion, releasing energy; or simply taking delight in the movement itself.� This study postulates that every dance possesses unique characteristics and reflects the expression and culture of a particular group.
Fig. 1 The researcher being received by the Matigsalugs in a ritual
Fig. 2 Matigsalug Datu’s and Bae’s during the ritual 31
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Fig. 3 Tribal elder, the ritual presider
Fig. 4 The Manubo Matigsalug Tribal House used for rituals
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study intended to look into the dances of the Manubo Matigsalug Tribe of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnoon. In particular, it sought to answer the following objectives: (1) to describe the dances of the Manubo Matigsalug Tribe of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon; (2) to characterize the costumes, accessories and properties are used in these dances; (3) to illustrate the musical instruments played to accompany these dances; (4) to determine the different musical 32
Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
V.T. Yamut
beats of these dances; (5) to illustrate the different movements of these dances; and, (6) to portray a picture of the Manubo Matigsalug Tribe gleaned from the answers. Then, as an exercise for better dance retrieval, a dance notation of the Saluray Kudtong is given at the end of this research report. Methodology This study used the descriptive method of research. The researcher immersed himself in the life of the community of the Manubo Matigsalug Tribe in Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon, observed and recorded their dances, and interviewed members of the tribe who actually perform in the dances. Sinuda is one of the 35 barangays in Kitaotao, Bukidnon. Kitaotao, a second-class municipality, is found at the southern part of the province of Bukidnon in the island of Mindanao. The Matigsalug tribe is one of the sub-ethnic groups of the Manubo tribe. They are called Matigsalug because they live along the Salug River. The other sub-ethnic groups in the Manubo tribe are the Tigwahanons and the Polanguihons. In order to fully appreciate and extensively document the dances of the Matigsalugs, the researcher sought the assistance of the following resource persons. Table 1. Characteristics of resource persons
Resource Persons (RP) Generation
Age
Role
RP 1
Older
72
Elder
RP 2
Older
66
Chanter; Dancer
RP 3
Older
57
Elder
RP 4
Older
54
Chanter; Dancer
RP 5
Older
54
Dancer; Instrumentalist
RP 6
Older
54
Dancer; Instrumentalist
RP 7
Older
50
Chairwoman 33
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(Table 1 Continued) RP 8
Younger
29
Kalika Organizer; Dancer; Instrumentalist
RP 9
Younger
29
Choreographer and Researcher
RP 10
Younger
28
Dancer; Instrumentalist; Interpreter
RP 11
Younger
25
Dancer; Instrumentalist
RP 12
Younger
22
Dancer; Instrumentalist
RP 13
Younger
19
Dancer
RP 14
Younger
17
Dancer
RP 15
Younger
17
Dancer
RP 16
Younger
16
Dancer
RP 17
Younger
16
Dancer
RP 18
Younger
15
Dancer
RP 19
Younger
14
Dancer
Table 1 shows that the researcher sought the help of nineteen resource persons from the Manubo Matigsalug community in Sinuda. Of the nineteen, seven belong to the older generation – with ages ranging from 50 to 72; and twelve belong to the younger generation – with ages ranging from 14 to 25. Two are considered elders: Datu Manuel Lacaran and Bae Lorma Dalit, the rest being mostly dancers. Of the nineteen, two are chanters, one male, Datu Antonio Taudangan and, one female, Bae Lorina Taudangan, both of whom are from the older generation. There is no chanter yet among the younger generation.
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Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
V.T. Yamut
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION From Table 2, the Manubo Matigsalug Tribe of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon have fifteen dances. Of these fifteen dances, seven depict animal movements, five of which, like Table 2. Descriptions of Matigsalug dances Dances
Description
Bangkakawan
It is the Log Dance where six persons dance around a log in synchronized movements until a brisk tempo is achieved. Two men tap the log rhythmically, going near and away from it while four women play and dance in rhythmic patterns using “lamps” or “kahol.”
Binanog
Flirtation dance depicting the movement of the hawk or “banog.”
Bubudsil
Dance depicting the movements of small birds as they jump and mate with each other.
Inagong
Social dance performed during festivals, weddings and other special occasions.
Kakayamutan (Kalaw)
Dance depicting the movement of the “kalaw” or hornbill as it flies, hops, swims on water, and mates with other birds.
Kalusisi
Dance depicting the movement of small birds as they fly and jump from one tree to another.
Oripon
Dance of a Matigsalug woman “oripon” or slave as she bids her fellow slaves farewell.
Pig-agawan (Aahew-Aahaw)
Flirtation and infidelity dance with one male and two female dancers depicting the movement of birds as they fly, hop and mate with each other.
Saluray Kudlong
Flirtation and infidelity dance with a male dancer playing a onestringed guitar called “saluray” and a female dancer tuning a “kudlong.”
Saut
Head-hunting dance of Matigsalug male headhunters.
Sayaw Kubing
Dance with a male or female dancer playing a “kubing” or bamboo harp and performed during rituals, gatherings and flirtation.
Sayaw Kulintang
Flirtation dance with male and female dancers dancing together with hanging gongs.
Talupak Mamugas Rice planting dance depicting the movements of persons planting rice (Palakpak) and usually performed during the harvest season as an expression of thanksgiving. Titinokak
Dance depicting the movement of a small monkey as it jumps, climbs, hides and seeks other small monkeys.
Uubol
Monkey dance performed on special occasions like festivals and big gatherings like the Kaamulan in Bukidnon.
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the Binanog, Bubudsil, Kakayamutan, Kalusisi and Pig-agawan, deal with movements of birds and two, like the Titinokak, Uubol deal with monkeys. Three deal with human activity in the community like rice planting (Talupak Mamugas), homage to the forest (Bangkakawan) and head-hunting (Saut). Five others deal with flirtation or interaction between the male and the female members of the tribe (Binanog, Pig-agawan, Saluray Kudtong, Sayaw Kubing, and Sayaw Kulintang). One dance, Inagong, aside from the Uubol earlier mentioned, is a dance for special occasions. Table 3 Descriptions of costumes Costume
Description
Ampit
Female dancer’s skirt which stretches below the knee and patterned after the decorations of the blouse.
Balaran
Female dancer’s short blouse enough the leave the midriff base. It has bell sleeves on patched with yellow and white diamonds alternated with blue and white, red and white.
Bandira
Male dancer’s tight-fitting pair of trousers. Upper part has horizontal patterns while lower part has vertical patterns.
Binakad
Male dancer’s coat decorated with embroidery and appliqué similar to that of a female dancer’s “balaran.”
The Manubo Matigsalug costumes (Table 3) have two pieces, for both men and women, one for the upper part of the body and another for the lower part. The terms above, ampit, balaran, bandira, and binakad are the same for all the other Manubo tribes of the west side of Southern Bukidnon, like the Tigwahanon and the Polanguihon, but while the same, the color and the design vary from tribe to tribe, as is the case of the Manubo Matigsalug tribe. There is an amazing and enchanting mix of colors as well as an attractive and intricate craftsmanship in their embroidery.
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Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
V.T. Yamut
Fig. 5 Female costumes: Ampit and Balaran Male costumes: Bandira and Binakad
Table 4
Table 4. Descriptions of accessories Accessory
Description
Bali-ug
Necklace made of red, white, yellow, black and blue beads.
Boday
Bracelet for female made of antique pure gold.
Bulusu
Bracelet made of shell, 1 to 1 ½ inches in diameter.
Bulusyu
Bracelet made of beads with different colors.
Matangkulu
Intricately-embroidered handkerchief worn as turban by the “bagani” or hero and the “datu” or head of the tribe.
Sangkad
Comb with intricate design inlaid in brass or mother-of-pearl or “namamalungkoy” (tussel balls) fastened to a woman’s hair at the back of her head.
Sinalapid
Belt with intricate design inlaid with beads of different colors and used by the datu for special occasions.
Sol-ay
Female dancer’s beaded jewelry hung from ear to ear and which falls just below the chin towards the front of the body.
Tabud
Red cloth belt tied around the waist.
Tangkulu
Triangular cloth tied around the head and used by ordinary young men.
Tikus
Anklets made of abaca fiber inlaid with beads of different colors and used by the date for special occasions.
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Eleven accessories have been identified, as Table 4 would show. Three of these eleven accessories are for the head, like the Matatangkulu, Sangkad and Tangkulu. Two are for the neck, like the Bali-ug and Sol-ay. Three are bracelets like the Boday, Bulusu and Bulusyu. Two are belts like the Sinalapid and Tabud while one is for the ankle, like the Tikus. One of these accessories, the Tangkulo, points to a person’s high status in the Matigsalug community.
Fig. 6 Bulusu (bracelet made of shell)
Fig. 7 Sangkud (made of cloth tassel balls)
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Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
Fig. 8 Bulusyu (bracelet made of beads of different colors)
V.T. Yamut
Fig. 9 Tangkulo (headdress used by the Bagani or Datu)
Fig. 10 Boday (bracelet made of pure gold)
Fig. 11 Sinalibuhan (datu’s accessories used to store tobacco and apog) 39
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Fig. 12 Bulusyu (bracelet made of different beads, coins and stones)
Fig. 13 Sinalapid (belt with intricate design used by the Datu)
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Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
V.T. Yamut
Table 5. Descriptions of properties Property
Description
Binabay
Matigsalug bag made of bamboo fibers used to store food, seeds and other household items
Binanus (Sening)
Charm works like bandolier
Ilab
Knife
Kalasag
Wooden shield carved and painted with straight or curved lines or inlaid with beads, mother-of-pearl or cloth
Laban Palaspas
Made of kilala leaves and used to drive away spirits during the “pamuhat” in healing rituals
Palikit
Basket used to store “apog” or tobacco
Pinutik
Bolo exclusively used by the datu or leader for hunting or protection
Sinalibuhan
Brass storage, half-moon in design, used to keep the datu’s tobacco and apog
Tambale
“Nigo” used for threshing rice as well as for holding all the other properties
From Table 5, it may be seen that the Manubo Matigsalug dances uses ten properties in their dances. Of these ten properties, five are used for storing food and tobacco, like the Binabay, Binanus, Laban, Palikit, and Sinalibuhan. Two are for self-defense, like the Ilab and Pinutik, while two others, like the Kalasag and Palaspas are for self-protection. The Tambale is commonly used for rituals. Table 6. Musical instruments Property
Description
Agong
Brass gong
Ahungan
Graduated-sized gongs and usually hung
Bangkakaw
Log with carved out insides in order to be hollow and produce a riverbeating sound
Kubing
Bamboo harp
Saluray
Wooden guitar used to accompany dancing
Kudyapi
Long flute
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(Table 6 Continued) Saliyaw
Set of small bells sewn into a cloth strip and worn just below the knees to make a tinkling sound when walking. Originally used to ward off evil spirits as a person walks along the trail.
Kudlong
Bamboo section fashioned as a guitar
The Manubo Matigsalug dances, as can be seen in Table 6, uses eight musical instruments. Of the eight, four are percussion like the Agong, Ahungan, Bangkakaw, and Saliyaw. Two are stringed instruments, like the Kudlong and Saluray while two others are wind instruments like the Kubing and Kudyapi . And three of these musical instruments are made of bamboo like the Kubing, Kudyapi and Kudlong.
Fig. 16: Bangkakaw (log)
Fig. 14: Datu Antonio of Sinuda, Kitaotao, playing the saluray
Fig. 15: Bae Lorna Tandangan of Sinuda, Kitaotao, playing Kudlong 42
Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
V.T. Yamut
Table 7. Dance with respective musical instrument/s Dance
Musical Instrument
Bangkakawan
Bangkakaw
Binanog
Agong; Bangkakaw; Kulintang
Bubudsil
Agong; Bangkakaw; Kulintang; Saliyaw
Inagong
Agong; Bangkakaw; Saliyaw
Kakayamutan (Kalaw)
Agong; Bangkakaw; Kulintang
Kalusisi
Agong; Bangkakaw; Kulintang
Oripon
Agong; Bangkakaw; Kulintang; Kudyapi
Pig-agawan (Aahew-Aahaw)
Agong; Kulintang; Saliyaw
Saluray Kudtong
Saluray-Kudtong
Saut
Agong; Bangkakaw; Kulintang; Saliyaw
Sayaw Kubing
Kubing
Sayaw Kulintang
Kulintang
Talupak Mamugas (Palakpak)
Agong; Bangkakaw; Saliyaw
Titinokak
Agong; Bangkakaw
Uubol
Agong; Bangkakaw
From Table 7, it can be gleaned that the most used musical instrument in the fifteen dances of the Manubo Matigsalug tribe dances are the agong and the bangkakaw. The agong is used by eleven out of the 15 dances; likewise, the bangkakaw is used in eleven of these fifteen dances. The next two instruments that are often used are the kulintang and the saliyaw. Table 8. Dance with respective musical beat Dance
Musical Beat 2/4
Bangkakawan
3/4
4/4
x
Binanog
x
Bubudsil
x
Inagong
x 43
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(Table 8 Continued) Kakayamutan (Kalaw)
x
Kalusisi
x
Oripon
x
Pig-agawan (Aahew-Aahaw)
x
Saluray Kudtong Saut
x x
Sayaw Kubing
x
Sayaw Kulintang Talupak (Palakpak)
x
Mamugas
x
Titinokak
x
Uubol
x
TOTAL
7
5
3
The fifteen dances vary in their musical beat as can be seen from Table 8. Seven of the fifteen dances, like the Binanog, Bubudsil, Inagong, Kakayamutan, Kalusisi, Saut and Sayaw Kulintang use the 2 / 4 beat. Five dances, like the Bangkakawan, Oripon, Saluray Kudtong, Titinokak and Uubol employ the 3 / 4 beat. The remaining three dances, Pig-agawan, Sayaw Kubing and Talupak Mamugas are dances with the 4 / 4 beat. Table 9. Type of dance with respective dance movements Dance
Movement Head tilted downward
Downward Eye following Arm
Trunk slightly inclined sidewards
Knee slightly bent
Arm extended sideward
Hop swing side by side
Energetic movement
Bangkakawan
x
x
x
Binanog
x
x
x
x
x
x
Bubudsil
x
X
x
x
x
x
x
Inagong
x
X
x
x
x
x
x
Kakayamutan (Kalaw)
x
x
x
x
x
Kalusisi
x
x
x
x
x
44
x
x x
x
Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
V.T. Yamut
(Table 9 Continued) Oripon
x
x
x
x
x
Pig-agawan (AahewAahaw)
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Saluray Kudtong Saut
x
x x
x
Sayaw Kubing Sayaw Kulintang Talupak Mamugas (Palakpak)
x
x
x
x
x
10
8
10
10
Titinokak Uubol TOTAL
8
6
8
There are seven main movements in the Manubo Matigsalug dances as Table 9 would show. These are the head tilted downwards, downward eye following arm, trunk slightly inclined sidewards, knee slightly bent, arm extended sideward, hop swing side by side and energetic movement. It is interesting to note that many of these seven movements, in particular, the first five moments: head tilted downwards, downward eye following arm, trunk slightly inclined sidewards, knee slightly bent, arm extended sideward, are movements that are often associated with shyness, timidity, humility, if not submission. Among others, then, this may mean that the Manubo Matigsalugs are a people who are shy, timid, humble and submissive. The only notes of aggressiveness in them is when they extend their arm sideward, as if reaching for freedom, then, when they hop from side to side as if to convey their sense of joy in life and when they make energetic movements to express their love for life.
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Saluray Kudlong Dance Notation by Figure
Fig. 17 Pag Bunsed Teg Sayaw – The Saluray dancer and the Kudlong dancer meet at the center using the sud sud (chasing) steps
Fig. 19 Banley – to swing the hips and follow the movement of the arms
46
Fig. 18 Tubu – means “to draw” or “to get ready”
Fig. 20 Pe iniyuheyok – each dancer moves four sud sud steps away from each other
Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
Fig. 21 Pasinugengoy – each dancer moves four sud sud steps towards each other
V.T. Yamut
Fig. 22 Testitung – Female dancer moves around the male dancer, clockwise, while the latter remains stationary while playing the kudlong
Fig. 23 Libud megtileng – Female dancer moves around the male dancer, counter-clockwise
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Fig. 24 Bubentaan meg leno – Male and female dancers bend their knees together for landing position
Fig. 25 Paseheysahey – Male dancer and female dancer sway away from each other
Fig. 26 Nakalene-e – Male dancer and female dancer sit across each other with their knees almost touching each other 48
Manubo Matigsalug Dances of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon
V.T. Yamut
Fig. 27 Oripun dancers raising their forearms alternately, up and down, and then starting the sud sud or chasing steps
Fig. 28 Oripun dancers shaking their arms and shoulders while kneeling
Fig. 29 Lead dancer moves around other dancers, as if bidding goodbye
Fig. 30 Five dancers clap their hands, as if wishing her well
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The fifteen dances identified with the Manubo Matigsalug Tribe of Sinuda, Kitaotao, Bukidnon point to a people who are in touch with themselves and with the environment around them. Dance is a physical, rhythmic expression of what is within through body movements and to have fifteen dances associated with one community points to a vibrant and a living community. Among others, these dances also point to the Matigsalugs’ finity with nature, with animals, with the forest, with the different activities in their lives. The bird dances, the monkey dances, the log dance, the rice planting dance, the head-hunting dance – all this reflect unity of the Matigsalugs with the world around them. The costumes, accessories and properties used in the dances point to the creativity of the Matigsalugs as well as their attention to detail. The attractive mix of the colors as well as the intricate details of their costumes, accessories and properties reveal their playful yet disciplined spirit. Their musical instruments: percussions, string and wind, to this researcher’s mind, approximates the sounds of the environment around them. Hence, again, their affinity with nature, whether fauna or flora. Moreover, as already hinted earlier, their dance movements, in particular, the more used movements like head tilted downward, downward eye following arm, trunk slightly inclined sidewards, knee slightly bent and arm extended sideward, point to a shy, timid, humble and submissive people – which the Matigsalugs are. There is no hint of arrogance, whatsoever, in these dances; nor a sign of pride in whatever movement. Except for the “arm extended sideward,” the hopping and the energetic movements, the other movements reveal a self-deprecating people. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS There is certainly a need to retrieve these ethnic dances before present-day and contemporary dances “corrupt” and “embellish” these original dances in their most simple movements. In other words, this documentation of the Matigsalug dances is only the first step among a series of steps to preserve them, in their original form, for future generations. There is the further challenge to see how 50
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V.T. Yamut
these dances may be further appreciated not only by the younger generations of the Matigsalugs but also by the Filipino general public. This researcher feels that this is where the university, like Liceo de Cagayan University, comes in: to lead in the retrieval of these dances, to lead in the preservation of these retrieved dances, and to showcase these dances – in their original form – to students and the general viewing public in the hope that, through these dances, other Filipinos may get to know better their indigenous brothers and sisters. As hinted earlier by the researcher at the beginning of this study, the members of the Matigsalug community themselves might as well look into the possibility of training younger chanters who may, in due time, take over the role of the chanters of the older generation. As Table 1 of this study would show, there seems to be no understudy for chanter among the younger generation. Dance is reflective of a people. In this study, the fifteen dances of the Manubo Matigsalug point to a people in touch with themselves and with the environment around them. The study of dance, therefore, can be a good springboard in understanding a people. This researcher, therefore, can only say, “Shall we dance?” literature cited Alejandro,R. G. (1978). Philippine dance mainstream and crosscurrents. Manila: Vera – Reyes Inc. Aquino, F. R. (1948). Philippine national dances. New York: Silver Burdett Co. Aquino, F. R. (1961). “ Dances of the Philippines” Philippine Quarterly. 21 October – December. Gabao, L.A. (1988). “Ethic Dances of bontoc, Ifugao, Benguet, Apayao, Kalinga (BIBAK), a comparative analysis” Philippine Normal College, Manila. Goquinco, L. O. (1980). The Dances of the emerald isles. Manila: Ben-Lon Pub. Pitt, D. C. 1978. Using historical sources in a topology and sociology. University of Waikato, New Zealand: Holtrume Heart and Winston Inc. Pagulayan, F. M. (1983). Traditional dances of the Ibangas in Cagayan; their contribution to their ethnic group’s identity”, Philippine Normal College, Manila. So, A.R.. (1984). “Tiruray dances of the Maguindanao province and manobo dances of North Cotabato: A comparative analysis” , Philippine Normal College. Manila. Unabia, C.C. (1985). “Bukidnon oral tradition” Volume XLIV – 2 51
Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064
Liceo Journal ofResearch Higher Journal, Education Research CHED Accredited Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section
The Power to Influence and to Protect: Interconnectedness of the Human Bodies among theVisayans and the Indigenous People LILIAN C. DE LA PEĂ‘A, MA liliandelapena@gmail.com Capitol University, Cagayan de Oro City Date Submitted: August 6, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: December 14, 2008 Abstract - This paper presents interviews with Visayans found in Central Philippines and its indigenous people, the Ati, in order to discuss beliefs surrounding the human body. The belief on the energy (dungan among the Karay-a) of the human body to inflict sickness or pain to another body is dominant throughout the interviews, as well as religious rites officiated by specialists to heal and protect the ailing body from the debilitating effect of this energy. Urbanization fails to completely erode such traditional belief. This paper analyzes the role of a marginal indigenous people, the Ati, as provider of essential medicines to protect the human body from harm. This role cannot be undermined especially when one tries to make sense of how lowland Visayans practice animism simultaneous to their Catholic faith. Keywords - Ati, Indigenous Knowledge, Medicinal Plants, Philippines
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The Power to Influence and to Protect: Interconnectedness of the Human Bodies among the Visayans and the Indigenous People
L.C. de la Peña
Introduction Newborn infants are everyone’s fancy and joy, and remarks of admiration are given often to them. Such remark of admiration is usually followed by saying purya buyag, a tradition practiced all over the Visayas and other places in the country, like Mindanao, where Cebuano is predominantly spoken.1 The infant’s mother immediately supplies this phrase if ever it is not given. Buyag is an energy released together with the remark of admiration. Usually, it harms the infant in the form of fever or stomach ache. In cases of prolonged illness, the energy of the one admiring the infant is said to be very strong. Infants are more susceptible to buyag than adults, according to the Karay-a, inhabitants of Southwest Panay, because dungan or double is at the weakest especially during infancy.2 This paper contains observations of different coastal villages in the Visayas, Central Philippines during the period 1993 - 1995 and interviews with an indigenous people, the Ati of Cebu, conducted from 2005 to 2006 mostly those found in Cebu City.3 The observations contain insights on how Visayans talk about the human body in the context of its spiritual milieu, primarily its power, if not powerlessness, over another human body. Buyag, usog, hilo (to poison) and somebody else’s gaze are believed to cause harm to a human body. Religious rites and rituals are known to cure the human body once stricken by this energy. Other than human bodies, malicious and playful spirits are plenty in the environment to cause harm. The interviews with the Ati contain information on the medicines they trade with non-Ati precisely for supernatural protection of the human body. This particular relation between Ati and non-Ati directs attention to the enduring animistic tradition of Filipinos despite the profound impact of demographic processes, particularly urbanization and migration, to their social lives. Vignettes of fieldwork Belief on the supernatural is strongly manifested in the daily relations of Visayans toward each other, known people and strangers alike. The medicines bought from the Ati are intended to protect the self and to cure illnesses brought about by any form of communication with other people. Even to gaze is to cause harm. 53
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Following is a description of events, independent of each other, that happened during fieldwork in some islands in the Visayas where the supernatural is believed the culprit for harming a human body. (1) Island of Naro Dyut in Masbate, 1992 It was close to lunchtime when the rented trawler boat carrying us – four of us and four crew – reached Naro Island. We came there to know more about the fishers engaged in net and blast fishing who sojourned to Gigantes Island every southwest monsoon. Prof. Ushijima, director of the project, was troubled with an upset stomach throughout the four-hour trip from Estancia and left the boat first, in a hurry to reach the house of our host. A small group of women and children followed us to our host’s house. And when Professor Ushijima complained of his stomach, four sturdy women – the two each holding a liter of pale pilsen beer, blurted in unison buyag! And so a sirhwano was fetched to cure the Japanese teacher. The four sturdy women kept quiet, satisfied maybe that we listened to their advice and that cure was on its way. In the midst of what seemed like a state of confusion, particularly when the four women started to invite more attention from the community with their loud voices, we learned that buyag reached Professor Ushijima when he jumped off the boat. Somebody must have seriously gazed at him during this particular moment. A resident guessed that it must be Profesor Ushijima’s mestizo face that attracted the one who gazed, considering that three of his companions, also strangers there, did not get buyag.4 Gaze, as the situation defines it, is a product of one’s interest, out of curiosity in this particular instance, at what the man saw in Professor Ushijima. The level of buyag is potent to have caused harm and brought about by the question raised by, and for ease of writing let us call here , the aggressor such as who is this mestizo-looking man, what brought him to the island, and also the sudden fear created in him by these questions. (2) Crossing Lemon, Leyte, 1993-1994 Lemon is an intersection and, being one, is oftentimes filled 54
The Power to Influence and to Protect: Interconnectedness of the Human Bodies among the Visayans and the Indigenous People
L.C. de la Pe単a
with peddlers of all sorts of things. From mineral water, boiled saba banana and sticky corn to cigarettes and candies, peddlers can rouse one from sleep. We reached Lemon after four hours of ordinary, non-air condition bus ride coming from Tacloban City. We passed by it every time we visited Maripipi Island to interviews its potters and traders. The sticky corn of Lemon, rightly boiled, was extraordinarily soft and sweet. Buying it had become our habit. But our host in Maripipi upon knowing this habit cautioned us to cease from doing so for fear of hilo or being poisoned. There are people called hiloan who suffer if they cannot cause hilo to others. They are like the aswang who, likewise, are believed to suffer from pain if they cannot eat human flesh. The poison is usually placed by the hiloan on the tip of one fingernail and placed on water or any food, such as sticky corn. The victim may die if not given the proper medicine on time. Forest collectors, urban peddlers The situations mentioned above clearly suggest the continuing influence of animism among Visayans. In this paper, I would like to attribute it to the role of the Ati as collectors and peddlers of traditional medicine. The Ati is a Philippine indigenous people with Negrito physical attributes, specifically dark and oily skin, kinky hair and short in height (Jocano, 1997). Some aspects of their social life are discussed earlier by Rahmann and Maceda (1963; 1962; 1958; 1955). Their mobility within Central Philippines is written in de la Pe単a (2009). Their knowledge of materia medica and peddling activities in relation to this is described by Zayas (2008). The latter two articles mention the presence of a small group of Ati in Naga, Cebu and the space they maintain by the roadside leading to Santo Nino Church in Cebu City where they sell medicine. Binisaya nga bulong (Bisayan medicine) is how they call their products to identify it from the doctor-prescribed medicines bought in a pharmacy. The table below may be inaccurate considering the mobility of the Ati but could provide readers an idea of their population and the places they frequently camp. An interview with a 74-year old female Ati from Nagpana in Panay Island reveals that peddling of medicine has been their tradition. She became a member of a traveling band only after 55
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marriage. Her primary reason in joining a band is financial, but it also provided her the chance to travel. She never traveled before her marriage. There were several bands at that time in Nagpana, with seven to 15 members. The leaders possess good knowledge of medicinal plants, where they can be collected and sold. Membership in a band is not permanent and members change leaders all the time. The routes, time, and attitude of the leader are some key factors in deciding which band to join. Table1. Population of Ati in the Visayas Place Capiz
Number of Families
Population
17
123
Antique
899
5,217
Iloilo
332
1,902
Aklan
161
740
61
309
144
789
50
178
Negros Occidental Guimaras Cebu Total
Source: NCIP Regions VI, VII and elsewhere, as of July 31, 2004
Medicines to protect the body from harm Anywhere else, healers are distinguished from each other based on the knowledge, particularly magic and the supernatural, that each possesses. In the Visayas, the babaylan have superior knowledge compared to the sirhwano, merko or hilot. The babaylan is believed to have numerous spirit friends. His strength is symbolized by the red handkerchief he wears on his head while performing a ritual (Magos, 1992). Studies conducted on this topic all say that there could only be a few bearer of this superior knowledge (Kawada, 2000; Seki, 2000; Magos, 1992). Meanwhile, the expertise of the Ati lies in their knowledge of forests and what is inside it. The Ati have penetrated these forests as 56
The Power to Influence and to Protect: Interconnectedness of the Human Bodies among the Visayans and the Indigenous People
L.C. de la Pe単a
swidden farmers, hunters and collectors of plants. Their proximity to forests enabled them to preserve the knowledge on medicinal plants. The National Commission for Indigenous Peoples in the Visayas acknowledges the role of Ati as peddlers of medicinal plants and, likewise, recognizes their good knowledge of these plants. NCIP recognizes that this particular indigenous knowledge must be preserved, as it comprises one of the few remaining indexes of the Ati culture.5 The medicines of the Ati are known to cure common ailments as detailed in Table 2. Table 2. Common medicines sold by the Ati along Magallanes, Cebu City
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(Table 2 continued)
The customers can request the Ati for certain medicines not found on display. Plants and stones used for sorcery, particularly love potions, are mostly secured in this manner. Data show that not all customers who visit the Ati exactly know the name of medicine they came for. Oftentimes, the customers would describe his ailment to the Ati who immediately suggests the appropriate medicine. Table 3. Buyers’ knowledge of Ati medicine Gender Male
With knowledge of medicine bought
Without knowledge of Medicine bought
Total
8
7
15
Female
27
15
42
Total
35
22
57
58
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L.C. de la Peña
Based on the data contained in Table 3, eleven out of the 33 ailments identified are not caused by virus or any physiological deficiencies but supernatural forces. Eleven customers wanted something to protect their homes and bodies from dimalas or in English bad luck or to ensure success in business. Thirty-eight customers, out of 57, on the day of observation, bought medicines that have direct connection to spirits and the supernatural. Table 4. Panagang ‘protection’ sold by the Ati Name of Panagang
Purpose
01 Habak sa bata 02 Tagahumok
Panagang sa usog (For protection from usog) Panagang sa hilo (For protection from being poisoned); this could also be used by an individual to be liked by others; from humok, literally, “to soften”
03 Bato balisong
Panagang sa barang (For protection from sorcery )
04 Carmen
Panagang sa buyag (For protection against buyag)
05 Falling star
Pang-kontra sa mga daot sa lawas (For protection from illnesses)
06 Bala
Panagang sa hilo ug buyag (For protection against buyag and poisoning)
07 Insenso
Panagang sa dautan na espiritu (For protection from malevolent spirits)
08 Kamangyan
Panagang sa dautan na espiritu (For protection from malevolent spirits) Panagang sa buyag (For protection against buyag)
09 Pulseras sa bata 10 Pulseras 11 Seahorse
Panagang sa buyag (For protection against buyag also cures pain due to growth of teeth) Proteksyon sa lawas (usog, hilo) Tambal sa sakit sa tiyan (For protection of the body from usog and hilo and stomach disorder)
12 Salindurok
Panagang sa dautan na espiritu( For protection from malevolent spirits)
13 Tawas tapol
Pang-sumpa sa hilo (To counter the effect of poisoning)
14 Bana-o
Panagang sa dautan na espiritu (For protection from malevolent spirits) Panagang sa dautan na espiritu Panagang sa tanang malas
15 Krus nga panagang 16 Panagang sa tanan
For protection from malevolent spirits (For protection from bad luck) Panagang sa barang, daut, malas (For protection from barang, ill-health, and bad luck)
Source: Fieldnotes of Greggy Pellerin, assistant to Lilian C. de la Peña; Panagang, April 17 & 19, 2009 fieldwork conducted along Magallanes Street, Cebu City
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Body/ies and the Environment Demographic processes, undeniably, have dramatic impacts on culture and social relations. Such processes, perhaps, are attributes of what some social scientists refer to as culprit for the Filipinos fractured knowledge when it comes to religion, beliefs, and world views. The impact of colonization, as well, is well played out in the social sciences literature which, at the same time, does not deny the enduring dominance of indigenous/traditional culture among present-day Filipinos. The discussion above highlights the role of a marginal indigenous people – the Ati – in the network of social exchange which has resulted in the preservation of an indigenous knowledge on traditional medicine. Its preservation is mainly a consequence of the high demand for this traditional medicine. While the discussion also establishes the role of the Ati as traders of these medicines, due to proximity to forests, it also emphasizes their role as knowledge broker – they continue to learn the many applications of these traditional medicines. Of more value to social science however - first, is the notion on the vulnerability of the body/individual in relation to other bodies; and, second, on the notion of social relations wherein individuals are made conscious of their impact on each other but also the environment. The human body is powerful, infused with dungan “energy” however its power can also be gauged in relation to other human bodies possessing larger amounts of energy. This animist belief has endured vis-à-vis Catholicism in the Philippines precisely because of the general beliefs on how social relations must be carried out in a society.
LITERATURE CITED de la Peña, L. C. (2009).“Life Here and Elsewhere: Mobility and Landlessness of the Visayan Ati” MINDAyawan Capitol University Journal of Culture and Society, Vol. 3(1):85-106. Fox, R. (1952). “The Pinatubo Negritos: their useful plants and material culture” The Phil. J. Science, vol. 81 (3-4):173-414. Jocano, F. L. (1997) Philippine Ethnic Groups (Patterns and Variations). Manila: Punlad. 60
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Kawada, M. Bayad sa dili naton kaipon: A Visayan ritual of offering to the spirits. In: Binisaya nga Kinabuhi (Visayan Life), edited by Iwao Ushijima and Cynthia Neri Zayas. College of Social Sciences and Philosophy Publication, University of the Philippines. Quezon City. Pp. 213-240. Magos, A. P. (1992). The Enduring Maaram Tradition: An Ethnography of a Kinaray-a Village. Quezon City: New Day Publishing House. Rahmann, R. and M. N. Maceda (1963). “Ethnographic Field trip to the Negritos in the North of the Island of Negros” The Carolinian, pp. 36-37. Rahmann, R. and M. N. Maceda (1962). Notes on the Negritos of Antique, Island of Panay, Philippines.”Anthropos 57:638-39. Rahmann, R. and M. N. Maceda (1958). “Notes on the Negritos of Iloilo, island of Panay, Philippines.” Anthropos, v.57:626-243. Rahmann, R. and M. N. Maceda. (1955). “Notes on the Negritos of Northern Negros” Anthropos, v.50:810-826. Seki, K. 2000. Social distribution and reproduction of folk knowledge in the Visayas: Preliminary notes for a study of healers in Siquijor Island. In: Binisaya nga Kinabuhi (Visayan Life), edited by Iwao Ushijima and Cynthia Neri Zayas. College of Social Sciences and Philosophy Publication, University of the Philippines. Quezon City. Pp. 203-212. Zayas, C. N. (2008). Trade and Patronage of Ati Materia Medica in the Visayas. In: Consuelo J. Paz’s (editor) Ginhawa, Kapalaran, Dalamhati (Essays on Well-being, Opportunity/Destiny and Anguish). Quezon City: University of the Philipines Press. pp. 66-86. Zayas, C. N. (2008) Panagang for Pagans are for Christians too. In: Consuelo J. Paz’s (editor) Ginhawa, Kapalaran, Dalamhati (Essays on Well-being, Opportunity/Destiny and Anguish). Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. pp. 61-65. Zayas, C. N. and E. C. Abaya (2008). Kaginhawaan: Mula sa Sinapupunan Hanggang sa Kabilang Buhay. In: Consuelo J. Paz’s (editor) Ginhawa, Kapalaran, Dalamhati (Essays on Wellbeing, Opportunity/Destiny and Anguish). Quezon City: UP Press. pp. 30-46.
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Endnotes 1 According to Ms Geldolin Inte, English instructor of Capitol University, buyag has no direct translation in the English language. But since its origin could be directly related to animism or in the context of the same which, historically, Catholicism tried to erase in the consciousness of the Filipinos, buyag has come to be presently translated into God. 2 Karay-a is a language used in Iloilo Province, except he City of Iloilo, and the whole of Antique Province. The same concept is mentioned to be true to most ethnolinguist ic groups in the Philippines in the article of Zayas and Abaya (2008). 3 This paper is part of a larger research study funded by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts and granted to Lilian C. de la Peña. 4 Prof. Iwao Ushijima is Japanese and director of the project Visayas Maritime Anthropological Studies (VMAS) funded by the Japanese Ministry of Education from 1991 to 1999. 5 And in order to do this, its staff has video-taped the procedure on how the Ati women work on their medicinal bracelets. An NCIP employee based in Ilo-ilo City - Mrs. Gregorio is presently doing a research on the medicinal plants of Ati now living in Guimaras Island. 6 The article of Cynthia N. Zayas “Trade and Patronage of Ati Materia Medica in the Visayas” contains a fuller description of medicines sold by the Ati. The data presented here are medicines found during our fieldwork and do not include medicines known to Ati but which they do not sell. 7 Based on a day of observation, April 18, 2006, stall of Guirom along Magallanes Street in Cebu City
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section
Andragogy in the Use of Peer Reviewed (ISI) Research Literature in Graduate Courses Genaro V. Japos, Ph.D. drgvjapos@yahoo.com TERESITA T. TUMAPON, Ph.D. ttumapon@liceo.edu.ph Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: August 6, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: December 14, 2008 Abstract - The study used the action research design involving 65 graduate students in two graduate classes. A questionnaire was constructed and tested for reliability (alpha coefficient = 0.9876). The study found that the andragogy in the use of peer reviewed research literature from the Institute of Scientific Information (ISI) is effective in increasing the graduate students’ level of awareness and utilization of ISI materials for academic use and in developing the research skills. Exposure to ISI materials enhanced the graduate students’ general understanding of what constitutes quality research that passes international standards. The enabling mechanisms provided by Liceo de Cagayan University have contributed to the success of the andragogy and motivated both the faculty and students to use ISI sources. These mechanisms include ISI online subscription, training of faculty and students on how to access ISI materials, implementation of policy requiring ISI references for oral reports, critical review of literature, online feedback from authors, experiential paper, use of ISI sources in thesis/dissertation of students and faculty research, and use of journal full-text format. Key words - Andragogy, Peer Review, Institute of Scientific Information (ISI), Research Literature, Graduate Programs
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Introduction Graduate education stands at the apex of the educational ladder. It provides training to high level specialization necessary to spur the engines of national and global development. Hence, graduate level teaching also requires a unique andragogy to meet the demands of academic specializations responsive both to the intellectual rigors of the academe and the world of work. In Liceo de Cagayan University, the framework of graduate level teaching is anchored on the concept of the development of the global Filipino learners who shall be adept at creating solutions to the multifaceted problems of society. They should be proficient in accessing quality learning resources from the global networks of knowledge both print and electronic formats such as those from the web of science. The advent of the information superhighway allows learners to access the knowledge bases of libraries and e-libraries such as the Thomson, Proquest, Eric and Wilson Omnifiles among others. Cognizant of this trend, the administration of Liceo de Cagayan University made an unprecedented move to subscribe to online research journals particularly the Wilson Omni files in 2006. This move was recognized as a strong feature of the graduate library by the accrediting team of the Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities – Commission on Accreditation (PACUCOA). However, in the recent visit of the accrediting team for Level III Accreditation of the Master in Management and Master in Nursing, the accreditors noted that, per records in the graduate library, the use of the online journals was very limited among the graduate faculty and students, indicating that this kind of service was not utilized. This finding was affirmed in the dialogue they had with faculty and graduate students. The low level of utilization did not justify the high cost of subscription. Hence, it can be said that the online journals did not trigger an academic rigor in the graduate classes, except for very few professors who are users of the online journals. In general, the use of the online journals was not part of
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G.V. Japos and T.T. Tumapon
the mainstream of the graduate program teaching methodology. In response to this exigency, the researcher and the dean of the Graduate Studies explored the use of ISI online sources in their classes. The insights gained during the exploratory process motivated the researcher to conduct an action research on the andragogy of using peer reviewed (ISI) research literature in graduate courses. Framework The concept of peer review in research is within the purview of quality assurance defined by UNESCO as an embracing term referring to an ongoing, continuous process of evaluating (assessing, monitoring, guaranteeing, maintaining, and improving) the quality of a higher education system, institution, or program. Quality assurance is a process through which a higher education institution guarantees to itself and its stakeholders that its teaching, learning and other services consistently reach the standard of excellence. Therefore, quality assurance incorporates all the processes internal to the institution, whereby quality is evaluated, maintained, and improved (Duff et. al, 2000, cited in the Primer for IQUAME). One of the indicators for A(r), which makes a school a research institution, is research capability. An institution should have a research program and a community of faculty, postgraduate students, and postdoctoral research workers that fosters and supports creative research and other scholarly activity. An institution is judged by high level of research skills, a strong research culture, and a fully implemented research agenda supported by adequate resources and well-defined mechanisms to ensure publication and benchmarking. The research program results in excellent outcomes as shown by regular publication of faculty researches in ISI/refereed journal and a highly relevant research program. The institution demonstrates best practices that make the research community a model for others. The highest standard in publication is the Journal Citation Index. For a journal publication to get accredited from the Institute of Scientific Information (ISI), a strict refereeing process must be in place involving two to four referees for each manuscript submitted. 65
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Referees are from prime publishers in the field/subfields. Acceptance rate is less than 50 percent or much lower at 20 percent. Articles published in the ISI journals tend to be more highly cited in the field. The highest level of ISI journals typically defines the most original and important contributions to the field/subfield. Publication of a research work in the ISI journal is a very good indicator that one’s research is of significant contribution to the field/subfield. A research article deemed as a significant contribution to the field/ subfield has the following characteristics: (1) there is something in the research that other groups of scholars will find interesting, (2) the contribution matches the research questions/problem, and (3) the contribution is very clear in terms of its relation to what the present literature is stating (Bernardo, 2006). Andragogy consists of learning strategies focused on adults. It is often interpreted as the process of engaging adult learners in the structure of the learning experience. The term was originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833, and was developed into a theory of adult education by the American educator, Malcolm Knowles. Knowles held that andragogy (from Greek words meaning “man-leading”) should be distinguished from the more commonly used pedagogy (Greek “child-leading). Knowles’ theory can be stated as four simple postulates: 1.) Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction (Self-concept and Motivation to learn). 2.) experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities (Experience). 3.) Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life (Readiness to learn; and 4.) Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented (Orientation to learning). Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn (Knowles,1970 cited by Hansman, 2008). It is based from crucial assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners that are different from the assumptions about child learners. As persons mature, (1) their self concept moves from being a dependent personality towards one of being a self directing human being; (2) they accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning; (3) their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of their 66
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social roles; and (4) their time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application (Knowles, 2005). In this study, andragogy is articulated in the course syllabus, which requires students to access electronic learning resources such as websites dealing on organizational behavior and quality management system and Wilson Omni files. The sources of the topics listed in the syllabus are traced in the World Wide Web by the students. However, electronic sources are to be evaluated. While the Wilson data base is very extensive, not all sources are in the master list of Thomson Scientific or Institute of Scientific Information. Hence, students utilize those journal articles in the ISI master list. The andragogy prescribes the training of graduate students in accessing ISI sources, the critiquing of ISI journal articles based on a framework provided by the teacher, the utilization of ISI articles for written and oral reports, the correspondence between the students and ISI authors, the inclusion of ISI articles in the examination, and the writing of experience paper. The effectiveness of the andragogy in the use of peer reviewed research literature (ISI) is measured in terms of change in the awareness and utilization of ISI materials and the research skills development of the graduate students. Awareness of ISI includes knowledge of the meaning of ISI, peer review system of research articles, availability of online journals and accessing them, and location of ISI sources for specific topics. Utilization is the degree the ISI materials have been put to productive use by the students for graduate study, for personal and professional development, for solving organizational problems, for corresponding with international researchers, for understanding what is happening in their field outside the country, for making the use of ISI materials as a way of life, and for using scientific information to understand the thinking of CEOs and managers. Research skills development is the graduate students’ proficiency in doing research such as online interviews, doing critical review of a research literature, writing journal articles from a thesis/dissertation, and teaching other learners how to access ISI materials. Action research is a process in which participants examine their own educational practice systematically and carefully, using 67
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the techniques of research. Action research specifically refers to a disciplined inquiry done by a teacher with the intent that the research will inform and change his or her practices in the future. This research is carried out within the context of the teacher’s environment—that is, with the students and at the school in which the teacher works—on questions that deal with educational matters at hand. (Watts, 1985). Ferrence (2000) cited that action research is undertaken in a school setting. It is a reflective process that allows for inquiry and discussion as components of the “research.” Objectives of the Study The study pursued the following objectives; (1) to describe the change in the awareness of graduate students on peer reviewed research literature (ISI); (2) to determine the graduate students’ improvement on the utilization of ISI materials; (3) to assess the increase in research skills of graduate students; and, (4) to compare the extent of awareness, utilization of peer reviewed research literature and the research skills development of graduate students. Methodology The study is an action research involving graduate students of Liceo de Cagayan University who enrolled in Organization Behavior and Quality Management System courses handled by this researcher. Participants of the study were the 33 OB students and 32 QMS students or a total of 65 who enrolled during the second trimester of 2008. The researcher introduced ISI materials to the class. The graduate librarian gave the students training on how to access ISI materials through Wilson Files. Students were required to read at least 10 articles and download and print these for submission to the professor through class email, to make critiques and send them to the authors, to write experience papers, and to answer the examination that included the use of ISI materials. The instrument was researcher-made and tailored to the study. It measured the level of awareness and utilization of ISI materials. Responses were indicated in a Likert 5-point scale: 5, Very High; 4, High; 3, Moderate; 2, Low; 1, Very Low. The questionnaire was 68
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subjected to a reliability test involving 15 respondents who were excluded from the study. Using the coefficient alpha, the obtained index of reliability was .9876, indicating high reliability. The item total correlation was used to verify the internal consistency of the items. The survey questionnaire had three aspects: (1) awareness, (2) utilization of ISI materials, and (3) research skills development. Content validity was established by submitting the instrument to a group of experts who reviewed the items whether they really measure the variables of the study. Construct validity was pursued by submitting the instrument to a language and testing experts to insure that each item measures only one concept and that the language used is correct. The data were processed by the University Statistical Center using SPSS version 16. The statistical techniques used were the mean and the t-test for dependent sample. The researcher observed standard ethical procedures in the conduct of the study. He informed the students that their course outputs and personal reflections contained in their experience paper will be used. Confidentiality was observed since their identities were not revealed. They would be informed of the results of the action research. The research had these activities. Training on Accessing ISI Journals. The graduate librarian conducted the training at the Liceo Net of the University. The process of accessing ISI Journals include the following steps: (1) open the website of Liceo de Cagayan University, then go to the library services; (2) click Omnifile where different articles can be accessed; (3) select topics or type specific topics desired; (4) check the source of article to verify if the journal where the article is published is included in the master list of Thomson-Scientific; (5) go to ISI website, type the full text of the journal and get a match in the listing to validate that the article is ISI listed; and (6) obtain the full text of the articles and send it to the class and personal email. Critiquing ISI Articles. Another component of the andragogy is the critiquing of ISI research literature. Students were given guidelines on critiquing. The teacher told them to focus first on the achievement of purpose, whether the conclusions answered the objectives of the study. The students were also told to discern the arguments raised by the author, and to base their arguments on the 69
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ideas they got from extended readings. Then, they were asked to analyze the methodology particularly the observance of research ethics. They were required to note the paper’s contributions to knowledge and illustrate how the research can be useful to the field and to the society. Crucial in the analysis is the evaluation of references of the ISI materials. Students were made to comment on the timeliness of the sources and whether these are cited in the text. They were to note if the sources are globally spread to create an impression that the writer had a wide grasp of the literature. They were instructed to consult sources not found in the paper and use these as basis in defining the limitations of the treatment of the subject matter. The sources were to be used to expand the revision of the concepts treated in the paper. The students were to trace every reference cited and note if such is found in the ISI database and determine if such source is accurately grafted into the article. Some students discovered that the way the concept was used in the paper is different from the original intent of the cited author, indicating misinterpretation of the original thought. The students were to analyze which sections and ideas they found helpful and which sections needed improvement and to offer ways to enhance the paper. Some students found this part difficult because it requires additional information and a higher grasp of the subject matter. A student has to have a literacy high enough to criticize the material. Having done the critique, the students had their paper edited and peer reviewed by their classmates. Critical in the review process is the direction given by the teacher–that the critique must contain 70 percent criticism and 30 percent praise. As pointed out to the students, the extended and additional sources cited spell the difference between a reaction paper, which merely highlights perceptions of the reactor, and a critique paper, which utilizes authoritative sources to back every assertion made. After obtaining favorable remarks from the teacher, classmates and friends, the students emailed the critique to the authors of the specimen article. The students were guided in writing the contents of their letter that included self-introduction highlighting their name, course, work status, research interest; Liceo de Cagayan University; the standard of the graduate program requiring a critique of ISI articles; their 70
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expressed interest in the writers’ article; and a request for the ISI writers to answer the email explaining the necessity of the reply for submission. Having the author’s reply was explicitly required at the start of the action research; thus it compelled the students to seek the author’s comment on their critique paper. The students were able to get feedback from the ISI writers who expressed their favorable impression on the instructional quality of the graduate program. The connection between the students and the authors extended even after the assignment was completed. The students obtained copies of the recent studies and even copies of books and publications of the ISI authors whom they commented with. Analytical Reflections. Another feature of the andragogy is the writing of analytical reflections drawn from the whole experience. The students had to write their reflections after every activity. In writing the experience paper, the students were guided by the contents of the instrument designed to assess the effects of the ISI experiences on the students’ research skills development. The experience paper contained the students’ narration of the changes and the emerging patterns of their awareness on the significance of ISI materials, the utilization of ISI materials in their classes, their work, and their personal lives particularly the changes in their mindsets about their CEOs, managers, and supervisors. Inclusion of ISI Articles in the Examination. At the start of the term, students were required to access the website of Thomson-Scientific to obtain the listing of the Institute of Scientific Information. The examination required the students to state the process in accessing ISI research literature using the Wilson files of the University, why ISI articles are the prime standard in research literature, and the value of ISI articles in the teaching and learning of the subjects and in the improvement of the graduate students’ knowledge, skills, values, and mindsets. Results and Discussion After one trimester, the graduate students’ awareness of ISI peer reviewed journal increased from low (1.82) to moderate (3.41). There is evidence that after one trimester of exposure to ISI materials, the students became familiar with the concept of peer 71
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review of research articles and learned how to access the articles through Wilson files and locate ISI sources for specific topics. The students received power point presentation of quality assurance in research and training by the graduate librarians on how to access ISI sources that enabled the students to download and print ISI journal articles from the Wilson files. Part of the final exams directed the students to focus on their ISI experience and the importance of ISI is in research literature. awareness of iSi Journals
Increase in awareness of ISI peer reviewed journals after one trimester I know…
Start
Indicators
what ISI means. about peer review of research articles. online research journals. how to access website for ISI journals.
End
Mean
VD
Mean
VD
Mean Difference
1.68
Low
3.33
Moderate
1.65
1.79
Low
3.43
Moderate
1.64
2.16
Low
3.50
Moderate
1.34
Low
3.33
Moderate
1.49
1.84
how to locate ISI sources for my topics.
1.63
Low
3.27
Moderate
1.64
Overall
1.82
Low
3.41
Moderate
1.59
Increase in utilization of peer reviewed journals after one trimester Table 2 shows an increase of the graduate students’ utilization of ISI materials from low (2.03) to moderate (3.15) as indicated by a mean difference of 1.12. The university’s graduate faculty prescribes a syllabus for a particular subject coupled with modules or reference texts more often sourced from the library. Upon exposure to ISI materials, the students conveniently used ISI sources to supplement their lessons. They used ISI sources to validate the theories and concepts learned. Since the ISI sources are online, they 72
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just downloaded the chosen full-text articles and later printed them at home or in their workplace. They selected titles of articles they deemed relevant, browsed the abstract, and when found substantial; sent the full text to their email address. Utilizing ISI sources, the students learned the two basic types of ISI materials: (1) the critical review type that analyzes what have been published on a particular type and (2) the article research type wherein the results of the research are published. The students’ mindset changed from local to global when they accessed ISI peer reviewed sources. Before, they were contented on local experiences. ISI sources gave them a global perspective as they review international researches. The students were instructed that the sources should be geographically selected to reflect intercontinental experiences. They viewed global mindset as a means of understanding local situations that are related to foreign experiences. The use of scientific information in solving personal and professional problems was enhanced. The inputs they got from the materials gave them new insights into their problems. Reading research literature eventually metamorphosed from that of being an academic assignment imposed by the teacher to becoming part of the lifestyle of the students. This made them self- directed learners who can access new information independent of their teachers. The students expressed that they have become less opinionated as they developed the confidence to speak and write since their ideas have the support of international authors. Evidently, their work performance improves as they gain new understanding of their jobs. They used global information to analyze organizational problems. They have understood better the thinking of their CEOs and managers. Hence, they recommended to their colleagues and classmates the use of ISI research literature. On the whole, a moderate improvement in the students as an effect of using ISI was observed. The students, having expressed their satisfaction with the use of ISI materials, hope that the ISI utilization will be sustained and enhanced.
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Improvement in research skills development after one trimester After one trimester, the graduate students’ research skills developed from low (1.81) to moderate (3.10) as indicated by a mean difference of 1.29. The graduate students achieved the highest mean difference of 2.14 for their skill in teaching other people how to access ISI research literature, which can be partly attributed to their participation in the pilot project of mainstreaming ISI literature in the graduate program of the university. The participants’ classmates in other subjects, who did not know about ISI, had to learn from them how to access it. Using ISI for group reports, the students gained confidence knowing that their sources were credible as they have been peer reviewed by global experts. The students realized that generally the ISI materials were better written and more significant than any other source of research article. Table 2. Increase in utilization of peer reviewed journals after one trimester’s use of ISI material Indicators
Start Mean Extent
End Mean
Extent
Mean Dif.
Peer reviewed sources help me expand my knowledge to supplement my lessons.
2.26
Low
3.21
Moderate
0.95
I use journal articles to validate the theories and concepts I have read.
2.00
Low
3.07
Moderate
1.07
I am using a critical review of research literature done by other authors for my study.
1.89
Low
3.21
Moderate
1.32
My mindset changed from local to global when I accessed ISI peer reviewed sources.
2.16
Low
3.07
Moderate
0.91
2.37
Low
3.21
Moderate
0.84
2.11
Low
3.14
Moderate
1.03
Whenever I have problems whether personal or
I am no longer dependent on the teachers/facilitators for my learning because I can access advanced knowledge from the ISI research literature
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(Table 2 continued) Indicators I get feedback from international researchers on my review of their research articles. I use research literature to back up my answers/ideas during discussions.
Start Mean ExtentM
End ean
Extent
Mean Dif.
1.50
Very Low
2.57
Moderate
1.07
1.95
Low
3.00
Moderate
1.05
2.00
Low
3.21
Moderate
1.89
Low
3.15
Moderate
1.26
speak and write, I have the backing of international ISI authors.
1.95
Low
3.15
Moderate
1.20
I have improved in my work performance due to new understanding of my job that I got from my ISI readings
1.95
Low
3.31
Moderate
1.36
I am using global information in solving organizational problems.
2.11
Low
3.31
Moderate
1.20
Obtaining information from ISI research literature has become a way of life for me.
2.00
Low
3.23
Moderate
1.23
I recommend strongly the use of ISI research literature to my co-workers and classmates.
2.28
Low
3.23
Moderate
0.95
I am able to understand the thinking of my CEOs and managers using new found knowledge from ISI sources.
2.16
Low
3.46
Moderate
1.30
Overall
2.03
Low
3.15
Moderate
1.12
I access research literature sources to help me become a global learner. I have become a global citizen who has grasp of what’s
1.21
my country.
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The students quickly developed the habit of searching an explanation to a problem in their workplace in the ISI research literature. Having been trained to access ISI, the students can access anytime and conveniently ISI materials either at home, or office, or any internet-connected facility or center. This allows them to substantially research for background information on any issue or concern related to work. The students made one remarkable discovery that they can conduct online interviews with ISI authors by using the web mail provided by the journal source. One student remarked that she did not expect the ISI authors to write her back to answer her questions and to comment on the critical review she made. The students learned that ISI authors have other follow through researches of their previous ISI publications. The students actually received from the ISI authors updates of their studies. Students also improved in their skills in making an initial review of literature. They said that in the past, they merely prepared synthesis, reactions and reflections using library and online-sourced materials. They did not scoop available literature on a particular subject and critically review the state of the art as basis for determining gaps in what have been written already. Part of the training given to them was reviewing critically a literature of a particular topic. The frequent use of ISI materials familiarized the students with the structure, form and mechanics of ISI articles, what are the usual parts, how the parts are written, and which parts are usually highlighted in the discussion. They learned that there are parts of a thesis / dissertation omitted in ISI articles such as significance of the study, scope and limitations, definition of terms, among others. The methodology is extensively discussed in the ISI articles particularly the design, procedure, and instrumentation. The recommendation section of the study as part of the summary chapter of a thesis/ dissertation is omitted in the ISI article. Another difference is the source in which most references cited in ISI articles are also available online in the ISI database; hence, the references can easily be retrieved by the researcher for extended readings. In a thesis / dissertation, the online sources given are usually websites which may not contain useful information essential for extended readings. The students also discovered that the abstract of a thesis/ 76
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Table 3. Improvement in research skills after one trimester
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dissertation does not conform to ISI standards. Moreover, the journal article version of a thesis / dissertation published in a graduate journal does not also conform to ISI format. Using the ISI format, the students wrote a journal full-text based from a thesis / dissertation found in the library as part of the practicum. Doing this project, they discovered that many pieces of information needed in the ISI format were not available in the thesis / dissertation. The knowledge on the difference between a thesis/ dissertation and an ISI journal full-text article equipped the students for writing publishable research output. In the interviews conducted among graduates of the masters and doctoral program, it was found out that the writing of a research paper in a journal format is not taught to the graduate research students as evidenced by the content of their final manuscript and the article published in the journal of the graduate school. Interviews revealed that the editor had the burden of transforming a thesis/ dissertation into a publishable format. Reformatting a thesis/dissertation into a journal full-text article is an important process every research writer has to do. There is also evidence that the students brought their ISI experience to their workplaces and continued to access ISI articles beyond academic requirement. Students do not have to go through the process of borrowing books and paying the fine for overdue books. Moreover, the students indicated that they used ISI sources in making decisions, solving problems, and designing new systems and procedure in their organizations. Access to ISI materials opens a new window of opportunity for quality research literature to be utilized. Effectiveness of andragogy in the use of ISI materials to awareness, utilization and research skills development Table 4 and utilization of ISI and research skills. Start of Term 1 End of Term 3 T calc Prob.
78
Awareness
Utilization
Research Skills
.81 Low .43 Moderate 5.04 .000 S
2.03 Low 3.15 Moderate 4.61 .000 S
1.81 3.10 5.43 .000 S
Andragogy in the Use of Peer Reviewed (ISI) Research Literature in Graduate Courses
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The andragogy in the use of ISI materials significantly increased the awareness of graduate students on peer reviewed journals ( t=5.04, prob. .000). The increase was from 1.81 (low) to 3.41 (moderate) with a mean difference of 1.60. The finding implies that the use of ISI materials that included trainings, critiquing, interaction with ISI authors, and personal reflections has helped the students become aware of the role and importance of ISI sources. The students expressed preference for peer reviewed journals over non-refereed journals in terms of the quality and credibility of the sources. The graduate students sustained the utilization of ISI journals as reflected by the moderate increase (2.03 to 3.15) of utilization. The students’ mindset changed from local to global perspective. They developed preference for scientific information as basis for personal, professional, and organizational decisions. The use of ISI materials extended from classroom assignments to addressing personal, professional and organizational problems and issues. The students found the journals useful as basis for making decisions, selling ideas, designing programs, and changing mindsets. The use of ISI materials contributed to the research skills development of the graduate students (t=5.43, prob..000). The students’ skill in teaching other people how to access ISI research literature improved from very low to high (3.60). They were able to motivate others to use ISI materials. Also, their exposures to ISI materials made them capable of writing a critical review of a research literature, enabled them to interact with ISI authors, and taught them to write full-text papers, develop new systems and procedures, and solve work-related problems. They developed confidence in conducting research for personal and professional use. Conclusions The andragogy in the use of peer reviewed (ISI) research literature in the graduate programs is effective in increasing the graduate students’ level of awareness and utilization of ISI materials for academic use and in developing their research skills. Exposure to ISI materials has enhanced the graduate students’ 79
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general understanding of what constitutes quality research that passes international standards. The ISI guarantees both the graduate faculty and students on the quality of learning resources that are refereed by global experts in the different disciplines. The enabling mechanisms provided by Liceo de Cagayan University have contributed to the success of the andragogy and motivated both the faculty and students to use ISI sources. These mechanisms include ISI online subscription, training of faculty and students on how to access ISI materials, implementation of policy requiring ISI references for oral reports, critical review of literature, and online feedback from authors, experiential paper, use of ISI sources in thesis/dissertation of students and faculty research, and use of journal full-text format in undergraduate thesis. literature cited Arcelo, A. A. (2003). In pursuit of continuing quality education through accreditation: the Philippine experience. International Institute of Educational planning. Bernardo, A. B. (2006). From thesis and dissertation to refereed journal publication: a conceptual and practical guide to transforming graduate research to journal article. Conference Paper, Southwestern University, Cebu City. Cagabhion, J. B. (2006). Predictors of research performance of teachers in technical vocational schools of Biliran. Research and Educational Journal. Diliman, Quezon City: Research and Educational Development Training Institute. Calmorin, L. P. (2000). Educational measurement and evaluation. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: National Bookstore. CHED, Zonal Research. Elements of the higher education research framework.File//A\DLSU,Manila%20%Research%20 Centers. html. Fantini, R. P. (2000). Regaining excellence in education. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. Ferrence, Eileen (2000). Action Research. LAB. Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Lolnety at Brown University. Retrieved from www.lab.brown.edu on July 8, 2009. Gulosino, C. (2000). Evaluating private higher education in the 80
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G.V. Japos and T.T. Tumapon
Philippines: the case for choice, equity and efficiency. Occasional Paper No. 68, Teachers’ College, Columbia University. http:// www. worldbook.org. Hansman, F. (2008). Adult Learning in Communities of Practice: Situating Theory in Practice Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., III, and Swanson, R. A. (2005). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (6th ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Mohamad, S. S. (2005). Physical plant and facilities in relation to the delivery of quality education at the MSU, Marawi City: a basis for policy and program proposals. Dissertation (DM). Liceo de Cagayan University. Salas, L. C. (2000) Effects of organization development interventions (ODI) in organization identity (01) and performance (OP) in Saint Joseph Institute of Technology: A case study. Graduate Journal. Saint Joseph Institute of Technology Shaugnessy, J. J. and E. B. Zeckmeister. (2000). Research methods in Psychology. New York: Mc Graw-Hill Book Company.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 Liceo Journal of HigherJournal, Education Research CHED Accredited Research Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section
Academic, Clinical and In-house Review Performances as Predictors of Outcomes in Nursing Licensure Examination DONNA LOU E. NERI, RN, MHSS donnaevasco@yahoo.com Date Submitted: March 20, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: September 17, 2008
Abstract - This study sought to determine possible factors which predict performance in the Nursing Licensure Examination (NLE). This is a descriptive, ex post facto research which utilized documentary analysis. Statistical techniques employed were the frequency, percentage, weighted mean, T-test and multiple regression analysis. NLE passers were usually those students who were performing well in the classroom, during clinical duties and even in the in-house review after graduation. In contrast, the nonpassers are typically students who were performing poorly in these 3 areas. Both groups of students, specifically, have MedicalSurgical Nursing as their waterloo. Passers of the nursing licensure exam have higher intellective profile compared to the non-passers. Passers of the board exam performance, although they succeeded in hurdling the exam, got “low passing” scores (75-79). Scores are lowest in the areas of Curative Care which comprised MedicalSurgical Nursing topics. The student nurses’ attitude, knowledge and skills in nursing are learned in both the academic and clinical environments. These acquired attitude, knowledge and skills are supplemented by the intensive reviews given after graduation. Once students are performing well in these 3 areas of learning, they have a 55% chance of making it in the board exam. Keywords - intellective variables, licensure examination, performance predictors, inhouse review 82
Academic, Clinical and In-house Review Performances as Predictors of Outcomes in Nursing Licensure Examination
D.L.E. Neri
INTRODUCTION The future of nursing lies not with the leaders of the past or the present but rather with today’s and tomorrow’s nurses (Kozier, 2002). It is, therefore, very important that future nurses uphold the standards of nursing practice. Nurses, along with the other members of the health care team, deal with human lives. This fact gives them less, if not, absolutely no room for mistakes. Any error committed, whether big or small, may cost the life of a patient. Furthermore, the nurse’s unique role demands a blend of sensitivity, caring, commitment, and skill based on broad knowledge and its application in practice (Potter, 2000). Nursing and the education of nurses is controlled from within the profession through the board of nursing and a national accrediting body. For a newly graduate nurse to practice as registered nurse in the Philippines, he/she must take and pass the Nursing Licensure Examination (NLE). This is given by the Professional Regulation Commission through the Board of Nursing. Hence, the licensure examination by design is a measure to determine one’s adequacy before one can practice a particular profession. Hence, the nursing board exam establishes the newly graduate nurse’s readiness to render safe and competent service to health consumers. In this University College of Nursing has been providing nursing education for the past thirty-one years. From 1974 up to the late 1990s, the college was getting hundred percent passing average, with topnotchers, in the Nursing Licensure Examination. However, starting in the year 2000, there has been a consistent decline of the passing percentage among the College of Nursing board takers. In relation to this phenomenon, the researcher searches for variables that predict the passing in the Nursing Licensure Examination. In an academic setting, it is the responsibility and accountability of the members in the academic system to ensure the success of its graduates. Thus, results of this study will hopefully be used for the improvement and enhancement of the teaching and learning 83
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process in nursing education. The College of Nursing has been conforming to the University’s vision of Total Human Formation. In particular, its Philosophy is to educate the youth by instilling in them a commitment to academic excellence. Moreover, its education tenets had been realigned consistently with the national development program which is upgrading the quality of students and graduates. Licean nurses are provided with a dynamic curriculum that covers a broad spectrum of academic objectives. Emphasis is placed on the formation of moral character, personal discipline, civic consciousness, citizenship training and professional expertise through actual community outreach programs (Student Handbook, 2004). Nursing education in this University adheres to the conviction that national identity, intellectual pursuit, cultural consciousness, moral integrity and spirituality are significant components in the molding of a professional nurse. This prepares the students to develop professional competency upon completion of the program. FRAMEWORK According to Educational Psychology, there is no exact pattern or theory of teaching and learning. Theorists such as Thorndike, Bruner, Piaget, Bloom, and many others, have established their own frameworks of teaching and learning. Nonetheless, education is not an exact science. There are too many variables involved in the process (Owen et al., 1976). Bloom’s design is simple and commonsensical. Thus, for the sake of illustration, Bloom’s Theory of School Learning was used in this research. In this study, four variables were taken into consideration as possible predictors to the nursing board examination results. These are academic, clinical, guided review and in-house review performances. Academic performance refers to the grades in the lecture and theory of the following subjects – NCM501200, NCM501201, NCM501202, NCM501204, and NCM501205. Topics in these subjects include the different levels of nursing care (promotive, preventive, 84
Academic, Clinical and In-house Review Performances as Predictors of Outcomes in Nursing Licensure Examination
D.L.E. Neri
curative and rehabilitative). These are discussed in the areas of Nursing Fundamentals/ Foundations, Maternal and Child Nursing (MCN), Medical-Surgical Nursing (MS), School Nursing, Community Health Nursing (CHN), Psychiatric Nursing, Nursing Research, Jurisprudence, and Nursing Management and Leadership. Conversely, clinical performance refers to the grades in the actual exposures of the students to the different nursing care settings. This includes clinical duties or exposures in the schools, communities, hospitals, as well as in psychiatric institutions. This is otherwise known as Related Learning Experiences (RLE). Evaluation of student’s RLE performance is based on three aspects – the Affective (attendance, attitude and assignments) which is twenty percent, the Formative (skills in different nursing procedures, case studies and quizzes) which is forty percent, and the Summative (term, comprehensive and practical exams) which is also forty percent of the entire grade. In addition to the grades, the number of times the particular subject is taken and the semester it is taken will be considered. Another independent variable deemed to affect the results of board examination is the Guided Review performance. As part of the curriculum, graduating students have to enroll in this particular subject. This prepares the students for the Nursing Licensure Exam through a series of comprehensive examinations patterned from the board exam. Failure of the student to pass this subject means disqualification from graduation. The fourth variable considered in this investigation is the inhouse review performance. After graduation, nursing graduates are to attend a two-month intensive in-house review provided by the University. Professional reviewers are invited to give comprehensive talks on different areas of nursing after which posttests will be given. The scores or standing of graduate nurses in this review program are believed to predict the results of board exam. Bloom (Owen et al., 1976) suggests learning outcomes as the level of accomplishment in the learning task and the final component of his theory. Tasks are regarded as goals to be achieved, and the outcomes as indicators of whether or not the goals are met. 85
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In this study, the dependent variable and what is also considered as a learning outcome is the Nursing Licensure Examination (NLE) performance. This is considered as the measurement for the graduate nurse’s ability to practice nursing in a safe, proficient and competent manner. Passing this examination means earning a license and the title of Registered Nurse (RN) in the Philippines. Nursing is both an art and a science. The concept of modern nursing is evidence-based practice (EBP). As a science, possessing its own body of knowledge is very vital. It is the responsibility of the members of the profession to constantly increase and update the body of knowledge through research. It is in this context that this study is conducted. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study endeavored to find out if the intellective variables among March 2005 nursing graduates to the subject predict the Nursing Licensure Examination (NLE) performance. Specifically, the study aimed to: 1) describe the intellective profile of the students; 2) compare the intellective profile of the passers and no-passers of NLE; 3) determine the students’ level of performance in the NLE; 4) evaluate the difference of the passers and non-passers performance in the NLE; and 5) establish the predictors in the NLE performance. HYPOTHESES The hypotheses below were tested at 0.05 level of significance: Ho1: There is no significant difference in the intellective profile of the passers and non-passers of the nursing licensure examination. Ho2: There is no significant difference in the academic performance of the passers and non-passers in the nursing licensure examination. Ho3: The independent variables do not predict the students’ performance in the nursing licensure examination. METHODOLOGY 86
Academic, Clinical and In-house Review Performances as Predictors of Outcomes in Nursing Licensure Examination
D.L.E. Neri
Design. This is a descriptive, ex post facto research. According to Polit and Beck (2004), this is one of the two broad classes of non-experimental qualitative research. The literal transition of the Latin term ex post facto is “from after the fact”. This means that the study had been conducted after the variations in the independent variables occurred. Ex post facto research attempts to understand relationships among phenomena as they naturally occur, without any intervention. Instrumentation. The researcher used document analysis in getting answers to the problems in the study. Documents analyzed included the students’ transcript of records from the Registrar’s Office, the in-house review score sheets from the Review Coordinator, and results of the nursing licensure examination from the Philippine Regulation Commission (PRC). Population and sample. The subjects of the study were the March 2005 nursing graduates to the subject who immediately took the June 2005 Nursing Licensure Examination. The total population was 292, of which 234 passed and 58 did not pass the board exam. With the use of Slovin’s formula, sample sizes for the passers and the non-passers was determined separately. Hence, there are two groups of respondents, the passers and the non-passers. Sample size for passers was 147 and 51 for the non-passers. Random sampling, through fish bowl technique, was utilized in choosing the subjects of the study. Data gathering. A letter of permission to conduct the study was first given to the Dean of the College of Nursing. After permission was granted, the researcher proceeded to get the informed consent of the students through a formal letter. When all the students have agreed to include certain personal information to this study, a letter was handed to the University Registrar to get their grades. The researcher also approached the Review Coordinator. She gave the researcher a copy of the in-house review score sheets and an official copy of the nursing board exam results from the Philippine Regulation Commission (PRC). After all pertinent data were gathered, they were tabulated, statistically treated and analyzed. Statistical techniques. To determine the level of academic, clinical, guided review and in-house review performances and 87
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the board examination performance, frequency, percentage and weighted mean were utilized. T-test was used to measure the difference in the ratings of passers and non-passers and multiple regression analysis to find the predictors in the nursing licensure exam. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 presents the distribution of the intellective variables among the Nursing Licensure Examination (NLE) passers in terms of academic performance. For the first nursing major subject, NCM501200, data show that the majority (64.6%) got the 80 – 84% range. This is equivalent to “average”. About 27.2% got an “above average” grade of 85 – 89% range. Only 8.2% of the passers got a “fair” grade which ranges from 75 – 79%. Among non-passers of NLE, data revealed that in NCM501200, majority (58.8%) got an “average” grade of 80 – 84% range. The rest received a “fair” rating of 75 – 79%. NCM501200 is about the fundamentals or foundations of nursing. This is where the basics of nursing is taught and is said to be the easiest of all nursing majors. Topics include the history of nursing, nursing care process, nursing as a profession, scope of nursing practice, as well as the nursing and caring theories. Most of the passers are “average” students, and only a few are “above average”. For the second nursing major, NCM501201, majority of the NLE passers had an “average” grade of 80 – 84% range and only 5.4% had an “above average” grade of 85 – 89%. On the other hand, most of the non-passers (52.9%) got a “fair” rating and the rest obtained an “average” grade. From the above results in NCM501201, the number of passers with an “above average” grade lessened. This may be due to the start of RLE or Related Learning Experience. In the RLE, students are exposed in the hospitals, clinics, communities, elementary schools and health centers. In addition, this subject covers maternal and child health nursing, particularly, nursing care of pregnant and lactating mothers, newborns, as well as child growth and development. 88
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Students in this level are adjusting to both lecture/theory and clinical experience. They have to juggle their schedule for the two areas so that studying for lecture may be cut short to give room for the RLE requirements. When they reached NCM501202, most of the passers (54.4%) garnered a “fair” rating of 75 – 79% range, while 45.6% received an “average” rating of 80 – 84%. Nobody got an “above average” rating. Likewise, among nonpassers, most (90.2%) obtained a “fair” rating and only a few (9.8%) with an “average” rating. Per observation and verbalization of the students, it has been known that the NCM501202 level is the second difficult subject in nursing. Topics consist of medical – surgical and psychiatric nursing. In particular, the subject delves on pathological conditions of the circulatory, respiratory, integumentary, endocrine and renal systems. Students are expected to master the signs and symptoms, causative factors, prevention, treatment and most importantly the nursing interventions of various diseases. Added to the pressures in this particular level is their exposure to psychiatric nursing in Davao City for three (3) weeks. According to them, the “Davao experience” involved a lot of stresses since they have had to adjust to the new environment (city, dorm and psychiatric institution), the people (clients/patients, hospital staff, clinical instructors and classmates/dorm mates) and the numerous requirements. These may be the reasons why grades of the students usually drop from “above average” to “average” and “fair” rating only in NCM501202. It has been noted that many students failed in this level. For the NCM501204 level, 67.3% of the passers earned a “fair” rating of 75 – 79% range and 32.7% earned an “average” rating of 80 – 84% range. The same thing happened among non-passers. About 86.3% of non-passers earned a “fair” rating and the rest got an “average” rating. On the contrary, when students reached NCM501205, most passers (70.1%) as well as non-passers (54.9%) received an “average” rating ranging from 80 – 84%. Table 1. Academic performance of the respondents in the subjects 89
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Variable
Category
Frequency
Percentage
Mean Rating
Passers
NonPassers
Passers
NonPassers
Passers
NonPassers
75 – 79 80 – 84 85 – 89
12 95 40 147
21 30 51
8.2 64.6 27.2 100
41.2 58.8 100
83.19
80.14
55 84 8 147
27 24 51
37.4 57.1 5.4 100
47.1 52.9 100
80.38
79.39
TOTAL
75 – 79 80 – 84 85 – 89
NCM501202 TOTAL
75 – 79 80 – 84
80 67 147
46 5 51
54.4 45.6 100
90.2 9.8 100
79.18
77.69
NCM501204
75 – 79 80 – 84
99 48 147
44 7 51
67.3 32.7 100
86.3 13.7 100
78.31
77.84
75 – 79 80 – 84 85 – 89
20 103 24 147
23 28 51
13.6 70.1 16.3 100
45.1 54.9 100
82.10
79.75
80.63
78.96
NCM501200 TOTAL NCM501201
TOTAL NCM501205 TOTAL GENERAL MEAN
EQUIVALENCE:
90 – 95 85 – 89 80 – 84 75 – 79
= 1.5 – 1.0 = = 2.0 – 1.6 = = 2.5 – 2.1 = = 3.0 – 2.6 =
EXCELLENT ABOVE AVERAGE AVERAGE FAIR
It can be gleaned from the data that the NLE passers’ grades decreased in NCM501204 and increased in NCM501205. Based on the interviews from both students and faculty, NCM501204 is the most difficult subject in nursing. It is the continuation the topics in NCM501202 which is medical – surgical nursing care. Specifically, the subject covers pathological conditions involving the neurologic, oncologic, hematologic, gastrointestinal, hepatobiliary and musculoskeletal systems. They further stated that topics in both NCM501202 and NCM501204 are complicated which requires comprehension, memorization, analysis and critical thinking. According to students and faculty, although NCM501205 is the last nursing major, it is not a difficult subject. Topics comprised of CHN (Community Health Nursing), Nursing Management and Leadership, Jurisprudence and Professional Adjustment. This 90
Academic, Clinical and In-house Review Performances as Predictors of Outcomes in Nursing Licensure Examination
D.L.E. Neri
may be the reason why students usually earned higher grades in NCM501205 than in NCM501202 and NCM501204. Table 2. Clinical performance among the subjects Variable
NCM501200 TOTAL NCM501201 TOTAL NCM501202 TOTAL NCM501203 TOTAL NCM501204 TOTAL NCM501-205 TOTAL
Category
Frequency
Percentage
Mean Rating
Passers
NonPassers
Passers
NonPassers
Passers
NonPassers
75 – 79 80 – 84 85 – 89
75 72 147
2 44 5 51
51.0 49.0 100
3.9 86.3 9.8 100
84.56
82.16
75 – 79 80 – 84 85 – 89
7 114 26 147
3 48 51
4.8 77.6 17.7 100
5.9 94.1 100
82.78
80.98
75 – 79 80 – 84
8 139 147
32 19 51
5.4 94.6 100
62.7 37.3 100
81.39
78.90
75 – 79 80 – 84 85 – 89
34 107 6 147
42 9 51
23.1 72.8 4.1 100
82.4 17.6 100
81.41
77.78
75 – 79 80 – 84
132 15 147
49 2 51
89.8 10.2 100
96.1 3.9 100
77.68
76.98
75 – 79 80 – 84 85 – 89
8 130 9 147
13 38 51
5.4 88.4 6.1 100
25.5 74.5 100
82.19
80.69
81.67
79.58
GENERAL MEAN
EQUIVALENCE:
90 – 95 85 – 89 80 – 84 75 – 79
= 1.5 – 1.0 = = 2.0 – 1.6 = = 2.5 – 2.1 = = 3.0 – 2.6 =
EXCELLENT ABOVE AVERAGE AVERAGE FAIR
Table 2 presents the clinical performance of the subjects. In NCM501200, most of the students, both passers and non-passers obtained “average” grades ranging from 80 – 84%. However, nobody 91
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among the passers received a grade lower than the “average” which is between the 75 – 79% range. Instead, many passers (49%) were able to get “above average” rating. NCM501200 level is said to be the easiest. Students spend only a total of twelve (12) hours in the hospital and their procedures are limited to doing physical assessments, taking vital signs and doing bedside care to the patients. The rest of the hours in Related Learning Experience (RLE) in NCM501200 are spent in return demonstration in the Nursing Laboratory for basic nursing procedures. In NCM501201 clinical performance, most of the passers (77.6%) and non-passers (94.1%) earned “average” grades. Nobody among the non-passers received an “above average” rating, whereas 17.7% of the passers were able to get “above average” ratings. In NCM501202 clinical performance, the highest grade obtained by both passers and non-passers were only the average rating of 8084%. However, more passers were able to obtain the average range than the non-passers. In NCM501203 clinical performance, about 4.1% of the passers got an “above average” rating. Majority of both groups of subjects got “average” rating. On the other hand, upon reaching NCM501204, the number of students who got “average” grades lessened in both groups. Most of them obtained only a “fair” rating ranging from 75-79%. In their last clinical performance (NCM501205), majority of both passers and non-passers attained “average” grades. Furthermore, it can be deduced from the data that both passers and non-passers experienced the same increments and decrements in their RLE (clinical) grades. Yet, if one will compare the grades, the passers still have higher ratings than the non-passers by 1-2 points. Table 3 presents the guided and in-house review performances of the March 2005 nursing graduates. From the table, it can be gleaned that both groups have the same performance in the 2 reviews. There are passers and non-passers who got below 75 in the guided review, meaning they failed and repeated the subject. Most of them earned only “fair” rating and nobody obtained an “average” grade. In the in-house review, it can be observed that there are already students in both groups who earned an “average” grade of 80 – 84%. 92
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D.L.E. Neri
Interviews from both students and clinical instructors revealed that they find guided review harder than the in-house review because there are no lectures in the guided review. For every meeting each week, students will hurdle a 100 – item examination for the following nursing areas: fundamentals/ foundations of nursing, maternal and child health nursing, pediatric nursing, medicalsurgical nursing, psychiatric nursing, community health nursing, nursing pharmacology, nutrition, nursing management and leadership, professional adjustment and nursing research. During the final term, 5 comprehensive exams (100 questions each) will be given. Table 3. Guided and in-house review performances of students in the subjects Variable
Category
Frequency
Percentage
Mean Rating
Passers
NonPassers
Passers
NonPassers
Passers
NonPassers
Guided Review Total
70 - 74 75 - 79
9 138 147
11 40 51
6.1 93.9 100
21.6 78.4 100
76.93
76.18
InHouse Review Total
70 - 74 75 - 79 80 - 84
8 125 14 147
17 32 2 51
5.4 85.0 9.5 100
33.3 62.7 3.9 100
77.14
75.55
Notwithstanding the vast coverage of the subject, guided review is taken simultaneously with the last nursing major, NCM501205, both lecture and RLE. Students have to divide there time well for the 3 subjects. On the contrary, in-house review has lectures in all nursing areas. Lecturers usually come from Metro Manila and are known to be experts in nursing. Also, students are able to focus their time for the in-house review since they have graduated already. These may be the probable reasons why students performed better in the in-house review compared to the guided review. To determine if there is a significant difference in the intellective profile (academic, clinical, guided and in-house review performances) among the passers and non-passers of the Nursing Licensure examination, T-test was done. Table 4 revealed that with the T-value of 5.23, P-value of 0.000, 93
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and degrees of freedom (df) of 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance, there is a significant difference in the intellective profile between passers and non-passers of the nursing licensure exam. Therefore, the decision on the null hypotheses (H01) is to reject it. Table 4. T-Test results on the difference of the intellective profile among passers and non-passers of the nursing licensure examination Variable
N
MEAN
T-value
df
St Dev
Interpretation
Decision on H01
Passers Non-passers
147 51
79.09 77.57
5.23
1.96
1.74 1.93
Significant
Reject
Estimate for difference: 1.52291 95% Confidence Interval of difference: (0.94821, 2.09762) P-value = 0.000
Hartley’s Fmax statistics was used prior to t-test computation for homogeneity of error variances. Table 5 summarizes the students’ performance in the NLE. In all areas of the exam, the passers obviously performed better than the non-passers. In the first nursing care area, promotive care, the highest grade obtained by the passers is 84% and 79% for nonpassers. The lowest score obtained by non-passers is 50% and 65% for the passers. More so, majority of the passers got ratings ranging from 75 – 79%, while most of the non-passers got ratings ranging from 70 – 74%. In the second nursing care area, preventive care, the highest rating among passers is 89% and 84% for non-passers. However, the lowest rating is 75% for passers and 60% for non-passers. In addition, most of the passers obtained a score ranging from 80 – 84%, while majority of the non-passers obtained a score ranging from 75 – 79% in preventive nursing. From the data, it can be monitored that students earned higher grades in the preventive care than in the promotive nursing care. For the third nursing care area, curative care 1, the highest score earned by the passers is 84% while 79% for non-passers. The lowest score among passers is 65% and 50% for non-passers. Moreover, majority of the passers obtained scores ranging from 75 – 79%, 94
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while most non-passers obtained scores ranging from 60 – 64%. In curative care 2, the highest score attained by the passers is 82% and 79% for the non-passers. Furthermore, the lowest score among passers is 70% and 50% for non-passers. The most common rating among passers is between the 80 – 84% range and 60 – 64% range for non-passers. In the last nursing care area which is rehabilitative nursing, both groups of students have the same performance. Majority in both groups attained scores ranging from 75 – 79% and the highest score attained is 84%. However, there are still non-passers who received 55% as the lowest score, while the lowest score for passers is 70%. For the general average, most of the passers obtained ratings ranging from 75 – 79% which is labeled as “low passing scores” based on Palomares’ study in 1997. Still, about 32.7% of the passers obtained general average ranging from 80 – 84% which belongs to the “high passing scores”. The above findings are in contrast with the study of Palomares (1997) since her study showed that most BSN graduates of Liceo de Cagayan University before the year 1996 attained “high” board exam ratings ranging from 80 – 93%. Moreover, the results revealed that most of the passers performed better in the areas of preventive and curative care 2 with their scores ranging from 80 – 84%. However, they performed only ”fairly” in the areas of promotive, curative 1, and rehabilitative nursing with scores ranging from 75 – 79%. For the non-passers, majority performed “fairly” in the areas of preventive and rehabilitative nursing, while the rest performed “poorly” in the curative 1 and 2 and promotive nursing. These findings are consistent with the non-passers’ academic grades in NCM501202 and NCM501204.
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Table 5. Nursing licensure performance in the subjects Variable
Promotive Care
Total Preven-Tive Care
Total
Curative Care 1
Total Curative Care 2
Total RehabiliTative Care
Total
General Average
Total
96
Category
Frequency
Percentage
Mean Rating
Passers
Non Passers
Passers
Non Passers
Passers
NON PASSERS
50 – 54 55 – 59 60 – 64 65 – 69 70 – 74 75 – 79 80 – 84
6 12 72 57 147
3 4 7 8 19 10 51
4.1 8.2 49.0 38.8 100
5.9 7.8 13.7 15.7 37.3 19.6 100
78.15
68.86
60 – 64 65 – 69 70 – 74 75 – 79 80 – 84 85 – 89
18 75 54 147
4 5 8 28 6 51
12.2 51.0 36.7 100
7.8 9.8 15.7 54.9 11.8 100
83.14
74.25
50 – 54 55 – 59 60 – 64 65 – 69 70 – 74 75 – 79 80 – 84
30 12 87 18 147
5 3 17 10 9 7 51
20.4 8.2 59.2 12.2 100
9.8 5.9 33.3 19.6 17.6 13.7 100
75.41
59.22
50 – 54 60 – 64 65 – 69 70 – 74 75 – 79 80 – 84
18 54 75 147
3 18 6 9 15 52
12.2 36.7 51.0 100
5.9 35.3 11.8 17.6 29.4 100
78.75
68.86
55 – 59 60 – 64 65 – 69 70 – 74 75 – 79 80 – 84
12 93 42 147
7 13 5 3 16 7 51
8.2 63.3 28.6 100
13.7 25.5 9.8 5.9 31.4 13.7 100
79.48
70.65
55 – 59 65 – 69 70 – 74 75 – 79 80 – 84
99 48 147
3 18 30 51
67.3 32.7 100
5.9 35.3 58.8 100
78.99
68.37
Academic, Clinical and In-house Review Performances as Predictors of Outcomes in Nursing Licensure Examination
D.L.E. Neri
EQUIVALENCE:
BELOW 75
=
FAILED
75 – 79
=
LOW PASSING SCORES
80 – 93
=
HIGH PASSING SCORES
The coverage of curative and promotive nursing care is medicalsurgical and psychiatric nursing which is covered in the lectures of these 2 academic subjects where students usually performed poorly. To determine the difference in the board exam performance among passers and non-passers on the nursing licensure examination, T-test is run. Table 4 presented that with the T-value of 12.69, which is higher that the degrees of freedom (df) of 1.96, and P-value of 0.000, tested at 0.05 level of significance, there is a significant difference between the performance of the passers and non-passers of the board exam. Therefore, the null hypothesis 2 (H02) is rejected.
Table 6. T-test results on the difference of performance of the passers and non-passers in the nursing licensure examination Variable
N
MEAN
T-value
df
St Dev
Interpretation
Decision on H01
Passers Non-passers
147 51
78.99 69.68
12.69
1.96
3.67 6.36
Significant
Reject
Estimate for difference: 9.30403 95% Confidence Interval of difference: (7.85815, 10.74994) P-value = 0.000
To determine whether any of the intellective variables, singly or in combination, predict the board examination performance, multiple regression was done. The findings indicate that among the four (4) intellective variables considered in this study, only 3 came out as predictors to the board exam results. These three (3) predictors are the academic performance, clinical performance and the In-house review performance. The regression model of this study, as shown in table 5, explained that the 3 predictors namely: academic performance, clinical performance and in-house review performance affect positively the nursing licensure exam results. This means that the higher the 97
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academic performance, the higher the chances of passing the board exam. On the other way around, the lower the clinical performance, the lower is the chances of passing the board exam. The same is true with the in-house review performance. If the student is doing well with the in-house review, the better is his/ her chances of passing the board exam. On the other hand, guided review does not significantly predict the chances of passing the board exam. Table 7. Multiple regression results on the predictors of nursing licensure examination performance Variables
Regression Coefficient
Standard Error Coefficient
Tolerance
Probability
Interpretation
Decision On Ho
Constant
-114.05
14.01
-8.14
0.000
Academic Performance
0.6811
0.2331
2.92
0.004
Significant
Rejected
Clinical Performance
1.0288
0.1791
5.74
0.000
Significant
Rejected
Guided Review
-0.0159
0.2717
-0.06
0.954
Not Significant
Not Rejected
In-House Review
0.7008
0.2505
2.80
0.006
Significant
Rejected
S = 4.07273
R-Sq = 55.9%
Regression Equation: Nursing Licensure Exam Performance = -114 + 0.681 Academic Performance + 1.03 Clinical Performance – 0.016 Guided Review + 0.701 In-House Review
In combination, however, the three (3) predictors caused only 55.9% of chances of passing the licensure examination. Therefore, 44.1% causes of passing the licensure exam are due to factors other than performances in the lectures, Related Learning Experiences (RLE), and intensive review after graduation. Possible factors not included in this study are the demographic profile of the students, elementary and secondary school performances, attitudes, study 98
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habits, time management, coping mechanisms and many others. Moreover, the results of this study agree with the findings of previous researches done by Walag (2000), Famador (2001) and Orong (2004). However, it contradicted with the results of the studies by Ubias (1980), Carlos (1992) and Nicodemus (1982), as cited by Famador (2001). In summary, how well a student does in his/her lecture class, clinical practice and in-house review after graduation, will affect his/her chances in passing the nursing licensure exam. If he/she is doing well, he/she will more likely pass the nursing licensure exam, but if he/she is doing poorly in the three (3) areas, then he/she will have a poor chance of passing the licensure examination. CONCLUSIONS From the above findings, the following conclusions are advanced: 1. NLE passers are usually those students who were performing well in the classroom, during clinical duties and even in the in-house review after graduation. In contrast, the non-passers are usually students who were performing poorly in these 3 areas. Both groups of students, specifically, have the Medical-Surgical Nursing as their waterloo. 2. Passers of the nursing licensure exam have had higher intellective profile compared to the non-passers. 3. Passers of the board exam performance, although they succeeded in hurdling the exam, got “low passing� scores (7579). The lowest scores were in the areas of Curative Care which comprised Medical-Surgical Nursing topics. 4. Passers obviously performed better in the nursing licensure exam compared to non-passers. 5. The student nurses’ attitude, knowledge and skills in nursing are learned in both the academic and clinical environments. These acquired attitude, knowledge and skills are supplemented by the intensive reviews given after graduation. Once students are performing well in these 3 areas of learning, they have a 55% chance of making it in the board exam. However, there are other 99
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factors that affect the probability of passing in the NLE. RECOMMENDATIONS In the light of these conclusions, the following are recommended: 1. Students should strive to learn the basics and specializations in nursing both in the classroom and in the RLE. They must do their best to really develop and incorporate the attitude, knowledge and skills of nursing as these can help them during the nursing licensure examination. They must also take the added opportunity to gain more knowledge during the intensive reviews before taking the board exam. 2. College of Nursing Administration and Faculty must review and improve the teaching strategies in the classroom and clinical duty, particularly in medical-surgical nursing, since this is the weakest area of the students in the board exam. They must also initiate a remedial program for those who are not performing well in the lecture and in the RLE so as to help them prepare in the board exam. 3. The University Administration must make a policy to increase the passing grade from 65% to 75% and not to allow students to graduate and take the board exam unless they will earn an average passing grade from the nursing major subjects. Students must also be obligated to enroll in the intensive review after graduation. 4. Future researchers may look at the other factors influencing the performance in the nursing licensure exam. These factors may include the demographic profile of the students, elementary and secondary school performances, attitudes, study habits, time management, coping mechanisms, etc.
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Academic, Clinical and In-house Review Performances as Predictors of Outcomes in Nursing Licensure Examination
D.L.E. Neri
LITERATURE CITED Asperas, C. (2005). Introduction to Basic Nursing Research: Trends, Methods and Applications. Philippines: Guaini Prints House. Kozier, B. and G. Erb (2002). Fundamentals in Nursing: Concepts, Process and Practice. Philadelphia: Addison, Wesley and Longman. Liceo de Cagayan University Student Handbook, (2004) Liceo de Cagayan University, College of Nursing Course Syllabus, SY 2004-05 Owen, S., H. P. Blount and H. Moscow (1976). An Introduction to Educational Psychology. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Philosophy, Aims and Objectives of the College of Nursing, (2004) Polit, D. and C. T. Beck (2004). Nursing Research: Principles and Methods. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins. Potter, P. and A. Perry (2000). Fundamentals of Nursing: Concepts, Process, and Practice. St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company. Thorndike, R. and E. Hagen (1999). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
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Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section
Error Analysis in the Essays Written by Math, Science and Engineering Faculty SALVADOR DELA PEĂ‘A, MA vadz_2000@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University
Date Submitted: September 27, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: December 14, 2008
Abstract - This study analyzed the errors in writing frequently committed by the math, science, and engineering regular faculty of a university. The analysis of the essays was done by identifying the errors and categorizing them according to the grammar items and writing mechanics. The distribution of frequency and percentage were used to determine the order of errors. The tabulation included the actual number of usage and the number of correct and erroneous usage. As found out, the essays contained errors in grammar and punctuation, though relatively low. As ranked, the first five frequent errors were in the use of tenses, preposition, noun inflection, article, subject-verb agreement, and punctuation. Errors in conjunction, verb form, pronoun, and modifier (descriptive) were less frequent. The findings make language retooling program and other academic-related activities necessary in order for the faculty to achieve accuracy in the use of English.
Keywords: error analysis, faculty essays
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Error Analysis in the Essays Written by Math, Science and Engineering Faculty
S. de la PeĂąa
Introduction Communication is defined as the process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behaviour (Merriam-Webster Online). Communicative competence, therefore, means communication in accordance with the fundamental system of rules a language has. It further means the extent to which the language user can fulfil the conditions for a correct composition of sentences in utterances. A person communicates either orally and/or in writing. This study focused on the written form. Writing is an intricate and complex process, especially among non-native speakers of the language. The many rules of the language that need to be applied generally make non-native speakers of the language prone to committing errors. And these errors, left uncorrected, will exacerbate the problem of misunderstanding. Taking up this notion will necessitate the study of common errors committed in writing among language users, that in this study are the math and science and engineering faculty, in order to facilitate effective communication. Error analysis was conceptualized and applied based on the behaviourist theory of language learning, which implied that errors were signs that a language learner had simply not learnt the rules of the target language effectively (Brown, 1987). Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors frequently made by the learners of the target language. The importance of an error analysis lies on the information it provides for determining priorities for future efforts aimed at improving the learner’s competence in the use of the target language. English is the principal medium used in classroom instruction and in all school communications. The competence of the academic staff in using English for communication influences the quality of the desired academic output. Undoubtedly, the faculty’s proficiency in the use of the language is vital in the promotion of quality instruction not only because they teach their respective subjects in English, but also because they themselves model the language 103
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to their students. Accordingly, the faculty’s language facility is an indispensable pedagogical skill. Thus, an effort to strengthen such facility is necessary. Further affirming the need for this study is the university teachers’ role in academic research. University teachers are to go beyond the classroom-based provision of general instruction to the students. They are to undertake research in order to contribute to the knowledge base of their respective discipline or academic field. The Subject has made research and knowledge creation a very significant part of the school’s mission. Faculty members are aggressively encouraged to engage in research through incentive package that include research honorarium and academic rank promotion, among others. However, a lack of writing competence can become a deterrent for teachers to do research. Teachers may, out of the need, do research, but come up with a poor paper due to substandard English. Hence, promoting English proficiency level among the teachers will equip them better for research projects, the writing of which requires language accuracy. framework James (as cited by Sattayatham and Honsa [Online]) introduced linguistic category in the study of errors. He specified errors in terms of linguistic categories and in terms of where the error is located in the overall system of the target language. Errors are located in certain level of the language, such as in phonology, grammar, lexis, text or discourse. If the error is at the grammar level, the grammatical construction involved is determined, thus the classification of the error. On the other hand, the surface structure strategy for describing errors according to their systematicity was developed by Dulay and Burt and Krashen as cited by Ahmadvand [Online]. Errors occur in four ways: omission, in which learners tend to omit function words; addition, which is the result of all-too-faithful use of certain rules or application of rules to domains where they do not apply; misformation, which is the use of the wrong form of a structure or morpheme; and misordering, in which the learner selects the right 104
Error Analysis in the Essays Written by Math, Science and Engineering Faculty
forms to use in the right context, but arranges them in the wrong order. A model for error analysis was also developed by Corder, as cited by Abisamra [Online]. The model included three stages: data collection – recognition of idiosyncracy; descriprtion – accounting for idiosyncratic dialect; and explanation, which is the ultimate object of error analysis. The initial step requires the selection of a corpus of language followed by the identification of errors according to the different levels of the target language. The errors are then classified. The next step, after giving a grammatical analysis of each error, demands an explanation of different types of errors. McCoy, et al. [Online] came up with taxonomy for errors responsible for identifying errors in the production of a second language. The model, which was derived from the analysis of about 80 samples, included syntactic and/or morphological manifestations. The error taxonomy covered the following linguistic aspects: preposition (omitted, inappropriate, extra), conjunction (omitted, inappropriate, extra) determiners (omitted, inappropriate, extra), incorrect subject-verb agreement, tense and aspect (dropped tense, extra auxiliary, missing auxiliary, incorrect modal, missing modal, extra modal, other tense/aspect problem), adjective and adverb problems, incorrect number on noun, problems with noun formation, pronouns (incorrect pronoun choice, inappropriate pronoun use, lack of pronoun), redundancy problem, run-on sentences, and other problems related to discourse structuring. Furthermore, the structure of the language can be studied in a variety of ways (Structure of English Language, [ONLINE]). For example, one can study classes of words (parts of speech), meanings of words (semantics), how words are organized in relation to each other (syntax), how words are formed (morphology), the sounds of words (phonology), and how written forms represent these (lexicography). Objectives of the Study Errors in writing are inevitable among non-native speakers of English. Being so, this study was conducted to examine the errors 105
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frequently committed by science, math, and engineering faculty of the subject university in order to determine the language areas that need reinforcement through language interventions. Specifically, the study attempted to pursue the following objectives: (1) Identify the errors in writing; and (2) Categorize the errors. Significance of the Study This study is significant in three different ways. First, the science, math, and engineering teachers will come to know what they need to learn, thus encouraging them to consider taking up retooling program for English proficiency. Second, the study provides the researcher with evidence of how far the language is learnt or acquired by teachers, enabling him to identify the problematic areas of the language use, which will be used as basis for future intervention designed to promote English proficiency among the university’s science and engineering faculty. Third, the study is indispensable to the faculty themselves, because the errors can serve as a device they can use in order to learn. In other words, the findings of the study will be their launching pad in mastering the language. Methodology This study was conducted among the college science, math, and engineering regular faculty of the subject university. The university has 10 science regular teachers, 5 math regular teachers, and 9 engineering regular teachers. Since the number of faculty is too small to sample, the entire population was covered in the study. However, during the two-week data gathering, few of the target faculty were either on leave or declined to submit the required essay; hence, the total number of faculty involved in the study was 21, accounting for 87.5 percent of the target population. The facultyrespondents’ breakdown was as follows: science, 10 (100%); math, 4 (80%); and engineering, 7 (77.77%). The teachers were required by their respective deans to write on provided sheets with instruction an essay on the impact of their 106
Error Analysis in the Essays Written by Math, Science and Engineering Faculty
S. de la Peña
stay in the university on their social, personal, and professional life. The teachers were given sufficient time to write unsupervised, seeing to it that their essays were well thought and reflective of their writing competencies. Some of the essays were retrieved directly from the respondents by the researcher, while most of the essays were summarily collected from the offices of the deans. The essays were analyzed to identify the common errors in writing. The analysis was restricted to the following items: grammar (determiner, preposition, conjunction, tense, verbsubject agreement, noun, pronoun, and modifier) and mechanics (punctuation). Three steps were done in analyzing the essays. First, the errors for each essay were identified. Second, the errors were described based on the error taxonomy. Third, the percentage and distribution of frequency were used to determine the order of errors from the most frequent to the least frequent errors. The following procedure was used to tabulate the identified errors: (1) Frequency of usage was counted; (2) Frequency of correct attempts was counted from total usage; (3) Frequency of errors was counted from total usage; and (4) Correct attempts and errors were tallied and converted into percentages. Results and Discussion The math, science, and engineering faculty’s errors in writing were shown in the table that follows. As revealed, errors in the use of tenses (16%) figured most prominently. Sentences that should be expressed in the present perfect, suggesting an action that has started in the past and continues at the moment of writing/speaking, were frequently expressed either in the simple present or past tense. Take for example the sentence, “University is an institution that create a great impact to my life...” The writer’s continued stay in the university has caused the impact; thus, it should be stated in the perfect tense: “Liceo University is an institution that has created great impact on my life.” Another example of this type of error is, “What I learn as employee in this school is the attitude...” The learning of an attitude has already taken place prior to writing, thus: “As an employee of this school, I 107
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have learned to be [specific attitude].” Errors in the use of tenses were observed to occur most frequently among the engineering faculty (23%), but least frequently among the math faculty (10%). Also figuring prominently were errors in the use of prepositions (14%), ranked second to errors in tenses. The errors occurred either by misuse or omission or addition; for example: “to excel on [in] my field” (misuse), “learn from them on [delete] how to live” (addition), and “you need [to] go along with others” (omission). Prepositions were most erroneously used among the engineering faculty (29%), but least erroneously used among the math faculty (6%). Ranked third from the most frequent errors were errors in noun inflection (12%). These errors, which were mostly committed by a deletion or addition of “s”, were contained in the following parts of the actual sentences: “... to understand the students and my colleague [deletion of s]”; “... in this institutions...” [addition of s] and “... some professional organization [deletion of s].” Wrong inflections also occurred in some instances as in “... the influenced [addition of d] of the university in my life...” and “... by chairing committees and coordinate [deletion of ing] projects ...” Errors in noun inflection were most pronounced among the essays written by the science faculty (9%), but least pronounced in the essays of the engineering faculty (3%). The use of articles (11%) also posed a problem in writing among the faculty, especially among the engineering faculty whose frequency of errors in article use was the highest (15%). The articles were either used unnecessarily as in “... these help me acquire the [unnecessary] professional experiences ...” or omitted as in “... the start of [‘a’ is missing] good and happy relationship ...” However, these types of errors were minimal in the essays of the science and math faculty (9%). Errors in subject-verb agreement (11%) were also identified in the writings of the faculty. Examples of these errors are as follow: “This indeed boost [s] my morale,” “...various teaching techniques has [have] helped me ...,” and “... conflict and misunderstanding arises [arise] ...” The errors in this grammatical item were most evident in the essays of the engineering faculty (14%), but least evident in the essays of the math faculty (3%). Moreover, errors in the use of conjunctions (9%) were spotted. Conjunction errors were most apparent in the writings of the 108
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S. de la Peña
science faculty (14%). The writings of the engineering faculty (6%) contained very minimal errors in conjunctions, while no error was observed in the writings of the math faculty. Errors on grammar items as verb form (6%), pronouns (3%), and modifiers (3%) were relatively very low as compared to the errors in other grammatical items. Though less frequent, these errors should still be addressed for accuracy in language usage. Lastly, punctuating, which was the only part of the writing mechanics considered in the study, was a prominent problem observed in almost all write-ups. The essays of the engineering faculty had the highest frequency of errors (13%) followed by math faculty’s essays (12%) and science faculty’s essays (10%). The errors in punctuating occurred by omission. Commonly, introductory word/phrase/clause and non-essential phrase/clause were not set off by a comma[s] as in “All of us [comma] especially the non-mathematics people [comma] need to ...” and “However [comma] one may ....” Also, the errors in punctuating were committed by omitting the hyphen in a phrasal modifier and compound noun as in “health [hyphen] related department” and “self [hyphen] confidence.” An omission of apostrophe for the possessive case was also observed as in “students characters” and “institution vision and mission.” Conclusion The findings reveal that errors in grammatical items and punctuation marks occurred in the essays written by the math, science, and engineering faculty. It can be concluded then that language problems still confront professionals in the academe, especially among those in the field of science and engineering. These language problems might have been caused by any of the factors as inadequate exposure to English, inherent difficulties of English being a complex language, and mother tongue interference. Anyhow, the findings call for language interventions that will minimize, if not completely eliminate, the occurrence of the identified errors. Indeed, it is essential for the faculty to value, understand, and practice writing themselves so as to build effectively the communication skills of the students.
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Recommendations It is very important for the teachers who are grappling with the complexities of English to continually upgrade themselves professionally so as to become good models of the language they teach, both in the written and oral forms. Language upgrading may take place through English retooling sessions that target language items frequently used erroneously or through a facilitated peer sessions that encourage intellectual exchanges in the target language. Moreover, the teachers must get more exposure to the language by keeping themselves abreast of the current issues by reading books and journals related to their profession. They should not just impress upon their students the importance of forming reading habit; instead, they should form the habit themselves too. Mastering the language requires constant application. Hence, it is also suggested that the teachers actively involve themselves in academic exercises that require communication, either written or oral. Research, for instance, best provides avenue for scholarly writing. For further research along this area of interest, it is recommended that an analysis of errors in the writings of faculty across all fields be conducted to facilitate more effectively the university-wide implementation of the policy on the use of proficient English in all school communications. Other structures of the language can also be explored in the analysis of the teachers’ writings. Finally, a training be conducted among the faculty of the Math, Science and Engineering with an action research component to trace the training impact on the language competency of the faculty. LITERATURE CITED Abisamra, N. (2003). “An analysis of errors in Arabic speakers’ English writings.” Available: http://abisamra03.tripod.com./nada/ languageacq-erroranalysis.html Ahmadvand, M. “Analysing errors of Iranian EFL learners in their written productions.” Available: http://knol.google.com/k/ moslem-ahmadvand/analysing-errors 110
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Brown, H.D. (1987). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. McCoy, K.F., Pennington, C.A., & Suri, L.Z. “English error correction: a syntactic uses model based on principled ‘mal-rule’ scoring.” Available:http://www.eecis.udel.edu/research/icicle/pubs/ McPeSu96.pdf Sattayatham, A. and Hansa, S. Jr. (2007). “Medical students’ most frequent errors at Mahidol Univesity, Thailand.” Available: http:// www.asian-efl-journal.com/June_07_as&sh.ph.p “Structure of English language.” Available: http://www.universalteacher.org. uk/lang/engstruct.htm .
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064
Liceo Journal of HigherJournal, Education Research CHED Accredited Research Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section
Is Mathematics Review Giving an Edge in Learning High School Chemistry Concepts? Dominic T. Polancos, MPA dpolancos@liceo.edu.ph Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: October 26, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: December 3, 2008
Abstract - This action research was conducted to elucidate the effectiveness of mathematics review in the learning of high school chemistry and in problem solving. The subjects were two randomly constituted class sections in the third year chemistry program in Liceo de Cagayan University. Before starting the treatment; two similar tests were prepared as the pretest and posttest. At the end of the term, the posttest was administered. Then, the statistical technique of paired-sample t-test was utilized to analyze the collected data. Analysis of the results in the posttest revealed that there is no significant difference between the experimental group and the control group. The study recommends a revisit of the policy on mathematics review since it does not give an edge in the learning of chemistry concepts. Keywords - Chemistry, Mathematics review, Math Concepts, Problem Solving
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Is Mathematics Review Giving an Edge in Learning High School Chemistry Concepts?
D.T. Polancos
Introduction The mainstream of secondary education has seen a massive transformation over the last few decades and most educational facilities have now made the quantum leap from trying to be ‘good teachers’ to making the learning process more readily available to students (Laurillard, 2003). They have also recognized the distinction between deep and surface learning. The study of chemistry requires basic human qualities like creativity, insights, reasoning, and skills. It depends on habits of the mind: skepticism, tolerance of ambiguity, openness to new ideas, intellectual honesty, curiosity, and communication. Students begin studying chemistry curiously; however, when unconvinced, they become skeptical. Problem solving is one of the most basic, central, yet abstract topics in chemistry. It is essential for understanding quantitative and qualitative aspects of chemical reactions, law governing gasses and stoichiometry as well as for solving many types of problems in high school chemistry. Moreover, one body of research findings highlights the importance of conceptual understanding for successful problem solving and qualitative thinking in chemistry and suggests that students’ inadequate and incorrect conceptual knowledge impede successful problem solving in this aspect (BouJaoude, 1994; Harmon, 1993; Niaz, 1995). Other studies have demonstrated an over-reliance on using algorithms to solve problems (Huddle and Pillay, 1996; Lythcott, 1990; Nakhleh, 1993; Nakhleh and Mitchell, 1993; Pickering, 1990; Sawrey, 1990; Staver and Lumpe 1995; Tullberg, Strömdahl, and Lybeck, 1994). According to Hayes (1981), “whenever there is a gap between where you are now and where you want to be, and you don’t know how to find a way to cross that gap, you have a problem .... Solving a problem means finding an appropriate way to cross the gap”(p. i). The definition of a problem is relative. A problem for one person might be a routine exercise for another; it all depends on the individual’s knowledge and expertise (Hayes, 1981). Moreover, problem solving is meaningful and conceptual rather than merely algorithmic. Algorithmic problem solving requires application of preexisting procedures where learning and problem solving may not occur (Shuell, 1990). Meaningful problem, on the other hand, 113
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requires the use of algorithms as well as conceptual knowledge to obtain correct answers (Schmidt, 1997). Different approaches can be used to solve a problem depending on a variety of factors such as the nature and difficulty of a problem and the expertise and relevant knowledge of the problem solver (Hayes, 1981). According to Barnsford and Stein (1984) and Hayes (1981), the five basic approaches to problem solving are working backwards, breaking a problem into parts, working systematically, solving problems by analogy, and using procedural and conceptual knowledge. In this study, the focus was on topic-specific problem-solving strategies rather than on general and content-free approaches. Mathematics review as a method may be used to accomplish the instructional goals of learning basic facts, concepts, and procedures, and problem solving within problem contexts. The problem-solving activities should provide ample practice in computational skills and use of formulas and procedures, as well as opportunities for the conceptual development of the relationship between chemical reaction and chemical equation. Thus, problem-solving as a method of teaching can be used to introduce concepts through lessons involving exploration and discovery. The creation of an algorithm with its refinement is also a complex problem-solving task that can be accomplished through the problem approach to teaching. Open-ended problem solving often uses problem contexts, where a sequence of related problems might be explored. A number of strategies that can help easier transfer of knowledge to different contexts include practicing problem-solving in different contexts, using complex real life examples, reminding students of learnt thinking skills during relevant part and actively involving students in learning and over learning (Muijies D. and Reynolds, D., 2003). Teachers tend to assume that their students have enough knowledge and ability in mathematics; hence they don’t bother finding whether the students really have the skills to solve mathematical problems in chemistry. More so, teachers feel that the time to be spent for mathematics reviews is the valuable time taken away from teaching chemistry concepts.
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Is Mathematics Review Giving an Edge in Learning High School Chemistry Concepts?
D.T. Polancos
Framework The study was anchored on Ausubel’s meaningful learning theory that offers the teacher the most direct route for laying a foundation for higher order thinking in problem solving. Teacherlevel variables associated with raising the academic achievement of all students are commonly grouped into three categories: instruction, classroom management, and curriculum design (Marzano, 2003). Higher order thinking also called “critical” or “strategic” thinking, the ability to use information to solve problems, analyze arguments, negotiate issues, or make predictions (Underbakke, Borg, & Peterson, 1993; Wenglinsky, 2002). It involves examining assumptions and values, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusions (Petress, 2004). A quasi-experimental research design was utilized for the study. Two sections of third year student classes in Chemistry were of comparable ability randomly selected and assigned to comprise that experimental and control groups. The experimental group was exposed to the concepts of mathematics review while the control group received the conventional instruction that is, without the use of the mathematics review. The two study groups were administered a pretest in Chemistry at the start of the study. The same test was administered again as a posttest at the end of the treatment period. The score in the immediate posttest provided the measure of performance and knowledge gain.
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Control Group (Direct Lecture) Conventional Instruction
Pretest and Posttest
Experimental Group (Mathematics Review)
Figure 1. The schematic diagram of the study Objective of the Study This study was conducted to determine the effects of mathematics review on the students’ ability to solve chemistry problems. Specifically, the study sought to pursue the following objectives: (1) to describe the pretest and posttest scores of both the experimental and control groups; and compare the knowledge increment between the experimental and control groups. Methodology The study used the quasi-experimental non-equivalent control group design. Two sections of third year chemistry classes of the 116
Is Mathematics Review Giving an Edge in Learning High School Chemistry Concepts?
D.T. Polancos
secondary department of the subject HEI which were of comparable ability and randomly selected and assigned were tapped for the study. The research sample consisted of 70 students, 35 students for each class. Two sources of data were utilized in this study: paperpencil test (pretest – posttest) and unstructured interview. The two classes were taught by the same teacher in Chemistry to eliminate teacher factor as a threat to internal validity. The schedule of classes was arranged such that one class immediately followed the other. Each class was randomly assigned either as experimental or control group. In Class A, the mathematics concepts and operation necessary for the day’s chemistry lesson were first taken up before proceeding to the lesson proper. In Class B, the teacher proceeded directly to the chemistry lesson. Both classes took up the same lessons, which were as follows: 1. Laws governing chemical reactions, computations of empirical formulas, and Stoichiometry calculations 2. Properties of matter, gas laws, and mole and molar volume 3. Concentration of solutions and calculation based on balanced chemical equations The experiment was done from November to March of the school year 2008- 2009. The researcher formulated a 20-item test, which was reviewed by three experienced chemistry teachers for content validation. The test was used to measure the students’ performance in chemistry problem solving. The mean scores in pretest and posttest of the experimental and control classes were compared using the paired-samples t-test using the SPSS software. The Unstructured Interviews Sixteen (16) students participated in the interviews. The interviews were varied depending on a student’s problem solutions. The students were asked to justify their selected solutions. A student’s response to one interview question determined the subsequent question or questions. Nevertheless, the interview questions for the different students were similar in their format in that they referred to the problem solutions. Part of the interview asked about for the students’ study habits at school and at home. The length of the interviews ranged between 15 to 35 minutes. They were tape recorded and transcribed for subsequent analysis. 117
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Interviewing the Selected Sample The students were purposively sampled in the interview. A student was not interviewed about all the problems. Rather, the problems for the interview were selected according to their potential to provide substantial insight into a student’s conceptual understanding and problem-solving strategies, and such potential was determined by a student’s written answers. Analysis of the Unstructured Interviews The sixteen interviews which were audiotaped, were transcribed word by word. Students revealed the reasons of their difficulty in chemistry problem solving. These reasons were used to substantiate the statistical findings of the study. Results and Discussion To see how each group performed in the pretest and posttest, paired t-test was utilized for comparison of the mean. The results are presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3. Table 1. Result of the t-test for experimental group
Variables Pair 1 Exp. Posttest Exp. Pretest
N
Corr.
35
.031
2-Tail Sig.
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
6.20
1.891
.320
5.17
1.902
.321
.027
35
Paired Differences Mean
SD
SE of Mean
t-value
DF
2-tail Sig.
1.029
2.640
.446
2.19
34
.027
-
118
95% CI, p<0.05
Is Mathematics Review Giving an Edge in Learning High School Chemistry Concepts?
D.T. Polancos
Table 1 shows that the experimental group got a mean of 6.20 in the posttest as 5.17 in the pretest. The t-value of 2.19 was greater than the 0.05 level of significance, implying a significant difference in the experimental group’s posttest and pretest results. The experimental group did better in the posttest. The finding reveals that treatment had a positive effect on the student’s performance in chemistry problem solving. Table 2. Results of t-test for control group N
Corr.
2-tail Sig.
Mean
Std. Deviation
Std. Error Mean
Con. Posttest
35
.062
.002
6.514
2.356
.398
Con. Pretest
35
4.886
1.827
.309
Variables Pair 2
Paired Differences Mean
SD
SE of Mean
t-value
DF
2-tail Sig.
1.63
2.89
4.488
3.23
34
.002
95% CI, p<0.05 As shown in Table 2, the control group got a mean of 6.514 in the posttest and 4.886 in the pretest. The mean difference was significant as reflected by the t-value of 3.23 greater that 0.05 level of significance. The finding implies that the control group performed significantly better in the posttest and that the conventional instruction had a positive effect on the students’ performance in the chemistry problem solving.
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Table 3. Test of difference in means between the experimental and control groups
Mean Score
Knowledge Increment
Variable
N
Pre
Post
Experimental
35 5.17
6.20
1.03
Control
35 4.89
6.51
1.62
Diff. bet. Knowledge Increment
t-value
0.59
0.626
0.698
if t-value >= t-critical, t-value = (0.626, 0.698), t-critical= 1.69, insignificant (P< .05) Table 3 shows the knowledge increment of each group as reflected by the computed mean. As revealed, the control group obtained a high mean of knowledge increment than the experimental group, 1.62 and 1.03 respectively. The finding may imply that the control group perform better that the experimental group but the t-test for mean difference reveals that no significant difference existed between the means of the two classes. As revealed, t-value of 0.626 and 0.698 for experimental and control groups were less than the t-critical value of 1.691, hence the mean difference was insignificant. This implies that both strategies are almost equally effective in the learning of chemistry concepts and in chemistry problem solving. Pedagogical implicationS The results of this study point out the necessity of theoretical understanding and competent and meaningful problem solving strategies for success in chemistry task, particularly problem solving. If science education aims to practice students who can think conceptually, solve science problems, work efficiently with self-confidence, use meaningful problem solving strategies, and are serious in pursuing the study of chemistry, then the focus 120
Is Mathematics Review Giving an Edge in Learning High School Chemistry Concepts?
D.T. Polancos
should be on helping students understand rather than memorize chemistry content and use proficient strategies to solve chemistry problems. In addition, the nature of classroom evaluations and any national science examinations should not just focus on algorithmic problems. Both numerical and conceptual real problems as should also be included. Encouraging conceptual understanding and problem solving in chemistry requires that the curriculum be redefined in terms of content and context. In addition, it requires more research on the complex relationships between problem solving in chemistry and studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; attitudes towards the subject and approaches to learning. As assumed, there is possible close association between content and learning approach (Ramsden, Martin, & Bowden, 1989). The content of the curriculum might be more useful if regarded as a vehicle to foster and improve studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; thinking and develop mathematics skills for solving chemistry problems rather than a quantity of content to be memorized. To accomplish this, the content should be less, more in depth, and presented in a context from which the student can derive meaning and significance of chemistry, such as everyday life situations, environmental issues, and industrial processes. The effectiveness of a particular strategy also seems to depend on the characteristics of the students being taught. The highly structured approach seems to be particularly effective for students from disadvantage backgrounds or students starting from a low level of achievement in a particular subject. This suggests that these students are more in need of explicit teaching (Muijs and Reynolds, 2000). However, reviews contain many suggestions about how teachers can help learners develop knowledge or skills, but they all conclude that no single teaching strategy is effective all the time for all learners. The main reason is that teaching and learning are very complex processes that are influenced by many different factors, only some of which are under the teacherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s control and none of which is fully understood (Marzano, 2003). It indicates that enough is known about teaching and learning to develop a well-founded set of principles on which to base systematic approaches to effective teaching. The effectiveness of science instruction programs such as chemistry depends upon the qualification of the teachers, the effectiveness of the methods and strategies of teaching, the adequacy of facilities, the adequacy of supervisory assistance, and 121
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the elimination of problems hampering the process. Certainly, if teachers are really serious in this said commitment, the students should be given opportunities for development of those skills. Several teaching techniques have been linked to higher order skills, and surely conceptual understanding in chemistry problem solving is one of them. CONCLUSION Result of this study clearly shows that the use of mathematics review as a teaching strategy in teaching chemistry concepts and problem solving does not significantly differ in its effectiveness from the conventional instruction strategy. That is, both teaching strategies work well in effecting learning among the students. Recommendations Based on the results of the study, the following recommendations are formulated. 1. Chemistry teachers should explore different strategies in developing studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; conceptual skills for solving problems in chemistry. 2. School managers should consider reviewing the present chemistry curriculum to pave way for the integration of concepts in algorithms for chemistry problem solving. Also, innovative teaching strategies should be reflected in the curriculum to ensure their use in order to enrich studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; classroom experience. 3. This study should be replicated, controlling other student variables such as I.Q, attitudes and gender. 4. Future researches that consider other strategies like think out loud, concept mapping, brainstorming and simulations should be conducted.
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LITERATURE CITED Anaheim, CA. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 366640 Bransford, J., & Stein, B. (1984). The ideal problem solver. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. BouJaoude, S, (2003). Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; systematic errors when solving kinetic and chemical equilibrium problems. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Atlanta, GA., April 15 - 19, 1993. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 361196. Harmon, M. (1993). The role of strategies and knowledge in problem solving: a review of the literature. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Anaheim, CA. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 366640. Hayes, J. (1981). The complete problem solver. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Franklin Institute Press. Research in Science Teaching, Lake of the Ozarchs, Missouri, April 10-13. Huddle, P., & Pillay, A. (1996). An in-depth study of misunderstandings in stoichiometry and chemical equilibrium at a South African university. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, 65 - 77. Laurillard, D. (2003). Re-thinking University Teaching: A Framework for the Effective Use of Educational Technology. London: Routledge Lythcott, J. (1990). Problem solving and requisite knowledge of chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education. 67: 248 - 252. Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Muijies, R.D. and Reynolds, D. (2003). Student Background and Teacher Effects on Achievement and Attainment in Mathematics. Educational Research and Evaluation 9(1): 289-313. Nakhleh, M. (1993). Are our students conceptual thinkers or algorithmic problem solvers? Identifying conceptual students in general chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education. 70: 52 - 55. 123
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Nakhleh, M., Lowrey, K., & Mitchell, R. (1996). Narrowing the gap between concepts and algorithms in freshman chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education. 73: 758 - 762. Nakhleh, M., & Mitchell, R. (1993). Concept learning versus problem solving. Journal of Chemical Education. 70:190 - 192. Niaz, M. (1989). The relationship between M-demand, algorithms, and problem solving: a neo-Piagetian analysis. Journal of Chemical Education. 66, 422 - 424. Petress, K. (2004). Critical thinking: An extended definition. Education, 124(3): 461-466. Pickering, M. (1990). Further studies on concept learning versus problem solving. Journal of Chemical Education. 67: 254 - 255. Ramsden, P., Martin, E., & Bowden, J. 1989. School environment and sixth form pupil’s approaches t o learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology. 59: 129-142.) Sawrey, B. (1990). Concept learning versus problem solving: revisited. Journal of Chemical Education, 67, 253 - 254. Shuell, T. (1990). Phases of meaningful learning. Review of Educational Research. 60: 531 - 547. Schmidt, H-J. (1997). An alternate path to stoichiometric problem solving. Research in Science Education, 27, 237 - 249. Science Teaching, Syracuse University,Syracuse, NY. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 332877. Staver, J. R., & Lumpe, A. T. (1995). Two investigations of students’ understanding of the mole concept and its use in problem solving. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 32: 177 - 193. Tullberg, A., Strömdahl, H., & Lybeck, L. (1994). Students’ conceptions of 1 mole and educators’ conceptions of how they teach the “the mole”. International Journal of Science Education, 16, 145 - 156. Underbakke, M., Borg, J. M., and Peterson, D. (1993). Researching and developing the knowledge base for teaching higher order thinking. Theory into Practice. 32(3): 138-146. Whimbey, A.; Lochhead, J. Problem Solving and Comprehension; 5th ed.; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Hillsdale, NJ, 2003.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section
Management of Culture and Arts in Selected Higher Education Institutions in Caraga, Southern Philippines SHYLA O. MORENO, Ed.D SHYLAMORENO@yahoo.com Surigao Del Sur State University, Tandag City Date Submitted: September 15, 2009 Final Revision Accepted: November 12, 2009 Abstract - The article investigated the management of the cultural offices of selected Higher Education Institutions (HEIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s) in Caraga, Mindanao. The study had as respondents cultural affairs coordinators, cultural group advisers, and cultural group members. The frequency, weighted mean, and t-test were used for the statistical analysis of the data. Ocular visit, observation interview, and focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted for data verification. There is a prevalent inefficiency in the management of the cultural offices of the HEIs in Caraga primarily due to the lack of adequate understanding of the philosophy, purpose and standards. Further, the need of experts in various cultural fields, costumes, facilities, and budget reflects the ineffectiveness of the implementation of the programs of the cultural offices. However, despite the very limited support coming from their respective institutions, the cultural offices are resourceful enough to meet whatever is needed for their productions. In terms of management, the cultural offices are far below the standard practices of other universities in the country. To sustain and improve the existing cultural programs and activities, full administrative support is needed for quality performances. Keywords management
Cultural offices, arts management, cultural
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INTRODUCTION Culture plays a fundamental role in shaping the personality of an individual in society and the character of the world. Due attention, therefore, must be given to the management of organizations or institutions. Effective cultural management must be goal-oriented to ensure long-term success and to set in place coping mechanisms. This is an approach which Reussner (2003) refers to as strategic management, which deals with long-term planning of the organization’s development based on information on the organization’s contextual conditions and relevant trends and development. The respective Offices of the Culture and the Arts in four selected higher institutions in Caraga which have existed for several years now. The offices serve clients with talents in dancing, singing, acting, drawing, and painting. The offices have under them different suborganizations such as the dance troupe, theater arts, choral group and visual arts under a designated faculty adviser supervised by the Cultural Affairs Coordinator, a position designated by the president of the institution. The results of the study are significant to the following sectors: Commission on Higher Education. The findings of the study are vital inputs on the Culture and Arts office that monitors HEIs. Board of Trustees (BOT). The findings of the study will encourage the respective BOT of the subject HEI’s to consider allocating adequate budget for the institution’s Office of the Culture and the Arts and granting scholarship to the core members of the Cultural Organizations. Administrators. The study would make the administrators aware of the importance of having adequate budget and facilities for the institution to have a vibrant cultural life necessary for the students’ total development . 126
Management of Culture and Arts in Selected Higher Education Institutions in Caraga, Southern Philippines
S.O. Moreno
Culture and the Arts Coordinator. The Culture and Arts Coordinators across the country can utilize the findings of the study for a more effective and efficient management of their respective offices, ensuring quality implementation of Cultural programs. Student Members in Cultural Groups. The utilization of the findings of this study will improve the Management of the Culture and Arts among the HEIs, paving way for the granting of scholarships to talented students and in general for the students. The study and proliferation of Culture and Arts in the Philippines has its legal mandate based in Article XIV, Section 14 of the 1986 Philippine Constitution, which states: The state shall foster the preservation, enrichment, and dynamic evolution of a Filipino national culture based on the principle of Unity and Diversity in a climate of free artistic and intellectual expressionâ&#x20AC;?. The Philippine Constitution of 1986 recognizes the importance of education, science and technology, arts, culture and sports. The Filipino national culture encompasses all the ways by which the Filipinos have expressed their ideas and sentiments, their values and aspirations in response to the conditions of Philippine society at any given period of time. As such, culture includes the literary arts (poetry, fiction, essay and drama), the performing arts (theater, music and dance) the visual arts (painting, sculpture, architecture, and graphic), film and the broadcast media creative aspects. In order to promote the Filipino culture, instill nationhood and cultural unity and raise the level of consciousness of the people on cultural values, conservation of historical and cultural heritage and resources must be done to always remind us of our national culture and identity. The National Commission for Culture and Arts (NCCA) in coordination with the concerned cultural agencies, government sectors, private sectors and non-governmental agencies is taking charge of training artists and cultural workers. Augmenting education about Philippine culture and arts as a way of encouraging appreciation and valuing of the Philippine heritage will foster esteem for what is a Filipino. Such move shall push for programs like cultural literacy, publications, and teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; young artists training. 127
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The framework of the management of the culture and arts takes into consideration the five performance measures, namely (1) goals and objectives, (2) organizational set-up, (3) human resource, (4) facilities and budget, and (5) program and activities. An organization should be free from bias or prejudice caused by an individual’s personal attitude or feelings. The organization should operate based on facts rather than on individual thoughts or opinions. The channel of communication must be observed once an organization has set up its organizational structure. Respect should be established and protocol observed by the members of an organization. The importance of human resource management (HRM) has increased over the years as organization leaders and senior managers recognize the need for effective management of the human capital as the means of obtaining and maintaining organizational effectiveness and sustaining competitive advantage. Human resource management is a function of any organization to facilitate the most effective use of people or human capital to achieve organizational and individual goals (Ivancevich, 2004). The right qualification matters most in an organizational set-up. Moreover, there is a need for adequate budget the right facilities for an organization to realize its services offered to the clients. Organizational budget speaks of existence and operations of the services and programs offered by the institution. The organization’s programs and activities serve as a system of procedures for a specific purpose. The effectiveness of the planned programs and activities depends upon the performance of the officers and members in realizing the organization’s vision, mission and goals. There is really a need to qualify and quantify the program of activities of the Culture and Arts for efficient and effective implementation of the program of activities. Culture as a way of life expands its range far beyond the concept of “high arts” and performances that mainly entertain. Cultural products and services must also consider economic gains for the activities to be sustainable.
128
Management of Culture and Arts in Selected Higher Education Institutions in Caraga, Southern Philippines
S.O. Moreno
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study pursued the following objectives: (1) to determine the status of the Cultural Affairs Office of selected Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Caraga in terms of their (a) goals and objectives, (b) organizational set-up, (c) human resource and facilities, (d) budget and funds, (e) programs and activities; (2) to establish significant difference in the assessment on the sustainability of the programs and activities of the coordinator of the Culture and Arts, cultural group advisers, and student-cultural group members; (3) to trace the mechanisms employed by each institution to sustain the culture and arts development programs; (4) to evaluate the factors/problems in the implementation of the policies and guidelines of the office of the Culture and the Arts; and (5) to identify the best management practices of the Office of the Culture and Arts benchmarked from the different universities in the country. METHODOLOGY This study used the combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods in examining the management of the Office of the Culture and the Arts in selected HEIs in Caraga. The study applied the following techniques in generating both the quantitative and qualitative data: survey, interview, focus group discussion, observation, interview and documentary analysis. The study covered the office of the Culture and Arts of the six HEIâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s in Caraga: two private institutions and four public institutions. The main instrument for data gathering was a modified questionnaire based on the Model of Arts Management (Reussner, 2003), dimension and aspects of culture (Stern, 2008) and the Accrediting Agency of Chartered College and Universities in the Philippines (AACUP) Accreditation instrument for Area 4, specifically on the Socio â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Cultural Development Program.
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Table 1. Distribution of respondents by institution Higher Education Institutions in CARAGA
Cultural Affairs Head & Group Advisers
Cultural Group Member
Total
Private HEI-1
1
15
16
Private HEI-2
5
60
65
State HEI-1 Campus 1
3
43
46
State HEI-1 Campus 2
1
15
16
State HEI-2 Campus 1
2
31
33
State HEI-1 Campus 1
2
26
28
Total
13
190
203
For data gathering, pre-interview and ocular visit of the sites of the study were conducted: upon securing the endorsement of the Regional Director of the Commission in Higher Education (CHED) and the permission of the presidents of the selected HEIs, the researcher floated to the respondents the questionnaires, which were then collected for the tabulation, analysis, and interpretation of the data. Interview, focus group discussion, and document analysis were done for in-depth discussion of the findings of the study. The frequency, weighted mean, and t-test were used for data analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. Status of Cultural Affairs Offices. The status of the Cultural Affairs Offices of selected Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) is discussed in terms of goals and objectives, organizational set-up, human resource, facilities and budget, and programs and activities. 130
Management of Culture and Arts in Selected Higher Education Institutions in Caraga, Southern Philippines
S.O. Moreno
Goals and Objectives. The interviews reveal that only two institutions (Private HEI-1 and State HEI-1) have clear statements of their goals and objectives. The other two institutions have anchored their goals and objectives on their institutional goals and objectives. Private HEI-1 Culture and Arts Office commits itself to the development of gifted and talented students, the conservation and promotion of Filipino culture with the ultimate goal of cultivating nationalism among students. When the offices of the Culture and Arts were assessed in terms of the goals and objectives by the three groups of respondents, it was revealed that the offices have Vision, Mission, Goals and Objectives (VMGO) with a weighted mean of 4.49 and that the socio – development programs and activities are in accordance with the VMGO and not with the general VMGO of the Institution with weighted mean of 4.19. The goals and objectives of the office of the Culture and Arts guide the crafting of all its activities. Organizational Set-up. The organizational set-up of the office for the Culture and Arts in selected HEIs is clear. The set-up shows the channel of communication between offices to office. The six HEIs have almost the same channel of communication. The Culture and the Arts coordinators have to pass through the office of the President, Vice – President, and Director for Student Affairs to seek approval for any requests relative to the office of the Culture and Arts. The coordinators approve the program of activities of the different cultural groups before the program is communicated to the Director for Student Affairs, Vice-President and President. The organizational set-up ensures smooth flow of communication between and among offices. In an interview, one coordinator said that the school’s organizational set-up has given him a clear communication direction. However, two cultural coordinators said that “sometimes communications are delayed, which causes delay in the conduct of the activity. Human Resource. It is necessary to consider the qualification of the persons involved in the management of the office of the Culture and Arts. The qualification of these persons determines the successful implementation of the program of activities. In 131
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terms of age, the higher percentage (38.96) of the personnel of the office of the Culture and Arts belonged to the age bracket of 20-29. In terms of gender, more than half of the respondents were male (53.84%). All of the respondents focused on instruction. Majority (69.23%) of them were advisers at the same time trainers of the cultural organizations. As to education, the highest percentage of them obtained a bachelor’s degree (46.15%), followed by those who got a master’s degree (30.76%). Only one obtained a doctorate degree. Those with master’s degrees specialized in philosophy, Business administration, English and Physical Education. All the respondents teach in the college. More than half of the respondents (13.85%) specialized in music. Among the group advisers’ 76.92 percent specialized in dance. The finding implies that the offices for Culture and the Arts focus mainly on dance and music. As to work experience of the coordinators and cultural group adviser the highest percentage of them worked for 1-3 years in the Culture and Arts office. Many are still new to the office of the Culture and Arts. The respondents’ work before the present job was still teaching. Most of the respondents were organizers/managers of their respective offices. The job of education is not to shape a Platonist’s man-in-himself but to shape a particular child belonging to a given nation, a given social environment, a given historical age (Jacques Maritain). The same thought can be said to the role of the cultural affairs coordinators and advisers since they shape the student members according to their talents and skills. Budget and Funds. As revealed, all the officers for the Culture and Arts in selected HEIs in Caraga collect a cultural fee of fifty (50) pesos per student upon enrollment. The fee falls under the miscellaneous fees. All expenses of the office is taken from its annual budget. The expenses of the office include the honorarium of the coordinator, staff development program, student development program, office supplies, snacks during meetings, repairs and maintenance, postage, laundry, transportation, documentation, equipment purchase, and, museum improvement traveling expenses of the delegates to the Regional and National Cultural Competitions. The institution is entitled to a five (5) percent share 132
Management of Culture and Arts in Selected Higher Education Institutions in Caraga, Southern Philippines
S.O. Moreno
of the total collection of cultural fee. The cultural fee of the students is used to finance organizational community extension services, a requirement of the Student Affairs Office for all existing clubs. As further revealed, the members of the different cultural groups provide for their own costumes during a presentation. Sometimes, the school rents the costumes for the participants. Equipment and Facilities. The items found in the office of the Culture and the Arts in selected HEIs in Caraga included documents, information technology (IT), office supplies, equipment, programs of invitational shows, costumes and props. The most common among office equipment were costume cabinets, gymnasium, and make-up set. Office supplies less available were the airconditioning unit, museum items and glass shelf for audio-video unit. In terms of information technology, 46.15% of the respondents cited the availability of computer set (76.92) and calendar of activities (76.92) were the most common documents available. Moreover, all offices had programs of invitational shows, indicating that the selected HEIs were able to participate in the regional cultural activities. The provision of costumes was found to be limited for presentations and competitions at local, regional and national levels. However, the cultural groups still managed to present their resourcefulness and determination to give the institution they are representing the honor. In every cultural presentation, props that include head dress and accessories are needed. Hence, there is a need for every institution to provide adequately its cultural group s with supplies, equipment, costumes and props for quality performances. Programs and Activities. All offices for the Culture and Arts in selected HEIs have programmed their activities. Three institutions have their programs designed by the coordinators. 1. Test of difference. The data indicated no significant difference in the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions; hence there is no need to present the table and the discussion. 2. Mechanisms employed to sustain the Socio-Cultural Development Programs To find out whether the programs and activities for the Culture and Arts in selected HEIs in Caraga are sustained, the 133
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researcher did an ocular visit, observation, interview, and focus group discussion. It was found out that there is a need to consider the following to sustain programs and activities for culture and arts: qualification of the coordinator, budget, facilities, performers/members, and other experts. Cultural Affairs Coordinator. Among the six coordinators, only two (2) majored in physical education and with formal education in management. These coordinators are highly qualified for the position since they have enough knowledge on organizational management. According to the other coordinators, it would be best if they take up a course on management. One coordinator commented that it is very difficult to function as coordinator if given a 30-unit teaching load. Dance Troupe. Members of the troupe cited pride and honor as source of inspiration as performers. As they said, “We find happiness in dancing”. The State HEI-1 Dance Troupe also added that the performers enjoy respect of students in and outside the campus. However, according to the adviser it is very difficult to get the member’s full commitment of the organization for they have their studies to prioritize. The Cultural Group advisers were found to be dedicated to their work in promoting Philippine Culture and Arts. They were as well very much enthused in the local, regional and national competitions. Out of the thirteen adviser respondents, eight attested that they learned the skill only by attending local, regional, and national trainings conducted by different government agencies. The rest of the respondents’ attended formal class and the degree in line with the work. Theater Arts Group. Only two institutions have theater arts. Five members of the group revealed “that it is sometimes difficult for them to produce the expected output due to the lack of concentration, limited time for practice, and lack of equipment and costumes for a particular role.” Two very active members even confided to the researcher that they were once told “kamo na bahala” by their adviser. In other words, there are times when the members have everything by themselves. Advisers for theater arts must be performers themselves and must have undergone short- term courses in acting, and script writing. An adviser claimed he/she was not competent to do in 134
Management of Culture and Arts in Selected Higher Education Institutions in Caraga, Southern Philippines
S.O. Moreno
his field for lack of proper training. Nonetheless, he/she does her work to his/her best. When asked by the institution to perform at the regional and national levels, the group becomes hesitant due to the feeling of inadequacy. Choral Group. The culture and arts office offers includes in its program the enhancement of talent in singing. Thus, the adviser must have majored in music and an active member of a national musical organization. These qualifications are set to ensure quality training of the members for a quality performance at the local, regional, national and even international levels. Out of the five choral advisers and trainers, three have completed formal education in music while the other two attended trainings and seminar-workshops. One common problem among the different choral groups was the attendance of the performers. Schedules for practices often are in conflict with the performersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; schedule of classes. Such conflict affects the quality of performances. Visual Arts Group. Only one institution has visual arts in its program. The members are those with talent or skill in drawing, painting, or sculpturing. As found during the interview the members were able to participate in regional and Mindanao-wide competitions, and garnered awards. However, they used their own materials for the competitions. According to three members of the organization, they do enjoy the arts but it is a lot better if they are provided with the needed materials so that they can better explore the visual arts. Other institutions did participate in different competition, sending their talented students. To sustain cultural programs of the different HEIs, there is a need to consider the following experts in the field: qualified cultural group adviser, folk/dance trainer, musician, and theater director. To sustain the implementation of the cultural programs, full administrative support should be accorded to the cultural groups. 3. Problems met in the implementation of the policies and guidelines While a number of problems were cited by the respondents, the most salient problems were the lack of highly qualified experts for various cultural groups and inadequate administrative support in terms of funding and other technical provisions. 135
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Also cited was the lack of scholarship grants that would motivate students to pursue the development of their talents, 4. Best practices in the management of the cultural offices of universities. The established universities in the country have standard practices that ensure quality cultural productions. Standard denotes a level of quality or excellence that is accepted as the norm or by which actual attainments are judged. These standard practices include professionalization of the cultural personnel, formulation of a technical panel, programming a year-round cultural activities, and integration of culture into the curriculum. The role and responsibilities of a Cultural Coordinator do not start and end with his role in the development of the performing group, but these extend to the establishment of a strong relationship with the school administration. For the sustainability of the performing group, the coordinator has to harness a support group from the community and set his goals by having a clear and achievable vision and direction. It has been said that the rise and fall of a group rest on its leadership and management. Based on the practices of other universities, the HEIs in Caraga fail to measure up. To sustain the programs and activities of the culture offices, full administrative support is needed for quality cultural performances. CONCLUSIONS There is a prevalent inefficiency in the management of the cultural offices of the subject HEIs in Caraga primarily due to the lack of adequate understanding of the philosophy, purpose, and standards. Further, the need of experts in various cultural fields, scholarship grants, costumes, facilities, and budget reflects the ineffectiveness of the implementation of the programs of the cultural offices. However, despite the very limited support coming from their respective institutions, the cultural offices are resourceful enough to meet whatever needed for their productions. In terms of management, the cultural offices are not at par with the practices of other universities in the country. To sustain 136
Management of Culture and Arts in Selected Higher Education Institutions in Caraga, Southern Philippines
S.O. Moreno
and improve the existing culture programs and activities, full administrative support is needed for quality performances. Literature Cited Arts and Cultural Management: The State of the Field: Introduction Silvia. Vol. 38, Issue 4: 235-239. ProQuest LLC Brkic, A.W. (2009). Teaching Arts Management: Where Did We Lose the Core Idea. Canali, S.F. (2009). Managing Cultural Events and Meetings Activities in European Constance DV. W. (2009). Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society. Washington: Creativity, regeneration and strategic planning. Vol. 12, Issue 4:7784. Copyright 2009 Proquest LLC. Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society. Vol. 38, Issue. 4: 270-281. Reussner, F. (2003). Reussnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s four model of Arts Management: Cultural Identity, Urban Destinations. International Journal of Arts Management, Vol. 11, Issue 3:59-74. Copyright 2009 ProQuest LLC
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 LiceoAccredited Journal of HigherJournal, Education Research CHED Research Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Social Science Section
Problem Solving: Best of Four Methods of Teaching College Algebra JENNIFER M. MONTERO, Ed.D. medrano_bugz@yahoo.com Surigao del Sur State University, Tandag City Date Submitted: September 15, 2009 Final Revision Accepted: November 12, 2009 Abstract- This study aimed to compare the learning effectiveness of constructivist, jigsaw, problem solving and traditional method of teaching College Algebra course among the students in Surigao del Sur State University, Tandag campus for first semester, academic year 2009-2010. This study used pretestposttest quasi-experimental design to determine the effectiveness of the four methods of teaching College Algebra. The respondents were the first year students of the Institute of Arts and Sciences enrolled in the Bachelor of Arts, Midwifery and Bachelor of Science in Mathematics who were taking College Algebra course. The knowledge content of the students after being exposed to different teaching methods increased. It revealed that problem solving method had the best effect on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; achievement scores compared to the three other methods. The course content included in the study needs computation and lengthy solutions that can best be done through problem solving strategy. Keywords - Contructivist, jigsaw, problem solving, traditional method, teaching college algebra
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Problem Solving: Best of Four Methods of Teaching College Algebra
J.M. Montero
INTRODUCTION Mathematics is an important part of everyday life. Although not always obvious, mathematics pervades much of what we do at home, on the job and in the community. Many common activities involve mathematical concepts and skills, with money handling perhaps the most important. According to Polloway(2001), much of the mathematics we use on a daily basis involve problem solving and the estimation of solutions rather than precise calculation. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) emphasized that effective mathematics teaching requires understanding on what students should know and need to learn and then challenging and supporting them to learn well. The teaching principle highlights the practice of designing instruction from the students’ point of view. Teachers connect concepts and procedures that are new to students. It is implemented when students engage in authentic, interesting and challenging work. It stimulates interest and relates real academic needs. This principle is closely related to learning principle. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics cited that learning principle calls for students to learn arithmetic with understanding, actively building new knowledge from experience and prior knowledge. Presenting students with alternative approaches of learning the content of mathematics provides valuable opportunities to build upon those that are closely related to students’ thinking and previous experiences. The principle of “learner at the center” (Sherman, 2005) implies that more than one teaching approach is necessary to achieve desired results. The most effective approach that benefits the dissimilar learner is both multidimensional and systematic. It examines all the conditions within and surrounding the child, such as the curricular content, context of the classroom, academic and social behavior and ways in which student process information and respond to the feedback. Constructivist approach to teaching is built on the concept that each student actively creates, interprets and recognizes information in ways that are unique to them. Present knowledge is used to achieve predetermined educational goals. In a constructivist classroom, 139
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the teacher designs and sequences lessons that encourage learners to use their own experiences to actively construct meaning and acquire understanding that make sense to them (Hall, 2008). Problem solving is the oldest intellectual skill known to humanity. The ability to understand a problem, relate it to a similar problem or to past experiences, speculate about the possible solution and carry through until the problem is solved is basic to human survival. Hatfield (2000) as cited by Senoc (2007) explained that without the ability to solve problems, human beings would have become extinct. Even prehistoric cave dwellers needed to solve problems dealing with food gathering and climate conditions. Jigsaw strategy is a cooperative learning technique whereby students are grouped and given topics to be discussed within the group. The students are assigned to five or six- member study teams. Then an academic material is presented to the students in text form and each member is responsible for a portion of the material. Members from different teams with the same topic meet to study and help each other learn their topic. Then they return to their home team to teach other members what they have learned. After home team meetings and discussions, the students take quizzes individually. Team scores are obtained and the high-scoring teams and individuals are recognized (Salandanan, 2008). Some students enter college lacking the basic arithmetic proficiency and problem solving skills that are needed to succeed in a college level mathematics course specifically in Algebra. Because of this, a high rate of failures in College Algebra has always been a problem in many colleges and universities in the Philippines. This problem is seen to have been prevailing in Surigao del Sur State University. Aware of this problem as an instructor of this university, the researcher was motivated to investigate possible factors affecting this problem. This study used and discussed some strategies that teachers can employ that are useful in helping the students gain the necessary background information and prerequisite knowledge in mathematics. The researcher believes that the variety of pedagogies in teaching algebra can be used to improve performance of students. These strategies, aside from lecture method, can be in a form of constructivist approach, jigsaw and problem solving method.
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The results of the study are significant to the following sectors: College Administrators. This can help them in initiating curricular reforms suited to the needs of College Algebra instruction in the college. Instructors. This study will encourage them to redesign their teaching strategies in order to facilitate maximum learning effectiveness. This will guide them to be flexible in their methods of teaching to suit to the level of learning among students. Students. This research will provide them opportunities in experiencing varied learning strategies to develop their full potentials as learners. Future Researchers. The result of this study will provide an avenue for the conduct of similar researches in other fields of mathematics. FRAMEWORK There are many different theories of how people learn. But these learning theories would also depend on the teaching theories applied by the teacher in the classroom. The main theory in which this study is anchored is based on the Facilitation Theory (a humanistic approach) of Carl Rogers. The basic premise of this theory according to Dunn (2000) is that learning will occur by the educator acting as facilitator, that is by establishing an atmosphere in which learners feel comfortable to consider new ideas and are not threatened by external factors. Other characteristics of this theory include a belief that human beings have a natural eagerness to learn and the most significant learning involves changing ones concept of oneself. The facilitative teacher in this theory listens to learners especially to their feelings, inclined to pay as much attention to their relationship with learners as to the content of the course and accepts feedback, both positive and negative, and to use it as constructive insight into themselves and their behavior. The learners on the other hand are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning, provide much of the input for the learning which occurs through their insights and experiences. Furthermore, this study is also based on Jean Piagetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 141
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Constructivist Learning Theory. According to Hatfield (2000), Piaget’s theory is age and stage related, which means that people go through definite developmental stages in their lives. Each stage must be completed before a person can attain the next stage. According to Bencze (2005) as cited in the study of Senoc (2007), this theory is based on observation and scientific study about how people learn. It says that people construct their understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on these experiences. His view of how children’s minds work and develop has been enormously influential, particularly in educational theory. His particular insight was the role of maturation in children’s increasing capacity to understand their world, they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature to do so (Atherton, 2009). Another theorist, for which this study is also anchored, is Jerome Bruner (1966-1983). He studied on how people select, retain, transform knowledge and believe that learning is an active process that permits people to go beyond the information given to them to create new possibilities on their own. His theory is not age or stage related. According to Bruner’s Theory, there are three modes of representing reality that occur in the same order but interact throughout a person’s life. As cited in the article of Smith (2004), Bruner began to look at the role of strategies in the process of human categorization and more generally, the development of human cognition. This concern with cognitive psychology led to a particular interest in the cognitive development of children. Another theory of learning applied in this study is Vygotsky’s Theory of Mental Development. His work has appeal to today’s constructivists because his research gives credence to the idea that children can be guided to better mathematical understanding as they progressively analyze complex skills on their own. Vygotsky’s research showed that children could internalize actions involving complex knowledge more quickly with the guidance of good analyzing discourse from a teacher. He called the place where such concepts are internalized the zone of proximal development. Concepts approximate real understanding action by action, construct by construct (UNESCO: International Bureau of Education, 2000). 142
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Gestalt Theory of Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) has also contributed to this study on problem solving. Kohler first studied insight in Chimpanzees on the Canary Islands. Chimps showed â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;insightâ&#x20AC;? into solving the problem of how to get food that was out of reach. With this, Gestalt ideas about perception were applied to problem-solving in another way making the point in conditioning, an animal does not learn a simple stimulus-response association. Rather, it learns an association between the stimulus-in-its context and a response. The traditional approach to teaching mathematics is based on the behaviorist theory of learning. According to Hatfield (2000), behaviorist theories stress the stimulus-response approach to learning. Each bit of information (stimulus) can be linked to derived response if the correct contingency is presented to students. It is likely that Behaviorists will explain the new findings of brain research as further evidence of the stimulus-response theory. It emphasizes rote memorization along with drill and practice of basic skills. From a behaviorist perspective, school of mathematics is comprised of a set of computational skills which students acquire by imitating demonstrations by teachers and worked examples from textbooks. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study pursued the following objectives: (1) to compare the learning effectiveness of the four methods of teaching College Algebra; (2) to determine how pretest and posttest scores of students in College Algebra differ as influenced by the teaching methods: constructivist, problem solving, jigsaw strategy and traditional; (3) to trace if there is a significant interaction of the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; achievement in College Algebra as influenced by mental ability and methods of instruction; and (4) to formulate a theory of learning based on the findings of the study. METHODOLOGY This study used pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design to determine the effectiveness of the four methods of teaching 143
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College Algebra. This design is the same as the classic controlled experimental design except that the subjects cannot be randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group, or the researcher cannot control which group will get the treatment. In other words, participants did not have the same chance of being in the control or experimental group, or of receiving or not receiving the treatment. This design involves four groups, each group having pretest and posttest and one group did not have treatment. This is modeled as follows:
Groups Posttest
Constructivist Group Jigsaw Group Problem Solving Group Traditional Group
Pretest
Treatment
01 T1 01 T2 01 T3 01
02 02 02 02
This study used two research instruments, a researcher made achievement test in College Algebra which was subjected to validity and reliability tests and the Instructor-Observerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Evaluation instrument patterned from the study of Senoc (2007). The achievement scores of the students were obtained using a researcher-made test. It consists of twenty three items multiple choice that includes topics on Linear Equations and Functions, Quadratic Equations and Systems of Equations based from the College Algebra syllabus. A Table of Specifications was also formulated to guide the researcher in the construction of the test items. To test the validity of the questionnaire, content and construct validity were conducted. In content validity, the researcher identified five experts in mathematics who had been teaching mathematics for many years to check whether each item has relevance to the topics, whether there is coherence on the statement and the proportion of questions included in the entire instrument. The content validators were the statistician, three college mathematics instructors and one high school mathematics teacher. After the content validation of the test, a try out of the content 144
Problem Solving: Best of Four Methods of Teaching College Algebra
J.M. Montero
validated questionnaire was conducted to students who were already through taking up College Algebra for item analysis. These were selected second year and third year students of the Institute of Teacher Education in this college. An item analysis of the result was applied in order to come up with a final instrument. Construct validity of the instrument was also done by the researcher. The selected second year and third year students of Teacher Education were made to answer four sets of questionnaires to establish construct validity. It includes Concurrent validity, Convergent validity, Divergent validity and Known-Group or TestRetest Validity. Pearson correlation was used to establish these four validations. For concurrent validity, the instrument that is being compared to the researcher made test was the National Achievement Test (NAT) of 2009 retrieved from the Division Office of Department of Education. Testing for the convergent validity, the researcher made test was being compared to the Mathematics Achievement Test which the researcher used with permission from Dr. Edmundo C. Lopez in his study “Constructivism in Teaching Elementary Algebra: Its Influence in Mathematics Performance of Students in Large Classes”. Divergent validity was tested making use of the standardized English Vocabulary Online Test posted by Supreet Seher of Chandigarh, India. The respondents of this study were the first year students of the Institute of Arts and Sciences enrolled in the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science in Mathematics who were taking College Algebra course during the first semester, Academic Year 2009-2010. The constructivist group had classes every Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 8:00 – 9:00 in the morning, the jigsaw group had classes every Tuesday and Thursday at 7:30 – 9:00, the problem solving group every Tuesday and Thursday at 10:30 – 12:00 noon while the traditional group had classes every Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 11:00 – 12:00.
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Table 1. Distribution of subjects in terms of mental ability and methods of instruction Mental Ability
Constructivist Method
Jigsaw Method
Problem Solving
Traditional Method
TOTAL
Average
13
7
11
5
36
Below Average
22
29
16
27
94
TOTAL
35
36
27
32
130
The researcher made the following steps and procedures in the data gathering process: Four sections were randomly chosen from all the sections enrolled in College Algebra. The four sections were also randomly assigned to the four methods of teaching being identified using fishbowl random sampling technique. The pretest of the achievement test in College Algebra was administered before the start of the formal instruction done on the first day of the experimentation period. The students were oriented on how the class is to be conducted for them to be responsive on the activities prepared for them. In the Constructivist Approach, the students were grouped into five with six to seven members. Each group was provided with instructional sheet that directs them on how to do the given activities to learn the different concepts in Algebra. The instructional sheets contain detailed explanation on how to undergo the given task. They were given also problem exercises which were included in the instructional sheet to measure how far they have learned out from the activity performed. They were allowed to ask questions to the instructor-researcher if ever they wanted to clarify on something. The purpose of this approach is to let students formulate ideas, questions and conclusions from the activities they performed using the appropriate instructional sheet given by the instructor. During interaction time, the instructor-researcher moved around the classroom to act as facilitator. As a resource person, the instructor asked thought provoking questions to guide the students in analyzing the given problems for them to come up with a correct 146
Problem Solving: Best of Four Methods of Teaching College Algebra
J.M. Montero
solution to a particular problem in the instructional sheet. After giving ample time of discussion, the researcher proceeded to group presentations to further facilitate learning. In Jigsaw Strategy, the researcher followed the following steps: 1. Divide students into five groups with five to six members in each group. The groups should be diverse in terms of gender and ability. 2. Appoint one student from each group as the leader. Initially, this person should be the most mature student in the group. 3. Divide the day’s lesson into segments. Assign each student to learn one segment, making sure students have direct access only to their own segment. 4. Give students time to read over their segment at least twice and become familiar with it. There is no need for them to memorize it. 5. Form temporary “expert groups” by having one student from each jigsaw group join other students assigned to the same segment. Give students in these expert groups time to discuss the main points of their segment and to rehearse the presentations they will make to their jigsaw group. 6. Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups. 7. Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group. Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification. 8. The researcher-instructor moved from group to group, observing the process. If any group is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), an appropriate intervention is to be made. Eventually, it’s best for the group leader to handle this task. Leaders can be trained by whispering an instruction on how to intervene, until everything in the group is in place again. 9. At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material so that students understanding of the segments discussed will be measured. In the Problem Solving Method, students were grouped also into five groupings. Each group was asked to discuss in a round table manner the problem assigned to them. Each member in the group was given a chance to share his/her idea(s). After all students 147
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have communicated their ideas in the group, they consolidated their thoughts and had the final answer to the problem being solved. Then, they presented their answers to the whole class. In solving the problem they were asked to follow the steps discussed at hand by the researcher. In the Traditional method, the researcher employed lecture method or simply â&#x20AC;&#x153;chalk-talkâ&#x20AC;? instruction. Every meeting, the lesson started with a definition, giving formulas, then examples. After which seat work and board work followed. Students were given the chance to ask questions for clarification. To compare the effectiveness of the four methods of teaching on the achievement scores of the students, the One â&#x20AC;&#x201C;Way Analysis of Covariance was used. The Two-way Analysis of Covariance was used to determine if achievement scores of students have a significant influence on the four methods of teaching and mental ability of the students. The Scheffe Test was used to determine which method of teaching has better effect on the achievement of the students. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION To determine if a significant difference exists in the achievement scores of the students as influenced by the methods of instruction, one way analysis of covariance was applied. (Table 2). The analysis yielded the computed F-value of 4.49 which is greater than the critical value of 2.6 at 5% level of significance. Therefore the hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the pretest and posttest scores of the students based on the four methods of teaching is rejected. The result indicates that there is significant difference in the pretest and posttest scores of the students. This further implies that the knowledge content of the students after being exposed to the method of teaching increased.
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Problem Solving: Best of Four Methods of Teaching College Algebra
J.M. Montero
Table 2. Analysis of Covariance of Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Achievement Scores in College Algebra in Terms of Methods of Instruction Source Adjusted df Sum Methods 88 .75 3 Error Within 823.95 125 TOTAL 912.70 128
Adjusted Mean Square 29.58 6.59
F- Ratio Computed
4.49
F-Ratio Critical
2.6
To determine further which method of teaching has better influence on the achievement scores of the students, a posteriori test on significance was applied using the Scheffe method. Table 3. Scheffe Test on Posttest Means of Methods of Instruction
Constructivist
Jigsaw
Problem
Traditional
Solving Constructivist
-----
2.11
4.79*
Jigsaw
2.11
-----
2.88*
Problem Solving
4.79*
2.88*
-----
6.80*
Traditional
2.22
4.28*
6.80*
-----
Legend: * Significant at 0.05 level
2.22
4.28*
Critical r = 2.79
Comparing the adjusted posttest mean of the constructivist and jigsaw method (Table 3), the Scheffe test yielded an r-value of 2.11 which is less than the critical value of 2.79. This implies that the effects of the constructivist approach and jigsaw method on the achievement of the students are relatively the same. This implies further that constructivist approach is as good as jigsaw method. Comparing the constructivist and traditional method, the Scheffe test yielded an r- value of 2.22 which is also less than the critical value of 2.79. This also implies that constructivist and traditional method are relatively the same. It can be deduced that constructivist approach is as good as traditional method. Comparing the adjusted posttest mean of the constructivist and 149
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problem solving method, the Scheffe test yielded an r- value of 4.79 which is greater than the critical value of 2.79. This implies that problem solving method has a better effect on the achievement of the students compared to the constructivist method. It is also depicted in Table 3 that problem solving method yielded an r- value of 2.88. When compared to the jigsaw method is greater than the critical value of 2.79. Problem solving method has a better effect compared to jigsaw method. Comparing the adjusted posttest mean of the traditional and problem solving method, the Scheffe test garnered an r- value of 6.80 which is greater than the critical value of 2.79. The result reveals that problem solving method has a better effect on the achievement of the students compared to traditional method. These results indicate that students exposed to problem solving method of teaching College Algebra for the specific topics included in the study performed better compared to the students exposed to constructivist method, jigsaw and traditional method. This result further implies that among the four methods of teaching College Algebra used in this experiment, problem solving method has the best effect on the achievement of the students. Topics involving Linear Equations and Functions, Quadratic Equations and Systems of Equations involved computation and lengthy solutions which were done accurately through the problem solving method. This result conforms to the study of Hofmann and Hunter (2003) whose study entitled “Just-in-Time Algebra: a Problem Solving Approach Including Multimedia and Animation” brought forth positive results of problem solving method in teaching Algebra. However, this result contradicts the findings of the study of Lopez (2003) and Senoc (2007) where lecture method emerged as more effective method in improving achievement scores of the students in Algebra and Statistics respectively. This result also contradicts the findings of the study of Sanchez (2004) where constructivist method came out as more effective method in improving students’ achievement in mathematics. To determine if there is significant influence of the method of instruction and mental ability to the achievement scores of the students, the two-way analysis of covariance with unequal n’s was applied. 150
Problem Solving: Best of Four Methods of Teaching College Algebra
J.M. Montero
Table 4. Analysis of Covariance of Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Achievement Scores in College Algebra in Terms of Methods of Instruction and mental Ability Source Factor A Mental Ability Factor B Methods of Instruction Interaction AB Error Within
Adjusted Sum of Squares -302.12
df
1
Adjusted Mean Square -302.12
3157.67
3
1052.56
277.22
3
92.41
1881.57
1031
1.82
F- Ratio Computed
F-Ratio Critical
-165.55
3.84
576.74
2.6
50.63
2.6
For Factor A which is the mental ability, the analysis yielded an F- ratio of -165.55 which is less than the critical value of 3.84 at 0.05 level of significance, hence the null hypothesis is accepted. This implies that there is no significant influence of mental ability to the scores of the students. This result suggests that mental ability has no effect on the achievement scores of the students towards mathematics. This implies further that students in the average group have similar or comparable mental ability with those of the below average group. For Factor B which is the method of instruction, the analysis yielded an F- ratio of 576.74 which is very much greater than the critical value of 2.6 at 0.05 level of significance, hence the null hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is a significant effect of the methods of instruction to the achievement scores of the students. Furthermore, the analysis also reveals that there is significant interaction between mental ability and methods of instruction as evidenced by the computed F â&#x20AC;&#x201C; ratio of 50.63 which is greater than the critical value of 2.6 at 0.05 level of significance. This result contradicts the findings of the study of Senoc (2007) that there is no significant effect of the methods of instruction and mental ability on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; achievement in statistics. This result suggests that 151
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problem solving method which came out to be a more effective method in teaching college algebra for the specific topics included in the study is effective to students with different mental abilities. As an output of the study, it generated a theory. The researcher believes that the center of an educative process is the LEARNER. The learner should be equipped with the seven domains of learning as stipulated in the National Competency Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) - Social Regard for Learning (SRFL), Learning Environment (LE), Diversity of Learners (DOL), Curriculum (Curr.), Planning, Assessing, Reporting (PAR), Community Linkages (CL) and Personal Growth and Professional Development (PGPD) which are represented by a circle implying that the learner is to be developed holistically. Towards this purpose, the teacher shall provide activities that are focused more on internal and external processes so that organization, elaboration and meaningful learning will occur. The teacher is encouraged to ask questions that will develop the learnerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Higher- Order Thinking Skills (HOTS). There is cyclic interaction between these two factors which connotes flexibility. A teacher should be flexible to the kind of learner she has and the methods of instruction should also vary depending on the level of understanding of the learners. How to gauge if learning has transpired? Learning has only taken place if a CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR IS EVIDENT. Thus, the equation for this proposed theory is TEACHER + METHODS = Increased ACHIEVEMENT of learners. CONCLUSIONS In the light of the findings, the following conclusions are drawn: The knowledge content of the students after being exposed to different teaching methods increased. Problem solving method had the best effect on studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; achievement scores in algebra, which can be attributed to the fact that the course content included in the study needs computation and lengthy solutions that can best be done through problem solving strategy .
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LITERATURE CITED Atherton, J. S. (2009), Learning and Teaching: Piaget’s Development Theory http: www.learningand teaching.info/learning/piaget. htm. Dunn, L. (2000), Theories of Learning, Oxford Brookes Universitywww.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/ theories.html Hall, G. E. (2008), The Joy of Teaching, Making a Difference in Student Learning, USA: Pearson Education Inc. National Competency Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS), Posted by: Saicebrian on July 5, 2009, www.saicebrian.wordpress. com/2009/07/05/national-competency -based-teacherstandards-ncbts/Date retrieved: January 15, 2010 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (2000), Principles and Standards For School Mathematics. Polloway, E. A. et.al. (2001), Strategies for Teaching With Special Needs, 7th Edition, Ohio: Merill Prentice Hall Salandanan, G. G. (2008), “ Teaching Approaches and Strategies”, revised Edition Philippines: Katha Publishing Company, Inc. Senoc,G. A. (2007), “Effectiveness of Three Methods of Instruction in Statistics”, Dissertation, Mindanao Polytechnic State College. Sherman, H. J. (2005), Teaching Children who Struggle with Mathematics, A Systematic Approach to Analysis and Corrections, Ohio: Merill Prentice Hall. Smith, N., et al. (2004), Teaching Elementary Mathematics: A Resource for Field Experiences, 2nd edition, USA: John Wiley and Sons.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064
Liceo Journal ofResearch Higher Journal, Education Research CHED Accredited Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Public Policy Section
Compliance with Corporate Governance Mechanisms among Rural Banks MARIANO M. LERIN, Ph. D., CPA president@liceo.edu.ph Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: February 20, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: April 2, 2008
Abstract – The study determined the compliance of rural banks with the corporate governance mechanisms. Using the descriptive method, the study surveyed 50 respondents through a researcher-made questionnaire. Statistical techniques include frequency, percentage and t-test. Majority of the rural banks are located in Misamis Oriental and established earlier than 2000. They have few branches with 6-15 employees and a starting capital of P500,000 below. The present capital is between P500,000 to P20,000,000 . Most rural banks complied with the corporate governance mechanisms such as Board Chairman’s and members’ responsibilities and issuances of guidelines. Sex was a differentiating factor in the compliance to corporate governance mechanisms. Keywords – Compliance, corporate governance, rural banks,
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Compliance with Corporate Governance Mechanisms among Rural Banks
M.M. Lerin
INTRODUCTION The recent collapse of significant corporations, like the EMCOR and Worldcom of USA, HIH and Ansett of Australia, and Parmalat and Swissair of Europe, has caused among corporate stakeholders a tremendous distrust in the operations of corporations. Such event in the financial markets has rocked the normally sedate and steady corporate boardrooms and discredited the business executives. The financial scandals among these signficant corporations have led the rest of the business world to a deep thinking. In the light of this crisis, an underlying movement to restore public trust in the managerial class has emerged, thereby rendering the governance and corporate responsibility more compelling. History and Development of Corporate Governance The first attempt to study and advocate for corporate governance came in December 1992 with the publication of the report of the committee on the Financial Aspects of Corporate Governance as established by the Financial Reporting Council, the London Stock Exchange, and the Accountancy profession of the United Kingdom. In Asia, a number of economies have prepared codes of conduct, many of which apply principally to listed firms and focus on compliance with listing requirements, to ensure that effective corporate governance is established within the firm. In the Philippines, corporate governance was issued by Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas through BSP Circular No. 283 dated May 2001 and BSP Circular No. 296 in September 2001. Likewise, the Securities and Exchange Commission through SEC memorandum Circular No. 2, Series of 2002, dated April 4, 2002, promulgated a Code of Corporate Governance. The code is applicable to corporations whose securities are registered or listed, corporations which are grantees of permits/ licenses and secondary franchise from the SEC, and public companies. The code also applies to branches or subsidiaries of foreign corporations operating in the Philippines whose securities are registered or listed. The Insurance Commission of the Philippines promulgated the Code of Corporate Governance through DOF Department Order No. 13-2002, dated July 12, 2002, which is to be adopted and complied by all insurance companies and intermediaries doing 155
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business in the Philippines. The primary objectives of the aforementioned codes are to enhance the corporate accountabilitry of companies and promote the interests of their stakeholders. From time to time the SEC issues some provisions concerning compliance with corporate governnance mechanisms. Corporate Governance Corporate governance refers to a system whereby shareholders, creditors, and other stakeholders of a corporation ensure that management enhances the value of the corporation as it competes in an increasingly global market place. It is about promoting corporate fairness, transparency, and accountability. As a system, it consists of rules that define the relationship betweeen shareholder, manager, creditor, the government and the stakeholders, and a set of mechanisms to enforce these rules directly or indirectly. It assigns final authority and full responsibilities to the Board of Director. Collectively, the Board takes responsibility for the corporation and uses key principles to maximize shareholderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s value. The corporate governance framework is designed to protect shareholderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rights; ensure the equitable treatment of all shareholders, including minority and foreign shareholders; recognize the rights of stakeholders as established by law and encourage active cooperation between corporation and stakeholder in creating wealth, jobs, and the sustainability of financially sound enterprise; ensure a timely and accurate disclosure of all matters regarding the corporations, including the financial situation, performance, ownership, and governance of the company; and ensure the strategic guidance of the company, the effective monitoring of management by the board, and the boardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s accountability to the company and the shareholders. Given the responsibility of directing and controlling companies and implementing corporate governance mechanisms, the board is expected to hardly efficiently the following functions: the board should act, in good faith, with due diligence and care, and in the best interest of the company and the shareholders ; the board should treat all stakeholders fairly; the board should insure compliance with applicable law and take into account the interest of stakeholders; 156
Compliance with Corporate Governance Mechanisms among Rural Banks
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The board should exercise an objective and independent judgement on corporate affairs, particularly that of the management; The board member should have access to accurate, relevant, and timely information for them to fulfill their responsibilities. For the board to carry on its functions more effectively, implement corporate governance mechanisms, and protect the interests of all stakeholders, its members should commit themselves to the tasks delegated to them. FRAMEWORK Figure 1 shows the flow of the research. The research areas included the profile of the respondents, profile of the rural banks in Region 10, extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms, concerns and problems of the rural banks, and test of difference in the extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms when the respondents were grouped as to position and gender and when banks were grouped according to classification and capital. The research method used was normative survey with the use of a questionnaire. The recommendations to improve the rural banks’ extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms were the research output.
Input Research Areas • • •
•
•
Profile of respondents Profile of rural banks Extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms Concerns and problems of rural bank officials Difference in the extent of compliance
Process Research Procedures •
• • • • •
Normative Survey method -Questionnaire formulation -Questionnaire administration -Questionnaire Retrieval Research Data Tallying of results Presentation of data Analysis of data Interpretation of data
Output
• Recommendations to improve the rural banks’ extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms
Figure 1. The Research Flow 157
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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study determined the extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms and the concerns and problems of the rural banks in Region 10. To achieve the purpose of the study, answers to the following objectives were sought; (1) to describe the profile of the respondents and the rural banks in Region 10; (2) to determine the extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms among the rural banks; (3)to determine the difference in the extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms among the rural banks when the respondents are grouped according to position and sex; (4) to measure the difference in the extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms among the rural banks when they are grouped according to classification whether main or branch and capital; and, (5) to find the concerns and problems along compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms encountered by the rural banks. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study would be of benefit to a number of persons and agencies, especially the banking sector. Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas. The study would provide the BSP with data useful in determining which branches in Region 10 do not comply with the corporate governance mechanisms so proper sanctions can be applied to those erring banks. The Securities and Exchange Commission. The SEC has a supervisory function on corporations. It sees to it that these corporations follow government laws, policies, and even corporate governance mechanisms. Rural Bank Owners. They will be provided feedback whether their banks comply with corporate governance mechanisms, thereby helping them formulate better policies to improve bank operations. The reported problems and concerns of the bank officials would likewise help them in the formulation of policies. Bank Clients. The banks could better comply with the corporate
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governance mechanisms, better address the existing problems, and improve bank operations should they consider the recommendations of this study. Rural Bank Employers. The study’s recommendations could serve as better directions for compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms, which would help them provide better services and afford them better benefits. METHODOLOGY This study utilized the normative survey method. It made use of the questionnaire for data gathering. The questionnaire had three parts. The first part asked for the respondents’ profile, while the second part asked for the rural banks’ profile; both parts were constructed by the researcher. The third part, which was taken from the manual of the Rural Bankers Associations of the Philippines, was on the materials used during the seminarwokshop on corporate governance and risk management for rural bank directors held in Manila on November 11-12, 2006 which was formulated by the Rural Bankers Association of the Philippines. Research Setting / Locale This study was conducted in Region 10, a fast growing and peaceful region in the country. It has five provinces, namely Bukidnon, Camiguin, Lanao del Norte, Misamis Occidental, and Misamis Oriental. Facing the Visayas provinces and situated between Central Mindanao and Southern Mindanao, Region 10 is the center of trade and commerce in Northern Mindanao. Respondents and Sampling Procedure The study had 50 respondents composed of managers, officers, chairmen of the board, presidents, chief executive officers, and board members of selected rural banks. The rural banks are in the provinces and cities of Region 10. Research Instrument The research instrument had four parts. The first part asked for the respondents’ profile in terms of position, age, sex, civil status, 159
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degree finished, years as a banker, and years working with the present bank. Part two asked for the profile of rural banks in terms of location, bank classsification and form of business organization, year of rural banks’ establishment, number of bank employees, number of branches, starting capital, present capital, and average net income. Part three was on the rural banks’ compliance with corporate governance mechanisms, solely based on a questionnaire formulated by the Rural Bankers Association which was presented during the seminar-workshop on corporate governance last November 11-12, 2005, RBAP Building, Intramuros, Manila. Data Gathering Procedure To gather data for the study, the questionnaires were formulated then administered to all respondents and retrieved after one month. The respondents’ answers were tallied, presented in tables, and analyzed and interpreted. The recommendations to improve the extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms among the rural banks were the output of the study. There were 75 questionnaires distributed by the graduate school students in Financial Management and Executive Leadership. These students are residents in the different provinces of the region. It took them a month to retrieve the questionnaires. Only 57 questionnaires were retrieved. Of the 57, only 50 or 67% were included since four questinnaires had inconsistent answers and three questionnaires were not completely accomplished. Statistical Techniques The collected data for this study were analyzed and interpreted using the percentage for the respondents’ profile, the rural banks’ profile, and the respondents’ concerns and problems encountered in complying with the corporate governance mechanisms; the weighted mean for the extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms; and the ANOVA (F-test) for the difference in the extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms among the rural banks when grouped according to classification and capital, and when the respondents were grouped according to position and sex. 160
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Profile of respondents The managers composed the majority of the respondents (58 %), while the board members composed nearly half of the respondents (42 %). The majority of the respondents (68 %) were males, while only 32 percent were females. As regards civil status, most of the respondents (88 %) were married, while only 12 percent were single. As to age, the respondents were widely spread. However, many of them were in the age bracket of 31-35 (20 %) and 25-30 (16 %). The data reveal that bank owners still prefer male, married, and relatively young ones as employees. The majority of the respondents (48 %) had 6-10 years of banking experience. Some had a banking experience of 11-15 years; 6, 26-30 years; and 1, 36-40 years. On the number of years working with the present bank, majority of them have worked for 10 years and below. Others have worked for 11â&#x20AC;&#x201C;15 years. Only a very few have worked for 16 years and more. Profile of banks Misamis Oriental had the biggest number of rural banks included in the study, of which five from the towns of the province, seven from Cagayan de Oro City, and two from Gingoog City. Following Misamis Oriental were Bukidnon and Misamis Occidental with 11 rural banks each. In Bukidnon, five were from the towns of the province and three banks each from Malaybalay and Valencia. In Misamis Occidental, four were from the towns, three from Oroquieta, and four from Ozamis City. There were 10 banks from Lanao del Norte, four from the towns and six from Iligan City. Only four banks were from Camiguin, two from the towns and two from Mambajao. The data show that the rural banks are operating in the towns and cities of the provinces of Region 10. As classified, more than half of the rural banks (52 %) are main offices, while 48 percent are branches. As to the form of business organization, almost all (92 %) adopted the corporation form of busines organization. Only four are cooperative banks. The six oldest rural banks were established in 1952â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1955. The ten biggest number of banks were organized from 1991 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2000. Only 161
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four were established in the year 2001–2005. Following the six oldest banks were the four banks opened in 1956–1960; 3 banks, 1961– 1965; 2 banks, 1966–1971; and four banks, 1971–1975. Considering the span of time rural banks have operated, it can be inferred that rural banks are doing good in the business. Fourteen rural banks, representing 28 percent of the banks sampled, had six to ten employees. This is followed by 11 banks with 11-15 employees; 8 banks, 16-20 employees; 7 banks, 1–5 employees; 3 banks, 21–25; 2 banks, 26–30; 2 banks, 31–35 employees; 1 bank, 36–40; and 2, more than 10. The data show that majority of the rural banks in the region have 1-15 employees. Some 10 banks do not have any branch. The distribution of the 40 banks with branches are as follows: 11 banks (22 %) had 1-5 branches; 10 banks (20 %), 6-10 branches; and 7 banks (14 %), 1115 branches. Only a very few banks have 16–20, 26–30, 51–100 and more than 100 branches. Seventeen banks (34 %) started operations with less than P500,000. In the past, the Central Bank required only P100,000 as the starting capital for rural banks. While majority of the banks started with less than P5,000,000, some banks had more than P100,000,000 as starting capital. Some 10 banks had a capital of less than P10,000,000. A majority, however, had a capital of less than P40,000,000, which is still considered low. Seven banks had a capital of P10,000,001 to P20,000,000; six, P30,000,000–P40,000,000; five, P20,000,000 to P30,000,000; four, P50,000,001–P75,000,000. Only one bank had a capital of P40,000,001–P50,000,000 and more than P500,000,000. Two of the banks incurred losses, while six did not reveal their income. Among the banks earning, 5 banks earned a minimal amount of less than P500,000; 6, P500,001 to P1,000,000; 7, P5,000,001 to P10,000,000. Three banks earned P50,000,001 to P75,000,000, P100,000,000, and more than P100,000,000 respectively.
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Compliance with corporate governance Table 1. Rural banksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the boardâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responsibilities INDICATORS
WEIGHTED MEAN
VERBAL DESCRIPTION
The Board promotes long-term shareholder value.
3.58
Mostly Complied
The Board safeguards and respects all other stakeholderâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interests.
3.78
Mostly Complied
The Board has a policy on full and faithful compliance with laws, regulations, and BSP circulars.
3.84
Mostly Complied
The Board has a quarterly compliance statement from the Compliance Officer, reporting directly to the Board.
3.62
Mostly Complied
The Board has a semi-annual compliance statement from the President, and an annual statement from the Chairman.
3.56
Mostly Complied
3.58
Mostly Complied
3.74
Mostly Complied
3.62
Mostly Complied
The Board has a policy on human resource development and personal development system based on accountability, checks and balances, and a corporate Code of Ethics. The Board has a policy with appropriately updated Guidelines to promote the good reputation of the bank in dealing with depositors, borrowers, and other parties that transact business with the bank. The Board has a sustained program of corporate social responsibility that enhances the good image of the bank before the public.
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(Table 1 continued) The Board sets, periodically reviews, and updates the bankâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s corporate philosophy and mission.
3.44
Sometimes Complied
The Board sets and reviews the bankâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strategic and business plans.
3.65
Mostly Complied
The Board sets and reviews the bankâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s financial objectives, plans and actions.
3.76
Mostly Complied
3.74
Mostly Complied
3.30
Sometimes Complied
3.26
Sometimes Complied
3.18
The Board reviews and approves all transactions not in the ordinary course of business.
Sometimes Complied
3.30
Sometimes Complied
The Board has a formal mechanism to search for and invite independent directors. A policy direction is the Board setting to increase the percentage of independent directors in the Board.
3.04
The Board regularly monitors corporate performance against the strategic and business plans and against annual financial objectives and operating plan/ targets. The Board includes non-financial aspects in its monitoring functions. The Board has a performance evaluation system in place. It works in a manner that includes evaluation of Board performance itself. It has a system used to evaluate the performance of top management and select, monitor, and compensate the CEO and other senior officers. The Board has a succession plan for the Board and senior management.
The Board works towards a proper mix of directors with varied and diverse backgrounds to ensure a high caliber of directors.
164
3.18
Sometimes Complied
Sometimes Complied
Compliance with Corporate Governance Mechanisms among Rural Banks
M.M. Lerin
(Table 1 continued) The Board is committed to have a working Board of Directors, whose size and composition would be conductive to active participation of all members. The Board has clear guidelines on the amount of time directors spend on board matters. These guidelines include limiting the number of directorships to other corporations that members may accept. The Board spends much time on routine matters, which are taken up on a pro formal basis, without need for deliberation. Overall
3.48
Sometimes Complied
3.18
Sometimes Complied
3.08
Sometimes Complied
3.45
Sometimes Complied
Table 1 presents the rural banks’ extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the Board’s responsibilities. Of the 22 indicators, 11 (50 %) were mostly complied with a rating of 3.58 to 3.84. The other 11 factors were sometimes complied with a rating of 3.04 to 3.48. Among the indicators, rated the lowest (3.04) was the board’s having a formal mechanism in searching and inviting independent directors. Rated the highest (3.84) was the board’s having a policy on full and faithful compliance with laws, regulations, and Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas circulars.
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Table 2. Rural banks’ extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the chairman’s responsibilities INDICATORS
The Board has a Code of Corporate Governance. The Code clearly indicates the main responsibility of the Chairman as being focused on the proper governance of the bank through the Board of Directors. The Chairman ensures an efficient, effective functioning of the Board. The Chairman ensures active and professional participation of all members of the Board. The Chairman encourages and actively solicits views and opinions of other members of the Board in the process of arriving at a decision. The Chairman ensures that all members of the Board are given sufficient information on time to enable them to study issues carefully and responsibly that maybe taken up by the Board. Overall
WEIGHTED MEAN
VERBAL DESCRIPTION
3.58
Mostly Complied
3.76
Mostly Complied
3.80
Mostly Complied
3.76
Mostly Complied
3.80
Mostly Complied
3.74
Mostly Complied
3.74
Mostly Complied
Table 2 shows the rural banks’ extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the chairman’s responsbilities. All indicators were mostly complied with by the 166
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rural banks as reflected by the ratings from 3.58 to 3.80. This means that the chairman of the Board of Directors of each of the rural banks exercise his functions well. Table 3. Rural banksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the board memberâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s responsibilities INDICATORS Directors are fully aware that their primary loyalty as a member of the Board to the bank, as a whole, an institution with several shareholds as well as other shareholds. Directors know that members of the Board represent no other interest except those of the bank itself, an institution with a juridical personality separate and independent of its different shareholders (whether majority or minority) and stakeholders. They act accordingly. Directors know that their position is one of trust, with serious fiduciary duties to all shareholds (without distinction between majority and minority). Directors know that their duty of loyalty to the bank demands that they always act honestly, lawfully, in good faith, and avoiding conflicts of interest. Directors spend enough time on board matters. They devote reasonable diligence to these matters. They attend Board meetings and related activities regularly. They actively participate, after due and diligent preparation, in Board meetings and other deliberative activities of the Board. Directors observe confidentiality, proper and responsible disclosure.
WEIGHTED MEAN 3.74
3.64
VERBAL DESCRIPTION Mostly Complied
Mostly Complied
3.72
Mostly Complied
3.70
Mostly Complied
3.64
3.88
Mostly Complied
Mostly Complied
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(Table 3 continued) Directors insist on getting the proper information and background materials to enable them to carry out their duties diligently and professionally. Directors take an active interest in corporate governace practices so as to align the bankâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s practices with the best practices. Directors take advantage of training opportunities provided for them. Directors draw the line between Board and management responsibilities, not getting involved in management and operational issues, but exercising diligent, and regular monitoring of operations. The President and other executive directors (i.e. directors with management responsibilities in the bank) recognize the dual role they play, and as directors, they express their views and make decisions with integrity and independence from their executive functions. Overall
3.70
Mostly Complied
3.72
Mostly Complied
3.62
Mostly Complied
3.80
Mostly Complied
3.73
Mostly Complied
Table 3 presents the extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the responsibilities of the members of the board. All the indicators were mostly complied by the rural banks as reflected by the ratings of 3.62 to 3.82. The members of the Board of Directors of the rural banks highly value the bankâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s welfare by complying with the corporate governance mechanisms.
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Table 4. Rural banksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms in terms of board meeting guidelines INDICATORS
WEIGHTED MEAN
VERBAL DESCRIPTION
The Board meets regularly.
3.74
The Board meets to consider strategic and long-term positioning issues of the bank at least once a year.
Mostly Complied
3.62
Mostly Complied
3.64
Mostly Complied
3.60
Mostly Complied
3.76
Mostly Complied
3.72
Mostly Complied
3.66
Mostly Complied
2.68
Sometimes Complied
The Board meets to consider various aspects of the annual business plan, focusing on a few aspects once a quarter until all aspects are coverd within a year. The Board relates these aspects of the business plan to the strategic plan. The Board monitors performance and relates actual performance to both the business plan and targets as well as the strategic plan. The Board assesses the risk of the portfolio the bank carries. The Board oversees the risk management process, ensuring that operating officers generally stay within limits authorized for them. The corrective reports and actions automatically enforced once those limits are breached. The Board decisions are truly collegial, and are they arrived at after independent views from several directors have been freely expressed. The Board has an occasion to meet, at least once a year, without the presence of the President.
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(Table 4 continued) The Board has a performance evaluation system, which enables it to assess its own governance mechanisms and performance.
3.12
Sometimes Complied
3.14
Sometimes Complied
The Board exercises due diligence and care in looking at and acting upon the audit reports submitted through its audit committee by the interna auditors, the external auditors, and the BSP.
3.70
Mostly Complied
Overall
3.49
Sometimes Complied
The Board has a performance evaluation system, connected with its remuneration system, for all senior officers that it appoints.
Table 4 presents the rural banksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the board meeting guidelines. Of the eleven indicators, eight were mostly complied as indicated by the ratings of 3.60 to 3.76, while three indicators were only sometimes complied as indicated by the ratings of 2.68 to 3.14. As further revealed, the overall result was 3.49, that is, the corporate governance mechanisms in terms of board meeting guidelines are sometimes complied. Rated the lowest (2.68) was the occasional meeting of the board, at least once a year, even without the presence of the President. As to the rural banksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms in terms of board committees and board issues guidelines. Of the 15 indicators, seven indicators were sometimes complied (3.32 to 3.46), while eight indicators were mostly complied (3.51 to 3.72). Overall, the rural bankers mostly complied with the corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the guidelines for board committees and board issues.
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Table 5. Rural banksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the board committees and Board issues guidelines INDICATORS
WEIGHTED MEAN
VERBAL DESCRIPTION
The Board has a fully functioning Audit Committee, made up mostly of independent directors. All the members of the Audit Committee are financially literate.
3.42
Sometimes Complied
The Audit Committee and other Board committees have written terms of reference approved by the Board.
3.44
Sometimes Complied
The internal auditor reports directly to the Board.
3.51
Mostly Complied
The Audit Committee meets quarterly at least once.
3.42
Sometimes Complied
There is a system of check and balance in the Executive Committee.
3.56
Mostly Complied
The President is a member of the Executive Committee.
3.72
Mostly Complied
3.38
Sometimes Complied
3.38
Sometimes Complied
3.46
Sometimes Complied
The bank has a Governance Committee, tasked with performance evaluation, nomination, remuneration, and corporate governance. The compensation structure of directors is fair and adequate in view of the duties and responsibilities assigned to the Board. It attracts and retains qualified independent directors. The compensation of directors is fully revealed to the regulatory authorities.
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(Table 5 continued) The bank discloses the philosophy and process used in determining directorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s compensation in its annual statement to all shareholders.
3.32
Sometimes Complied
3.68
Mostly Complied
The Board insists on high quality standards of auditing and compliance.
3.72
Mostly Complied
The Board has a clear, written policy on transparency and disclosure to the regulatory authorities and the general public.
3.70
Mostly Complied
The Board keeps an open communication with the regulatory authorities.
3.54
Mostly Complied
The Board insists on strict adherence to the bankâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Code of Ethics, which should guide all regulations with the bankâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s different other stakeholders and with the public.
3.70
Mostly Complied
Overall
3.53
Mostly Complied
The Board is fully committed to accurate and timely disclosure on all matters, including the financial situation, performance (both financial and nonfinancial), ownership changes, and governance of the bank.
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Table 6. T-test results on the difference in the extent of compliance with corporate governance mechanisms among rural Banks by respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sex MALE
FEMALE
Average (Mean)
Qualitative Description
Average (Mean)
Qualitative Description
3.70
Mostly Complied
3.31
Sometimes Complied
T-TEST RESULTS T Calculated value = 2.22 T Critical (table) value = 1.782 df = 12 Prob. = .046 Conclusion: T calculated value is > T critical (table) value Interpretation : Significant Decision on Ho : Rejected
As revealed in Table 6, the T-test on the difference in the extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms among the rural banks when the respondents were grouped according to sex yielded a T value of 2.22 which was greater than the T critical value of 1.782; hence, there was a significant difference in the extent of compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms among the rural banks with respect to the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sex.
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Table 7. Rural banksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; concerns and problems encountered along compliance with corporate governance mechanisms CONCERNS AND PROBLEMS
NUMBER
RANK
42
1
39
2
Lack of sufficient knowledge in finance
38
3
Incomplete and insufficient reports and data for directorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; decision-making
36
4
Diverse backgrounds of directors
31
5
Knowledge, experience and trainings of directors are not company related
29
6
Reports and other required data not given in advance of scheduled meeting
28
7
No free exchange of ideas and opinion
26
8
No clear definition of roles and responsibilities of the board of directors on one hand and management on the other
25
9
Lack of knowledge of business statutory requirements
24
10
Current and best business practices unknown to some directors Lack of time devoted to Board work
20
11
15
12
No formal strategic planning and management processes No clear understanding of the actual duties, responsibilities, accountabilities, and liabilities of the Board of Directors as a body and as individual directors
Table 7 presents the concerns and problems along compliance with corporate governance mechanisms encountered by rural banks. The major concerns pointed out by the respondents were the lack of formal strategic planning and management processes, the lack of understanding of the actual duties and responsibilities, accountabilities, and liabilities of the Board of directors, and the lack of sufficient knowledge in finance.
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conclusions 1. Majority of the respondents were males, married, managers, have earned only a bachelor’s degree, have a banking experience of 1-10 years, and have been working with the present bank for 1-10 years. 2. Majority of the rural banks included in the study are located in Misamis Oriental and closely followed by those in Misamis Occidental and Bukidnon and Lanao del Norte, are branches and corporations, were established earlier than 2000, have 1-10 branches, have 6-15 employees, had a starting capital of P500,000 and below, and have a present capital between P500,001 to P20,000,000. 3. The rural banks mostly complied with the corporate governance mechanisms in terms of the Board Chairman’s responsibilities, Board Member’s responsibilities, and Board committees and issues guidelines. The Board’s responsibilities and the board meeting guidelines were the mechanisms sometimes complied with by the rural banks. 4. The respondents revealed the following concerns and problems along compliance with the corporate governance mechanisms: no formal strategic planning and management processes; no clear understanding of the actual duties, responsiblities, accountabilities, and liabilities of the Board of Directors as a body and as individual directors; lack of sufficient knowledge in finance; incomplete and insufficient reports and data for director’s decision-making; diverse backgrounds of directors; knowledge, experiences; trainings of directors are not company related; reports and other required data are not given before the scheduled meeting; no free exhange of ideas and opinions; no clear definition of the roles and responsibilities of the board of directors on one hand, and management on the other; lack of knowledge of the business statutory requirements and current business practices; and lack of time devoted to board work. 5. The rural banks in the region are aware of the importance of corporate governance as revealed by their high extent of compliance with the established mechanisms.
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RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings, the following recommendations are presented to address those corporate governance mechanisms least complied with and the concerns and problems faced by the rural banks as they complied with those mechanisms. A. On corporate governance mechanisms least complied with 1. Mechanism: The board has a formal mechanism to search for and invite independent directors. Recommendation: Independent directors are required to be in the board. To tap a highly qualified ones, a search committee should be created to handle the work of formulating guidelines for inviting and appointing independent auditors. 2. Mechanism: The board spends much time on routine matters. Recommendation: Board members are busy people, hence, the board meetings should follow the set schedule and observe time limit for discussion. Routine matters should be tackled with minimal discussion. 3. Mechanism: The board has an occasion to meet, at least once a year, without the presence of the president. Recommendation: Some directors maybe reluctant to express their ideas in the presence of a president. To allow board members to freely discuss their ideas to be presented in the board, the board members, just among themselves, should schedule a meeting at least once a year to thoroughly and freely discuss matters to be recommended to the board. 4. Mechanism: The Board has a performance evaluation system that enables it to assess its own governance mechanisms and performance. Recommendation: Performance evaluation should be done on a continuing basis. The HR department maybe assigned to formulate a workable performance evaluation instrument and implement such once or twice a year. 5. Mechanism: The board has a performance evaluation system connected with the remuneration system for all officers that it appoints.
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Recommendation: To encourage the officers to perform better, performance evaluation should be connected with its remuneration system. Adjustments in pay should be based on performance evaluation. B. On concerns and problems along compliance with corporate governance mechanisms 1. Concern: No formal strategic planning and management processes. Recommendation: Corporate changes happen very fast. Adjustments should always be implemented to meet the demands of time. A yearly strategic planning should be held to evaluate corporate performance, to study the causes of problems, and to formulate strategies to improve corporate operations and performance. 2. Concern: No clear understanding of the actual duties, responsibilities, accountabilities, and liabilities of the Board of Directors as a body and as individual directors. Recommendation: A manual of operations should be designed to include specific functions of the board as a body as well as the specific functions of each member of the board. Board members are to be reminded of their duties, responsibilities, accountabilities, and liabilities during board meetings. 3. Concern: Lack of sufficient knowledge in finance. Recommendation: The members of the board, including the independent ones, should be assigned to the different areas of endeavor. The non-business and finance graduates should be given a regular training and orientation in accounting and financial management. Members of the board may be sent to seminars on finance. 4. Concern: Incomplete and insufficient reports and data for directorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; decision-making. Recommendation: A better way of filing and compiling data should be done to provide the members of the board with data as basis for making decisions. A databank for all government pronouncements, circulars, and economic indices should be made available to all members of the board. 5. Concern: Diverse backgrounds of directors. Recommendation: Since directors are owners, this concern 177
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cannot be eliminated. A continuing program aimed at training and re-training the directors as regards their duties, responsibilities, accountabilities, and liabilities should be developed and implemented. LITERATURE CITED BSP Circulars No. 283, Amended Manual of Regulation for Banks and Non-bank Financial Institutions on the power and authority of the Board of Director. BSP Circulars No.296 - September 2001, Amendment to the provisions of the Manual of regulation for banks and non-banks financial institution. Code of Corporate Governance for Insurance Companies and Intermediaries.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Public Policy Section
An Environmental Scanning of the IT-Enabled Business Process Outsourcing Industry in Cebu Agnes C. SequiÑo, MM agnes5sequino@gmail.com Date Submitted: August 6, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: December 14, 2008 This study focuses on the business environment of IT – enabled service companies in the business process outsourcing industry in Cebu. The result of the environmental scanning activity presents high sustainability of suppliers and being highly profitable in terms of performance, however,BPO companies should be more adept with the latest trends in providing outsourced services and be ready with the uncertainties particularly in competitor’s strategies. Government support the BPO Industry sub sectors. Government developmental plans should match with of the private sector to ensure collaboration of efforts to tap opportunities. This improves the economic situation of the country. The dominant factors affecting these businesses are socio-cultural and demographic factors, however they also highly affected by Technological factors despite the availability of infrastructure in Cebu, since most of the BPO companies are relying on the Internet access to operate. External environmental factors are perceived to vary depending upon the nature of the sub sector and the location of the business within the province. Growth of this BPO Industry can have a significant impact on employment and eventually on the purchasing power of people. However, participation of the academe is crucial in improving human capital to address the shortage of manpower pool for the industry. Keyword - Environmental scanning, business outsourcing, business environment 179
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INTRODUCTION The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) through its higher education institutions (HEIs) is mandated to produce graduates equipped with skills needed by business and industry. There is a need to offer relevant programs and quality instructions that will enable graduates to cater to the demands of a globally competitive workplace. Cebu City recently emerged as No. 1 among the Top 50 Emerging Global Outsourcing Cities list based on a study by CyberMedia’s Global Services and investment advisory firm Tholons. The study that placed Cebu on the top ranks was determined by six categories which included the scale and quality of workforce (including education), business catalyst, cost, infrastructure, risk profile and quality of life.Cebu, bested other 50 emerging outsourcing cities in the world, that include; Shanghai and Beijing in China, Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam, Krakow in Poland, Kolkata, India, and Cairo, Egypt. As a response to this new development, the CHED Zonal Research through the Department of Business and Management, University of San Jose–Recoletos, Cebu City, Philippines embarked on “An Environmental Scanning of the IT-Enabled BPO Industry in Cebu”. FRAMEWORK The IT-Enabled BPO industry or sometimes called Philippine Offshoring & Outsourcing (O&O) industry is classified into 6 major sectors. These are the Contact or Call Center, Back Office (non-voice BPO), Transcription (non-voice BPO), Animation, Software and Engineering/Design Process. Contact or Call Centers A contact or call center is a centralized office used to place or receive calls for specific customer activities. The different types of call center customer interactions are travel services, financial services, technical support, education, customer care, online business to customer support, and online business to business support. 180
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The calls handled by various Philippine call centers are classified into outbound or inbound calls. Outbound call services cover telemarketing, advisories, sales verification, credit and collection, reactivation/reinstatement of accounts, loyalty program benefits, customer services and order entry. Inbound calls cover a broad range of services from all types of inquiries, technical help, transcription, complaints, customer service support, sales, marketing and billing. Back Office (Non-Voice BPO) Back office outsourcing refers to internal business functions done outside the company. This includes HR Outsourcing and Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPO) and finance, logistics and accounting. HR outsourcing consists of human resources functions such as training, payroll processing, recruiting, employee relocation, and benefits administration. KPO services include market research and analysis, intellectual property management, and finance and accounting research. The finance, logistics and accounting transcription covers task such as accounting and bookkeeping, account maintenance, accounts receivable collection, accounts payable administration, payroll processing, asset management, financial analysis and auditing, management consulting, inventory control and purchasing, expense and revenue reporting, financial reporting, tax reporting, and other finance-related services such as financial leasing, credit card administration, factoring and stock brokering; as well as for logistics management, and cargo shipment management. Transcription (Non-Voice BPO) The major areas of transcription include medical, legall transcription. The medical transcription covers tasks such as medical reports, discharge summaries, operative reports, therapy/rehabilitation notes, chart notes, and hospital and clinic reports. The legal transcription scope of work of includes verbatim voice dictation, letters, opinions, court documents, testimony hearings, conferences and day to day business.
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Animation Computer animation services range from full 2D to 3D animation, pre-production to post-production. These include lay outing, in-betweening, clean-up, digital background production using scanning, pre-compositing, color styling, special effects, digital ink and paint application, flash animation and web design, and graphic and art design techniques. Software Development Software development may include research, new development, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities that result in software products. Engineering/Design Process Engineering/design process includes design and development of engineering products, product testing and improvement, and applied research. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The objectives of the environmental scanning are to: (1) Identify the factors affecting BPO suppliers sustainability; (2) Determine the sales performance levels of BPO companies; (3) Determine the competitors strategies employed by BPO companies; (4)Identify the support and assistance given to BPO industry by government and other institutions; (5) Identify the impact of economic, legal and political, technological and socio-cultural factors to the BPO industry; (6) Identify interventions to address challenges encountered by the BPO industry. METHODOLOGY The study used the descriptive design involving survey, focus group discussion, indepth interview, documentary analysis, and onsite inspection
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Table 1 below summarizes the total number of respondents according to major BPO sector. The total number of respondents covered in this study is 51, majority of which coming from the call centers with 16 respondents. The rest of the respondents are from the integrated BPO service with 11, computer aided design & animation with 10, legal/medical transcription with 9 and finance & administration with 5. The sample was taken from a total of 131 companies registered with DTI and Cebu Investment Promotion Center. Table 1 Respondents of the study BPO Sector Call Center Integrated BPO Service Providers Computer Aided Design & Animation Legal/Medical Transcription Finance and Administration Total
No. of Respondents
%
16 11 10 9 5 51
31.3 21.5 19.6 17.6 9.8 100.0
Aside from the BPO industry players, other key informants of the study are the government agencies and other non- government organizations. Among the government agencies are DOST, DTI, DENR, DOLE, LGU, PIA, NEDA, and TESDA. The non- government organizations that support the Cebu BPO industry are CEDFIT, BPAP and CIPC. The gathering and validation of data for this study were done through: a. Research Questionnaire and Interview The participating BPO companies were requested to fill-up a research questionnaire (refer to Annex_5_). A series of interview was also done using an interview guide. b. Focus Group Discussion A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was conducted to validate the 183
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responses to the questionnaires previously submitted. A total of 8 BPO companies participated on the said FGD held at the CEDFIT Training Room.
c. Secondary Data Generation
The sources of secondary materials are from previous studies made on the Cebu BPO industry, annual reports of government agencies and publications from the University of Asia Pacific. Relevant newspaper articles and press releases were also used for this study. Attendance in economic fora and symposia was undertaken to gather first hand information on the latest trends affecting the BPO Industry. Results and Discussion The different aspects covered by this study are: Supplier Sustainability, Sales Performance Levels, Competitors’ Strategies, Government Support and External Factors such as economic, political and legal, technological, and socio-cultural and demographic. The succeeding tables present the data taken from the Cebu BPO firm respondents. The summary of results was based on the average rating of all the respondents. The range of rating from highest to lowest is as follows: 5 – Strongly Agree; 4 – Agree; 3 – Somewhat Agree; 2 – Disagree; and 1 – Strongly Disagree. Supplier Sustainability In this particular study, supplier refers to organizations that provide human and material resources for BPO companies. Supplier sustainability is the extent in which these organizations continuously offer their products and services in order for BPO companies to achieve its objectives. Table 5 below presents the degree of suppliers’ sustainability as perceived by the representatives of the BPO firms covered in the study. An average rating for all items of 3.89 is considered a high level of sustainability. This indicates that there are not much issue concerning the supply of food, materials, manpower and other needs. 184
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Among the highest contributing factors are good relationships with BPO companies, legal and moral business activities and availability of suppliersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; workforce. Table 5. Degree of suppliersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sustainability
FACTORS
Average Rating
1
The supplier has maintained a good relationship with client company
4.14
2
The supplier is legally and morally performing economic business activities
4.06
3
The supplier has the workforce to provide timely service and goods at specified periods.
4
The supplier is responsive to changes or revisions on products and services as required by the client company
5
The supplier has the expertise and skill to provide the client company with the expected service excellence
6
3.98 3.96 3.93
The supplier is able to provide the required number of human resources according to or based on the specifications
3.89
The supplier has provided the client company with a steady flow of supply of products and outputs based on accepted standards
3.87
8
The supplier is aware of their responsibilities to society
3.83
9
The supplier provides competitive price
3.75
10 11
The supplier provides incentives to regular clients
3.74
7
The supplier has the capability to continuously serve the client company with the required volume of products/service Average Rating for all items
3.64 3.89
A closer look at the items on the lower levels which might be the source of potential problems for the BPO industry was made through follow- up interviews with the respondents. 185
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Some respondents state minor concerns on the following areas: deteriorating quality of deliverables for continuous orders, delays in delivery of materials, mismatch in the provision of manpower competencies with requirements. Other respondents indicated problems encountered that were addressed by their respective companies. Among which are: Manpower incompatibilities – additional training on personnel weak areas were provided; and shortage of supply for raw materials – canvass for other vendors to become suppliers. As regards manpower supply, the BPAP Chief Executive Officer stated that Cebu is far from saturation point due to the following factors: Over 18,000 college graduates annually; Abundant pool from O&O critical courses i.e. Business(8,000+), Engineering and IT(5,600+), Math and Sciences (2,800+), Fine Arts (83), Medical services (2,800); Major schools such as USC, USJ-R are Centers of Excellence for Business and have partnerships with the BPO industry; and can attract workers from Visayas and Mindanao provinces. Some of the major material resources suppliers are: Hewlett Packard – provides commercial products such as notebooks and desktops for call centers; and HP Solutions Center – provides IT infrastructure and solutions to call centers and animation. Sales Performance Levels of IT–Enabled BPO Firms BPO customers expect high level of quality, low cost and on time delivery of results. The sales performance level of BPO companies is a manifestation of the capability to provide excellent services to their clients. In this study, the respondents were requested to compare 2007 and 2008 revenue in order to come up with the sales performance levels. Figure 1 summarizes the percentage increase in revenues of BPO companies. Some 34% of the BPO respondents have increased revenues from 20% to 40%. This uptrend in revenues implies the high level of customer satisfaction for outsourced services.
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Competitorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Strategies BPO firms formulate and implement strategies to offer updated services and products that will exceed customersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; expectations. These strategies are implemented at the organization, business unit and functional levels. Overall survey results tabulated in Table 6 below shows the top 5 competitors strategies are: Growth strategies, Strategic alliances among competing companies, Restructuring for improved performance and efficiency, E-business strategy and Diversification of operations in different areas. The survey indicates that the lesser strategies that BPO companies will resort to are: Downsizing and Divestiture. Interviews revealed that BPO companies: are dependent on internet access for its operations which is an e-business strategy; provide the best possible compensation and benefits to employees in order to retain qualified people and not lose them to competitors abroad; and experience local competition in hiring the most qualified manpower pool Table 6. Competitorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; strategies
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(Table 6 continued)
Government and Non-Government Support Various government agencies from the national to the local level have provided assistance to BPO industry that allowed them to explore opportunities for growth. Figure 2 presents a summary of government support experienced by BPO respondents. The ranking of government assistance according to percentages based on total respondents are as follows: • 93% from DTI • 64% from TESDA • 50% from DOLE • 33% from NEDA • 31% from DOST • 31% from PIA • 29% from DILG Government assistance to BPO companies is classified into: Technical, Marketing, Logistics, Training, Financial and others. Figure 3 shows a comparative summary of support from the different government agencies. 1. DTI – provides mostly marketing and technical support with some training, logistics and other assistance. Aside from these, DTI through NERBAC offers a one-stop business registration and 188
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licensing which facilitates processing and documentation of all requirements for establishing business enterprises. 2. TESDA – provides mostly training and technical support with some logistics, marketing and other assistance. It offers necessary exposure and accreditation to allow more people to fill in the gap brought about by the demand for more skilled workers to handle specific tasks. 3. DOLE – provides mostly training and marketing support with technical, logistics, financial and other assistance. Specifically, this government agency assists the BPO industry in social protection, registration of legal workers, information dissemination and linkages with other agencies (especially funding organizations). 4. NEDA - provides technical, marketing, logistics training and financial assistance (through linkages with financial institutions). Specific support to BPO industry includes providing relevant macroeconomic figures and economic situationers to come up with workable strategies. NEDA also assists other agencies and LGUs in the planning and review of programs to hasten implementation of government services to the business sector. 5. DOST – provides training, marketing, technical, logistics and other assistance. This government agency implements Small Enterprise Technology Upgrading Program (SETUP) that assists SMEs in technology transfer for facilities upgrading and be more globally competitive. 6. PIA - provides training, marketing, technical, logistics and other assistance. Specifically, this agency promotes programs and hold dialogues to discuss and clarify issues concerning the different sectors of society. Type of Government Assistance Provided to BPO Firms 1. Cebu Investment Promotions Center (CIPC) – conducts trade missions on the different parts of the globe. It provides initial negotiations with investors prior to setting up of businesses in Cebu. 189
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2. Business Process Association of the Philippines (BPAP) – provides the following initiatives to sustain a continuous supply of talents for the Philippine BPO industry. • Develop a comprehensive assessment and training program to help improve suitability of talent for the industry • Develop standard competency tests • Improve training programs for near-hires and middle management • Develop training programs for faculty and trainers • Increase awareness of O&O among potential applicants • Help create the right environment for industry growth 3. Cebu Educational Development Foundation for Information Technology (CEDFIT) – provides proactive intervention to bridge the gap between the industry and the academe. The focus is on Human Resource development with the right quality and quantity to serve both low value-added as well as the high value-added BPO operations. External Factors affecting the BPO Industry The external factors affecting the BPO industry constitute important aspect of this study to spot emerging trends that may either be source of threats or opportunities. These factors were subdivided into Economic, Legal and Political, Technological and Socio-Cultural. 1. Economic Factors Table 7 presents the Economic Factors affecting the Cebu BPO Industry. The average rating for all factors at 3.15 indicates the moderate effect of economic factors to the business. Among the factors that generate a slightly high level impact are inflation; growth of economy; current income, prices, savings, debt and credit availability; and rising economic power.
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Table 7. Economic factors affecting the BPO industry
In the interview conducted, the impact of the economic factors to the BPO business operations was supported by 2 types of viewpoints, those who considered these economic factors ---- 1) as an opportunity and 2) both as an opportunity and threat 1. Comments for those who regarded the economic factors as an opportunity cited that: â&#x20AC;˘ Growth of the European and US economies are considered an opportunity since more outsourced services will be needed thereby giving hints to explore untapped markets and shift to other target markets â&#x20AC;˘ The company is capable of exploring the opportunities particularly the rate of growth of the economy driven by the coming in of more call centers which are in need of ready supply of qualified manpower â&#x20AC;˘ Considered as major sources of opportunity. The existence of new markets would be of great help. There are no threats perceived as long as there is a system and a good set of strategies 191
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2. Comments from those who regarded the economic factors as both an opportunity and threat stated that: • The emergence of China as a new market is a direct threat, however the growth of global brands creates opportunities. • Affected by growth of the US economy as it is considered both as opportunity and threat i.e. an opportunity because, when dollar rate is higher, billing rate goes down, so customers are happy but it becomes a threat because when the dollar rate is down, billing rate goes high which is bad for business • The new labor force has seen the BPO Industry as a way to earn better wages, thus allowing increases in the buying power. However, the downside is the lack of career planning. The tendency is to jump to the highest bidder which has become a problem. This has been addressed by educating the workforce on a deeper understanding and how to plan their careers for sustainable industry growth • More concerned with the economic situations of the countries they serve rather than the country’s economy 2.
Legal and Political Factors
There are legal and political factors that concern BPO firms. One of these is the capability of the local and the national government to implement programs and projects that will enhance the marketability of services to global prospective clients. Another factor is the red tape involve when BPO firms apply for permits and certifications from different government agencies. Table 8 presents the legal and political factors affecting the BPO industry. An average rating of 2.95 for all factors indicates that respondents were moderately affected by these legal and political factors. Among the factors that highly affected the BPO firms were: changes in tax laws; world oil, currency and labor markets; and import/export regulations.
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Table 8. Legal and political factors affecting the BPO industry
Responses to clarifications on the legal and political implications to the BPO industry are as follows: • Changes in tax laws and special tariffs are considered a threat. Any change in government regulations and policies would have a great impact to organization planning and implementation • Foreigners operating business here have to remain apolitical. There is a need to be careful with media exposure on the peace and order situation in the Philippines. This is to assure clients from other countries that the company will be able to consistently provide the needed services. • There is just too much red tape in the government. Had there been enough support from the government on the application of automated systems in their services, it could have hastened the delivery of services. • There must be a sense of urgency on the implementation of plans and programs of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) to respond to the needs of the industry. If they exist 193
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to assist the academe in the accreditation of programs, it has to be within a time frame that these programs are going to be needed and not after it has become obsolete and useful for the industry. • Greatly affected by legal and political factors in providing manpower services. This includes conformance to the provisions on labor standards, clearance requirements to participate in private or public bidding and no pending cases with DOLE and NLRC. • There is a need for a deeper understanding of the regulatory, human resource (HR) and infrastructure environment. The major concern on HR is a better talent pool and educational system. • Still hopeful that the Philippines is heading towards the capability to provide the needed infrastructure, considered as one of the priority areas by the government 3. Technological Factors Table 9 presents the Technological factors affecting the Cebu BPO industry. The average rating for all technological factors at 4.04 indicates that the respondent companies have been affected to a great extent. Among the factors that largely influence this rating Table 9. Technological factors affecting the BPO industry
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are: availability of technological resources, degree of technological change, current trends and changes in technology and level and rate of technological investments. 4. Socio–Cultural Factors Table 10 presents the Socio–cultural and Demographic Factors affecting the BPO Industry. An average rating for all factors of 3.44 indicates that these factors affected the respondents to a great extent. The factors that highly affected the respondents are traffic congestion, waste management, view towards risk taking, attitude towards careers, pollution, attitude towards customer service, skills and competencies of workforce, attitude towards business and levels of education. Respondents elaborated that the new hires lack the capability to perform assigned tasks resulting to high training costs which led them to mention that programs offered by the academe does not match the needs of the industry. Customs and traditions such as fiesta celebrations affect the attendance of employees and disrupt the workflow of BPO business organizations. Table 10. Socio–cultural and demographic factors affecting the BPO industry
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(Table 10 continued)
Conclusions and Recommendations Based on the findings it can be noted that high sustainability of suppliers indicates the suppliers’ capability to be sensitive to the customer’s demand. A few problems were met by the respondents however these were deemed insignificant. IT –enabled service providers in the BPO perceive their performance levels as increasing by mostly 20 – 40 % and was deemed acceptable in terms of customer’s satisfaction. The IT – enabled service providers in the BPO Industry are aware of their competitor’s strategies and are likely to adapt if not outperform them in terms of providing the best products and services. As service providers, DTI as an agency has provided the BPOs the highest volume of government assistance. Depending on the segment of the industry, there are differences in the factors that affect the way the respondent companies are affected by the varied external environmental factors which are fast changing. The macro environmental factors that highly affected the operations of the the IT – enabled service providers in the BPO Industry are the socio- cultural factors particularly, the worker’s attitude towards work and career, levels of education, attitude towards risk taking and the skill and competencies of workers. Moreover, these service providers are very highly affected by availability of technological resources. These factors vary depending upon the differences in organizational culture and also of the 196
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government support in terms of improving infrastructure and the capability of the host country to cope with industry requirements particularly in upgrading technology and improving the human capital. The Cebu Educational Development Foundation for Information Technology (CEDFIT) and the Business Processing Association of the Philippines (BPAP) as non government organizations providing assistance to the IT- enabled service providers have played a great role not only in enhancing the skills of IT professionals through the trainings conducted but have immensely contributed to the growth of the industry in the country. Through the initiatives, programs and projects undertaken by these organizations to promote the country’s capability to be the IT hub in Asia, not only were we recognized as a major competitor to India but as one if not the most attractive outsourcing destinations in the world. Based on the preceding sections, there is a great potential for the Cebu BPO industry that will translate into US$2.4B in revenues and 140 thousand employees by 2010. This opportunity is based on the following: • Investments have remained high • Emergence of new global market • Existing BPO companies have expanded operations or have expansion plans • Availability of IT Parks and property development that caters to O&O industry requirements • World-class Telco infrastructure • Abundant pool of personnel supply from Visayas and Mindanao provinces taking up O&O related courses The economic impact of this business not only to Cebu but to the entire Philippines cannot be overlooked. Thus, there is a need for strong linkages with BPO firms to support the Cebu BPO industry’s sustainability and growth. A. CHED’s Role in the BPO Industry For CHED, this project is an initial step to determine the areas of support in collaboration with the Cebu BPO industry. The most evident of which is to address personnel qualifications to generate a ready supply of personnel pool that will match the BPO industry 197
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competencies. As indicated in the previous sections, the personnel demand for Cebu BPO industry is in the field of: • • • • • •
call centers HR and knowledge process outsourcing (KPO) medical, legal, and finance/logistics/accounting transcription computer animation software development engineering/design process
Based on these personnel demand, CHED needs to focus programs on: 1. Verbal and written language proficiency in English and other languages as well which serves as basic requirement for the BPO industry. Proper communication skills have to be included such as e-technology etiquette, appropriate use of words and tone of voice. 2. Upgrading of business-related courses to support back-office operations to include hands- on in human resources functions and basic skills in accounting and finance administration. 3. Enhancement of competencies in market research and analysis, business planning, technical writing, and intellectual property management to support KPO services. 4. Improvement of colleges and university facilities that will allow hands- on experience on transcription services on different areas of study. 5. E-commerce solution application of fine arts, engineering and information technology courses 6. Entrepreneurship and behavioral skills of students that will help them manage responsibly their careers, lifestyles and personal finances once they become BPO practitioners Aside from these programs, CHED has to closely collaborate with Cebu BPO experts on curriculum development based on the needs of the industry. Tertiary level faculty need to undertake BPO immersion programs in order to fully understand and experience the intricacies of the industry. At the same time, professionals on particular BPO sector can be sought as resource consultants or career mentors. The rapid changes in technology have immediate effects on 198
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Cebu BPO industry, thus the need for CHED to implement these programs at the soonest possible time. B. Other Areas of Support and Collaboration with the BPO Industry Despite the numerous opportunities for the Cebu BPO industry in the global market, there are some challenges that need to be addressed. Among which are the: 1. Careful consideration of BPO industry human and material suppliers on the completeness, quality and on-time delivery of their products and services. This will ensure available materials and compatible personnel complement to the BPO companies. 2. Close collaboration among BPO companies, existing and prospective suppliers for mutually beneficial business relationships. This may be in terms of service performance enhancement and updates on technology trends. 3. Planning out of strategic measures by BPO companies to counter uncertainties on external economic environmental and global competitiveness. 4. For BPO companies to work on quality certification and to ensure data security and international property protection 5. Responsible media exposure on political environment so as not to alarm existing and prospective customers of BPO companies. This is also one of the major considerations of BPO investors. 6. Information dissemination to educate people on the different BPO services to broaden their views on career and entrepreneur opportunities available in the BPO industry 7. Collaboration among government, non-government organizations, educational institutions and other companies on improvement of human capital policies. This will allow continuous development of human capital. 8. Alignment of government developmental plans with that of the BPO industry to ensure collaborative efforts in tapping opportunities. Other areas for consideration are improvement of government system transactions and regular updates on government support to the BPO industry. 9. Continue promotion of Cebuâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capability as an IT hub and as one of the most attractive outsourcing destinations in the world. 199
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Acknowledgments This CHED GIA funded study was a truly collaborative effort. Led by the University of San Jose - Recoletos, the process commenced in March 2008. Dr Victorina Zosa,then the Director of the CHED Zonal Research Center in Region 7 gave the go signal to the researcher having been given the approval from the Commission on Higher Education in Manila represented by Secretary Romulo Neri. It was followed through by the incumbent Director,CHED Zonal Research Center at USC, Dr. Elizabeth Remedio when she took over in June 2008. Rev. Fr. Anthony A. Morillo, President , University of San Jose â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Recoletos and Rev. Fr. Roderick Salazar, President of the University of San Carlos signed the contract allowing the project to be undertaken by the researcher. Rev. Fr. Ferdinand Fornilos, Vice President for Academics, USJ-R gave the permission for subject deloading. Dr. Audrey Barbara Bucad, Director of the Human Resource Management Office, USJ-R prepared the MOA between the researcher and the university. Dr. Ferdinand Y. Tomakin, Director of the Center for Research and Development , USJR offered his support to oversee the whole project. Mr. Wilson Ng, CEO and President of the Ng Khai Group of Companies and Mr. Bonifacio Belen, Executive Director, Cebu Educational Development Foundation for Information Technology served as consultants. Special gratitude is credited to Mr. Belen for assisting the researcher not only as consultant but also in the data gathering by allowing the CEDFIT secretary to email the questionnaires to the IT companies involved in the study. Hard copies of questionnaires were also personally distributed by student assistants Farah Fawzia Zarooq, Giselle Cero, Sheena Hijastro and Willly Delute to firms who failed to respond through the email. Miss Violeta Viajar, manager of VLV Travel and Tours coordinated with firms involved after the research instruments were distributed facilitated the follow up interviews conducted by the researcher. 200
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Literature Cited Escandor Madeleine. (2007). NEDA . Sunstar Economic Forum GTZ-SMEDSEP. (2004). ”Subsector Analysis of the Information Technology Industry in Cebu” Kinieki, Angelo and Williams, Brian K. (2003). Management A Practical Introduction. Mc Grow-Hill N.Y. Kotler, P., Hay, S. Hoon, L. S. Meap, Tan and C. Tiong (2003). Marketing Mgt. An Asian Perspective. Prentice Hall Longnecker, Moore and Petty. (1997). Small Business Mgt. Manopol, Erlinda T. and Leunies, Joseph V. (1995). Small Business Institutes in the Philippines and Their Role in Economic Development St. Louis University – Extension Institute for Small Scale Ind. Foundation Baguio City Profile, Cebu Educational Foundation for IT (CEDF-IT) Ramonette B. Serafica Ph.D. Information and Communications Technology Industry Tan, Edward C.(2000). Lessons From Filipino SME Exporters. Miracle Publishing’s Corp. Tan, Edward C. (2002). Lessons From Filipino SME Exporters. Miracle Publishing’s Corp.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064
Liceo Journal of HigherJournal, Education Research CHED Accredited Research Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Public Policy Section
Microfinancing Program of City Social Welfare and Development Office: Integrated Development of Beneficiaries in Butuan City EMILIANA J. LOZANO, DBA lozano_emiliana@yahoo.com Father Saturnino Urios University Date Submitted: June 3, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: October 7, 2008 Abstract – The study determined the impact of microfinancing program of the City Social Welfare and Development Office of Butuan City, Philippines on the beneficiaries’ social, economic, political, and spiritual development. The data were collected from randomly sampled beneficiaries and purposively sampled CSWD employees using a researcher-made questionnaire. As reported, the CSWD microfinancing program improved the beneficiaries’ social, economic, political and spiritual development after availing of the microfinance program. As such, it is recommended that the financial assistance should be increased and that the mode of payment should be modified to maximize gain and sustain the beneficiaries’ project. Key words – Micro-financing program, beneficiaries impact, spiritual development
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INTRODUCTION Poverty alleviation has become the object of unparalleled concentration nowadays not only in the Philippines but also in other countries. Many communities particularly in the third world countries come to realize that no matter how depressed they are, they have their own internal resources that can be tapped for their development. Instead of habitually depending on external resources to facilitate development, most residents of these areas resort to the full use of indigenous means leading to community development. One of the strategies most commonly adopted is borrowings. Microfinance has been proven to be an effective and powerful tool for mitigating privation. Verified in a number of studies, it has been noted that the very poor can improve their socio-economic conditions without endangering the financial sustainability of the microfinance institutions. In the Philippines, the National Anti-Poverty Commission (NAPC) was established in June 1998 to oversee the implementation of microfinance as the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s national strategy for delivering financial services to the poor. A wholesale funding mechanism, the Peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Credit and Finance Corporation (PCFC) was established by virtue of Memorandum Order 261 & Administrative Order No. 148. Republic Act 8425 of 1998 or the Social Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act further strengthened the role of PCFC as the lead government entity specifically designed to mobilize resources for microfinance services for the exclusive use of the poor. However, for areas without microfinance conduits, the government makes use of the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) as conduits to provide financial services to new borrowers, considering that all towns have DSWDs. It is the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goal to develop three million entrepreneurs from 2004 to 2010 through microfinancing because by doing so six to ten million jobs would be created within the next six years. This is the reason why the government entered as a source of funding to fast track performance, thereby alleviating poverty. Considering the pursuit of national development objectives, 203
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the researcher finds it more relevant to study the impact of microfinancing on the lives of the beneficiaries. Microfinancing has been identified as the cornerstone strategy of the government to fight against poverty, but development was anchored on social and economic aspects only. This study included political and spiritual developments to postulate total human development. Findings thereof could be used as inputs in realigning national policies for the success of microfinancing program in the Philippines. FRAMEWORK This study is anchored on the theory advocated by Robinson who stated that “if it were widely available, institutional commercial microfinance could improve the economic activities and the quality of life of hundreds of millions of people in the developing world”. Microfinance can be a critical element of effective poverty reduction strategy. Improved access and efficient provision of savings, credit, and insurance facilities in particular can enable the poor to smoothen their consumption, manage their risks better, build their assets gradually, develop their micro-enterprises, enhance their income – earning capacity and enjoy an improved quality of life (Robinson, 2001). The microfinance industry is undergoing significant global change. Shareholder-owned, regulated microfinance institutions that provide a wide range of financial services to poor and low income households and their micro enterprises were not a general characteristic of this industry until the late 1980’s. Microfinance, or microcredit to be more accurate, was largely an operation of nongovernment organizations (NGO’s) and state-sponsored programs (Linden, 2004). This change has taken place since the last two decades, mainly through transformation of NGO’s into regulated microfinance institutions in various countries, particularly in Asia and Latin America. The researcher of such institutions remains low but their catalytic effect and overall influence on the industry are disproportionately high relative to their position in the industry. In some countries, transformed institutions have performed
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much better than conventional financial institutions both in terms of profitability and outreach. Many of these institutions have established themselves as robust, permanent financial institutions with a social mission to serve the poor (Conroy, 2003). Microfinancing in the Philippines has its own history. In 1994, the National Credit Council (NCC) was established with the objective of rationalizing government lending programs and developing a national credit delivery system capable of addressing issues of poverty. The council’s focus has been exclusively on small credit and micro-credit and one early task was for it to draft and disseminate a set of guidelines, ‘Policy Guidelines for Credit for the Poor”, for government agencies undertaking lending programs (http://www.napc.gov.ph). In 1997, the NCC published a “National Strategy for Microfinance”. It proposed that government line agencies should withdraw from the implementation of credit and guarantee programs in favor of specialized lending agencies (McGuire et al., 1998). This recommendation was taken up in a law signed in August 1999 which provided for the phase out of all subsidized credit programs in the agriculture sector over a four-year span. An Executive Order (No. 138 of 1999) also required government nonfinancial agencies to terminate all non-agricultural credit programs and transfer their funding to government financial institutions. However, Llanto (2001) notes that despite the support of the Central Bank and the Finance Ministry for this policy, in practice government institutions have yet to comply fully and credit subsidiaries persist in some government agencies. In June 1998, the National Anti-Poverty Commission was established to oversee the implementation of microfinance as the country’s national strategy for delivering financial services to the poor. The funding for microfinance was handled by the Presidential Task Force chaired by the Presidential Commission to Fight Poverty. A wholesale funding mechanism, the People’s Credit and Finance Corporation (PCFC), was established. The Land Bank of the Philippines allotted P100 million ($1,934,610) from the National Livelihood Support Fund as equity for PCFC. In 1996, the Asia Development Bank provided a loan of $34.7 million for the lending operations of PCFC to supplement its limited capitalization. Other 205
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financial institutions that provided loans to PCFC include the United Coconut Planters Bank â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Coconut Industry Investment Fund and Small Business Guarantee and Finance Corporation (http://www.pcfc.gov.ph). In her 2001 State of the Nation Address, President Arroyo mentioned microfinance as the cornerstone strategy of the governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fight against poverty. She said the target is to reach 1 million women as beneficiaries of microfinance, to be broken down into annual outreach of 300,000 new women borrowers. The target number increased to 500,000 clients by the year 2004 to 2005, a 66 percent increase from the original. To date, there are already 2 million beneficiaries of microfinancing from government financial institutions alone with P24 billion ($464,306,442 at $1:P51.69) released for small loans (http://www.op.gov.ph/speeches). In 2005, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo through Proclamation No. 719 declared 2005 as the Year of Microfinance in the Philippines. This is in observance of the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 53/197 of December 15, 1998, proclaiming 2005 as the International Year of Micro-credit and requesting all governments, bilateral and multilateral organizations, the UN system and other stakeholders to promote microfinance programs in all countries, particularly developing countries (http://www. globalization101.org/index.ph). OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The study has the following objectives: (1) to determine the impact of microfinancing on the lives of the beneficiaries of the City Social Welfare and Development Office of Butuan City in terms of the four aspects of development: social, economic, political and spiritual. (2) to measure the level of adequacy and effectiveness to which the microfinance program was implemented along the areas of information, education and communication (IEC), savings mobilization, capability building and microlending. METHODOLOGY The descriptive survey method was utilized in this study. 206
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Researcher- made questionnaire was used and verified by unstructured interviews. Random sampling using the lottery method was used to select the CSWD beneficiaries who either active or inactive with the program. Only those who were five years with the program and in the second level of the progression ladder were included in the listing for the drawing of lots. To get the sample size, the Slovin Formula was used. CSWD employees, who were directly involved in the microfinancing program taken as respondents, who were purposively sampled. Table 1 presents the profile of the respondents. Table 1. Profile of the Respondents n=102 Category
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
CSWD employees
11
10
Beneficiaries
91
90
102
100
Total
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Degree of Development This study determined the degree of social, economic, political and spiritual development experienced by the beneficiaries of microfinance before and after joining the program. Social development was measured in terms of increases in quality of life, self-confidence and social relations. Economic development was measured in terms of improvement in household economy, increases in business growth, business activity, and business sustainability. Political development was measured in terms of increases in political awareness and political participation. Spiritual development was measured in terms of improvement in 207
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the application of moral values, increases in freedom and hope, and abstract and personal ministry. As shown on Table 2, the qualitative equivalents of the beneficiariesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ratings for quality of life specifically basic needs, education and health remained the same as before and after joining the microfinance programs. Interview with the respondentbeneficiaries reveals that before they joined the microfinance programs, they had been tilling their farms and had been operating small buy- and-sell businesses that provided them income enough to meet the familyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s basic needs that include the education of their children and health maintenance of the entire family. Table 2. Summarized data on the degree of social development experienced before and after joining the microfinance program n=91 Indicators
Before Joining
After Joining Mean Int
Difference
Mean
Int
1.1. Basic Needs 1.2. Education 1.3. Health 1.4. Amenities 1.5. Rest and Recreation Overall Mean A.2. Self-confidence
2.95 3.69 3.74 2.52 2.36
MH H H L L
3.46 4.11 3.96 2.64 2.70
H H H MH MH
0.51 0.42 0.22 0.12 0.34
3.05
MH
3.37
MH
0.32
3.73
H
4.01
H
0.28
A.3. Social Relations
4.07
H
4.34
VH
0.27
3.62
H
3.91
H
0.29
A.1. Quality of Life
Grand Mean
Legend: MH - Moderately High H - High L - Low However, the quality of life in terms of amenities and rest and recreation moderately increased after availing of the microfinance program. Through microfinancing, they were able to buy some appliances such as radio and/or CD player, to shop for other needs, and to dine at national food chains. Their self-confidence remained high before and after availing of the microfinance programs. Interview discloses that the 208
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respondents had already attended a lot of trainings and seminars conducted by different agencies and religious sects before the microfinance programs were introduced. As indicated in item A.2.2.5, the respondents have been participately in community activities before and after availing of the microfinance program. Availing of the microfinance program, their social relations increased even more, from high to very high. Such increase could be attributed the two months social preparation. Table 3 shows the summary of the beneficiariesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ratings on the degree of economic development. As revealed, the economic development of the beneficiaries of microfinance remained moderately high. Table 3 summarized data on the degree of economic development n=91 Indicators
Before Joining
After Joining
Difference
Mean
Int
Mean
Int
B.1. Household Economy
3.11
MH
3.31
MH
0.20
B.2. Business Growth
2.31
L
2.76
MH
0.45
B.3. Business Activity
2.55
L
2.82
MH
0.27
B.4. Business Sustainability
3.27
MH
3.58
H
0.31
2.81
MH
3.12
MH
0.31
Grand Mean
It was found during the interview that the beneficiaries did hope for subsequent releases for a steady capital considering their timely loan payments. What was rolled posted minimal gains not enough to make the business grow. Follow-up interview with the CSWD staff reveals that the capital for microfinance in 2002 was only minimal. Hence, instead of giving subsequent releases to the old beneficiaries, the financing was appropriated to other groups of clients to give them the chance to avail of the program. Table 4 shows the summary of the beneficiariesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ratings on the degree of political development experienced before and after availing the microfinance program. The very minimal numerical increase in the rating indicates no significant change in their political after availing of the microfinance program. Interview with the beneficiaries discloses that they were already politically 209
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involved before availing of the microfinance program. Table 5 shows the summary of the beneficiaries’ ratings on the degree of spiritual development experienced before and after availing of the microfinance program. As shown, the ratings increased even more, from high to very high. Interview with the beneficiaries discloses that the seminar that included value formation and biblical thoughts helped them grow more spiritually. The seminar reinforced their learnings obtained from their respective churches and religious organization like Gagmay’ng Kristohanong Katilingban and Couples for Christ to which many of them belong. Table 4 Summarized data on the degree of political development n=91 Before Joining
Indicators C.1. Political Awareness C.2. Political Participation Grand Mean
After Joining
Difference
Mean
Int
Mean
Int
3.88
H
4.02
H
0.14
3.66
H
3.97
H
0.31
3.77
H
3.99
H
0.22
Table 5 Summarized data on the degree of spiritual development n=91
Indicators
D.1. Application of Moral Values D.2. Freedom and Hope D.3. Abstract and Personal Ministry Grand Mean
Before Joining
After Joining
Difference
Mean
Int
Mean
Int
4.17
H
4.39
VH
0.22
4.32
VH
4.52
VH
0.20
3.98
H
4.08
H
0.10
4.16
H
4.33
VH
0.17
Table 6 shows the beneficiaries’ overall rating on the four aspects of development. Microfinancing did not have significant impact of the respondents’ social, economic, and political development. However, the respondents experienced a significant change in their spiritual development. 210
Microfinancing Program of City Social Welfare and Development Office: Integrated Development of Beneficiaries in Butuan City
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Table 6 Summarized data on the development n=91 Indicators
A. Social Development B. Economic Development C. Political Development D. Spiritual Development Grand Mean
Before Joining
After Joining
Difference
Mean
Int
Mean
Int
3.62
H
3.91
H
0.29
2.81
MH
3.12
MH
0.31
3.77
H
3.99
H
0.22
4.16
H
4.33
VH
0.17
3.59
H
3.84
H
0.25
The beneficiaries were mostly farmers with low income. They considered microfinance as a means of alleviating their parents. However, the income generated from the meager microfinancial capital for other clients to use capital ranging from P700.00 to P2, 000.00 failed to alleviate poverty. The loaned capital was returned to the CSWD as scheduled. The practice is good since it protects the program. But the farmers are deprived of the opportunity to roll the money for added profit. Operation of the project gradually slowed down and the only means of rescue was the next loan release. However, due to limited funds of the City Government, succeeding releases were suspended. The beneficiaries also disclosed that they experienced marketing problem because they ventured to prototype projects. Only those with existing projects continued to operate the project, but not on its normal course because of limited capitalization. Results of t-tests show that the micro-financing program of the CSWD improved significantly the beneficiariesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; social, economic, political and spiritual development. CONCLUSION In the context of the findings of the study, it is concluded that the microfinance programs of CSWD have resulted in showing important changes in the social, economic, spiritual, and political well-being of the beneficiaries.
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LITERATURE CITED Arguelles, v. M. (1996). Grameen Banking in the Philippines. Makati City, Philippines: Development Bank of the Philippines. Conroy, J. D. (2003). The Challenges of Micro-financing in Southeast Asia. Singapore Institute of Development Studies. Credit for the Poor (2000). Philippine Central Bank Encourages NGOs to Reinvent Themselves as Banker. 29: 7-8, December. CSWD. “Policies and Guidelines on Self-Employment Assistance (SEA) Livelihood Program”, Butuan City. Diaz, D. (2004). Poverty Theories. Manila, Phils: National Book Store, Inc. Fernando, Nimal A. (2004) Micro Success Story.Manila: Asian Development Bank. Getaneh, G. (2004). “Microfinance Development: Can Impact on Poverty and Food Security Be Improved Upon? Paper Presented at the International Conference on Microfinance Development in Ethiopia Organized by AEMFI, Awassa, Ethiopia. Getaneh, G. (1999). “Measurements and Determinants of Rural Poverty: A Comparative Analysis of Three Villages”, M.Sc Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis, Ababa. Geducos, V. R. (2004). “Microfinance and the Development of Women Beneficiaries of Hagdan sa Pag-uswag Foundation Inc. (HSPFI) in Misamis Oriental and Bukidnon: A Basis for Program Enhancement”, Unpublished Dissertation, Liceo de Cagayan University. Gushee, D. P. (2000). Empowering the Poor: Toward a Just and Caring Economy. Grand Rapids, U.K., Baker Books. Khandker, Shahidure. “Micro-credit Program Evaluation: A Critical Review”, IDS Bulletin: Micro-credit Impact, Targetting and Sustainability; Vol. 29, No. 4, October 1998. Leitmann, J. (1994). Rapid Urban Environmental Assessment Lessons From Cities in the Developing World. United Nations Development Programme. Llanto, G. M. (2000). “The Philippines” in ADB. The Role of Central Banks in Microfinance in Asia and Pacific”, Volume 2 (Country Studies). Manila: Philippine Institute for Development Studies. 212
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Llanto, G. M. (2001). â&#x20AC;&#x153;Sustained Rural Finance Policy and Design Issueâ&#x20AC;?, in Policy Notes, No. 4/2001. Manila: Philippine Institute for Development Studies. OIKOCREDIT Impact Assessment Workshop OIKIOCREDIT Philippines Foundation, Inc., Lecture Paper Imperial Palace Hotel, T. Morato St., Quezon City, August 16-19, 2004. Opportunity International (OI) Quarterly Edition, 1st Quarter-2004, Chicago, USA. Robinson, M. S. (2003). International Development. New York: McGraw Hill Boo. Robinson, M. The Microfinance Revolution: Sustainable Finance for the Poor. Washington BC: World Bank, (2001). White, V. and A. Campion (2002). The Commercialization of Microfinance; Balancing Business and Development. Connecticut: Kumarian Press. World Bank. A (1996). Strategy to Fight Poverty: The Philippines. Washington Dc: The World Bank.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Category B Liceo Journal ofResearch Higher Journal, Education Research
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Public Policy Section
The Safer River, Life Saver Projects of Liceo de Cagayan University: Their Impact on the Cagayan de Oro River ROSALINA S. HUERBANA, DM rosehuerbana@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University
Date Submitted: August 6, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: December 14, 2008 Abstract - The study determined the environmental impact on the Cagayan de Oro River of the environmental projects as assessed by the 17 river barangay communities of Cagayan de Oro City, the local officials of the government, the Local Government Units (LGUs) and the various agencies of the government. The projects assessed were dredging, aqua-culture, tree planting, and clean â&#x20AC;&#x201C; up drive. These projects obtained very satisfactory assessment. This assessment indicates the projectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; positive environmental impact on the Cagayan de Oro River. Ensuring the full implementation and success of the projects is the active involvement of the river barangays. The participation of the various institutions in the different environmental projects clearly shows that Cagayan de Oro City has on its top agenda the preservation and protection of the Cagayan de Oro River. Vital to the sustainability of the projects are networking and people empowerment. Keywords - Community assessment, river rehabilitation, environmental impact
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The Safer River, Life Saver Projects of Liceo de Cagayan University: Their Impact on the Cagayan de Oro River
R.S. Huerbana
Introduction Cagayan de Oro City is the regional capital of Region 10 (Northern Mindanao). Among its most noticeable natural endowment is the Cagayan de Oro River, the river being strategically located in the middle of the city and serving the natural division between the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s two legislative districts. However, the Cagayan de Oro River, despite being a major freshwater resource, has been continuously fast-becoming a sink for industrial, commercial, and household wastes that are drained into the river system by industrial, economic, and domestic activities that occur upstream and along the riverbanks all the way towards the estuary. The indiscriminate discharge of wastes into the river not only endangers this freshwater ecosystem and its aquatic resources but also puts at risk the lives of the riverside residents who depend on the river for various activities like sustenance livelihood through small-scale fishing and small-scale mining, alternative transportation route, and other domestic usage such as bathing and laundering. The pursuit of a more unified rehabilitation and conservation management is expected to help abate the riverâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degradation and help assist its regeneration into a more useful and sustainable freshwater resource for the benefit of the riverside residents in particular and the City as a whole. It will also help enhance the regionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s attraction as center of commerce, finance, education, and tourism in this part of the country. Cagayan de Oro River is one of the major rivers of Region 10 (Northern Mindanao). Its watershed covers an area of 114,499 hectares and includes the upstream municipalities of Talakag, Baungon, Libona in the Province of Bukidnon, and the 16 downstream barangays along the Cagayan de Oro River. The Cagayan de Oro river basin, meanwhile, measures 1,521 square kilometers. The major watershed divisions include the Bubunawan, Batang, Kalawig-Pigsag-an, Sumalawan, Tagiti, and Tumalaong rivers that comprise the 6 tributaries of the larger CDO River that drains into the Macajalar Bay. The Cagayan de Oro River is classified 215
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as Type Class “A” Upstream (Public Water Class Supply Class II). This classification suggests that the river’s water will require complete treatment in order to meet the country’s water standard for its type and uses. As a natural geo-political boundary, the river is the prominent single geophysical resource that demarcates the 2 congressional districts of the city, namely the 1st district on the West and the 2nd district on the Eastern part of the city. The Cagayan de Oro river watershed shares boundaries with the provinces of Bukidnon and Lanao del Norte and Cagayan de Oro City. The watershed generally lies along the municipalities of Baungon, Libona, and Talakag of the Province of Bukidnon. Thus, most of the tributaries of the Cagayan de Oro River emanate from Mt. Kitanglad Range and Mt. Kalatungan Range, Bukidnon. The municipalities concerned are within the administrative coverage of Region 10, thereby ensuring a more facilitative coordination activities among the Local Government Units (LGUs) involved. Societies are attempting to develop means of coping with the environmental stressors caused by human activities. These include the activities of individual people as they go about their daily lives as well as the larger enterprises of corporations, governments, and society at large. One of the procedures that are increasingly becoming a routine [component of planning for potential damages is known as environmental impact assessment]. (Environmental Impact Statement World Earth Science) The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process that can be used to identify and estimate the potential environmental consequences of proposed developments and policies. Environmental Impact Assessment is a highly interdisciplinary process, involving inputs from many fields in sciences and social sciences. Environmental Impact Assessments commonly examine ecological, physical/chemical, sociological, economic, and other environmental effects. EIA is a widely used procedure to examine certain human activities that may have a negative impact on the environment in advance project initiation. EIA is thus considered necessary to better decision-making and to improve project development. The goal of EIA is to prevent environmental degradation by giving decision makers better information about the potential impacts that an action could have on the environment. 216
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FRAMEWORK This study was anchored on the concept of Environmental Impact Assessment by Husain Sadar. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) refers to a systematic process, procedure or exercise for predicting the nature and significance of all possible impacts, both positive and negative, on the social environments, which may result from a proposed activity, program or policy. An essential component of any EIA exercise is to recommend appropriate measures for eliminating or minimizing potential adverse impacts in order to preserve good environmental quality and for maximizing the socio-economic benefits. In brief, the main objectives of conducting an EIA exercise are to promote integrated economic development planning process, to assist the decision makers make balanced decisions, and to improve the quality of life of the people. The concept of EIA is very simple and is closely linked to the supremacy of democratic principles, respect for human rights, and strong commitments to fairness, justice and public good. EIA was first introduced in 1969 through the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of the USA. Since then the importance and relevance of EIA-related processes and practices for promoting the prudent uses of fast dwindling natural resources have been recognized globally. Broadly speaking, an EIA exercise if conducted in transparent, fair and comprehensive fashion is meant to ensure a fair distribution of risks and benefits associated with a proposal under assessment among the affected areas. One of the main objectives of an EIA exercise is to ensure an open and impartial public discussion of all the potential benefits and risks associated with the proposed development or activity. Such a dialogue is essential for the objective evaluation of various risks and benefits and their fair distribution among all the stakeholders. It can generally be concluded that most governments and the vast majority of decision makers have recognized the need to protect the fragile global ecosystem. Assessing environmental and related social impacts of each and every proposed activity, program and policy should be considered a common sense approach for 217
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minimizing and even eliminating future damage of both the natural and social environments. Consequently, governments, international organizations, lending agencies, and industries have all accepted the usefulness of EIA-related practices and procedures. In order to ensure an acceptable degree of success of any EIA exercise, an effective and workable mechanism must be firmly in place to ensure a good balance between the societal needs and ecological well being. Such a success heavily depends upon the systematic compilation and meaningful interpretation of socioeconomic and ecological conditions and technological information pertaining to the proposal. A critical evaluation of experiences gained and lessons learned from previous EIA exercises can considerably increase the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of EIA. EIA requires a multidisciplinary approach for collecting, synthesizing and interpreting data and other information originating from individual disciplines, experts, the public, and various other sources. Objective of the Study This study sought to determine the communityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s perceptions on the environmental impact of the projects of the Safer River, Life Saver on the Cagayan de Oro River. Methodology The study utilized the descriptive design. It involved the description, analysis, and interpretation of data gathered from the different private/public units/offices and from the survey questionnaire distributed to the residents living along the Cagayan de Oro River. The study focused on the assessment of the environmental impact of dredging, aqua-culture, tree planting, and clean-up drive on the Cagayan de Oro River that covers 17 barangays, namely Barangay 1, 6, 7, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, Consolacion, Carmen, Balulang, Kauswagan, Bonbon, Puntod, Macabalan, Macasandig and Barangay 2. 218
The Safer River, Life Saver Projects of Liceo de Cagayan University: Their Impact on the Cagayan de Oro River
R.S. Huerbana
Research Instrument The data for assessment were sourced differently. To assess the impact of dredging, key persons of the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) and the City Government and local residents who are into manual dredging were interviewed. The environmental impact of aqua-culture, on the other hand, was assessed by using the data provided by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) and the feedback of the fishermen. Moreover, how the tree planting activity has impacted the Cagayan de Oro River was assessed based on the information provided by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), participating Local Government Units (LGUs), and barangay officials. Finally, the feedback of the Safer River, Life Saver Club and the barangay officials was made a basis for the assessment of the environmental impact of the clean-up drive. Data Gathering Procedures The assessment also included the feedback of the residents living in barangays along the Cagayan de Oro River. Thus, survey questionnaires were distributed to 200 respondents who were identified using the quota sampling technique. The researcher floated the questionnaires, which used a 4-point scale for rating. The responses of the respondents were treated for interpretation using the weighted mean. Results and Discussion On dredging, the residents in barangays along the Cagayan de Oro River assessed the impact of dredging as very satisfactory (m=3.69). Dredging is done by using a machine or manually. Manually, dredging is done by an individual or by a group having a small boat, a paddle, and equipment used to pick-up the river sand. Dredgers collect more or less than 10 cubic of river sand per day. The City Government, which issues permit to jobless residents for their livelihood, allows the manual dredging. The river sand is 219
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used as material for making hallow blocks. On the other hand, the Department of Works and Highways (DPWH) does the machine dredging. However, it is not regularly done. The machine can collect more or less than 250 cubic feet of river sand per day. The DPWH is a member of the Technical Working Group (TWG) of the Safer River, Life Saver Foundation, Inc. (SRLSFI). Dredging helps lessen the problem of siltation caused by soil erosion along the riverbank. The aqua-culture project is participated by the members of the Technical Working Groups (TWGs), Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), City Government of Cagayan de Oro City, Cagayan de Oro City Water District, the fishermen of the riverbank barangays, and the Safer River, Life Saver Club. The project facilitates quarterly dispersal of 10,000 fingerlings along the strategic parts of the Cagayan de Oro River. Yearly dispersal of 50,000 tilapia fingerlings allows the fishermen to catch fish as their livelihood. As claimed by the fishermen, the catch of tilapia along the river has increased. Before, the daily catch was 5 to 10 kilos, but now it has jumped to 10 to 20 kilos. The aqua-culture project also manifests the quality of water of Cagayan de Oro River. The sustained presence of fishes and other aquatic organisms is indicative of a healthy water. The DENR in fact, has given the Cagayan de Oro River a â&#x20AC;&#x153;Class Aâ&#x20AC;? rating. When its impact on the Cagayan de Oro River was assessed by the barangay residents, particularly the fishermen, the aqua-culture project obtained a very satisfactory rating (m=3.87). The finding indicates the abundance of tilapia in the Cagayan de Oro River due to the quarterly dispersal of tilapia by the Safer River, Life Saver Foundation, Inc. in partnership with the Bureau of Aquatic and Natural Resources (BFAR). The City Government through the City Local Environment and Natural Resources Office (CLENRO) has also helped increase the number of tilapia fingerlings by dispersing quarterly 10,000 fingerlings. This has increased even more the catch of the fishermen. On the other hand, the tree planting activity along the river bank was assessed very satisfactory (m=3.52) by the residents. The planting of giant bamboo had very satisfactory (m=3.87) rating while the planting of lauan had a satisfactory (m=2.91) rating. Giant 220
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bamboos are highly visible along the riverbank of Cagayan de Oro. They are planted to prevent soil erosion that has been the problem in the Cagayan de Oro River. Lauan trees and other seedlings are not so visible since they are not as suitable as lambago trees and giant bamboos for planting along the riverbank. The tree planting activity is participated by the members of the Technical Working Group (TWG), Forest Nursery, Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Cagayan de Oro Water District, City Government through the City Local Environment and Natural Resources Office (CLENRO), various academic institutions, private institutions, National Government Organizations (NGOs), Local Government Units (NGOs), Local Government Units (LGUs) of the river barangays, the community people, and the Safer River, Life Saver Club. The tree planting activity conducted twice a month includes the identification of the area along the riverbank suitable for planting, identification of seedlings to be planted and provision of tree guards and tools and materials needed. The trees planted along the riverbank have increased in number according to the Local Government Units (LGUs) of the barangays. The volume of seedlings planted every month has increased from 500 to 700 seedlings. To date, there are about 1,000 varying trees that can be seen along the riverbank. Moreover, the clean-up drive got a very satisfactory (m=3.81) overall rating. SRLS Club and the barangay residents rated the clean-up drive as very satisfactory, 3.91 and 3.59 respectively. The SRLS Club, organized to help preserve the environment, daily conducts clean-up drive along the riverbank. Evidence of the positive impact of the clean-up drive is the recognition given to riverbank barangays as having the cleanest and the greenest riverbank. These barangays include Nazareth, Macasandig, and Puntod. The people of these barangays are actively participating in the clean-up drive. The clean-up drive, which is participated by various government and private units, has significantly helped reduce the volume of garbage. In fact, no waste can be seen floating along the river stretch.
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Conclusion The very satisfactory assessment given by the various groups of individuals on the projects initiated by the different government and private institutions under the leadership of the Safer River, Life Saver Foundation of the Liceo de Cagayan University. The rehabilitation, preservation, and protection of the Cagayan de Oro River indicates the projectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; positive environmental impact. Ensuring the full implementation and success of the projects is the active involvement of the river barangays. The participation of the various institutions in the different environmental projects clearly shows that Cagayan de Oro City has on its top agenda the preservation and protection of the Cagayan de Oro River. Vital to the sustainability of the projects are networking and people empowerment. Recommendations On the basis of the findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are advanced: (1) The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) should fully operationalize machine dredging to address the problem of siltation along the river caused by soil erosion. Also, manual dredging by individuals or groups should be fully supported by the City Government and the Local Government Units (LGUs). (2) The tilapia dispersal conducted in partnership with Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) should be done monthly to increase the number of fingerlings for a better source of livelihood among the residents along the riverbank. (3) More households should be encouraged to participate in the various environmental programs to sustain the implementation of 222
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those programs, particularly the clean-up drive and tree planting. (4) The tree planting along the riverbank should be properly coordinated with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) so that the species plantable along the riverbank can be identified and the problem of soil erosion can be controlled. (5) The Safer River, Life Saver Foundation, Inc. (SRLSFI) as lead group should intensify its advocacy programs to heighten environmental awareness among the communities situated along the Cagayan de Oro River. literature cited Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill-UNEP EIA Collaborating Centre, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9 Canada. E-mail: husainsadar@rogers.com. Curtis MA. (2004). Elements of Best Practice for Environmental Impact Assessment in Canadian Aquaculture – An International Perspective. AAC Spec. Publ. 8:38-42. Environment Impact Statement: World Earth Science. “http:// www.enotes.com/earth-science/eis-environmental-impactstatement.”retrieved 2008 Garden of Malasag Eco-Tourism Village-Vista Pinas. “http://www. vistapinas.com/article/Gardens-of-malasag-eco-tourismvillage.” retrieved 2008 [IAIA] International Association for Impact Assessment; Institute of Environmental Assessment, UK. (1999). Principles of Environmental Assessment Best Practice for EIA. Retrieved April 11, 2004 from: http://www.iaia.org/Members/Publications/ Guidelines_Principles/Principles%20of%201A.pdf. Integrative River Rehabilatation Model. “http://www.lunina.com/ casestudies/IRMM.htm.” retrieved 2008 Sadar MH. (1996). Environmental Impact Assessment (Second Edition). International Association for Impact Assessment, Francophone Secretariat.191 p. 223
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Sadar MH. (1996). In, IAIAâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;96: Improving Environmental Assessment Effectiveness Research, Practice and Training. International Association for Impact Assessment, 6th Annual Meeting, Estoril, Portugal, June 17-23, 1996. Sadler B. (1996). Environmental Assessment in a Changing World: Evaluating Practice to Improve Performance. International Study of the Effectiveness of Environmental Assessment. Final Report. Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency. Ottawa, Canada. 248 p. Retrieved June 1, 2004 from http:// www.ceaa-acee. gc.ca/017/012/iaia8_e.pdf.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Public Policy Section
Mitigating Measures and Level of Preparedness against Risks and Disasters among Local Government Units JOFI VALDEHUESA MAHILUM, Ph.D research@liceo.edu.ph Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: February 26, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: July 13, 2008 Abstract - The study determined the mitigating measures and level of preparedness against risks and disasters among local government units in Region 10, Northern Mindanao, Philippines. The descriptive research design was used and supported by quantitative and qualitative approaches in data analysis and interpretation. The 250 barangay captains of the provinces were the respondents. The cluster sampling was used in the selection of the respondents. Two sets of data gathering tools were used namely: Likert-type questionnaire and Interview Guide. The statistical techniques used were the weighted mean and multiple regression analysis. The dominant political governance of the local government units is the proactive approach wherein all necessary mitigating measures are prepared in advance rather than making the preparations after the occurrence of risks and disasters. The most salient mitigating measures are risk/disaster prevention/reduction planning. Operationally, the LGUs are prepared on the best response against risk and disaster in terms of decisions and appropriate actions. However, the LGUs are only partially prepared in terms of availability of resources in the implementation of contingency plans, post-disaster recovery, and reconstruction activities. The LGUs level of preparedness against risks and disasters are significantly determined by proactive political governance and risk/disaster prevention/reduction planning. Keywords - Mitigating measures, risks, disasters, level of preparedness 225
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Introduction The Local Government Units in the country are empowered to discharge decentralized functions from the national level. One of these decentralized responsibilities of the LGUs focused on health and safety of the residents. The LGUs responsibility on the provision of the residents’ safety is closely linked with how the LGUs undertake measures against unexpected risks and disasters that may occur in the local level. In fact, Zulueta (1996) emphasized that the LGU is an essential component of human policy because it is the government people have most access to, the government that would likely respond to the problems of community risks and disasters as part of their local functions. It was also emphasized in Republic Act No. 7160, that the LGU is not only an instrument of “participatory democracy” but, more significantly, it is a dynamic mechanism for democratic action in the attainment and promotion of community interests and goals. Murphy’s Law, as discussed by Lewis and Wong (2005) indicated that “there is a higher probability that things will accidentally go wrong than that they will accidentally go “right.” Relative to this logical premise, risks and disasters are some occurrences that may happen unexpectedly in the community or local level. It is the social expectations, that the LGU officials take the lead and advocacy in identifying risks and disasters and must effectively develop a higher level of preparedness to mitigate or reduce the destructive consequences of risks. Graves (2000), opined that a strategic risk mitigation measures consist of analysis, decisions, and actions. Thus, the challenge to LGU officials is to formulate measures and strategies that provide the peoples’ safety and advantages that can be sustained over time. Rosales (2007) implied that an effective barangay risks and disasters management are directed at overall organizational goals of the local government unit, includes an involvement of multiple stakeholders, mitigation planning measures, and setting the stage between effectiveness and efficiency. Effectiveness, means “doing the right things” while efficiency means “doing things right.” Social involvement of stakeholders is an important element in achieving 226
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effectiveness and efficiency of a joint activity in the political social institution (Schaefer: 2001; Heywood and Thompson: 2007). The occurrence of risks and disasters in the local level is an expected but unpredictable phenomenon. The people might be caught in surprise and the stakeholders may not have prepared the necessary measures to deal with the disastrous events. This study, therefore, is a basis in determining areas or concerns for enhancement of the risk management program of the LGUs in Region X. This is also an evidence-based attempt to show that the research advocacy of Liceo de Cagayan University focuses on all aspects of social institutions, disseminate the same, and setting the stage for research utilization. Framework This study was anchored on the Contingency Theory of Taylor and Fayol which was discussed analytically by Bartol and Martin (1997). This theory puts emphasis on how leaders apply the “best way and strategy to handle and operate a situation.” It is a viewpoint which argues that appropriate actions, plans, and decisions are undertaken depending on the characteristics of the situation. In this study, the problematic situation is the unpredictable occurrence of potential risks and disasters in the community level. Further conceptual underpinning of the study is provided by Rosales (2007) in his work on barangay directed risk management. He presented several parameters of mitigating measures, namely: barangay political governance, strategic disaster and risk management, barangay risk assessment, and risk deduction planning. The study considered mitigating measures as the independent variable which was hypothesized to determine the LGUs’ level of preparedness against risks and disasters in the local level as the dependent variable. Figure 1 presents the interplay of the independent and dependent variables. Mitigating measures were geared in terms of political governance, risk/disaster management strategies, risk assessment, and risk/disaster prevention planning. Meanwhile, the LGUs’ level of preparedness against risks and disasters were measured in terms of decisions, actions, and post227
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disaster recovery and reconstruction activities. Political governance could either be reactive or proactive strategies. The reactive approach formulates mitigating measures until something goes wrong and then decide what to do about it. Unfortunately, under such conditions, it is often very difficult to recover from the event. Meanwhile, the proactive approach involves identifying, assessing, quantifying, and managing risks and disasters in a timely and active manner to prevent, if not reduce the destructive effects (Lewis and Wong: 2005). The inclusion of political governance as an independent variable is supported by several social scientists. For instance, Zulueta (1996) discussed that the local government unit, as an institutional framework of national government is an effective mechanism of politics in bringing the affairs of the government to the people through active participation on matters affecting their welfare. Moffit (2000) said that local political planning is an invaluable instrument of the people by which they could participate in critical decision-making during the period of crisis. According to Gray and Larson (2006), strategic risk/disaster management attempts to recognize and manage potential and unforeseen trouble spots that may occur resulting from man-made risks and potential natural disasters. It is therefore, imperative that political leaders must be able to identify as many as possible risk events or asking the question â&#x20AC;&#x153;what can go wrong?â&#x20AC;?; minimize their impact (what can be done about the event before it happens?); manages mitigating strategies stipulated in the contingency plan; and provides contingency funds for the purpose. Moreover, Downes (2001) posited that handling risk mitigating strategies can be deadly quite expensive. However, identifying events and disaster occurrences and deciding a response before their occurrences are more prudent approaches than not attempting to manage risks. Risk/Disaster management strategies were gauged in terms of risk identification and stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; involvement. These two measures are supported by the principle which states that once potential risks/disasters have been identified, stakeholders altogether shall assess their possible negative consequences 228
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(Baker and Menon: 1995). One common mistake that is made in risk identification process is to focus on consequences and not on the events that could produce consequences. Only by focusing on actual events can potential mitigating measures can be formulated. Dess and Lumpkin (2003) stressed the importance of multiple stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; involvement in strategic risk and disaster management. Stakeholders are those individuals, groups, and organizations who have a â&#x20AC;&#x153;stakeâ&#x20AC;? in the success of risk disaster management strategies.
Figure 1 The schematic presentation of the study depicting the interplay of the independent and dependent variables Risk/Disaster assessment is another component of mitigating measures. It was measured in terms of severity of risks and disasters, likelihood of occurrence, and controllability. According to Carr, et. al. (2003), not all risks/disasters have deserved attention. Some are trivial and can be ignored, while others poise serious threats to the physical and social environments, and welfare of the locality. So, stakeholders have to develop methods in determining its severity, likelihood of occurring, and controllability. Gray and Larson (2006) suggested that the effective technique in risk assessment is scenario 229
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analysis. In this approach, the stakeholders assess the identified risks in terms of the undesirable event, outcomes of the events, magnitude or severity of the impact, chances or likelihood of the event happening, and level of controllability of the occurrences of the events. Another parameter employed in the mitigating measures against risks and disasters was risk prevention/deduction planning. This was geared by the existing working contingency plan. Risk/disaster response was determined by the strategies used in reducing the likelihood that the event will occur and reduce the impact that the adverse event would result. According to Gray and Larson (2006), a contingency plan represents actions that will reduce or mitigate the negative impact of risk/disaster events. The absence of a contingency plan, when a risk/disaster event occurs, can cause a delay or postpone the decision to implement a remedy. Contingency planning evaluates alternative remedies for possible foreseen and unforeseen events before the risk events occur and select the best action among alternatives. Meanwhile, the LGUsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of preparedness against risks and disasters were measured in terms of decisions, actions, and post-disaster recovery and reconstruction activities. The premise presented in the study is if appropriate mitigation measures are in place, then the level of preparedness of the LGU against risks and disasters is manifested to a highest extent. Rue and Byars (2007) discussed that the success of any safety programs depends largely on the proper supervision of the various planned activities and actions. Objectives of the Study The study aimed to determine the mitigating measures and level of preparedness against risks and disasters among local government units in Region X. Specifically, it attempted to 1) identify the mitigating measures against risks and disasters as discerned from the LGUs political governance, disaster/risk management strategies, risk assessment, and risk prevention/ reduction planning; (2) determine the LGUs level of preparedness against risks and disasters; and 3) analyze which of the mitigating 230
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measures significantly determine the LGUsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of preparedness against risks and disasters. Methodology The descriptive research design was used as the over all scheme in conducting the study. It utilized the quantitative and qualitative approaches in data analysis and interpretation. This is so because the study employed both a Likert-Type questionnaire and interview schedule. The first portion was analyzed quantitatively considering the scales of the responses while the second approach dealt with the qualitative data analysis. The target population of the study were the barangay captains of the provinces comprising Region X. The cluster sampling was used in the selection of the respondents. In each province, two (2) municipalities were chosen as the research locales and in each town a cluster of twenty (20) barangays were chosen. Another cluster included the capital of each province with ten cluster barangays each. Therefore, a total of 250 barangay captains were included in the study. The sampling scheme is as follows: Provinces
Cluster of Municipalities
Barangay Cluster
Capital City
Barangay Captains
Misamis Oriental
2
40
1
10
Misamis Occidental
2
40
1
10
Bukidnon
2
40
1
10
Camiguin
2
40
1
10
Lanao del Norte
2
40
1
10
Total
10
200
5
50
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Two sets of data gathering tools were used, namely: Likert-type questionnaire and Interview Guide. Both research tools gathered data on mitigating measures and level of preparedness of the LGUs against risks and disasters in the local level. Two types of validation were made. The first was content validation which was done by showing the instrument to three key officials in the provincial government unit. The second was face validation which was done by showing the instruments to two professional researchers. Further, the instruments were subjected to a reliability test to 10 barangay captains in Cagayan de Oro City. The validation and the reliability tests of the instrument are important to establish a quality assessment (Sealza: 1995). The weighted mean was used in the analysis of the LikertType questionnaire. A qualitative description and analysis of the interview results were used as insights to the quantitative data. The data were presented through the weighted mean while the multiple regression analysis was applied to determine which of the mitigating measures significantly determine the LGUs level of preparedness against risks and disasters. Results and Discussion Table 1. Mitigating measures in terms of political governance Reactive Governance
Weighted Mean
Interpretation
1. The LGU decides what to do until something goes wrong.
1.08
Never
2. The LGU has to wait for the signs of the risks and disasters to occur and develop a plan of action to solve them.
1.76
Rarely
3. If a risk or disaster happens, so it be, â&#x20AC;&#x153;come what mayâ&#x20AC;? and decision comes on the spot.
1.0
Never
4. The LGUs contingency plan is formulated after a risk/disaster has been experienced.
1.01
Never
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(Table 1 continued) Over all
1.21
Never
Proactive Governance
Weighted Mean
Interpretation
1. The LGU tries to prevent the risk/ disaster by finding its root causes and eliminating them.
2.50
Rarely
2. Risk management plan is already in place to reduce the negative consequences of risks and disasters.
3.29
Always
3. The LGU creates and assign various committees to take charge of the risk management and disaster identification activities of the locality.
3.33
Always
4. Mitigating measures are prepared in preparation of risks and disasters occurrences.
3.26
Always
Over all
3.09
Sometimes
The first objective of the study was to identify the mitigation measures against risks and disasters as discerned from the LGUs political governance, disaster/risk management strategies, risk assessment, and risk promotion/reduction planning. The political governance was categorized into reactive and proactive dimensions. Reactive governance involves the formulation of mitigating measures until something goes wrong. On the other hand, the proactive approach requires the preparation of mitigation measures in preparation for a possible occurrence of risks and disasters. Findings indicated that the LGU officials dominantly practiced the proactive governance as disclosed by the variable mean of 3.09. The most salient practices were the creation and assigning of various committees to take charge of risk management and disaster identification activities of the barangay (3.33) and the existing risk management place with activities designed to reduce the negative consequences of risks and disasters (3.29). An interview with 233
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several barangay captains revealed that the major disastrous and risky events they experienced were floods and landslides. However, they ensured their best to plan for mitigating the risks of fire and armed social conflict. Relative to this aim, the LGUs have disaster coordinating committees which are tasked to spearhead solutions to the negative consequences of these specific untoward natural and man-made negative occurrences. Meanwhile, the risk/disaster management plan stipulates an annual disaster fund to defray expenses of the negative consequences of risks/disasters relative to displaced families. The respondents claimed that the fund to assist to victims/families of risks/disasters is not sufficient if the displaced families are really numerous. Meanwhile, the lowest aspect of proactive governance was preventing the risks/disasters by finding their root causes and eliminating them (2.50). The respondents claimed that the root causes of these negative events cannot really be accurately determined due to their unpredictability. Furthermore, the disaster/risk management strategies were measured in terms of risk/disaster identification and stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; involvement. The most salient manifestation of risk/disaster identification was the profiling of probable risks/disasters that may occur in the locality indicating the strengths and weaknesses of the solutions made (3.36). In similar vain, probable risks and disasters are identified before they occur (3.30). The findings disclosed that the LGU officials identified probable risks/disasters based on their past experiences. The solutions made were also assessed by pointing out their strengths and weaknesses. Through these measures they were able to come up with the most preferred alternatives causes of action. Meanwhile, rated lowest among the indicators was risk/ disaster identification in terms of their causes, consequences and early warning system. What made this indicator a rare extent is the fact that in the real scenario, there is no concrete evidence that the LGUâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s can provide early warning measure to the citizenry of impending disasters. The actual scenario is the citizenry are warned of disasters when the disasters are already in place. Although the possible solutions are in place, there is a dire need to conduct post disaster recovery and reconstruction activities as an integral part of risk/disaster identification. Labadie (2008) found out that post234
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disaster recovery and reconstruction efforts can help mitigate possible future disaster effects by making the community more sustainable and more survivable. Recovery and reconstruction efforts as consequences identification greater credibility with aid donors, stakeholders, and the affected public by having formal programs in place for assessing recovery performance. In terms of stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; involvement, the LGU officials encouraged them to investigate the past experiences of the community on risks/disaster occurrences as an important basis to analyze the present cases (3.35). This disclosed that the LGUs sought assistance from the involved stakeholders to analyze past disasters as a benchmark for possible alternative mitigation measures. This step considers the past experiences as lesson to prevent more destruction. In fact, Harvey, et al. (2008) promotes an involvement of academics, policy-makers and practitioners for the high-quality research and practices related to disasters and complex political emergencies. Special loci of inquiry are disaster prevention, mitigation, and response policies and practices. On the aspect of risk/disaster prevention/reduction planning, the respondents strongly agree (3.68) that a contingency plan is available and the risk/disaster responses are identified but the resources to be utilized are still to be determined. The implication of this finding is the gap between the formulated plan and the availability of the needed resources for implementation of the contingency plan. A good example cited in this gap was the destruction and damages in the river banks could have been prevented if there are ripraps alongside. The respondents also agreed (3.21) that the contingency plans of the LGUs have been reviewed and accepted but there are no measures yet for monitoring and tracking. Overall, the findings disclosed two probable barriers to the implementation of contingency plan, namely: availability of resources and measures for monitoring and tracking.
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Table 2. Mitigating measures in terms of risk/disaster management strategies Risk/Disaster Identification
Weighted Mean
Interpretation
1. Probable risks and disasters are identified before they occur.
3.30
Always
2. All potential risks/disasters are properly reviewed, analyzed and communicated to the stakeholders.
3.31
Sometimes
3. A risk/disaster profile is formulated and presents strengths and weakness of the solutions made.
3.36
Always
4. Risk/disasters are identified in terms of their causes, consequences, and early warning systems.
2.31
Rarely
Over all
3.07
Sometimes
Stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Involvement
Weighted Mean
Interpretation
1. The LGU pull together various stakeholders to work as a team in identifying all possible risks/disasters that could affect the local level.
2.27
Rarely
2. The stakeholders spearheaded by the LGU use brainstorming and other problemidentifying techniques to identify potential problems.
2.28
Rarely
3. Participants are encouraged to keep an open mind and generate as many probable risks as possible and filter out unreasonable risks/disasters.
3.30
Sometimes
4. Stakeholders are encouraged to investigate past experiences of the community on risk/disaster occurrences as important documents to analyze the present case.
3.35
Always
Over all
2.80
Sometimes
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The second objective of the study was to determine the LGUsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of preparedness against risks and disasters. The respondents agreed that they are prepared (3.23) in terms of decisions on the best response against risks/disasters in terms of appropriate actions for implementation and partially prepared in terms of decisions and appropriate actions, availability of resources, and post-disaster recovery and reconstruction activities (3.21). Findings implied that necessary preparations were done as indicated in the contingency plan. Appropriate mitigating measures are in place. The problem, however, is bridging the gap between the planned of mitigating measures and the severity of the occurrence of major natural and man-made disasters which may consequently lead to vast destructions of infrastructures. Meanwhile, the respondents claimed that they are only partially prepared on the LGUs response to post-disaster recovery and reconstruction activities. Barriers to these activities are resources and financial constraints because post-disaster recovery and reconstruction require a huge amount of budget, machineries, and equipment. Table 3. Mitigating measures in terms of risk/disaster assessment Disaster Assessment
Weighted Mean
Interpretation
All potential risks and disasters are identified but not yet assessed or evaluated.
3.28
Strongly Agree
All potential risks and disasters are identified, and assessed but the severity of its impact is not yet evaluated.
3.27
Strongly Agree
Appropriate risk assessment is made including the severity of impact likelihood/ probability of occurring and controllability are determined.
2.48
Disagree
The risk assessment is already approved by the Barangay Council.
3.47
Strongly Agree
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Table 4. Mitigating measures in terms of risk/disaster prevention/reduction planning Risk/Disaster Prevention/Reduction Planning
Weighted Mean
Interpretation
A contingency plan is not yet finished/still on the process.
1.54
Strongly Disagree
A contingency plan is available but there are no alternative courses of action ore response to address the risks/disasters.
1.21
Strongly Disagree
A contingency plan is available and the risk responses are identified but the resources to be utilized are still to be determined.
3.68
Strongly Agree
A contingency plan and risks/disasters response have been reviewed and accepted but there are no measures yet for monitoring and tracking.
3.21
Agree
The third objective of the study was to analyze which of the mitigation measures significantly determine the LGUsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; level of preparedness against risks and disasters. Two independent variables were significantly entered in the regression equation, namely, political governance and risk prevention/reduction planning. The r2 value of .477 indicated that 48% of the LGUs level of preparedness was significantly determined by the political governance. Findings implied the importance of proper governance in the multi-faceted processes in the level of preparedness for the probable occurrences of risks and disasters. Specifically, proactive political governance emphasizes advanced preparations of devasting negative consequences of disasters, whether natural or man-made, is not determine by individuals alone but both the policy makers and the citizenry. Findings found support in the work of Rosales (2007) that an effective barangay risks and disasters management needs an integrated organizational goal of the local government unit.
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Table 5. Level of preparedness against risks and disasters Weighted Mean
Interpretation
Prepared in terms of decisions on the best response against risk/disasters on appropriate actions for implementation
3.23
Agree
Partially prepared on decisions, appropriate actions, availability of resources, and post-disaster recovery and reconstruction activities
3.21
Agree
Prepared all the time in terms of the appropriate decisions, proper actions, available resources, and post-disaster recovery and reconstruction activities.
2.26
Disagree
Meanwhile, the r2 value of .508 disclosed that 51% of the variance of the LGUs level of preparedness against risks and disasters was attributed to risk prevention/reduction planning which is operationally labelled as the existence of a workable contingency plan. The importance of the contingency plan cannot be ignored. This is so because the choice of the most efficient and effective alternative courses of actions and the constituents responsible for the implementation of the planned activities are clearly indicated. Findings found support in the principle of Gray and Larson (2006) and Moffic (2000)indicating that contingency plans are invaluable instruments which guide appropriate decisions and actions before, during, and after the period of crisis. Multiple Regression Result on the Mitigating Measures as Determinants of the LGUsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Level of Preparedness
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Conclusion The dominant political governance of the local government units is the proactive approach wherein all necessary mitigating measures are prepared in advance rather than making the preparations after the occurrence of risks and disasters. The most salient mitigating measures are risk/disaster prevention/reduction planning. Operationally, the LGUs are prepared on the best response against risk and disaster in terms of decisions and appropriate actions. However, the LGUs are only partially prepared in terms of availability of resources in the implementation of contingency plans, post-disaster recovery, and reconstruction activities. The LGUs level of preparedness against risks and disasters are significantly determined by proactive political governance and risk/disaster prevention/reduction planning. These imply that proactive governance and risk/disaster prevention planning facilitate the multi-faceted tasks of the LGUs in attaining the level of preparedness to respond to the emergencies and crisis brought about by risks and disasters. Recommendations The following recommendations are presented: 1. The LGUs spearheaded by the barangay captains formulate means and measures to strengthen the following weak mitigating activities: 1.1. identifying the root causes and the consequences of risks and disasters; 1.2. get the stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; involvement in the formulation of risk/ disaster mitigating measures; 1.3. organize a special task force to conduct risk/disaster assessment; 1.4. include the following dimensions in the contingency plan 1.4.1. Available Resources 1.4.2. Post-Disaster Recovery 1.4.3. Reconstruction Activities 240
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J.V. Mahilum
2. Future researches are recommended on the following topics: 2.1. Health Outcome of the Displaced Families 2.2. Evacuation and Sheltering of the Affected Families 2.3. Psychological Effect to Children (Chronic Fear and Anxiety) 2.4. Public Health Actions LITERATURE CITED Baker, B. and R. Menon (1995). “Politics and Project Performance.” PM Network 9) 11. November, 1995. Bartol, Kathryn M. and David C. Martin (1997). Management. New York: Mc Graw-Hill, Inc. Carr, M.J., S.L. Konda, I. Monarch, F.C. Ulrich, and C.F. Walker (2008). “Taxonomy-Based Risk Identification.” Technical Report CMU, SEI 93, TR 6. Dess, Gregory G. and G.T. Lumpkin. Strategic Management: Creating Competitive Advantages. New York: Mc Graw-Hill Inc. Downes, L. (2001). “Strategy Can Be Deadly.” Industry Standard, May 14, 2001. Graves, R. (2000). “Qualitative Risk Assessment.” PM Network 14 (10). October, 2000. Harvey, Paul, et.al. (2008). “Disasters.” The Journal of Disaster Studies, Policy and Management. Volume 32. Heywood, P. and H. Thompson (2007). “Government and Opposition.” An International Journal of Comparative Politics. 74 (93). Moffitt, L. C. (2000). Strategic Management. Public Planning at the Local Level. Greenwich, Conn: JAL Press, 2000. Preston, F. W. and Ronald W. Smith (1998). Sociology: A Contemporary Approach. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Republic Act No. 7160, Local Government Code of 1991 of the Republic of the Philippines. Rosales, M. (2007). Resourcebook for Barangay Directed Risk Management to Productivity. Manila: Academic Pub. Corp. Schaefer, R. T. (2001). Sociology. Boston: Mc Graw-Hill, Inc. 241
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Sealza, I. S. (1995). Qualities of Assessment Instruments. Quezon City: Fil-Asian Institute in Research and Management. Zulueta, F. M. (1996). Foundation and Dynamics of Political Science. Manila: Academic Publishing Corporation.
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Vol. 6 No. 1 December 2009 ISSN: 2094-1064 CHED Accredited Research Journal, Category B
Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research Business and Public Policy Section
Solid Waste Management System Needs of a Suburban Community RICHIE GRACE M. LAGO, MST richie_lago@yahoo.com Liceo de Cagayan University Date Submitted: March 18, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: September 11, 2008 Abstract - This study aimed at determining the solid waste management system needs of Bayabas, Cagayan de Oro City in terms of handling and storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal. This study utilized the descriptive survey method. The barangay officials, SK officials, barangay health workers and zone leaders/residents of the barangay were the respondents of the study. The respondents’ moderate awareness of R.A. 9003 and receptiveness to solid waste management system will ensure their cooperation with the LGU officials in initiating the implementation of R.A. 9003. Likewise, the respondents’ moderate assessment of the barangay’s solid waste management system needs in terms of handling and storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal disclose a community interest in adopting the introduced solid waste management system for the protection of the residents’ health and the environment. Keywords - Solid waste management, suburban community
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Introduction Solid wastes need to be properly managed for these bring not only health ailments to mankind but also degradation of the environment. Solid wastes that contain pollutants, such as mercury in the fluorescent lamp and lead in the storage batteries, when thrown into the rivers and creeks contaminate the seawater and seafoods (Kiamco, 2006). Public health problems associated with solid waste fall into two categories: diseases carried by vermin and the physical and chemical hazards resulting from certain components in solid wastes. Discarded solid wastes provide food and harborage for rats, flies, and mosquitoes. Food wastes attract these insects and rodents. The debris associated with the refuse provides shelter as well as breeding environment especially for insects (Pfeffer, 1992). Therefore, the population of vermin can be expected to increase if the refuse is not properly managed. Broken glass, rusty materials, household pesticide, and solvents are some of the sources of chemical and physical hazards associated with solid waste. Republic Act 9003 otherwise known as â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000â&#x20AC;? was passed by the House of Representatives and the Philippine Senate on December 12, 2000, and December 20, 2000, as a consolidation of House bill no. 10651 and Senate Bill 1595 respectively. The act was approved on January 26, 2001. It is a Republic Act providing for an ecological solid waste management program that creates the necessary institutional mechanism, provides penalties, and appropriates funds. Section 2 of R.A. 9003 is the declaration of policies for the state to adopt a systematic, comprehensive, and ecological solid waste management program that shall ensure the protection of public health and environment; utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of variable resource and encourage resources conservation and recovery; set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and reduction through source and waste minimization measures including composting, recycling, re-use, recovery, collection, treatment and disposal in appropriate 244
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and environmentally sound solid waste management facilities in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principle; ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental practices in ecological waste management excluding incineration; promote national research and development programs for improved solid waste management and indigenous and improved methods of waste reduction, collection, separation and recovery; encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management; retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management with local government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the national government, other local government units, non-government organizations, and private sector; encourage cooperation and self regulation among waste generators through the participation in the development and implementation of national and local integrated, comprehensive, and ecological solid waste management programs; and strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of formal and non-formal education to promote environmental awareness and action among the citizenry. The solid waste problem may be minimized only if the local government units are willing to adopt the principles contained in the Republic Act 9003, particularly in Section 12 of the Act which pertains to the City and Municipal solid Waste Management Board that shall prepare, submit, and implement a plan for the safe and sanitary management of solid waste generated in areas under its geographic and political coverage. Along this line, the researcher sought to determine the needs of Bayabas, Cagayan de Oro City, in eliminating its solid waste disposal problem. There is a need to control solid waste littering and pollution since they are sources of diseases. It must be everybodyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concern to maintain good health and protect the marine environment. It is a sad fact that people themselves are the main source of solid waste pollution (Kiamco, 2000). As observed in Bayabas, waste management is a problem. It doesnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t have a system and people just scatter their wastes or dump them into the sea, creek, or main drainage. Hence, there is a need to involve the 245
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people in coming up with a solid waste management system for the barangay. Framework The study was anchored on Republic Act 9003 otherwise known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 that basically promotes the adoption of the functional elements of solid waste management for the protection of the health of the residents and the environment. Republic Act 9003, the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, embodied the six functional elements of solid waste management system. The six functional elements include solid waste generation, handling and storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal. The general sources of waste usually come from industrial, mining, agricultural, and municipal wastes. These sources of waste can usually be handled by their producers, often at the sites where they are produced (Kiamco, 1992). Carbajal et. al (2001), citing a study by the City Public Service Office (CPSO) of Cagayan de Oro city during January to August 1997, stated that the biggest distribution of garbage generation in the city was mainly attributed to residential or domestic sector (53.9%). The second biggest generators were commercial (28.37%), market (10.15%), and industrial sector (6.69%). Waste Handling and Storage. The second of the six functional elements of the solid waste management system is waste handling and storage. Waste handling involves the activities associated with management of wastes until they are placed in the storage containers for collection. Handling also encompasses movement of loaded containers for collection. Separation of waste components is an important step in the handling and storage of solid wastes at the source. Collection. This includes not only the gathering of the solid wastes and recyclable materials, but also the transport of these materials after collection to the location where the collection vehicle is emptied. This location may be a material processing facility, a transfer station, or a landfill disposal site. In small cities where 246
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final disposal sites are nearby, the hauling of wastes is not a serious problem. In large cities, where the haul may be significant economic implications and long distances are involved, transfer and transport facilities are normally used. Transfer and Transport. Transfer and transport involves two steps: the direct transfer of wastes to the Materials Recovery Facility or the transfer of wastes from the similar collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment and the subsequent transport of the wastes to a processing or disposal site. For bulky wastes, the transfer usually takes place at a transfer station. Although motor vehicle transport is most common, rail cars and barges are also used to transport wastes (Tchobanoglous, 1993). Processing. The recovery of separated materials, the separation and processing of solid wastes components, and transformation of solid waste that occurs primarily in locations away from the source of waste generation are encompassed by this functional element. The types of means and facilities that are now used for a recovery of waste materials that have been separated at the source include curbside collection, drop off, and buy back centers. The separation and processing of wastes and the separation of commingled wastes usually occur at materials recovery facility, transfer stations, combustion facilities, and disposal sites. Processing often includes the separation of ferrous metals using magnets and volume reduction by compaction and combustion. Transformation processes are used to reduce the volume and weight of waste requiring disposal and to recover conversion products and energy. Waste Disposal. The last functional element of the solid waste management is disposal. Today, the disposal of wastes by land filling or land spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, whether they are residential wastes collected and transported directly to a landfill site or residual materials from Materials Recovery Facility (MRF), residue from combustion of solid wastes composts, and other substances from various solid waste processing facilities. A modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered facility used for disposing solid wastes on land or within the earthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s marine without creating nuisances and the contamination of groundwater. The impact of chemical contamination of groundwater on human health and the environment depends on many patterns, the 247
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degree of human exposure, the availability and quality of alternative water supplies, and the feasibility of corrective remediation (Wentz, 1996). Figure 1, shows the independent and dependent variables of the study. The independent variables are the respondent’s position in the barangay, level of awareness of R.A. 9003, and level of receptiveness to solid waste management system. The dependent variables are the solid waste management system needs of the barangay in terms of the functional elements as handling and storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal. The study considered the respondents’ position in the barangay to establish with validity the actual solid waste management system needs of the barangay. The respondents’ level of awareness of R.A. 9003 to solid waste management system are assumed to affect the respondents’ perceived solid waste management needs of the barangay. High level of awareness of R.A. 9003 would likely facilitate the identification of the solid waste management needs of the barangay in terms of the functional elements of solid waste management system. The respondents’ level of receptiveness to solid waste management system as an independent variable is expected to influence their assessment of the solid waste management system needs of the barangay. Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
Solid Waste Management System Needs of Bayabas, Cagayan de Oro City • Position in the Barangay in terms of the following functional elements: • Level of Awareness of R. Profile of Respondents
A. 9003
•
Level of Receptiveness to Solid Waste Management System
• • • • •
Handling and Storage Collection Transfer and Transport Processing Disposal
Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study 248
Solid Waste Management System Needs of a Suburban Community
R.G. M. Lago
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study aimed in determining the solid waste management system needs of Bayabas, Cagayan de Oro City, as basis for solid waste management program. Specifically, it pursued the following objectives: (1) to describe the profile of the respondents; (2) to determine the respondentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; solid waste management system needs in terms of handling and storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing and disposal; (3) to find the difference in the assessment of the respondents on the solid waste management system needs of the barangay when they are grouped in terms of their position in the barangay; (4) to determine the indicators of awareness of R.A. 9003 significantly affect the assessment of the solid waste management needs of the barangay; and (5) to find which of the indicators of receptiveness to solid waste management system significantly affect the assessment of the solid waste management system needs of the barangay. METHODOLOGY This study utilized the descriptive survey method to determine the solid waste management system needs of Bayabas, Cagayan de Oro City. This barangay is one of the sources of contamination of Macajalar Bay because of its drainage system. Identifying the solid waste management system needs of this barangay will help address the problem of contamination of the Macajalar Bay. The barangay officials, SK officials, and zone leaders/residents of the barangay were the respondents of the study. The barangay officials, who composed the first group of respondents, included the chairman and kagawad of the barangay and Sangguiniang Kabataan (SK). The barangay health workers, who composed the second group of respondents, included the barangay health workers (BHO) and barangay nutrition scholars (BNS). The third group of respondents included the zone leaders/residents of the barangay. The sampling technique applied was purposive sampling. The respondents, being public servants and residents of the barangay, 249
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were in the best position to determine the solid waste management system needs of the barangay. Kiamco’s (2006) instrument was modified and used in this study. It consisted of two parts. Part I pertained to the profile of the respondents in terms of position in the barangay, level of awareness of R.A. 9003, and level of receptiveness to solid waste management system. Part II determined the respondents’ assessment of the barangay’s solid waste management needs in terms of handling and storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal. The study utilized the percentage, ranking, weighted mean, analysis of variance, and multiple regression analysis for describing and interpreting the obtained data. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As shown in Table 1, most of the respondents (160 or 88.245%) were zone leaders/residents. The rest of the respondents were barangay officials (10 or 5.88%) and barangay health workers (10 or 5.88%). Table 1. Distribution of the Respondents by Position in the Barangay Variable Position in the Barangay
Categories
Frequency
Percent
Barangay Official
10
5.88
Barangay Health Workers
10
5.88
Barangay Zone Leaders/ Residents
150
88.24
Total
170
100
The respondents were highly aware that R.A. 9003 is mandatory and to be initiated by local government unit (LGU). However, they were moderately aware that R.A 9003 is known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, that one of the most important components of R.A. 9003 is the Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) for processing of recoverable wastes into useful products”, that 250
Solid Waste Management System Needs of a Suburban Community R.G. M. Lago
mandatory segregation of solid waste is also embodied in R.A. 9003, and that “R.A. 9003 provides for the mandatory segregation of solid waste segregating waste containers marked with “recyclables’, “non-recyclables”, “compostables”, and “special waste”. The respondents agreed that the solid waste management system should be initiated by the barangay officials. The respondents were highly receptive to the statement that the implementation of the solid waste management system preserves marine species. They were moderately receptive to the statements that “the implementation of the solid waste management system serves as a stepping stone towards attaining a litter-free community”; “the implementation of the solid waste management system helps minimize pollution of the rivers, creeks, and drainage”; “the solid waste management system motivates the residents to maintain a clean environment at the same time earn from recyclables wastes”; and “acceptance of the solid waste management system puts the barangay on the lead towards the support and implementation of R.A. 9003”. As a coastal barangay, the respondents’ concern is the preservation of marine species aside from helping make the barangay a litter-free community. The different parameters of handling and storage were moderately needed as identified by the three groups of respondents. The respondents recognized the following needs: segregation of solid waste at source, provision of the most appropriate segregated waste containers with markings according to the kind of segregated wastes, provision of segregated waste storage area per kind of segregated wastes, implementation of a separate storage for the hazardous (containers of paint, pesticides, lead batteries, fluorescent lamp, etc.) and non-hazardous waste (non-recoverable waste), immediate washing with soap and water of the containers of preserved foods (tin cans, bottles, etc.) before storing them, and quick drying of plastic cellophane since these are food sources and breeding places of flies and mosquitoes. The different parameters of collection were moderately needed as assessed by the three groups of respondents. The respondents recognized the following needs: accessibility of waste collection route, provision of vehicle for waste, availability 251
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of efficient waste collection, different waste collection schedule for each kind of segregated wastes to avoid mixing again the already segregated wastes, and daily collection of compostable or biodegradable wastes in order to avoid microbiological decomposition as a result of growth of bacteria and fungi. Transfer and transport were moderately needed as assessed by the three groups of respondents. The respondents recognized the need for establishment of transfer station for processing and recovering of solid waste, provision of vehicles for transferring the recoverable wastes to the transfer station, immediate transfer of biodegradable wastes for immediate composting, establishment of materials recovery facility (MRF) at the transfer station for processing and recovery of compostables and recyclables and marketing reusable materials, and the putting up of the components of materials recovery facility station with specific purpose such as storage area for each kind of segregated wastes for marketing and processing. The different parameters of processing of compostables were moderately needed as assessed by the three groups of respondents. The respondents recognized the need for reduction of the size of biodegradable wastes through manual operation or the use of shredding, grinding or milling machines; compost fertilizer production area; and provision of composting containers, compost fertilizer production workers, and containers for compost fertilizer products. The parameters of processing of compostables were moderately needed (mean = 2.9) as assessed by the three groups of respondents. The respondents recognized the following needs: washing with soap and water and drying of recyclable materials; sorting the different kinds of washed and dried recyclables for the production of fine craft in the form mat, flower base, rope, stuff toys, wall dĂŠcor, etc.; and provision of fine craft production area, workers, and tools. The parameters of disposal were moderately needed as assessed by the three groups of respondents. The respondents recognized the following barangay needs: direct disposal of non-recyclable wastes from the source to the final disposal site, transport vehicle to haul the non-recoverable materials, final disposal site that is far from the residents and 252
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ground water sources, schedule for disposal of non-recoverable wastes to final disposal site, and direct disposal for special wastes at designated septic tank. Table 2 shows the test of difference in the assessment of the three groups of respondents on solid waste management system needs of the barangay. The F calculated value (1.6198) is lower than the F critical (Table) value (3.20). Thus, there was no significant difference in the assessment of the three groups of respondents on solid waste management system needs of the barangay. The finding implies that all of the respondents have the same extent of assessment of barangay’s solid waste management system needs in terms of handling and storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal. The assessed needs could be attributed to the respondents’ concern for health and environmental protection. Table 2. Test of difference in the assessment of the three groups of respondents on solid waste system needs of Bayabas, Cagayan de Oro City Respondents
Barangay Official Barangay Health Workers Barangay Leaders/ Residents
Average Mean
Qualitative Description
3.1875
Moderate
3.2000
Moderate
3.1556
Moderate
T-Test Results
F (Calculated Value) = 1.6198 Prob. = 0.2088 Degrees of Freedom: Between = 2 Within = 47 F – Critical (Table) Value = 3.20 Conclusion: F Calculated Value < F Critical (Table) Value Interpretation = Not Significant Decision: Not Reject (Accept)
As shown in Table 3, the only indicators of awareness of R.A. 9003 significantly related to the extent of need assessment were the awareness that R. A. 9003 is known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 and that Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) for processing of recoverable wastes into useful products is the most important component of R. A. 9003. 253
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Table 3 Test of relationship between the indicators of the awareness of republic act 9003 and its extent of assessed need for solid waste management system R. A. 9003 Indicators in the Model Indicators of R.A. 9003
Regression Coefficients
F Value
Prob.
Interpretation
Ho:
2.1 R.A 9003 is known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. 2.3 One of the most important components of R.A. 9003 is the Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) for processing of recoverable wastes into useful products
0.304408 (r2=0.09266)
9.704
0.0031
Significant
Reject
0.261658 (r2=0.23230)
8.549
0.0053
Significant
Reject
On the other hand, the indicators R.A 9003 is for mandatory implementation to be initiated by the LGUs, Mandatory segregation of solid waste is also embodied in R.A. 9003, and R.A. 9003 provides for the mandatory segregation of solid waste segregating waste containers marked with “recyclables’, “non-recyclables”, “compostables”, and “special waste” were not significantly related to the extent of the assessed needs. The finding implies that the higher the respondents’ awareness of the R.A. 9003 “Ecological solid Waste Management Act of 2000”, the higher the extent of their assessed needs for solid waste management system. An awareness of the importance of the installation of materials recovery facility (MRF) is essential for effective implementation of the solid waste management system. Table 4 shows the test of relationship between the indicators of the receptiveness to solid waste management system and the extent of assessed needs for solid waste management system. As shown, the two indicators that were significantly related to the extent of assessed needs were “Acceptance of the solid waste management system puts the barangay on the lead towards the support and implementation of R.A. 9003” and “The implementation 254
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R.G. M. Lago
of the solid waste management system helps minimize pollution of the rivers, creeks and drainage.” The finding implies that the assessment of solid waste management system needs of the barangay is influenced by the respondents’ level of receptiveness to solid waste management system. The higher is the respondents’ level of receptiveness to solid waste management system, the more eager they are to support the implementation of the solid waste management system. On the other hand, the indicators “the implementation of the solid waste management system serves as a stepping stone towards attaining a litter-free community”, ”solid waste management system motivates the residents to maintain a clean environment at the same time earn from recyclables wastes,” and “implementation of the solid waste management system preserves marine species” did not significantly influence the respondents’ assessment of the barangay’s solid waste management system needs. Table 4. Test of relationship between the indicators of receptiveness to solid waste management system and the assessed barangay’s needs Receptiveness Indicators in the Model Indicators of R.A. 9003
Regression Coefficients
F Value
Prob.
Interpretation
Ho:
3.5 Acceptance of the solid waste management system puts our barangay on the lead towards the support and implementation of R.A. 9003.
0.442589
20.105
0.0000
Significant
Reject
7.517
0.0086
Significant
Reject
3.2 The implementation of the solid waste management system helps minimize pollution of the rivers, creeks and drainage.
(r2=0.19589)
0.101015 (r2=0.30676)
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CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the findings of the study, the following conclusions are derived: 1. The respondents’ moderate awareness of R.A. 9003 and receptiveness to solid waste management system limit their cooperation with the LGU officials in initiating the implementation of R.A. 9003. The advocacy component has not been effective. 2. The respondents’ moderate assessment of the barangay’s solid waste management system needs in terms of handling and storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal discloses a community interest in adopting the introduced solid waste management system for the protection of the residents’ health and the environment. A functional sustainability program is needed. 3. The respondents’ moderate extent of assessment of solid waste management system needs is significantly influenced by their level of awareness of R.A 9003 as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 and the Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) for processing of recoverable wastes into useful products. 4. The respondents’ moderate extent of assessment of solid waste management system needs is significantly influenced by their level of receptiveness to the indicators that acceptance of the solid waste management system puts the barangay on the lead towards the support and implementation of R.A. 9003 and the implementation of the solid waste management system helps minimize pollution of the rivers, creek, and drainage. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the foregoing recommendations are advanced:
conclusions,
the
following
1. Efficient adoption of solid waste management system to address the solid waste management problem of the barangay. 256
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2. Consistent implementation of the procedures and processes of the functional elements of solid waste management system in terms of handling and storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal. 3. Massive information drive on proper waste management among the barangay residents. 4. Effective monitoring of the compliance with environmental standards by the city anti-smoke belching unit and the City Solid and Liquid Waste Management Division. 5. Environmental research to feedback the barangay of the status of the implementation of its solid waste management system. 6. Reduction of solid waste generation in the barangay to help maintain a litter-free community. LITERATURE CITED AUSL Technology and the Law Electronic Wasted Disposal. “http:// www.achr.net/solid-waste.htm” Retrieved 2008 Barlaz, M.A. et al. (1995). Life Cycle Study of Municipal Solid Waste Management. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/bns/ msw-i/wastelifesystem.pdf Brown, D.T. (1999). What is Sustainable Integrated Waste Management? Retrieved from http://www.brocku.ca/epi/ciet/ whatis.htm Corson, W.H. (1990). The Ecological Handbook. Boston Beacon Press. Device for the storage and Treatment of Biodegradable wet solid waste. “http://www.fags.org/patents/app/20080199951 Retrieved 2008. East Central solid waste commission.http://www.ecswc.cog.mn.us/ east_central_solid_waste_commiss1.htm” Retrieved 2008 EMB-DENR, Department Administrative Order No. 29, series of 1995 Escuna, E. (2005). The Health Effects of Teratogenic Chemical Products, Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro City. 257
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Gader, D. K. (2005). The Carcinogenic Chemical Products and Their Effects on Human Health, Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro City. Khundert, A.V. and Auschiitz, J. (2000). The Sustainability of alliances Between Stakeholders in Waste Management. Retrieved from http://www.gdrc.org/uem/waste/ISWM.pdf Kiamco, A.S. (2001). Development of a Solid Waste Management Plan for the Municipality of Jasaan存 Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro City. Kiamco, A.S. (2000). The Rivers, Creeks and Main Drainage Along the Coastal Areas of Cugman-Macabalan in the City of Cagayan de Oro: An Exploratory Study. Kiamco, A.S. (2006). Household Chemical Products and Family Health Safety. Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro City. Kiamco, A.S. (2006). Wholistic Health as a Tool for Peace. Liceo de Cagayan University, Cagayan de Oro City, 2006. Sincere, A.P. (1996). Environmental Engineering: A Design Approach. Maryland, Prentice Hall, Ltd. Wentz, C.A. (1996). Hazardous Waste Management. New York, Mc Graw Hill, Inc.
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Organizational Components and the Four-Fold Functions of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture NIDA A. ILUPA, D.M. na_ilupa@yahoo.com Mindanao State University, Marawi City Date Submitted: October 3, 2008 Final Revision Accepted: December 16, 2008 Abstract - This research evaluated the effectiveness of the Mindanao State University System (MSUS) and its Colleges of Agriculture, as an educational institution that provides agricultural education. The study was conducted in 4 major campuses of the MSU System having well-established Colleges of Agriculture namely: MSU Marawi, MSU Maguindanao, MSU General Santos and MSU Sulu. The research design used is descriptive employing the survey technique. Supplemented by individual and group interviews. The non-random purposive sampling technique was utilized in the selection of college officials, faculty members and support staff as respondents. The data were analyzed and interpreted using the following statistical techniques: weighted mean, analysis of variance one way classification (F Test), and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis. The overall level of effectiveness in the performance of the four-fold functions is only â&#x20AC;&#x153;Goodâ&#x20AC;? while the overall assessment of its existing organizational components is Uncertain. There are significant differences in the ratings of the three groups in some of the functions while there are no significant differences in the ratings of all organizational components; and 3) Out of 11 indicators, two of them, Statement of the VMGO and, the Dissemination and Acceptability, turned out to have significant relationship with the performance effectiveness. Keywords - Organizational Effectiveness, Organizational Components, and Four-fold Functions 259
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Introduction What the country needs are effective performing agricultural schools and colleges that can mold graduates or produce agriculturists who are highly motivated, competent, and progressminded but socially conscious professionals, scientists, farm practitioners and agricultural business entrepreneurs. These institutions should excel in the delivery of the four-fold functions of Instruction, Research, Extension and Production to become major instruments that can empower their constituents with appropriate knowledge and skills in agriculture; change and improve the quality of life of the people and their community as a whole. This need was stressed through CHED Memorandum Order No. 51, series of 2007, which provides that the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) develops centers that can spearhead the nation’s thrust towards development. The memorandum order provided implementing guidelines for the selection of Centers of Excellence (COEs) and Centers of Development (CODs) in Agricultural Education, which includes agriculture, fisheries, agricultural engineering, forestry and veterinary medicine. The criteria consisted of: Instructional Quality (45%), Research and Publication (35%), Extension and Linkages (10%), and Institutional Qualification (10%). The COEs are Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) that demonstrate the highest degree of standard in instruction, research and extension, and exhibit excellent qualities in producing AE professionals while CODs are HEIs that have the potential to become COEs in the future. The Mindanao State University (MSU) System, an institution of higher learning contributes to the nation’s agricultural education through its Colleges of Agriculture. It is the only state university in the country with the special mandate of integrating the cultural communities in Mindanao into the mainstream of the nation’s sociocultural and political life by providing them with opportunities for quality and relevant public education for their self-development and providing trained manpower skills and technical know-how for the economic development of the region (http://www.skyscrapercity. com/archive/index.php/t-716666-p-3.html). The Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP) defines the following functions of an academic institution: Instruction which is the dissemination of 260
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knowledge, occupies the center stage in any educational program. Research is an avenue through which new knowledge is discovered, applied or verified and through which appropriate technologies are generated. Extension involves the application of new knowledge and technology generated in the institution to improve the quality of life of the people (AACCUP, 2000). Added to these 3 traditional functions is the function of Production for agricultural schools and colleges. Production refers to the activities that relate to the creation of goods and services through the transformation of inputs into outputs (Medina, 2003). Production is putting the learned theories; skills and knowledge into practical applications, as well as it can also help in generating income to support the other three enumerated functions. For this reason, a diagnostic organizational evaluation of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture can be helpful to determine its performance as an educational institution that provides agricultural education, and specifically to find out: a) Both the level of its effectiveness in the performance of the four-fold functions and the assessment of the condition of its existing organizational components; b) If there are significant differences both in the ratings of performance effectiveness and ratings on conditions of the organizational components as rated by the three groups of respondents; and c) Which of the organizational components predict performance effectiveness. The study was guided by the following null hypotheses: FRAMEWORK For better management, it is important for any organization to examine its current performance as basis for improvement interventions. Organization performance refers to how well organizations do their jobs, how successfully an organization achieves its objectives, and satisfies social responsibility. There are two concepts of organizational performance. Efficiency is the ability to do things right, an input-output concept. Effectiveness in contrast involves choosing the right goals. No amount of efficiency can make up for a lack of effectiveness. Before we can focus on doing things efficiently we need to be sure we have found the right things to do as the key to an organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s success (Drucker as cited by Stoner et al., 1995). The overall organizational performance depends on how effective 261
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the organization delivers its functions. Organizational effectiveness has 4 criteria: Goal Accomplishment means the organization achieve its stated organizational goals. Key organizational results or outputs are compared with previous stated goals or objectives. Deviations either plus or minus requires corrective actions. Internal Process means the organization functions smoothly with a minimum strain referred to as the “healthy systems” approach. An organization is said to be healthy if information flows smoothly and if employee loyalty, commitment, job satisfaction and trust prevail. Resource Acquisition states that an organization is deemed effective if it acquires necessary factors of production such as raw materials, labor, capital, managerial, and technical expertise. Strategic Constituent’s Satisfaction means that the demand and expectations of key interest groups are at least minimally satisfied (Cameron as cited by Kreitner and Kinichi 1995) The study is anchored on the Integrated System View and Contingency Views of Organizations of Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig which was discussed fully in their book: Organization and Management: A Systems and Contingency Approach. These views were adopted by many authors like Gareth Morgan (1986), Robert Kreitner & Angelo Kinicki (1995), Richard Daft (1997), G. Dessler (2001) and James Stoner, Edward Freeman & Daniel Gilbert (2002). A system is an organized, unitary whole composed of two or more interdependent parts, components, or subsystems and delineated by identifiable boundaries from its environmental suprasystem. The systems approach to management views the organization as unified, purposeful system composed of interrelated parts. Systems theory tells us that the activity of any segment of an organization affects in varying degrees, the activity of every other segment (Stoner et al, 2002). Changes in one part of the organization affect other parts. The organization must be managed as a coordinated whole. Managers who understand subsystem interdependence are reluctant to make changes that do not recognize subsystem impact on the organization as a whole (Daft, 1997). Examining the internal organization, it can be viewed as composed of several major components or subsystems. Goals and Values are the culture, philosophy, overall goals, group goals and individual goals. Technical subsystem is knowledge, techniques, facilities and equipments. Psychosocial subsystem is human resources, attitudes, perceptions, motivations, group dynamics, leadership, communication and interpersonal relations. Structural subsystem 262
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is tasks, workflow, work group, authority, information flow, procedures and rules. And Managerial/Administrative subsystem is goal setting, planning, assembling resources, organizing, implementing and controlling (Kreitner and Kinicki. 1995). Using the systems perspective as the basic frame of reference the contingency view can be described as follows: The contingency view seeks to understand the interrelationship within and among subsystems (components) as well as between the organization and its environment and to define patterns of relationships or configurations of variables. It emphasizes the multivariate nature of organizations and attempts to understand how organization operates under varying conditions and in specific circumstances. Contingency views are ultimately directed toward suggesting organizational designs and managerial actions most appropriate for specific situations (Kast and Rozensweig, 1985). According to the Contingency Approach advocates, results differ because situation differ, a technique that works in one case will not necessary work in all cases. According to this approach, the manager’s task is to identify which technique will in a particular situation under particular circumstances, and a particular time, best contribute to the attainment of management goals (Abelos et al., 2006). The framework portrays that effectiveness in the performance of the four-fold functions is the dependent variable while the internal organizational components are the independent variables. The following discussions give explanations on how each indicator influence the performance effectiveness of an educational organization: depict Every organization has a unique purpose and reason for being. This uniqueness should be reflected in vision and mission statements. Well designed vision and mission are essential for formulation, implementing and evaluating strategies. Drucker says that developing a clear vision and mission statements is the first responsibility of the “strategist”. A Vision statement answers the question, “What do we want to become. An organizational structure is the formal pattern of activities (jobs and group of jobs) and interrelationships among the various subunits of the organization. Since organization are purposeful and goal-oriented. It follows that the structure of the organization is likewise purposeful and goal oriented. Its primary purpose is to influence the behavior of individuals and groups to achieve effective performance. It is an 263
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important cause of individual and group behavior since individuals and groups respond in significant ways to the jobs they perform, to the groups they work with, to the leaders who influence them. The job itself provides powerful stimuli for individual and group behavior (Gibson and Donnely, 1997). AACCUP describes the importance of Library, Laboratories Facilities and Physical Plant and Facilities as follows: The Library is the heart of any learning institution. It is a synergy of people, hardware and software whose purpose is to assist client in using knowledge and technology to transform and improve their lives. Information and knowledge are essential to the attainment of institutional goals. The ways in which they are selected, acquired, 264
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stored accessed and distributed within the institution will in large measure, determine the success of teaching, research and other academic concepts. The institution thrives on clear policies concerning access to the provision of information. Thus, the library must take an active role in the development and implementation of these policies. Laboratories are support system in any academic program. Broadly defined, they include science laboratories, speech laboratories, and demonstration farms used for practicum, shops and other facilities essential to the successful implementation of the curricular programs of the institution. Furthermore, the term is not limited to just the space, equipment, supplies and materials but also their functionality to facilitate the attainment of the programsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; objectives. The quality and adequacy of Physical plant and facilities of a learning institution determine to a large measure the successful implementation of its curricular programs. In a broad sense it includes school, site, campus, buildings and other physical infrastructure, equipment and services that complement institutional and program effectiveness. Another important technical factor is Linkage. Linkages between the school and other agencies are vital to the development of the academic community, the university must intensify it effort to maintain and promote linkages with regional, national and international agencies. Linkages with other university and agencies tend to develop a closer relationship between them while sharing experiences and expertise that are of mutual interest. Institution with linkages benefit greatly from sharing of networking resources in both the Academic and applied areas of education (Savellano as cited by Abellanosa, 1999). The administration is the engine of an educational institution in the attainment of its vision, mission, goals and objectives. It is concerned with the general affairs of the institution as well as its organizational performance. Thus the administration initiates institutional processes and ensures that said processes are satisfactorily implemented. It includes the Academic unit (College) administration and Campus Administrative Support (AACCUP, 2000). Administration of a university has four principal areas: academic administration which is the primary concern of the academic staff; administration of student personnel services which includes selection, admission, and scheduling of students and the recording of their academic achievements; business administration which 265
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includes such activities as accounting, auditing, reporting, and budgetary control; management of auxiliary and service activities; operation and maintenance of the institutional plant; selection and promotion of nonacademic personnel; and the administration of the personnel benefits programs; and public relations which includes the relationship with the media, alumni, contact with donors and legislatures (Blackwell as cited by Kast and Rozensweig, 1986). Quality of Work Life (QWL) refers to the favorableness or unfavorableness of a total job environment for people. QWL programs are ways in which organizations recognize their responsibility to develop jobs and working conditions that are excellent as well as for the economic health of the organization. Its elements are: area of supportive organizational behavior, open communication, equitable reward system, a concern for employees, job security and satisfying careers, a caring supervisor and participation in decision making, job enrichment, development of employees skills, reduction of occupational stress, and development of more cooperative labor-management relations. Close attention to QWL provides a more humanized work environment. It attempts to serve the higher order needs as well as their basic needs. It seeks to employ the higher skills of workers and to provide an environment that encourages them to improve their skills (Newstrom & Davies, 2002). Organizational climate, defined as the way in which organizational members perceive and characterize their environment in an attitudinal and value-based manner, has been asserted as an important and influential aspect of satisfaction and retention, as well as institutional effectiveness and success in higher education (Moran and Volkwein, 1992). The nonacademic staff also represents an important part of the psychosocial system. Architects, engineers, programmers, counselors, budget analysts, and system designers are examples of professional who are utilized in various specialized functions. Many others-secretaries, food service workers, mechanics-also make important contributions to university operations (Kast and Rosensweig, 1985). They could also include clerks, utility workers, technicians, drivers and administrative aides.
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Methodology The study was conducted in 4 major campuses of the MSU SYSTEM having well-established Colleges of Agriculture namely: MSU Marawi, MSU Maguindanao, MSU Gensan and MSU SULU. These colleges concentrate all their efforts and resources in offering either several or all curricular programs specialized in the field agriculture such Agricultural Engineering; Plant/Crop Science; Animal Science; Agribusiness Management; Agricultural Extension; Agricultural Education and a Diploma in Agricultural Technology. The time frame of the study is Academic Year 2008-2009. The research is concerned with the organizational effectiveness of the MSU Colleges of Agriculture in relation to assessment of its internal organizational components. So the respondents who best qualify to answer specific questions to achieve the objective of the study are its immediate organizational members. This is taking into consideration their being part of the organization and being able to work within the organization. The research design is the descriptive method employing the survey technique. The instrument utilized for gathering main data was a questionnaire, supplemented with individual and group interviews. Part 1 of the questionnaire dealt with performance effectiveness of the four-fold functions. Part 2 focused on the assessment of the condition of the organizational components occurring within the colleges. The non-random purposive sampling technique was utilized in the selection of the 3 groups of respondents: a) College Officials are members of the College Executive Committee given the task to administer the affairs of the college and with designations sanctioned by a Special Order; b) Faculty members are full time academic personnel without any administrative function or designation. Faculty respondents must have been with the college organization for at least 2 years; and c) Support Staff are members of the workforce that helps in carrying out, maintaining and supporting the college administration to efficiently implement its operations and programs. To obtain accurate responses they must have a college education, and have worked the college for at least 2 years. There were a total of 127 respondents composed of 37 college officials, 65 faculty members, and 25 support staff. The data were analyzed and interpreted using the following statistical techniques: 267
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Weighted Means, Analysis of variance one way classification (F Test), and Multiple Linear Regression Analysis. The retrieval of the research questionnaire was 81% among College Administrators/Officials, 91% among Faculty members and 80% among the Support Staff members due to the following reasons: busy schedules of the college officials, reluctance of some faculty to cooperate and some staff finds the questionnaire quite long. Results and Discussion Table 1 shows the Overall Performance Effectiveness ratings on all indicators of the four-fold functions as rated by the three groups of respondents. The study found out that the overall level of effectiveness in the performance of the four-fold functions of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture as rated by College Officials, Faculty members and Support Staff of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture is only â&#x20AC;&#x153;Goodâ&#x20AC;?. Two indicators on Instruction have highest means of (3.47) and (3.44) both verbally described as very good. They are Curriculum/ Program of Studies and Classroom Management. As one system, all four campuses adopt a uniform curricular offering in all their degree and technology courses. The College Officials, Faculty Members and Support Staff agreed the curriculum is well defined; logically sequenced and prerequisite courses are identified because of the fact that the curriculum/ program of study undergo a very rigid process before it is finally approved. Previously, a new or a revision proposal for a curriculum is being done by faculty members of the MSU Main Campus. The proposal for a new offering or revision will be prepared by a department curriculum committee based on the guidelines provided by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Technical Panel for Agricultural Education (TPAE), Philippine Regulatory Commission (PRC) and on the Guidelines on the Approval and Implementation of the Curricular Revisions and New Programs in MSU Campuses. It will then pass through the Campus Curriculum Sub-Committee on Basic and Applied Sciences. However, efforts are now being done to see to it that the new or revised curriculum is being discussed first by all campuses offering the same course before submission to the University System Curriculum Committee for recommendation of its final approval to the Board of Regents. All the three groups agree that in general, there is strict 268
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monitoring and implementation of attendance rules, proper classroom discipline is maintained and independent work and performance is encouraged and properly monitored. Most of the College Officials and Faculty Members, agreed that they are particular on attendance. They warn the students on the university policy on attendance. Records of students’ attendance are kept because many faculties give a certain percentage on attendance in the student’s final grade. The Support Staff also agreed that to get one’s grade, a student has to work hard independently with the proper monitoring of the faculty. However, 2 indicators on Research have lowest overall means of (2.40) and (2.59) both verbally described only as Fair. These are Funding and other resources and Publication, Dissemination and Utilization. In an interview with the College Officials, they admitted that their respective colleges has no budget intended for research to fund both faculty and student researches. The Miscellaneous Operating Expenses is just enough for the college operation. Research is dependent on the campus budget which also depends on the availability of funds and on funding that can be generated from linkages. In MSU SULU, researches are mostly self-financed and sometimes assisted by the campus administration. In MSU Maguindanao, researches are sometimes and partially funded by Department of Agriculture and PHILRICE. In MSU Marawi, both dissertation and thesis assistance for Academic Personnel Development Program (APDP) grantee is only Php5000. Faculty members on thesis and dissertation writing have to apply for research assistance from institutions like CHED, DOST, DA-BAR, SEARCA or personally finance their researches. Some Support Staff members confided that although they are not involved in research activities, they have not heard of the college providing funds for faculty and student researches. The students fund their own thesis or case studies as partial requirements for their respective degrees. The State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) shall be encouraged to allocate funds for research. Resources form various agencies, locally and abroad should be explored to augment the institution’s appropriation. In house reviews shall periodically be done and ventilated to local and national instrumentalities interested in collaborating with academic institutions (AACCUP, 2000). However, based on the findings the colleges have no budget for research so they have to enhance sourcing of funds to effectively 269
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perform said function. The College Officials explained that the College does not impose on the faculty to write a book. The college can only recommend a faculty to the Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs if said faculty wants to undergo a sabbatical leave to write a book but it cannot offer any financial support due to very scarce resources. The faculty members and staff agreed that the College does not also impose on the faculty to write articles and publish them in academic or scientific journals; it all depends on individual faculty members. Publication is only required for promotion. And furthermore, most of the colleges do not have linkages with the publishers of journals or magazines. According to AACCUP criteria, researches whether it is on the proposal, on-going or completed status may be published in the proper media and disseminated to target clientele. However, the findings revealed that the colleges are weak in terms of faculty writing books, articles and reports due to scarce financial resources, no imposition as obligation and no linkages with publishers. Table 1. Summary of overall performance effectiveness ratings on the fourfold functions as rated by college officials, Faculty members and support staff Indicators Instruction Curriculum /Prog Of Studies Classroom Management Instructional Processes Col Sup. For Instruction Research Priorities And Relevance Funding & Other Resources Quality Of Research Output Pub, Diss.& Utilization Extension Priorities And Relevance Funding & Other Resources Planning, Impl. & Monitoring Production Marketing Management Technicalmarketing Financial Marketing Projectmanagement Overall 270
College Officials Wm Vd 3.69 Vg 3.79 Vg 3.66 Vg 3.63 Vg
Faculty Members Wm Vd 3.28 G 3.37 G 3.15 G 2.98 G
Support Staff Wm Vd 3.54 Vg 3.30 G 3.23 G 3.24 G
3.49 2.62 3.11 2.84
Vg G G G
2.87 2.20 2.49 2.41
G F F F
3.24 2.64 3.00 2.78
3.60 3.08 3.02
Vg G G
2.94 2.47 2.54
G F F
3.00 3.08 3.01 3.28 3.26
G G G G G
2.56 2.55 2.40 2.73 2.72
G F F G G
Overall Wm 3.44 3.48 3.31 3.18
Vd Vg Vg G G
G G G G
3.11 2.40 2.75 2.59
G F G F
3.19 2.91 3.01
G G G
3.17 2.72 2.76
G G G
2.89 3.16 3.02 3.29 3.10
G G G G G
2.74 2.79 2.69 2.99 2.94
G G G G G
Organizational Components and the Four-Fold Functions of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture
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Legend: WM=Weighted Mean VD=Verbal Description E=Excellent VG=Very Good G=Good F=Fair P=Poor
Table 2 shows the Overall Assessment of the Condition of the Organizational Components as rated by College Officials, Faculty Members, and Support Staff of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture. The study revealed that the overall assessment of the condition of organizational components occurring in the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture as rated by College Officials, Faculty Members and Support Staff is Uncertain. The Group interviews in the colleges of the four campuses revealed that uncertain answer stands for “taking no sides”, “being neutral”, “no comment”, and “playing safe”. According to the respondents, taking into consideration that the MSU SYSTEM Campuses had already existed for a number of decades, it is a fact that these organizational components are present. However, they further added clarifications why assessment is “uncertain”: 1) The conditions of these components are middle-of-the-road or average only; 2) Some employees are apprehensive to tell the truth due to fear of offending both campus and college administration considering the existing cultural and political system; 3) Some are protective of the status of both campus and college and one is expected not to say something against if he is with the administration; 4) Some are not well informed of the status of these components because programs and facilities of the campus or college are not widely disseminated; 5) Some are not availing of the services of the components because they not handling courses with laboratory activities or some are not using the library resources; and 6) Some have no way of checking/ validating their status due to busy schedules and activities are limited only to one’s own department . Two indicators on Organizational Goals & Values and StructuralTechnical Components have highest means of (3.93) and (3.94) both verbally described as Agree. They are Statement of Vision, Mission, Goals and Objectives (VMGOs) and Organization Structure. In an interview, the College Officials agreed that the broad and long term accomplishments that their colleges wishes to attain were all drawn from the mission of the college which outlines its fundamental purposes and which communicate ‘what the college is, what it does, where it is headed and what it wants to accomplish in the MINSUPALA region. The Faculty Members also agreed that the 271
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vision of the college gives a picture of what the college would like to become and where it is trying to head. The drafted vision gives the colleges a sense of purpose and a set of values. Further, they added that their VMGOs as degree granting units of the system are consistent with the VMGOs of whole MSU System. They also agreed that each college has a well defined organization structure having established goals; approved by the BOR; the duties and responsibilities are well-defined; communication channels are also clearly defined, with logical policies and procedures; and in one way or another each imposes employee accountability. Moreover, all the three groups confirmed that the Colleges are subdivided into major departments based on specializations: Plant Science/ Agronomy, Animal Science/Animal Husbandry, Agricultural Business Management, Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Education and Extension with a department head. On the other hand, 2 indicators on Structural-Technical Components have lowest overall means of (2.90) and (3.09) both verbally described as Uncertain. They are Library & Resources and Linkages. The College Officials, Faculty Members and Support Staff, revealed that each campus has a Main library that serves the entire campus student population. However, only the College of Agriculture of the Marawi Campus has a Unit Library being supported and supervised by the campus Main Library. The other three colleges have mini-libraries which are only comparable to reading rooms. The reading materials of these mini libraries are made available due to the initiative efforts of the faculty member such as collecting books, reading materials, publications and magazines. The colleges also exert efforts such as soliciting donations and subscribing journal and magazines in order to enhance the mini library collection. The College Officials, Faculty Members and Support Staff also confirmed that all of the Colleges have no specific budget for extension program. But since they are committed to extend community services, they work hand in hand with the community
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Table 2. Summary of the overall assessment of all organizational Components as rated by college officials, faculty Members and support staff Organizational Goals And Values Component
College Officials Wm
Vd
Faculty Members
Support Staff
Wm
Wm
Vd
Overall Vd
Wm
Vd
Statement Of Vmgos
4.14
A
3.80
A
4.02
A
3.93
A
Dissemination & Acceptability Structural-Technical Component Organization Structure
3.31
U
3.13
U
3.46
A
3.23
U
3.98
A
3.95
A
3.83
A
3.94
A
Library And Resources
2.83
U
2.84
U
3.18
U
2.90
U
Laboratories & Facilities Physical Plant & Facilities
3.05
U
3.18
U
3.50
A
3.21
U
3.13
U
3.21
U
3.37
U
3.21
U
3.03
U
3.04
U
3.34
U
3.09
U
3.31
U
3.38
U
3.50
A
3.38
U
Linkages AdministrativePsychosocial Component College Administration Campus Adm. Support
3.18
U
3.16
U
3.59
A
3.24
U
Organizational Climate
3.28
U
3.32
U
3.50
A
3.34
U
Faculty/Staff Performance
3.57
A
3.67
A
3.59
A
3.63
A
3.35
U
3.33
U
3.53
A
3.37
U
Overall
Legend: WM=Weighted Mean VD=Verbal Description SA=Strongly Agree A=Agree U=Uncertain D=Disagree SD=Strongly Disagree
down to the barangay level. However, extension services depend largely on the priority, willingness and cooperation of the community leaders. Furthermore, some College Officials interviewed added that at times they source out additional resources from government agencies for example vaccines, feeds, seeds from the local Department of Agriculture, Phil Rice, and Philippine Carabao Center to be used for the community but said resources are very limited in supply and not often. The colleges also establish linkages for the trainings of faculty and staff but opportunities are not frequent. 273
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Only the three campuses have outside funding as support for Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Scholarship Grants, MSU Marawi, MSU Maguindanao and MSU Sulu. MSU Maguindanao has the most number as far as outside scholarship support is concern. The College Officials confided that more linkages to support particularly students taking up agriculture need to be sourced out. Faculty Members admitted that there is limited outside assistance or funding support for the college production projects so most of these projects are funded by their respective campus units as income generating projects. Outside funding is mostly on the fixed asset investment. In MSU Maguindanao for example, CHED provided funds for the green houses and trained one faculty to manage it and Department of Science and Technology also provided funds for their Vermiculture project. The Support Staff are aware of that their unit libraries are made functional due to the initiative of their faculty members and these libraries are not involved in consortium, networking, and cooperative activities in resource sharing. On the basis of the findings the colleges have to exert more effort to establish more linkages for their instruction, research, extension and production activities. Table 3 shows the test of difference on the level of performance effectiveness of the four-fold functions as rated by College Officials, Faculty Members and Support Staff. The data revealed that in Instruction, there are significant differences in the following indicators: Classroom Management; Instructional Processes/ Methods; and Support for Effective Instruction. In Research, there are significant differences in the indicators: Priorities and Relevance; and Quality of Research Outputs. In Extension, there are significant differences in Priorities and Relevance; Funding and Other Resources; and Planning, Implementation and Monitoring. Production, there are significant differences in Technical Management; Financial Management; and Project Management. The finding indicates that the division of the three respondents as college officials, faculty members and support staff is an important differentiating factor in their perception of performance effectiveness in the said indicators. Each group has its own viewpoint depending on their role, participation/involvement, and commitment in each of the four-fold functions of instruction, research, extension and production. The faculty members provided lower ratings in most indicators as compared to college officials and support staff which pointed out that they are less contented 274
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with existing performance effectiveness. Table 3. Test of difference on the level of performance effectiveness of the four-fold functions as rated by 3 groups of respondents F-Test Results Function Instruction
Weighted Mean
F-Test Results
Conclusion
Interpretation = Not Significant Ho 1: Accept
Curriculum/ Program Of Studies
Co=3.6889 Fm=3.2792 Ss=3.5441
F Calculated Value = 2.8639 Prob.= .0617 Bet=2 W/ In=101 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.09
Classroom Management
Co=3.7931 Fm=3.3682 Ss=3.3000
F Calculated Value =3.1157 Prob.= .0486 Bet= 2 W/In= 101 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.09
Co=3.6600 Fm=3.1534 Ss=3.2250
F Calculated Value = 4.1102 Prob.= .0191 Bet= 2 W/In= 105 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.09
Co=3.6262 Fm=2.9818 Ss=3.2421
F Calculated Value = 6.1456 Prob.= .0030 Bet= 2 W/In= 102 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.09
Priorities And Relevance
Co=3.4867 Fm=2.8678 Ss=3.2400
Funding And Other Resources
Co=2.6167 Fm=2.2034 Ss=2.6375
F Calculated Value = 4.2793 Prob.= .0163 Bet= 2 W/In= 106 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.08
Instructional Processes/ Methods College Support For Effective Instruction Research
Quality Of Research Outputs Publication, Dissemination And Utilization Extension Priorities And Relevance
F Calculated Value =2.2697 Prob.= .1083 Bet= 2 W/In= 106 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.08
Co=3.1111 Fm=2.4859 Ss=3.0000
F Calculated Value = 4.1934 Prob.=.0177 Bet=2 W/In=106 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.08
Co=2.8429 Fm=2.4121 Ss=2.7789
F Calculated Value = 2.0931 Prob.=.1286 Bet=2 W/In=102 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.09
Co=3.5952 Fm=2.9433 Ss=3.1880
F Calculated Value = 5.0326 Prob.=.0082 Bet=2 W/In=104 F Critical (Table) Value =3.08
Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject
Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject Interpretation = Not Significant Ho 1: Accept Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject Interpretation = Not Significant Ho 1: Accept
Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject
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(Table 3 continued) Funding And Other Resources
Co=3.0833 Fm=2.4746 Ss=2.9125
F Calculated Value = 5.0409 Prob.= .0081 Bet= 2 W/In= 106
Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject
Planning, Implementation & Monitoring
Co=3.0230 Fm=2.5410 Ss=3.0125
F Critical (Table) Value = 3.08 F Calculated Value = 3.0400 Prob.= .0521 Bet= 2 W/In= 105 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.08
Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject
Marketing Management
Co=3.0000 Fm=2.5579 Ss=2.8900
F Calculated Value = 2.0729 Prob.= .1310 Bet= 2 W/In= 104
Interpretation = Not Significant Ho 1: Accept
Technical Management
Co=3.0800 Fm=2.5503 Ss=3.1579
Financial Management
Co=3.0111 Fm=2.4006 Ss=3.0167
Project Management
Co=3.2833 Fm=2.7299 Ss=3.2917
Production
F Critical (Table) Value = 3.08 F Calculated Value = 5.5463 Prob.= .0051 Bet= 2 W/In= 104 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.08 F Calculated Value = 4.6463 Prob.= .0117 Bet= 2 W/In= 104 F Critical (Table) Value = 3.08 F Calculated Value = 4.3517 Prob.= .0153 Bet= 2 W/In= 105 F Critical (Table) Value =3.08
Legend: CO=College Officials SS=Support Staff
Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject Interpretation = Significant Ho 1: Reject
FM=Faculty Members
Table 4 presents the regression analysis between organizational components and performance effectiveness of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture. Out of 11 predictors, two of them turned out to have significant relationship with the performance effectiveness of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture. These two (2) predictors are Statement of Vision, Mission, Goals and Objectives, and its Dissemination and Acceptability. The findings revealed that Statement of College VMGOs came out as the single best predictor which explained 31.19% of the variance of performance effectiveness. This means that the identification or formulation of VMGOs is a very important factor in performance effectiveness since VMGOs can be translated as the philosophy of education and training that encompass the college operation. 276
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Vision is a statement about what the each college wants to become and it gives shape and direction to the future of the colleges. If they are accepted and lived up to by college officials, faculty members and support staff of the colleges, these VMGOs will make them feel proud, excited, and be part of something much bigger than them. It will help boost the image and stretch existing capabilities of the colleges in the performance of instruction, research extension and production even with limited resources. Mission is a statement that broadly outlines the fundamental purposes of each college and serves to communicate ‘who the college is, what it does, where it is headed and what it wants to accomplish in the MINSUPALA region. A clear mission statement acts as an ‘invisible hand’ that will guide the college officials, faculty members and support staff in the colleges so that they can work independently and yet collectively towards the over-all organization vision. Goals are the broad and long term accomplishments an organization wishes to attain while Objectives are the specific short term statements detailing how to achieve the goals. The next organizational component indicator is the Dissemination & Acceptability of the VMGOs. This means that once the VMGOs are recognized and put together, the colleges need to circulate them and they have to exert efforts in order that these VMGOs are accepted. Without the dissemination there is no knowledge or awareness and understanding them is impossible on the part of every member of the organization. Acceptance is the degree to which individuals recognize the goals as the ones they would like to achieve. Only the active participation of all members of the organization will ensure a truly organization wide, value-based shared culture (http://humanresources.about.com/od/ strategic planning1/a/organizvalues…). The findings of the study also revealed that once the Statement of the VMGO and its Dissemination & Acceptability are joined together, they predict 37.92% of the variance of performance effectiveness. This implies that the identification and formulation of the VMGOs must be followed by its dissemination to create awareness and full understanding. As a result the college constituents can accept and consider them meaningful and important core values of their organizational culture. Thus, it will provide them guidance in the every day performance of their duties and functions. This can be done through honest to goodness discussions on what the VMGOs are, how they would be accomplished and how each person’s effort 277
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fits into the big picture and not just having print outs describing them. It appears that a major step to enhance performance effectiveness starts with a strong effort on the part of college administration to evaluate, strengthen and update their existing vision, mission, goals and objectives with the participation of every college officials, faculty members, support staff and even students of the colleges. The second step is to facilitate that these VMGOs resonate with everyone through continuously keeping everyone oriented, well informed, and conscious of these VMGOs. Finally, these VMGOs should be lived up by everyone in the organization through the integration of these VMGOs in every facet of the organizationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s culture. On the other hand, nine of indicators exhibited no significant relations with the performance effectiveness of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture. These are organization structure, library and resources, laboratory and facilities, physical plant and facilities, linkages, college administration, campus administrative support, organizational climate, and the faculty & staff performances. The findings disclosed that even if these predictors are present, there will be no basis or standards for performance effectiveness if there are no explicit and implicit goals identified first and then accepted by the organization members. Table 4. Regression analysis in the independent variables as significant predictors of the performance effectiveness of the msu System Colleges of Agriculture
VARIABLES IN THE MODEL Independent Variables
Regression Coefficients
F Value
Prob.
Interpretation
Ho:
Statement Of Vision, Mission, Goal And Objectives
.558481 (R2 = .31190)
25.555
.0000
Significant
Reject
.395310 (R2 = .37918)
7.745
.0069
Significant
Reject
Dissemination And Acceptability
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Conclusions On the basis of the significant findings, the following conclusions are made: 1. The level of effectiveness of the College of Agriculture within the MSU System in the performance of the four-fold functions has yet to be improved to a “Very Good” if not “Excellent” level since overall rating of the college officials, faculty members and staff is only “Good” in almost all indicators. 2. The ratings by groups showed significant differences in the level of performance effectiveness in almost all indicators of the four-fold functions namely Instruction; research; extension; and production as rated by college officials, faculty members, and support staff. Due to the significant differences in the rating of these indicators, interventions specifically for the identified weak areas are highly suggested with the involvement of all College Officials, Faculty Members and Support Staff, 3. The status of the conditions of organizational components is generally “Uncertain” in almost all indicators based on the assessment of the College Officials, Faculty Members and Support Staff as they occur within the colleges. The actual conditions of these organizational components necessitate concrete evaluation due to the spelled out responses that clarified why assessment is “uncertain”. 4. The regression analysis between organizational components and performance effectiveness of the MSU System Colleges of Agriculture showed that out of 11 predictors, two of them turned out to have significant relations with the performance effectiveness. These are Statement of Vision, Mission, Goals and Objectives, and their Dissemination and Acceptability. The conduct of a new College Participatory Strategic Planning participated by College Officials, Faculty Members and Support Staff is timely considering that the VMGOs of these colleges were formulated in early 2000. This course of action will help evaluate current reality and underlying challenges; will help determine if there is a need for paradigm shift; update strategic directions and VMGOs and will help the colleges formulate implementation plans to achieve organizational objectives and thus enhance the performance effectiveness of the four-fold functions. 279
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Acknowledgments The realization of this research work was made possible by the contribution, assistance, support, and encouragement of many people who are worthy of my heartfelt gratitude and appreciation. Above all, to the Almighty God for whom I bring back all the glory and praises for His continuous guidance and blessings, and in making things possible; Dr. Genaro V. Japos, Research Director of LDCU Research and Publication Office, my adviser, professor and mentor, for teaching me the art of research and making me appreciate its value. Dr, Teresita T. Tumapon, LDCU Vice President for Academic Affairs and concurrent Dean of the School of Graduate Studies; Dr. Mariano M. Lerin, President of Liceo de Cagayan University; Dr. Bienvenido M. Flores, former dean of the School of Graduate Studies; Dr. Jofi V. Mahilum, former Research Director of LDCURPO; and Dr. Eloisa W. Paderanga, Region X CHED Director; for all their valuable comments, and significant recommendations. Dr. Macapado A. Muslim, President of the MSU SYSTEM for giving me the official permission and granting me the authority to undertake the study in the four MSU System Campuses. And the Vice Chancellors for Academic Affairs: Dr. Macabangkit P. Ati of MSU Marawi, Dr. Tumanda D. Antok of MSU Maguindanao, Dr. Mary Lynn S. Abiera of MSU Gensan, and Dr, Sukarno M. Baiting of MSU Sulu for allowing me to conduct the study in their respective campuses. LITERATURE CITED AACCUP Manual, Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines, Inc. Survey Instrument for Accrediting Programs in Agriculture 2000. Abellanosa-Nieva, (1999) â&#x20AC;&#x153;The Contribution of Organizational Factors to the Performance of the Academic Function of MSUIIT.â&#x20AC;? Unpublished Dissertation, Liceo de Cagayan University Abelos, N. (2006) Organization and Management. Manila: Educational Publishing House Daft, R (1997) Management. Philippines: Asia Pte Ltd 280
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Gibson, Ivancevich and Donnely. (1997) Organizations: Behavior, Structure and Processes, USA: Richard D. Irwin. Information Guide To the “New” MSU System: Opening window of Opportunity for Sustainable Peace and Development on Mindanao. 2007 Kast, F. & Rosenzweig, J. (1986) Organization and Management: A Systems and Contingency Approach, Singapore: Mc Graw Hill International Edition. Kreitner, R. & Kinicki A. (1995) Organizational Behavior. USA: Organizational Behavior Medina, R. (2003) Entrepreneurship and Small Business Management, Philippines: Rex Printing Company Inc. Memorandum Order No. 51 series of 2007, Commission on Higher Education Moran, E.T. and J. F. Volkwein (1992). The Cultural Approach to the Formation of Organizational climate. Human Relations, 45, 19-47. Stoner, S. (2002) Management. Philippines: Pearson Education Asia
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Modeling of an Industrial Wastewater Treatment System Using Historical Process Data
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Figure 1. The modeling process
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Modeling of an Industrial Wastewater Treatment System Using Historical Process Data
Equation 1:
I.M. Dap-og
1
SS− =−Yk o
d
c
Equation 2( Monod ):
Equation 3( Contois ):
Equation 4 (Monod):S
Equation 5(Contois):S
K =+ s SS kS o −
SS o −
=
=
K =+ sx kS
K(sd 1 + k cmµ
X =
k
c
-d
XK sx (1 + k dc
µ
cm
Equation 6:
k
c
+
-d
dc
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Figure 7. Correlation of Observed and Predicted Average MLSS DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS The results of parameter estimation and model verification are summarized in the tables below. Table 1. Summary of results for parameter estimation Model parameters
Estimated Values
Y (yield coefficient), mg MLSS/mg BOD5 kd (endogenous decay coefficient), da-1 Âľm (maximum specific growth rate), da-1 Ks (Saturation constant), mg/l BOD
0.506 0.001 0.0875 (Monod) 57.3 (Monod)
, 0.0688 (Contois) , 0.0104 (Contois)
Table 1 shows the values of the model parameters estimated using historical process data. Comparing these with values from literature for municipal wastewater treatment plants, Y is around 0.6 mgVSS/mgBOD5 while endogenous decay coefficient kd is normally in the range of 0.025 to 0.075 per day. Ks will normally be in the range from 15 to 70 mg/l COD and Âľm is around 0.3 per day. However, the values obtained in this modeling exercise do not all coincide with literature values, which could be attributed to the fact 294
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that industrial wastewater which, is studied here, differs much in terms of physical, biological, and chemical characteristics to that of municipal wastewater. These parameters were used in the chosen model to predict the effluent BOD and the average MLSS. Table 2. Summary of results for model verification Variable Predicted BOD out Average MLSS
Correlation coefficient
Slope
intercept
0.369 (Monod) 0.296 (Contois) 0.006
0.655 1.093 0.136
0.855 -10.96 1850
Table 2 shows that the model used in this study moderately satisfied the requirement for prediction. The Monod-based model got a coefficient of 0.369, much higher than the Contois-based model with just 0.296. Howeveer, this is not as high as compared to results obtained by other studies due to the fact that industrial process may contain large amount of data but less value in terms of information (George et al., 2009). The prediction of average MLSS suffered more than the effluent BOD with a coefficient of 0.006. This aspect needs to be given more attention considering the characteristics of sludge in the reactor, how they are sampled, and determined. Several other things can be pointed out with respect to these observations. One is the number of assumptions used to simplify the model at the expense of model accuracy. This factor cannot be avoided but may be minimized if the researcher has more control over his data or has a way of obtaining additional information not usually determined during normal plant operations. Schraa et al. (2006) emphasized the necessity of analyzing historical data to determine if additional data is necessary. There may also be a need to characterize influent wastewater that requires information not usually recorded by most industrial wastewater treatment plants. For instance, most modeling requires the use of ultimate BOD or Biodegradable COD for input data, but in this study only a correlation for BOD to COD is used because it is the only one available. George et al. (2009) also pointed out the use of multivariate statistical tools like PCA in detecting fault in process. This factor may also be one of the sources of much variability in the 295
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The Library Interactive Pathfinder for Information Technology Program
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The Library Interactive Pathfinder for Information Technology Program
Student
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Display References
Browse Materials
Update Referen INTERACTIVE PATHFINDER
Generate Reports
Instructor/ Librarian
View References
System Update
System Administrator
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Requirements analysis and definition System and software design Implementation and unit testing Integration and system testing Operation and Maintenance
Figure 2. Waterfall Model
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Logi n View Subject Resources Upload Subject Resources
Create Users Account
Instructor/Librarian
Update System Information
Admin
Logo ut
Logi n
Sign-up Registration
View Subject Resources
Download Subject Resources
Student Logo ut
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Use Case Description. It is a simple synopsis or abstract of the use case diagram. It explains the goals, plot, and theme of the use case (http://books.google.com.ph). Use case name Actor Description Normal Flow
Alternate Flow Precondition Post-condition Assumption
Use case name Actor Description Normal Flow
Alternate Flow Precondition Post-condition Assumption
Table 1 Use case for log-in
Log-in Admin/Librarian/Instructor/Student This use case is used by the actor to access the system. 1) The user invokes the use case by clicking the “Log-in” button. 2) The user enters log-in name and password. 3) The system verifies and validates the log-in name and password. 4.) Use case instance terminates. If log-in name or password is invalid, user has to re-enter a valid user name or password. User must be registered. User can access the system or just exit the website. User is on the website.
Table 2 Use case for view subject resources
View Subject Resources Instructor/Librarian/Student/Admin User can view subject resources. 1) The user invokes the use case by just entering the site. 2) User types the subject description to view the resources. 3) User exits the site. 4) Use case instance terminates. The user can select other options or click the home button. User must be registered. User successfully views the subject resources or just exits the website. User is on the website.
Table 3 Use case for sign-up registration Use case name Actor Description Normal Flow
Alternate Flow Precondition Post-condition Assumption
Sign-up Registration Student User must signup in order to access the system. 1) The user invokes the use case by just entering the site 2) User fills out the registration form. 3) User exits the site. 4) Use case instance terminates. The user can select other options or click the home button. User must be a new student in the college. User successfully registers or just exits the website. User is on the website.
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Table 4 Use case for create userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s account Use case name Actor Description Normal Flow
Alternate Flow Precondition Post-condition Assumption
Create Userâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Account Admin Admin can register new account. 1) The user invokes the use case by just entering the site. 2) User can add new account. 3) User exits the site. 4) Use case instance terminates. The user can select other options or click the home button. User must be a university instructor/librarian. User finishes the adding of the new account or just exits the website. User is on the website.
Table 5 Use case for upload subject resources Use case name Actor Description Normal Flow
Alternate Flow Precondition Post-condition Assumption
Upload Subject Resources Instructor/Librarian User can upload subject references/resources. 1) The user invokes the use case by just entering the site. 2) User uploads the contents of the resources. 3) User exits the site. 4) Use case instance terminates. The user can select other options or click the home button. User must be registered. User finishes uploading the resources or just exits the website. User is on the website.
Table 6 Use case for download subject resources Use case name Actor Description Normal Flow
Alternate Flow Precondition Post-condition Assumption
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Download Subject Resources Students User can download subject resources. 1) The user invokes the use case by just entering the Site. 2) User downloads the contents of the resources. 3) User exits the site. 4) Use case instance terminates. The user can select other options or click the home button. User must be registered. User finishes downloading the resources or just exits the website. User is on the website.
The Library Interactive Pathfinder for Information Technology Program
A.P. Ponte and L.L. Mondo単edo
User Interface
User Instructor/Librarian Student/Admin
2.) Enter User name & Password
Lo-gin Controller
Database
1.) Display Log-in
Check Log-in 3.) Check User name & Password
4.) Information Display
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Database
User Interface
User
1) Enter Subject Description
2) Search Resources
3) Display Resources
User Interface Student
1) Fill out registration form
2) Submit and save
3) Display confirmation message
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User Interface
Database
Admin
1) Fill out
registration form
2) Submit and save
3) Display confirmation message
User Interface
Database
Instructor/ Librarian
1) Enter Subject Resources
4) View message
2) Save the newly uploaded resources
3) Display confirmation information
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User Interface
Database
Student
1) Enter Subject Description
4) Display confirmation information
2) Search and display subject resources
3) Download subject resources
User Interface Admin
1) Enter System Updates
4) View message
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2) Save the newly Update contents
3) Display confirmation information
Database
The Library Interactive Pathfinder for Information Technology Program
A.P. Ponte and L.L. Mondo単edo
User Interface
Database
Instructor/Librarian Student/Admin
1) Log-out
4) Exit
2) Close all tables
3) Terminate System
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Enter Username
Enter Password
Invalid Username
Invalid Password
Valid
Valid
Click View Subject Resources
Display Resources
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Click Sign-up Registration
Fill out Registration Form Not valid
Valid Click Submit Button
Save Registration
Click Create User’s Account
Fill out Users Account Form Not valid
Valid Click Submit Button
Save User’s Account
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Search Subject Description
Upload Resources
Click Submit Button
Save
Search Subject Description
Download Resources
Save
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Click Update System Information
Type System Update
Save
Click log-out
End session
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FirstName
Description
TypeCode
Department
MiddleName
26
LastName
Position
Idno
RESOURCE TYPE
Password
USER
Have
ResourceNo
TransNo Makes Date
TransNo Idno
Have
TRANSACTION
TRANSACTION DETAILS
Contains
Makes
RESOURCES
ResourceNo TypeCode
STUDENT
Idno
Resource Location
CopyrightNo
Password AuthorIdno
LastName
CallNo
Email Title
FirstName
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Course
MiddleName MI
FirstName
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LastName AuthorIdno
AUTHOR
SubCode
SUBJECT
318
Description
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SubCode
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SUBJECT RESOURCES
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AUTHOR INDEX Vol. 6, No. 1 – December 2009 A Agno, Aurora Cindy G., 327 D Dap-og, Ian Kit Nehemiah M., 282 de la Peña, Lilian C., 52 de la Peña, Salvador, 102 H Huerbana, Rosalina S., 214 I Ilupa, Nida A., 259
P Ponte, Andrew P., 299 Polancos, Dominic T., 112 S Sequiño, Agnes C., 179 T Tumapun, Teresita T. 63 Y Yamut, Viberlino T., 28
J Japos, Genaro V., 1, 63 L Lago, Richie Grace M., 243 Lerin, Mariano M., 154 Lozano, Emiliana J., 202 M Mahilum, Jofi V., 225 Mondoñedo, Linda L., 299 Montero, Jennifer M., 138 Moreno, Shyla O., 125 N Neri, Donna Lou E., 82
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GUIDE FOR AUTHORS The Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is the official research journal of Liceo de Cagayan University. The journal is published once a year. For paper submission, the paper must be an original copy, about 5,000 words, double-spaced, and with tables and figures. The research abstract must have 200 words and at least 5 key words or phrases. Manuscript Preparation 1. Organize the paper following these major headings: Title, Author(s) and address (es), Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods for experimental study or Methodology for non-experimental study, Results and Discussion, Conclusions, Acknowledgment, and Literature Cited. The Literature Cited should substantially consist of articles published in current content-covered or peer-reviewed journals. Minimize citations of unpublished reports and theses. 2. Type the entire manuscript double-spaced on a short white bond paper (8.5x11 in) on one side only with 2.5 cm margins all around using a Times New Roman font size of 10. References, Acknowledgments, Table Titles, and Figure Legends should be typed double-spaced. Number consecutively all pages including title page, figures, and tables. 3. Leave two spaces before and after the major headings and two spaces before and after the sub-headings. Do not use footnotes rather you can use endnotes if the discipline need such. 4. Spell out acronyms or unfamiliar abbreviations when these are mentioned for the first time in the text. 5. Write the scientific names of species completely with author(s) when it is first mentioned in the text and without author in succeeding references. Scientific names should be written in italics or bold face. 6. Do not spell out numbers unless they are used to start a sentence. 7. Use the metric system only or the International System of Units. Use abbreviations of units only beside numerals (e.g. 6 m); otherwise, spell out the units (e.g. kilometers from here). Do not use plural forms or periods for abbreviations of units. Use the bar for compound units (e.g. 1 kg/ha/yr). Place a zero before the decimal in numbers less than 1 (e.g. 0.25) 8. When preparing Tables and Figures, consider the journalâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s printed page of 5.75 in x 8.5 in and the reduction that will be necessary. Titles of Tables and Captions of Figures should be as short as possible and understandable without referring to the text. Captions of Figures should be typed double-spaced in a separate sheet. Figures should consist only of simple line drawings, computer-generated graphics or good quality 328
black and white photographs. Label of Figures should be of such a size so that these are still legible even after reducing the size by as much as 50%. Use preferably Adobe Photoshop CS, Adobe Indesign CS and or PDF computer-generated graphics. 9. Cite references in the text as author (year). Writing of et al. in the list of references/ literature cited is discouraged but instead authors are mentioned; references in press as (author, in press) and unpublished reference as (author, unpubl. data or author, pers. comm.). If two or more references are cited, arrange them by year. 10. Manuscript should be as concise as the subject and research method permit, generally not to exceed 5000 words, single-space. 11. To promote anonymous review, authors should not identify themselves directly or indirectly in their papers or in experimental test instruments included in the submission. Single authors should not use the editorial “we”. 12. A cover page should show the title of the paper, all authors’ names, titles and affiliations, email addresses, and any acknowledgements. Pagination: All pages, including tables, appendices and references, should be serially numbered. Major sections should be numbered in Roman numerals. Subsections should not be numbered. Numbers: Spell out numbers from one to ten, except when used in tables and lists, and when used with mathematical, statistical, scientific, or technical units and quantities, such as distances, weights and measures. Percentage and Decimal Fractions: In nontechnical copy, use the word percent in the text. Hyphens: Use a hyphen to join unit modifiers or to clarify usage. For example: a crosssectional equation; re-form. See Webster’s for correct usage. Keywords: The abstract must be followed by at least three keywords to assist in indexing the paper and identifying qualified reviewers. Data Availability: A line immediately following the Keyword identifiers should indicate whether the data are available. Abstract/ Introduction An abstract of about 200 words should be presented on a separate page immediately preceding the text. The Abstract should concisely inform the reader of the manuscript’s topic, its methods, and its findings. Keywords and the Data Availability statements should follow the Abstract. The text of the paper should start with a section labeled Introduction,” which provides more details about the paper’s purpose, motivation, methodology, and findings. Both the Abstract and the Introduction should be relatively nontechnical yet clear enough for an informed reader to understand the manuscript’s contribution. The manuscript’s title but neither the author’s name nor other identification designations, should appear on the Abstract page. 329
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Documentation Citations: In-text citations are made using an author-year format. Cited works must correspond to the list of works listed in the “Literature Cited” section. 1. In the text, works are cited as follows: author’s last name and year, without comma, in parentheses. 2. For cited works that include more than one work by an author (or same co – authors) that is published in the same year, the suffix a, b, etc., is to follow the date in the within-text citations and in the “Literature Cited ” section. 3. When the author’s name is mentioned in the text, it need not be repeated in the citation. 4. Citations to institutional works should use acronyms or short titles where practicable. 5. If the paper refers to statutes, legal treatises, or court cases, citations acceptable in law reviews should be used. Conclusions Conclusions should briefly answer the objectives of the study. They are not repetitions of the discussions but are judgments of the results obtained. Literature Cited Every manuscript must include a “Literature Cited” section that contains only those works cited within the text. Each entry should contain all information necessary for unambiguous identification of the published work. Use the American Psychological Association Manual of Style. The use of a different style format that is relevant to a particular discipline is allowed. Submission of Manuscripts Authors should note the following guidelines for submitting manuscripts: 1. Manuscripts currently under consideration by another journal or publisher should not be submitted. The author must state upon submission that the work has not been submitted or published elsewhere. 2. For manuscripts reporting on field surveys or experiments: If the additional documentation (e.g. questionnaire, case, interview schedule) is sent as a separate file, then all information that might identify the authors(s) must be deleted from the instruments. 3. Manuscripts should be submitted via email as Microsoft Word or PDF file 330
to the Editor at email address: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph Please submit separate files for (1) the manuscriptâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s title page with identifying information (not forwarded to reviewers), (2) the manuscript with title page and all other identifying information removed, and (3) any necessary supplement files such as experimental instructions and/or response memoranda on invited revisions. 4. Revisions must be submitted within 2 months from the decision letter inviting a revision. 5. Vital information is available at this Website: www.liceojournal.com. Comments The Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research welcomes submission of comments on previous articles. Comments on articles previously published in the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research will generally be reviewed by two reviewers, usually an author of the original article (to assist the editor in evaluating whether the submitted comment represents the prior article accuracy) and an independent reviewer. If a comment is accepted for publication, the original author will be invited to reply. All other editorial requirements, as enumerated above, apply to proposed comments. Policy on Reproduction The objective of the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research is to promote the wide dissemination of the results of systematic scholarly inquires into the broad field of accounting. Permission is hereby granted to reproduce any of the contents of the Liceo Journal for instructional use as long as the source and copyright are indicated in any such reproductions. Written application must be made to the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research, Liceo de Cagayan University RN Pelaez Blvd., Kauswagan, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines, for permission to reproduce any of the contents other than for instructional use â&#x20AC;&#x201C; e.g., inclusion in books of readings or in any other publications intended for general distribution. In consideration for the grant of permission, the applicant must notify the author(s) in writing of the intended use to be made for each reproduction. Normally, the Liceo Journal of Higher Education will not assess a charge for the waiver of copyright. Except where otherwise noted in articles, the copyright interest has been transferred to the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research. Where the author(s) has (have) not transferred the copyright to the Liceo Journal of Higher Education Research, applicants must seek permission to reproduce (for all purposes) directly from the author(s). 331
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LIST OF ADMINISTRATORS 2009-2010 TOP ADMINISTRATORS Dr. Rafaelita P. Pelaez Chairman of the Board of Directors Dr. Mariano M. Lerin,CPA President Mr. Alain Marc P. Golez Vice President for Administration Dr. Teresita T. Tumapon Vice President for Academic Affairs (concurrent) Mr. Fruto M. Teodorico Jr. Vice President for Finance Mr. Rudolf Caesar P. Golez Vice President for External, Cultural and Alumni Affairs Dr. Jose Vicente N. Noble Vice President for Student Personnel Serviees ACADEMIC DEANS Mrs. Ma. Chona V. Palomares Dean, College of Nursing Dr. Teresita T. Tumapon Dean, Graduate Studies Dr. Martina A. Brobo Dean, College of Education Dr. Fe S. Tolibas Dean, College of Arts and Sciences Atty. Leo Paolo L. Perez Dean, College of Business and Accountancy Dr. Jose D. Clar Dean, College of Engineering Mr. Erwin B. Bucio Dean, College of Law Enforcement and Public Safety Dr. Amelda C. Libres Dean, College of Medical Technology Dr. Corona S. Se単a Dean, College of Pharmacy Dr. Andrew P. Ponte Dean, College of Information Technology Dr. Estelita G. Dy Dean, College of Radiologic Technology Mrs. Joan B. Gallaron Principal, High School Ms. Elvy Q. Malabo OIC, Principal, Grade School Mr. Leonardo C. Eduave Director, Institute of Short Studies Atty. Adrian L. Barba Dean, College of Law Mr. Denise Orong Chair, College of Physical Therapy ACADEMIC DEPARTMENT HEADS Dr. Linda L. Mondo単edo Mrs. Sherlita M. Barrun Mrs.Evangeline N. Cabe Dr. Genaro V. Japos NON-ACADEMIC DEPARTMENT HEADS
Director, Libraries and IMC University Registrar Director, Guidance and Placement Office Director, Research and Publication Office
Mr. Lorimer S. Capinpuyan Mr. Edwin M. Delos Santos Jr. Mrs. Ursula I. Trio Mrs. Carmencita D. Jubas Mr. Cecilio P. Tongco Jr. Engr. Manuel A. Orbeta Mr. Shaun Alejandre Uy Engr. Laurence M. Perocho Dr. Rosalina S. Huerbana Mrs. Fritzie C. Estoque Mr. Christopher D. Tabora Mr. Grover Dan Broces Mr. Mozart Pastrano Mr. Viberlino Yamut
Comptroller Internal Auditor (Department Head) Finance Officer Director, Human Resource Management Center Director, Management Information System Liceo Internet Administrator Liceo Creative Office (Department Head) Publishing Center Administrator Executive Director, Safer River, Life Saver Foundation, Inc. Director, Liceo Center for Community Development Maintenance (Department Head) Gclef ( Department Head) General Manager, Artistic Director of RODELSA Hall & Civic Center and Head of Public Affairs Director, Folkloric
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SPECIAL ASSISTANTS AND CONSULTANTS Atty. Adrian L. Barba Ms.Alma R. Sandigan Mr. Ferdie Calang Ms. Maria Thesa Jean P. Boo Dr. Florecilla C. Cinches
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Vol. 6 No. 1 (2009) ISSN 2094-1064 Subscription price (2007-2009) for 3 issues Php 3000 US Dollar 250.00 Liceo de Cagayan University, RN Pelaez Blvd. Kauswagan, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines 9000 Tel.: (63)(88) 858 4094 local 135 Telefax: (63)(8822) 727 459 Email: liceojournal@yahoo.com.ph liceohighereducationjournal@gmail.com Website: http//www.liceojournal.com
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