Chris E. Bennett | Matthew A.J. Brown
Mapping: Chris Bennett and Matthew Brown SPRING 2014 - Harvard Graduate School of Design - DES 9132 The Oceanic Turn Copyright: Scanned texts and source references compiled in this booklet are intended for single-use academic purpose only, according to the Harvard University Fair Use Guidelines & Course Reader Copyright Guidelines. No part of this booklet may be copied, reproduced, republished, uploaded, posted, transmitted or distributed in any way for commercial purposes. All files are copyright to their respective authors and/or publishers. All other content is Š2013-14 Harvard Graduate School of Design, The President & Fellows of Harvard College. Maps and sections drawn by Chris Bennett and Matthew Brown.
Sea to Air The world is dependent upon the ocean. The way in which we live is derived from the many resources that the sea has to offer - food, energy, transportation, and oxygen production. It has only been since the mid 20th century that the world transitioned from the Grotius “Freedom of the Seas,” where everyone had equal rights to one of territory and control. As countries went to War, the quest for power brought forward the necessity for a regulatory framework for the worlds seas. The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extend nations economical control to 200 nautical miles. This extension of state control of the seabed, water and surface, is as Leland Thormahlen argues in the text ‘Boundary Development of the Outer Continental Shelf,’ historically dependent upon a system of past models that were derived from land use models. Additionally, states have disputed over further control of Outer Centennial Shelf’s, which extend control into international waters, also known as the High Seas. These models rely heavily on state jurisdiction through a planimetric understanding. In The Patrick Geddes ‘Valley Section’ of 1909 and John McHale’s ‘Man’s Increasing Vertical Mobility,’ a new framework of how to understand sectional relationships is formed. The ocean through section reveals the critical relationship between sea and air. Since the 1950’s, the international law of the sea has changed, raising questions as to who controls maritime airspace and what new authorities regulate foreign aircraft in the airspace beyond the territorial sea. By developing a new representational optic to view these dynamic relationships, one can begin to see a new technique to position the multiplicity of forces that effect the conditions that surround the EEZ and Outer Continental Shelf. This project begins to explore these representation techniques and optics positioning a new view of the EEZ and Outer Centennial Shelf that privileges the relationship of the sectional characteristics that link all of these regulatory spatial conditions. With this new optic, new questions are raised such as, ‘What new models and cartographic representations can be developed to understand a new relationship of the EEZ, OCS, and international airspace?’ Is airspace control ocean control? If so, then whose seas are they?
Contents
1 The Coast 3 Ocean as Grid | The BOEM 9 Spatializing the EEZ 13 UNCLOS 15 World EEZ Map 19 Ocean Rights in Section 21 Continental Shelf as Zone of Production 27 The Valley Section 31 Annihilating the Void 35 The Pacific 37 Control? 39 High Seas and EEZ’s US Airspace Ocean of Control (Projection) 41 43 Increasing Verticality 51 On the Edge of Conflict 65 Airspace is Control 67 Modelling and Representation 73 References
Our environmental health and indeed our survival — our systems of food production, energy, transportation, temperature regulation, oxygen production, carbon sequestration and more —are dependent upon earth’s waters. -Sylvia Earle Although the coast is portrayed as a static line dividing land and sea, the processes of urbanization and thus regulation extend far beyond.
“The World is Blue: How Our Fate and the Oceans Are One” Sylvia A. Earle, 1999
1
Image: Transocean
'The orderly development of lands has historically been dependent upon a system of surveys, supplemented in recent times with some type of grid system by which the lands could be located, identified, and legally described. Offshore lands are no exception’
“Boundary Development on the Outer Continental Shelf” US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, 1999
3
The US Federal Government (through BOEM) and coastal state governments have adopted various forms of rectangular grid systems on the basis of which offshore lands can be subdivided into readily identifiable and locatable units referred to as Offshore Continental Shelf blocks.’
“Boundary Development on the Outer Continental Shelf” US Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, 1999
BOEM Pacific Coast Index Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, 2014
5
UNCLOS I United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas 1956
UNCLOS II United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas
UNCLO
United Nations
SLA Submerged Lands Act 1953 -grants 3 nmi rights to states
OCSLA Outer Shelf Lands Act Late 1953 -Federal responsibility over submerged lands of the OCS -Defines BOEM jurisdiction and responsibility
NEPA
National Environment -requires detailed envir
CAA
Clean Air Act of 1970 -regulates emissions of
CZMA
Coastal Zone Ma -CZMA requires s
MMPA
Marine Mammals -protection and c
ESA
Endangered S -requires a per
CW
Cle -th
1940
45
1950
55
BOEM Governing Statutes Bennett | Brown
1960
65
1970
75
1960
OS III
s Convention on the Law of the Seas 1967/73
UNCLOS XI Agreement signed in 1994
US EEZ
US Exclusive Economic Zone 1983 -Reagan Presidential Proclamation Extends up to 200 nmi
OPA 90 Oil Pollution Act of 1990 -Secretary of the Interior has authority over offshore facilities and pipelines (excluding deep-water ports). -Now delegated to BOEM
tal Policy Act of 1970 ronmental review before any major federal action
0 f air pollutants from industrial activity
anagement Act of 1972 state review of Federal action affecting land and water in coastal zones
s Protection Act of 1972 conservation of all marine mammals and habitats
Species Act of 1973 rmit for the taking of any protected species
WA
ean Water Act of 1977 hrough National Pollutant Discharge and Elimination System permits, regulates discharge into surface waters
FOGRAMA Federal Oil and Gas Royalty Management Act of 1982 -requires that oil and gas facilities be built in a way protecting environmental Federal resources
EPA Energy Policy Act of 2005 -grants BOEM lead management authority for marine renewable energy projects
1980
85
1990
95
2000
05
2010
15
BOEM Governing Statues Timeline Modified from Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, 2014
7
200
EEZ Contiguous Zone Territorial Sea State
OCS
24
12
3
nmi
Visualizing Article 55-58 The “Exclusive Economic Zone”
9
OCS Blocks and Ocean Zoning (Coast of California) Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, 2014
11
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas In the exclusive economic zone, the coastal State has: sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters adjacent to the seabed and of the seabed and its subsoil, and with regard to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone, such as the production of energy from the water, currents and winds. The exclusive economic zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Article 55-58 The United Nations. “Exclusive Economic Zone”, 1982
13
World EEZ Maritime Claims and Marine Scientific Research Jurisdiction, 1992
15
The EEZ is critical to protecting a nation states rights to their continental shelf. The continental shelf contains the majority of the Oceans rich resources, such as oil, gas, dredge, fish, and high winds. This extension of the land below the surface of the ocean brings into question the understanding of the EEZ through section.
Continental Shelf as Production: Wind, Dredge, Oil and Fish Image: Wind: Dailyfusion | Dredge: Mediad | Oil: Gvpedia | Fish: NOAA
17
Understanding Ocean Rights 350 nmi
200 nmi
LEGAL CONTINENTAL MARGIN
L
HIGH SEAS Art.86
100 Nautical Miles Art.76.5
2500m Iso Art.76.5
Foot of Slope
Continental Rise
Art.76.4 (b)
Abyssal Plain Gardiner Line
60 Nautical Miles Art.76.4 (a) (ii)
Art. 76.7 Art. 76.4 (a)(i) OCEANIC CRUST (Basaltic)
24 nmi
LEGAL CONTINENTAL SHELF
12 nmi
0 nmi
TERRITORIAL SEA
Art.76.5
EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE
Art. 3 | Art. 4
Art.57
CONTIGUOUS ZONE
Art. 33
Terrestrial Shore Line Art. 5 | Art. 7
Shelf Edge
obath
Continental Slope
Geological Continental Shelf
Geological Continental Shelf Margin
Legal Continental Margin Art.76.4
CONTINENTAL CRUST (Granitic)
Maritime Limits: Regulating the EEZ Adapted from UNCLOS and Kapoor 1986
19
The Continental Shelf: A Zone of Production
Shipping
Recreational Use
Precipitation
THE WATER CYCLE
Evapotranspiration
Mining Offshore OIl
Offshore Energy
Fisheries
Dredging
Precipitation
The Continental Shelf: A Productive Zone
21
30% of all the oil and 20% of the natural gas produced in the U.S. comes from offshore drilling. Mainly being derived from the North American continental shelf.
The Continental Shelf National Geographic, 2013
Image: Mark Phillips
23
Image: Aleutians
Continental shelf zones comprise only 7.6% of the surface area of the world oceans, but provide 15-30% of the oceanic primary production.
An examination of the ‘continental shelf pump’ Fashman, 2001
25
Valley Section Patrick Geddes, 1909
The Region-City. Geddes’s theory through the concept of the valley section comes to an understanding of the global through the local and in turn inspires a vision of the universal’ Catherine Ward Thompson
“Geddes, Zoos and The Valley Section,” Catherine Ward Thompson, 2004
27
Understanding the Ocean Gap A Global Geddes Section 29
Far too often is the Pacific Ocean is considered a void, rendered unproductive and unknown. The truth is the Ocean is vital to the natural processes of the planet, and to our being. It is a resource that provides the world with food, energy, and the main means of connection for global trade.
“The Social Construction of the Ocean� Philip E. Steinberg, 2001
Image: Tom Ewart
31
0
250
STATUTE MILES 0 250 500 KILOMETERS
500 750
750 1000
1000 MILLER CYLINDRICAL PROJECTION
Shipping Lanes Submarine Cables Ports
Urbanization of the Ocean Shipping, Cables, and Ports
33
The Pacific Ocean is the world’s largest geographic feature covering 60.1 million square miles and connecting the coasts of over 50 countries. “Pacific Ocean Synthesis” Center for Ocean Solutions, 2009
35
0m
EEZ
-6500m 0km
High Seas
With an area of 60.1 million square miles, and a distance of 8,458 miles, the question is not only who regulates the Pacific, but becomes
who controls it?
12,500km
The Pacific Ocean in Section
37
High Seas and EEZ’s 64% vs 36%
High Seas
EEZ’s
High Seas and EEZ’s
39
Magadan Oceanic FIR Edmonton FIR
Mys Schmidta FIR
Anadyr FIR
Petropavlovsk Kamchatsky FIR
Vancouver FIR
W
US Air Control
Fukuoka FIR Manilla FIR
Mazatlan FIR Nasuru FIR Tahiti FIR
Ujamaa Pandang FIR
Port Morseby FIR NADI FIR
Auckland Oceanic FIR
Gander Domestic FIR
Winnepeg FIR
Montreal FIR Gander FIR Santa Maria Oceanic FIR
Toronto FIR
Mexico FIR Piarco FIR
n Oceanic Curacao FIR Port-Au-Prince FIR Santa Dominge FIR Habana FIR
A New Projection “US Airspace Ocean of Control”
41
In the 1960’s John McHale collaborated with Buckminster Fuller to create a set of superscalar surveys. As part of the set, McHale produced ‘Man’s Increasing Vertical Mobility,’ which diagramed the sectional relationships between surfaces below the earth as well as into the atmosphere. Proving the importance three dimensional space.
“Man’s Increasing Vertical Mobility” John McHale, c.1960
43
Image: Typhoon 2108 DailyMail
In 2007 a Canadian fighter jets intercepted a Russian military aircraft near Canadian national airspace off the cost of Newfoundland. Situations such as this are not singular but multiple, with many happening each year across the globe. These situations bring in into question
‘Who controls air space?’ ‘How is it defended?’
“Air Defense Identification Zones Outside Sovereign Airspace” Peter A Dutton, 2009
45
Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers the different classifications of airspace and defined dimensions within which air traffic control (ATC) service is provided in accordance with the airspace classification. Controlled airspace consists of: Class A | Class B | Class C | Class D | Class E
“Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge” Federal Aviation Administration, 2012
47
Image: US NAVY Grumman & Radecki
49
The Arctic Magadan Oceanic FIR Edmonton FIR
Mys Schmidta FIR
Anadyr FIR
Petropavlovsk Kamchatsky FIR
Vancouver FIR
W
US Air Control
East China Sea Fukuoka FIR Manilla FIR
Mazatlan FIR Nasuru FIR Tahiti FIR
Ujamaa Pandang FIR
Port Morseby FIR NADI FIR
South China Sea Auckland Oceanic FIR
On the Edge of Conflict
Gander Domestic FIR
Winnepeg FIR
Montreal FIR Gander FIR Santa Maria Oceanic FIR
Toronto FIR
Mexico FIR Piarco FIR
n Oceanic Curacao FIR Port-Au-Prince FIR Santa Dominge FIR Habana FIR
For military purposes, freedom of over flight in the airspace above the EEZ remains fundamentally unchanged by international treaty law developments in the second half of the twentieth century — Peter Dutton
“Air Defense Identification Zones Outside Sovereign Airspace” Peter A Dutton, 2009
51
Control of the world’s greatest resource is not without contestation. It is evident through evaluating the edge of US controlled Airspace this is a zone prone to
conflict as adjacent
countries continue to extend land claims.
53
The Guardian Branigan and Kaiman Nov 28, 2013
55
Vice President Joe Biden’s response to China’s Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ)
"I was absolutely clear on behalf of my president: We do not recognize the zone. It will have no effect on American operations. None. Zero.� - Joe Biden Reuters Dec 6, 2013
57
CNN Reporting Source: Ministry of National Defense, 2013
59
Image: thechinawatch.com
Gateway House Heydarian, May 2, 2014
61
The conflicts arising from the discovery of oil in the arctic are only beginning. Countries continue to attempt to extend their EEZ’s without questioning air control.
World News Xinhua, 2014
Map: wired.com
63
Currently the EEZ and High Sea zones are regulated without control. The US not only has the greatest amount of naval power, but it controls the atmosphere above the majority of the worlds Ocean. Airspace is control. Control is power.
65
Representation
Airspace Control Boundaries “US Airspace Ocean of Control”
Extruding the Volume “US Airspace Ocean of Control”
67
Axo “US Airspace Ocean of Control”
69
3D-Print “US Airspace Ocean of Control”
71
References Borgerson, Scott, and Stewart, Patrick. “The Global Oceans Regime.” Council on Foreign Relations. 2013. Web 23 Feb. 2014 Branigan, T. and Kaiman, J. “China sends warplanes into disputed airspace over East China Sea.” The Gaurdian. Web accessed. Nov 28, 2013 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. “Maps and GIS Data” BOEM Website. 2014. Web. 23 Feb. 2014. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. “Map Gallery. Oil & Gas Platforms Mapping Data.” 2013. Web March 20. 2014 Caldwell, Meg. “Pacific Ocean Synthesis” Center for Ocean Solutions. 2009 Dutton , Peter A. “Air Defense Identification Zones Outside Sovereign Airspace.” The American Journal of International Law. Vol. 103 2009. Earle, Sylvia A. “The World is Blue: How Our Fate and the Oceans Are One” National Geographic Society. Washington, DC. 2009. Fashman, Yool A. “An examination of the ‘continental shelf pump’ in an open ocean general circulation model.” Global Biogeochemical Cycles 15(4):831-844. 2001. Federal Aviation Administration. “Procedures for Handling Airspace Matter.” US Department of Transportation. 2012 GeoCommons. “Oil/Rigs Platforms in OCS Region of Gulf of Mexico.” Data from OSM and Satellite Earth. Website. Feb 27. 2014. Haeydarian, R. “South China SEa: escalating tensions.” Gateway House. Web. May 2, 2014. Mansfied, Becky. “Neoliberalism in the oceans: “Rationalization,” property rights, and the common questions.” in Geoform 35 2004. 313-326. McHale, John. “Man’s Increasing Vertical mobility.” c.1960. Web 2014 National Geographic. “Continental Shelf.” National Geographic Website 2014. April 12, 2014. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “The United States is a Ocean Nation.” NOAA Website 2014. Feb 23 2014. Reuters. “US Pledges to side with Japan in Conflict with China.” Web. Dec 03. 2013.
Smith Hance, D. “The industrialization of the world ocean,” in Ocean & Coastal Management 2000. 22-28. Steinberg, Philip E. “The Social Construction of the Ocean.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas “A Historical Perspective.” United Nations. 1998. Web 23 Feb. 2014 The United Nations. “Exclusive Economic Zone.” Article 55-58. 1982. Web 2014. Thompson, Catharine Ward. “Geddes, Zoos and The Valley Section.” Landscape Review 10, Page 115-119. 2004. Web 2014. Thormahlen , Leland F. “Boundary Development on the Outer Continental Shelf.” Mapping and Boundary Branch : United Stated Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service.’ 1999. Web 2014. Transocean. “US Gulf of Mexico Fleet.” Transocean Website 2014. Web. 23 Feb. 2014 US Department of State. “Defining the Limits of the US Continental Shelf.” US DOS Website. Feb 23 2014. US Government. “Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act 1953.” United States House of Representatives Website 2014 WOCE Atlas Volume 2 “Pacific Ocean: Section Plots” Website. March 20. 2014. Xinhua. “Russian bombers patrol Arctic airspace.” World News. Website. March 14, 2014.
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