PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF AGRICULTURE
FOR O’ AND A’ LEVEL
KAWA DIGITAL BOOK
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PART 1 : CROP PRODUCTION • Importance of crop production • Factors affecting plant growth • Factors that influence crop distribution • Important farming practices • Seedbed and nursery bed preparation • Irrigation • Effects of water shortage in crop growth • Ways in which crops adapt to water shortage • Farming practices, which help to reduce • the effect of water shortage in crops • Factors that influence spacing in crops • The practices that a farmer should carry out to ensure uniform germination of seeds • Crop groups and production of specific crops • Cereal crops • Root crops • Fruit crops • Vegetables • Field crops • Perennial crops • Legumes • Cotton production • Production of tea • Production of sugarcane • Banana production • Production of napier (elephant) grass • Technical words used • Factors that have favoured pest status • Direct effect of pests on crops • Indirect effects of pests on crops • Methods of pest management • Common Banana diseases • Soil, land water conservation • Agro forestry • Questions on crop production and their answers
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PART 2: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY • Reproductive system of a male bird (cock) • Parts and functions • The structure of en egg: • Incubator and hatching of eggs: • Artificial incubation: • Pig rearing • Parts of the body of a pig • Digestive system of a pig: • Reproduction in cattle • Reproductive system of a cow • The reproductive system of a bull • Procedure to follow when artificially inseminating a cow • Animal products • Questions on Animal husbandry and their answers
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PART 3 : AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY • Farm structures • Examples of farm structures • Farm layout • Factors to consider when planning a farm layout. • Farm fencing • Technical words used in fencing • Common tools used in fencing • Factors to consider when selecting a site for a farm building • Location • Buildings • Roofs • Types of roofs • Farm stores • Other houses for farm animals • Animal handling layouts • Examples of animal handling layouts • Farm water supply • Uses of water on a farm • Sources of water used in farms • Possible ways of storing water for use in a farm • Farm water treatment • The processes involved in water treatment • process using a chemical treatment system • Farm tools and equipment • Types of farm tools and equipment • Factors which determine the choice of tools and equipment used • Care and maintenance of farm tools and equipment • Garden tools and equipment • Wood workshop tools and equipment • Metal workshop tools and equipment • Masonry tools and equipment • Veterinary/dairy tools and equipment • Plumbing tools and equipment • Engine power • Internal combustion engines • Differences between a 2 - stroke and a 4 stroke engine • Working of a 2 - stroke engine 4
Advantages of a 2 - stroke engines Disadvantages Four stroke Engine Differences between petrol and diesel engines Working of a 4 - stroke compression ignition engine Working of, a 4 stroke sparkingnation engine Pistons Functions of the piston Parts of a piston : Petrol fuel system in petrol engines Air cleaners Dry type air cleaner Wet type air cleaner Lubrication system Oil Other Lubricants Grease : Types of lubrication Pressure or Force lubricotioa Electrical systems Tractors Types of tractors: Uses of a tractor: Servicing points of a tractor: Reasons for checking a tractor before a day's work Tillage: Types of ploughs Mould board plough: Factors that influence the choice of tool or implement used for cultivation Secondary cultivation • Minimum tillage • Questions on Agriculture Machinery and their answers
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
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PART 4 : AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS • Introduction • Economic Laws • Demand • Supply • Uses of farm records • Financial documents and their uses • Ways 12 improve the productivity of labour force in a farm • Difference between gross margin and net profit • Factors which affect the supply of vegetable in a local market • The advantages of budgeting in farm business • Factors to consider when selecting an enterprise • Marketing problems affecting dairy farming in Uganda • The role of Agricultural Co operatives in Uganda • Examples of joint products in livestock production • Questions on Agricultural Economics and their answers
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Preface This book is a comprehensive revision book which fully covers UCE and UACE Agriculture syllabuses. It is written in simple language so that a student can easily use it without any assistance from the teacher. Agriculture is divided into four main parts, with each of the parts further subdivided into two parts as shown below. Part 1 comprises of Crop Production which is further subdivided into brief notes, questions and answers. Part 2 comprises of Animal Production with brief notes, questions and answers. Part 3 comprises of Agricultural machinery with brief notes, questions answers. Part 4 comprises of Agricultural Economics with brief notes, questions and answers. The student is advised to read the brief notes, answer all the questions first without looking at the answers and then check the answers to familiarize him/herself with the relevant information and the style of the UCE and UACE examination both of which will assist the student perform well in the final examination. In case the student finds difficulties in tackling any question, he/she should turn back to the brief notes that the question is concerned with where careful study of the notes will enable the student certainly find the answer to the question. If the. student uses this book well, he/she will score highly in the Agriculture final examination both at UCE and UACE. Both teachers and students will find this book a very useful companion. Agriculture is an interesting subject because most activities taught are home and society based.
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Introduction to agriculture Agriculture is an activity that involves the growing of crops, keeping animals as well marketing processes such as: storage, packing, transportation and advertising of farm products. Importance of Agriculture This is supported by the following reasons: 1. Agriculture is the major source of food for both human beings and livestock, so it forms the basic livelihood for man and his livestock. 2. It is from Agriculture that farmers get income through the sale of farm products so it is the source of family income to support day to day management of family affairs. 3. Agriculture is the main foreign exchange earner for the nation. 4. Agriculture provides market for industrial goods like fertilizers, hoes, sprayers and pesticides etc. 5. Agriculture leads to the development and improvement of infrastructure in an area. For instance construction and maintenance of feeder roads for easy transportation of Agricultural products to markets. 6. Agriculture earns capital for the development in other sectors ofthe economy. 7. Agriculture also provides employment for many people in the country. Plantation firms such as Kakira employ-many people. 8. Source of raw materials for use in industries e.g. cotton for fabrics, hides and skins for tanning industries. 9. Some times it is taken as a recreation e.g. growing flowers and fish farming. 10.
Source of revenue for Government e.g. market dues.
11.
Source of medicinal products e. g. honey from bee farming. 8
Problems hindering Agricultural’ development in Uganda Existence of poor animal breeds. 1. Existence of poor breeds. 2. Lack of improved exotic breeds. The few available are very expensive. 3. Farmers are generally conservative (not willing to accept new innovations e.g. artificial insemination. 4. Shortage of land in most parts. This has led to land fragmentation. 5. Farmers are generally poor as such cannot afford basic tools, equipments and implements needed for modem farming. 6. Poor soil as such non productive soil in most areas. 7. Prevalence of pests and diseases. 8. Lack of organized markets for some agricultural produce. 9. Poor and bad attitude towards Agriculture as an occupation. This is more so by elite class. 10.
Predominant use of poor tools and equipment.
11. Lack of skilled labour especially in the areas of farm management and use of farm machines. 12. Effects of price fluctuation. Prices for Agriculture products are never stable. 13.
Aridity in most parts of the country.
14.
Lack of proper storage facilities for grains, and perishable products.
I. CROP PRODUCTION (I) Importance of crop production i.
Crops form the major source offood directly or indirectly.
ii.
Are the source of fibre e.g. Jute, Cotton, Flax, and Sisal. 9
iii.
Source of income.
iv.
Source of fuel.
v.
Provides chemicals e.g. Pyrethrum for insecticides.
vi.
Pleasure for ornamentals.
vii.
Crops participate in gaseous exchange.
viii.
Source of beverages e.g. Tea, Cocoa, Coffee. They are also stimulants.
ix.
Improvement of soil fertility e.g. legumes in the nitrogen cycle and also form green. manure.
Factors affecting plant growth. o Soil nutrients (soil fertility). o Air, Soil air. This is needed for respiration. o Soil water (soil moisture). o Heat (soil temperature). o Light. o Pests and diseases. o Weeds. o Mechanical support. Factors that influence crop distribution Climate Rainfall and temperature are two aspects of climate responsible for crop distribution. For example, Arabica coffee grows in areas of low temperature and high rainfall while cotton requires warm temperature and moderate rainfall. Soil condition : Soil type, Soil fertility, Soil pH, Soil depth.
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These conditions influence the crop to grow in an area. For example, perennial crops such as tea, sugar cane and bananas require deep fertile soil while cereal crops may grow in areas with sandy loams. Pests and diseases: Warm tropical areas have many pests and disease so farmers have to do regular spraying with pesticides. Topography : Higher altitudes are rather cool, favouring growth of Arabica coffee, Irish potatoes and passion fruits. Labour Shortage oflabour creates a big problem during peak periods. Market orne crops such as vegetables are grown near urban areas where there is ready market. Price It influences choice of crops grown e.g. Farmers rushed to grow vanilla because of high price. Transport and communication. Bulky crop products require easy accessibility to market. Storage facilities Ease of storage for example makes cereals more popular. Availability of capital Land, money, machinery will influence choice of crop to grow. Customary attitudes Most tribes are associated with traditional crops e.g. the Bantu - matooke, Luo and Iteso - millet, cassava, groundnuts. Important farming Practices Seedbed and nursery bed preparation 11
A seedbed is a unit area of land already prepared and in a good condition to put planting materials. On the other hand a nursery bed is a unit area, usually 1 metre wide and any selected length, where seedlings are raised before transplanting to a seedbed. Reasons for preparing seedbed before planting •
To kill weeds by burying or cutting the vegetative or root systems.
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To loosen up the soil thus facilitating water infiltration and soil aeration.
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Breaking plough pans that limit deep root penetration.
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To burry grass and encourage decomposition of grass to form humus thus improving soil fertility.
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To present good.condition that facilitates seed germination e.g. small sized clods and fine bed.
• Reasons for raising seedlings in a nursery bed •
Minimizes wastage of seeds since vegetable seeds are costly.
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Less labour will be required to care for seedlings.'
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A farmer will be able to select healthy seedlings to transplant.
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It is possible to achieve timely planting since nursery beds are always put before the season.
Irrigation 12
Definition: It is the application of water artificially to the soil for the purpose of supplying moisture essential for plant growth. Reasons for carrying out irrigation •
To supply moisture for the plants.
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Insure crops against drought.
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Water supplied cools the soil and soil atmosphere to create favourable soil environment for the growth of plants.
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It washes out or dilutes salts in the soil.
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To soften the soil for easy plant root penetration.
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It is a medium in which mineral salts become available for plants.
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To provide water to dissolve nutrients for plants to absorb easly
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Surface water enables siltation.
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To enable early preparation ofland.
(a) Factors to consider before deciding irrigation in crop production • Type of soil.
- Highly porous soils waste water.
• Types of crops to be grown. Profitable crops make sense of irrigation • Source of water/water availabilitylrainfall pattern/quality of water. - Should be fresh water. • Size of the land to be irrigated. - Its economical and sensible with large land • Capital availability/cost involved. • Profitability of irrigation. • Topography. - Gentle to flat lands are easier to irrigate by existing methods. • Stage of growth of crop. If crop is ripening irrigation is not necessary. (b) Advantages of overhead irrigation compared to surface irrigation 13
• Water is evenly distributed over the required area. • Less water is used compared to surface irrigation. • Causes less soil erosion especially in sloppy areas compared to surface irrigation. • It is cheaper to apply soluble fertilizers with overhead irrigation water • Leveling of the land is not necessary and can be practised even on sloppy land. • Helps to clean the plant transpiration and photosynthesising surface e.g. leaves. (c) Ways of applying water to crops by overhead irrigation
Effects of water shortage in crop growth • Poor seed germination, dry up is the process • Poor root development, this mineral uptake reduced. :. Reduce yield, due to affected photosynthesis • Reduced shoot/tillering development. • Restricted production of flowers, fruit, seed, poor quality fruits. • Shrinked fruits and seeds; under developed. • Drying up of crop. 14
Ways in which crops adapt to water shortage •
Some plants become dormant and reduce some physiological functions.
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Some plants shed leaves.
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Some plants fold their leaves.
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Some plants have waxy/hairy leaves
Farming practices, which help to reduce the effect of water shortage in crops •
Practice grass fallowing/minimum tillage. :. Use of mulch
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Planting on time
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Practice contour farming
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Construction of ridges/earthing up.
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Construction of terraces.
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Wide spacing
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Practice irrigation
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Control of weeds
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Addition of manures
Factors that influence spacing in crops •
Height - shorter crops require' narrower spacing than taller crops.
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Suckering/tillering - plants that tiller or produce suckers will tend to occupy a big area and require wider spacing than those that do not tiller or produce suckers
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Soil fertility - crops may be spaced wider if the soil is infertile and close if the soil is very fertile.
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Purpose of crop - crops can require different spacing depending on the purpose for example maize grown for silage is spaced closer than that grown for grains. 15
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Soil moisture regime - drier areas require wider spacing than wetter areas.
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Spreading habits - crops that spread are spaced wider than those that do not spread.
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Number of seeds per hole - if more seeds are planted per hole, the spacing is wider than if few or one seed is planted per hole.
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Mechanization - a crop whose operation will be mechanized is spaced wider to allow space for machinery than which will be manually managed.
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Pure stand/interplanting crop - wider spacing is required for a crop to be interplanted than in a pure stand.
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Diseases and pest control- proper spacing to control certain diseases and pests e.g. Groundnuts are closely spaced to controll groundnut rosette and aphids
(b) The practices that a farmer should carry out to ensure uniform germination of seeds •
Select seeds of the same size, variety, age and free from disease and pests.
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Plant the seeds at the same time.
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Prepare the whole field to the required uniform,. tilth.
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Plant at the right moisture content of the soil and irrigate uniformly.
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Treat against soil borne pests and diseases.
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Plant at the correctdepth.
CROP GROUPS AND PRODUCTION OF SPECIFIC CROPS Crops are classified into seven major groups namely: 1.
Cereal crops
Examples of cereal crops include: •
Rice, 16
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wheat,
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barley,
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oats,
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sorghum,
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maize,
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millet and Rye.
Why cereal crops are widely grown: •
They have wide soil requirement as such can do well in nearly any fertile soil type.
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They have fewer pests and diseases.
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Their production can easily be mechanized e.g. weeding, spraying and harvesting.
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They grow and mature quickly so they rescue people from impending famine.
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Most of them are resistant to drought.
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One or more are found in anyone climatic zone so they are staple food for many races.
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provide various food nutrients e.g. carbohydrates, mineral salts and proteins.
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Can be put to many uses e.g. Food, brewing, porridge and livestock feed.
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Their grains are less bulky so they are easy to store and transport.
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Grains are easy to handle and easy to seed dress so as to prolong viability.
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Grains are easy to process and store.
2.
Root crops / Tuber crops 17
Examples of root crops are: cassava, carrots, yams, sweet potatoes and Irish potatoes. Importance of root crops. •
Have few pests and diseases.
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They can stay longer in the field.
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Lend themselves to gradual harvesting while still in the garden.
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Basic source of carbohydrates.
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Yields are usually high per unit area.
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Can do well even in relatively poor soils e.g. cassava.
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They are drought resistant.
3.
Fruit crops
Examples are: citrus fruits, mangoes, pawpaw, guavas, avocados, passion fruits and jack fruit. Importance of fruits •
Major source of vitamins.
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Fruit trees are easy to establish.
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Fruit trees are easy to manage e.g. may not require weeding.
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Some fruit trees stay for over ten years while providing products.
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Fruits have high market.
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Fruits are exported to earn foreign exchange.
4. Vegetables Examples are: tomatoes, cabbages, dodo, spinach, cauliflower, egg plants etc. Importance of vegetables •
Vegetables are used to add flavour to our food. 18
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Vegetables are a source of vitamins and mineral salts.
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They are high value crops.
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Their production does not require large acreage of land.
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They are fast growing and mature quickly.
5.
Field crops
Examples are: Sim sim, cotton and sunflower Importance of field crops •
They are drought resistant.
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They are a source of oil used for cooking and soap manufacturing.
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Their bye products are nutritious to livestock.
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They have a wide ecological adaptation.
6.
Perennial crops
Examples are: Bananas, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal and vanilla. Importance of perennial crops
7.
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They are high value crops e.g. vanilla and coffee.
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They do not require frequent routine management when established.
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Are plantation crops and do not require frequent attention.
Legumes
Examples are: Beans, soya beans, groundnuts, bambara nuts and pigeon peas. Importance of legumes •
Legumes are a major source of plant protein.
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Legumes help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen (N2) in the soil).
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Legumes provide effective soil cover as such help in soil erosion control.
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Legumes are a source of oil used for cooking and manufacture of soap.
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Bye - products from crushing legume seeds are nutritious feed for livestock.
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Legumes have a short maturity period.
COTTON PRODUCTION Ecological requirements •
Rainfall 500 - 1500 mm p.a. well distributed over the growing period.
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Altitude should range between 0 - l300 m.
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Temperature should be above I5.5°C/warm climate ;high temperatureIl5.5°C - 30°C.
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Well drained soils.
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pH of above 6/ alkaline soil.
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Black fertile soils/clay soil.
Planting Plant cotton at the scheduled time/timely planting for the area: In Eastern should be done in Feb/March while in Central - May - June. • • • • • •
Planting should be timed such that cotton matures during dry spell. The spacing should be 90 cm between rows and 30 - 45 cm within the rows. 3 - 4 seeds should be placed in the planting hole. Planting depth should be 2 - 3 cm . Apply P2O5 during planting in the hole (DAP fertilizer - Diammonium - phosphate). 250 kg/ha SSP or I25/ha DAP.
Pest Control 20
• •
Chemicals / pesticides should be used. For example carbaryl and Ambush can be used to control cotton stainers. Observe closed season for at least 2 months after harvesting Cotton should be planted early to escape pest attack. Preferably pest resistant cotton varieties should be planted. Destroy or bum crop remains after harvest
• • • •
(iv) Harvesting • • • • •
Pick cotton when bolls are fully open and dry. Picking should be done during dry weather When picking two baskets should be used to put the two grades A and B sort cotton into two grades A and B (safi and fiffi) Avoid usage of sack / gunny bags. Avoid any contamination such as twigs, dry leaves or soil.
PRODUCTION OF TEA Land Preparation • • • •
Clear the land Remove all tree stamps to prevent Armmillaria root rot disease. Cultivate the land well to remove perennial weeds e.g. couch grass and spear grass. Make cut off drains to divert storm water or carry out terracing when land is steep.
Selection and preparation of vegetative materials for planting in the nursery • • • • • • •
Select healthy and productive tea branches after prunmg. Select and cut good branches for making cuttings. Making single leaf internode cutting carefully or about 2.5-4. 0 cm length. Avoid using the top 2-3 internodes and bottom hard part. Cut in a slanting manner with a sharp knife. Make top cutting near the axillary bud as much as possible. +:+ Keep the cutting wet in water Keep them under shade. 21
Transplanting the seedlings • • • • •
• • • •
Dig holes 30 cm wide x 45 cm deep. Space holes 1.2 m x 0.9 m I or 1.5 m x 0.75 Select healthy vigorous growing seedlings. At the time of planting ensure there is adequate moisture or rain in the sleeves and in the field. Mix 1-2 tablespoonfuls of DSP fertilizer 115 g - 3 Og/1600 - 420 kg I ha with top soil and fill the hole. Make sure that the top of sleeve is level with the soil surface. Apply shade when necessary. Water when necessary. Mulch when necessary. Add sulphur in old hut/ cattle boma / charcoal burning sites.
Frame formation by pegging •
• •
After the seedling has attained a height of 30cm / after 1 year of age/ when the seedling stem is pencil thick. Cut back the main stem to 15 cm above the ground to allow lateral branches to grow to about 50 -75 cm. Then peg the branches at a slanting angle. Tream off the tips of the pegged branches.
PRODUCTION OF SUGARCANE Land Preparation • • • • • • •
Clear the land. Remove the stumps. Cultivate the land deeply. Harrow the land to a moderate tilth. Remove perennial weeds. Make planting furrows. The furrows should be 1.2 - 1. 8 m apart.
Selection and preparation of vegetative material for planting •
Select planting cane from recommended varieties especially high yielding and disease - free. 22
• • • • •
The seed canes should be cut between 8 - 14 months of age. Cut the canes into sets of 3 nodes. Use sharp sterilized cutter. Avoid use of upper green part of the cane. Treat the setts with recommended fungicide against sett rod disease.
Planting in field • •
Plant at the beginning of rains Apply phosphatic fertilizer in furrows during planting, at the rate of 60 -120 kg of per ha. Lay set's end to end in the furrows / in overlapping manner. Apply insecticide / pesticidal on the sets. Cover the setts with soil 5 - 7 ern.
• • •
Weed Control • • •
Keep the field free from weeds during the early stages of crop establishment. Apply herbicides. Cultivate regularly to control the weeds.
Harvesting • • • • •
Cut the cane when mature as indicated by uniformity of sugar in the stem from base to top. . Cut the cane (when mature) near the ground as much as possible (14 20 months). Cut off the green top. Strip off leaves from the stem or bum the field before cutting. Deliver sugarcane to the factory within 48 hours from cutting.
BANANA PRODUCTION Seedbed preparation •
Clear the bush before ploughing the land or bum the bush so as not to interfere with the operations that follow.
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• • • • • •
Cultivate the land before onset of rains i.e. during dry season to control weeds effectively. Carry out primary followed by secondary cultivation before planting to ensure medium tilth. Dig holes 0.6 m deep. Spacing holes should be 3 m x 3 m or 4 m x 4 m. Mix top soils with manure and phosphatic fertilizer. Refill at the hole with a mixture of fertilizer and well rotten organic matter
Planting • • • •
Plant at the onset of rains Plant well selected suckers; healthy; high yielding and well suited for the area. Plant suckers 0.3 m deep Suckers be should be treated against weevils and nematodes by keeping in dieldrin or trim leaves and roots before planting.
Production of napier (elephant) grass Seedbed preparation • • • • • • • •
Should be done early I during dry season. Clear vegetation/ remove stumps. Carry out primary cultivation. Harrow as secondary cultivation Prepare clean seedbed/clear all perennial weeds. Make furrows / holes. Seedbed should have medium tilt. Spacing should be 90 cm x 30 cm between rows where cuttings are planted 90- 100 cm x 50 cm between rows for splits
Planting • • • •
Should be done at the onset of rains / early planting and irrigate if necessary Select the desirable variety of Napier grass. Use healthy planting materials. Place planting materials in the furrows/holes at the recommended spacing. 24
• • • •
Cover the planting materials with soil to an appropriate depth. Use cuttings or splits. Select cuttings from mature canes/stems. Cuttings should have 3 - 5 nodes.
Fertilizer application • • • • •
Apply phosphatic fertilizer at appropriate rate at planting time. Top dress nitrogen and potassium fertilizers six to eight weeks after planting. Apply farm yard manure/compost manure before planting. Amount of manure should be 7-10 tons. Apply organic manure after harvesting and dig it in once a year.
Weed Control • • • • • •
By cultivation. By, uprooting weeds. By slashing weeds. By use of suitable herbicides. By interplanting with legumes that cover the ground e.g. silver leaf desmodium, lab lab, mucuna beans, desmodium etc. Weed control practices should be carried out early during establishment stage. 0778
Utilization • • •
Practice zero grazing/cut and feed Napier grass to animals when the proportion of leaf is higher than stem Cut down excess foliage to conserve as silage for use in future. Avoid direct grazing of Napier grass by animals.
CROP PROTECTION PLANT PESTS Pest means those animals or plants that cause losses in yield, quality and cause annoyance. Examples of pests are: • Insect pests, • Vermines, 25
• • • • •
Rodents, Birds, Monkeys, Pathogens, fungi and bacteria.
Pest is man made phenomenon. They are natural except in their feeding habbit they affect man. As a result of this it is called a pest today but tomorrow not depending on amount of damage it causes on your plants. So organisms only become pests when the damage on plants or crops is of certain proportion. When they cause losses of 5 - 10% then we sayan oranism has reached pest status. When it reaches pest status then it causes economic damage. TECHNICAL WORDS Economic damage This is a level of damage that a pest causes that will warrant artificial control e.g. use of pestcides. Note: Natural control may occur when a pest just dies or may be eaten by predators or may migrate. Economic injury level Is the smallest population of pests that will cause economic damage to crops and it depends on: . (i) Type of pest. (ii) Season e.g. Aphids are more dangerous during dry season than wet season. Economic threshold It is the population density of pests at which control should start to prevent further damages of crops. Factors that have favoured pest status 1.
System of farming
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In a natural envimment there are no pests. In this case there is a system that equalises the survival of each in a group. There will be no insect or animal that over shoots its population since there is natural balance but as natural environment is' destroyed for farming purpose some enemies go with the forest so some insects survive without enemies. In this case their population increases and as such becme morefavoured as pests. 2.
Elimination species diversity
Species refers to a stable eco - system. An eco - system is a natural unit composed of living and non -living components whose interaction results in a stable self perpetuating system. Ecosystem is destroyed in the following ways: • • • • • •
Clearance of land for settlemera large scale farming, defforestation, continious cropping, mono culture and bush fire.
3.
Increased use of pestcides
Pestcides also eliminate natural enemies and they also impart resistance to chemicals by insects/pests. As pests develop resistance, they evolve and multiply rapidly. Insecticides are also poisonous and affect soil fauna and natural organisms. 4.
Introduction of new crops
This may result in bringing some food for some pests that had lacked food. When introducing a new crop, you may also introduce a new pest which was naturally controlled in its area. In anew area, it will have a lot of food, multiplies and becomes a pest. 5. Improvement of crops Pests als like good food. When the crop becomes tender, they will like it and they will move away from wild plants to your improved crops. Kinds of damage done by pests 27
• •
Plant may die because it is eaten up. As pests feed they may affect the physiological functions causing the plant to die or become stunted. Physiological functions include: respiration, photosynthesis, mineral uptake, CO2 uptake and reduced rate of photosynthesis. Pests may introduce toxins, pathogens and other chemicals within the plant that will interfere with growth e.g. wilts and mossaic virus. Bore through the stem interfering with water and mineral salt uptake. Pets may reduce the quality of the produce due to: • introduction of unacceptable smell. • pests may get mixed with products, their excreta gives bad smell, cause taiting to the produce and prematuring of plant products. • excreta gives bad smell. Pests interfere with germination and growth of plants if planting material is infected. Pests reduce shell life or storage life of a product. They open tunnels for entry of pathogens that cause rotting. Pests generally cause annoyance to human beings e. g. eating a fruit then you find larvae, maggots or even bruchids in beans. Eat flowers, damaging them. Eat growing tips causing stunting of crops. Bore into tubers reducing quality.
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•
• • • • • • • •
DIRECT EFFECTS OF PESTS ON CROPS A.
Damage by chewing pests:
These will cause reduction of assimilation tissue for the manufacture of food e.g.stems and leaves. • • • •
They will reduce plant growth and generally less energy for growth. Examples of chewing pests: Locusts. Termites. caterpilars. 28
•
Army worms.
Some pests make tunnels e.g banana weevil and the affected plant will have the following characteristics: • • • • • • • • • • • • B.
wilting. drying. retarded growth. poor root development. poor yields. poor leaf formation. Some pests destroy buds, in this case they hinder plant growth. pests may also attack flowers and reduce seed formation e.g. American boll worm. These attack cotton and maize flowers. Seeds may be injured as such loss of seed viability e.g. bean bruchid and maize weevils. Pests may attack roots and cause loss of nutrient absorption tissue e chafer grab, wire worms and potato weevil. Pests may also remove stored food found in tubers and affect germination of such parts.
Damage by sucking pests • • • • •
These remove sap in this case: Remove plant nutrients. Plant growth will be retarded. Plant becomes dwarfed e.g. groundnuts rossette. Remove plant growth auxines that control growth.
N.B. These pests concentrate their activities on the growing parts of a plant e.g. citrus aphids, bean aphids, and groundnut aphids. Remove assimilation organs of the plants e.g. . leaves and green stems by wounding. This wounding causes physical damage to the plant. Sucking pests do this(wounding) by rasping e.g. termites. 29
• • • • • •
May also damage floral organs and reduce seed production. Lead to poor seed formation. Tainted seeds. Distorted seeds. Fewer seeds are produced. They introduce diseases causing organsisms as they suck sap.
Their saliva has also enzymes especially ptyalin so as they suck, saliva enters the plants and starts digesting plant tissue. INDIRECT EFFECTS OF PESTS ON CROPS • • • • •
•
Pests make crop harvesting difficulty e.g. delayed maturity and distorted plants make machine harvesting difficult. The grains may also be distorted, this will make processing difficult. Some caterpillars have hairy bodies, stinging hair that may affect person harvesting. Pests lead to contamination of crops and loss of quality and market value. Transmit disease causing organisms through mechanical transmission. [In their feeding habits e.g. cotton stainer causing tainting lint]. Transmitting special fungi called nematospora gossypii and also coffee antestiopiis causes zebra stripes on coffee beans. They also transmit diseases biologically. This mainly involves transmission of viral diseases. Aphids are major vectors in virus transmission e.g. groundnut aphids [ Aphis Craccivora causes groundnut rossettee]. Tobacco white fly causes mosaic, maize. Leaf hoppers transmit maize streak.
PESTS CLASSIFICATION Major pests Occur in great number and they affect key parts of the plant e.g. flowers. Minor pests Occur in small numbers and their effect may not cause economic loss. They attack leaves and minor parts. Local pests 30
Small in number and found in local areas. They are wingless sedentary. Irregular pests Very important pests. Come in large numbers called swarms. Have a very diverstating effects usually focussed e.g. locusts and army worms. Damage done by storage pests • • • • • • • • •
Whole plant may be eaten up e.g. rats. Product may be damaged so that it cannot be sold or eaten any more thus economic, value of product is reduced. This economic damage is donethrough tainting of the product. Crop pest itself gets mixed with produce. Their exuvae(skins) after moultingmix with produce. Their urine and wastes impart bad smell. The processing of such damaged products may become difficult. There may be loss of viability or quality of seed. There may be weakening of fibre of storage material leading to loss of produce during transportation hence annoyance.
METHODS OF PEST MANAGEMENT Common methods of pest control include the following: 1.
LEGAL CONTROL
This means use of law/regulations to restrict areas and commodities in order to control infestation or reduce damage by pests. There are 3 forms of legal control thus: Eradication : Its a programme aimed at ellimination of target organisms in an area all together. Containment : This is used on still new pests that have not reached their full ecological limits. Suppression: Applied on occassional petss e.g. Army worms. 31
2.
CULTURAL CONTROL
This is the manipulation of practices that are usually applied in the growing of a crop so that its disadvantageous to the pest so as to reduce the effect of the pest on the crop or eliminate it. This is preventive more than curative. It is indirectly applied on the crop not on the pest. There are many ways of using farming cultural practices to control pests namely: i)
Sanitation
This is important in removing breeding/hibination and hiding points. It can be achieved by: • Utilizing and destruction of affected plant materials(burning). • Dig up affected part or roots e.g. control of banana weevil. • Collecting and destroying infested plant. materials e.g. In the control of coffee berry borer and mediterenian fly. (Collect and put in a drum of water and oil) • Destruction of plants after harvest e.g. the control of cotton pests. • Timely pasturing i.e. feeding of livestock with plant remains in the control of maize stalk borer. (ii)
Tillage
Tillage is cultivation/digging. • • • • •
Digging helps to destroy alternative host plants. Digging exposes pests eggs and larvae to harsh conditions. Digging exposes pest eggs and larvae to natural predators. By digging pests are burried hence they die. Good tillage allows vigorous growth of crops that can resist pest attack and damage.
(iii) Mulching: Mulch presents good breeding ground for natural preadtors e.g. in coffee it is used in the control of coffee berry borer and Antistropsis
32
(iv) Flooding: Used in control of chaffer grabs. Cuts off supply of air to the pest and pest dies due to suffocation. (v) Crop rotation : The principle is to try to break the pest life cycle. In this case crops of the same family should not follow each other. (vi) Use of healthy planting materials. Sort out planting materials especially in the bananas and sweet potatoes to avoid introduction of banana weevil.and potato weevil respectively. (vii) Timing of planting and harvesting. Timely planting saves the crop in several ways e.g, escape pest attack. crop may mature before pest population builds up. (viii) Use of resistant varieties. (ix) Use of trap crops. Trap crops are used to divert pests from crops. They are usually more attarctive to pests than crops. COMMON BANANA DISEASES Cigar and root, leaf spots, panama disease Method by which a farmer can control the above diseases General control measures • • • • • • • • •
Use disease free planting materials. Sterilize implements. Destroy infected plants. Use resistant variaties. Cigar end rot Remove dead floral remains of banana tip. Observing field hygienes. Leaf spot Spray with mancozeb fungicide.
Panama disease • •
Use resistant variaties. Use clean and healthy planting materials. 33
•
Uproot and discard infected plants.
Cultural ways of controlling nematodes in a field of bananas • • • • •
Plant resistant/tolerant variaties Removing and burning infected plants/practising field hygiene. Use clean planting materials. Plant Mexican marigold in the field. Trim roots of suckers before planting.
Causes of late blight in tomatoes • • • • •
A fungus called phytophthora infestans Symptoms of late blight in tomato plants Rapid drying of leaves Brownish dry rots of fruits Destruction/drying whole plant
• •
Control of late blight in a crop of tomatoes Regular spraying with fungicides e.g. Dithane M45 appropriate fungicide. Uproot and destroy seriously affected plants.
Ways by which pesticides kill crop pests. •
As contact poisons • As stomach poisons after being digested. • Suffocation of pests.
Disadvantages of chemical pest control in crop production. • • • • •
Pestcides are expensive. Some are not - selective killing useful insects as well. Some pests can develop resistance to the pesticides. Most pesticides can be toxic to man and livestock pollutes the environment.
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION Characteristics of clay soil. •
High water retention capacity. 34
• • • • • • • •
Cracks when dry. Sticks when wet as such it is difficult to work. Poorly drained, easily water logged, high fertility. Fine particles. High capillarity. Most have high soil pH. Very hard when dry. Swells when wet.
The farming practices, which help to improve soil structure • • • • • • • • •
Crop rotation/inclusive of ley rotation/leaving land fallow. Minimum tillage. Addition of organic matter. Cover crops. Mulching. Liming or addition of soil amendments. Intercropping or mixed cropping. Ploughing. maintain right moisture content.
What is soil fertility? Is the potential ability of soil to provide nutrients to plants in right amount and suitable propotions. Characteristics of nitrogenous fertilizers • • • •
Highly soluble in water/easily leached/no residual effect. Have a scorching/burning effect on plants. They are volatile/change into gaseous form. Hygroscopic/ absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
Functions of potassium in plant growth • Potassium helps in carbohydrate formation and translocation souseful in tuber and grain development/plays part in plant metabolism. • Assist in uptake of nitrates from soil/helps in balancing effect of nitrogen and phosphorus 35
• • • •
Imparts resistance to crops against diseases. Strengthens straws of cereals. Helps in the development of chlorophyll. Helps in nuetralization of organic acids in plants
Symptoms of potassium deficiency • • • • • •
Lodging in crops/weak stems in cereals. Scorching on the tips and along the leaf margins. Leaf surface becomes chlorotic. Premature loss of leaves/defoliation. Mottling/brownish spots on leaves. Stunted growth.
Ways by which a grass cover helps to conserve soil • • • • •
Grass cover reduces the speed of run off and lowers the erosive power of run off. Grass cover reduceslintercepts the impacts of raindrops which reduces splash erosion. Grass cover protects soil surface hence reducing wind erosion. Grass roots hold soil particles, together from being carried away by erosive agents. Grass cover reduces speed of run off thereby increases infiltration of water, thus reducing erosive power of run off.
Ways by which soil may loose fertility • • •
Leaching. Soil erosion. Change of pH.
Burning of land rapid oxidation of organic matter by microbes or volatilization. Accumulation of salts. Fixation of nutrients/Nitrogen lock - up by microbesrimmobilization). Uptake by plants/continuous cropping/weeds. 36
Soil capping/formation of hard pans. Moncropping/presence of soil - borne pests and diseases. Unavailability of nutrients to plants so loss of fertility. Diseases and pests attack. Agroforestry is a farming system where trees and shrubs are grown together and livestock is kept on the same piece of land so as to maximise productivity and sustainability of land. Benefits of agroforestry • • • • • •
• • • • •
• •
Trees' provide good quality poles and timber for construction. Multipurpose trees can be used as a source of feeds for our livestock. Trees ensure fertile productive land through the provision of organic matter, green manure and nitrogen fixing. . Trees can be planted along river banks, hill tops and slopes to protect soil erosion and reclaim agriculturally unproductive land. Farm trees can be a source of fruits and other food. Mixture of trees and other annual crops of different heights provide a more complete ground cover which a part from protecting soil erosion makes maximum use of sun light and contributes to rain formation as such improving environment. Multipurpose trees provide fuel wood which is used on farms. Trees in crop land give shade and add manure to the soil. Some trees e.g fruit trees add to the total production from the farm thus increases cash Income. Trees help in rain water recycling and rain formation. Trees help in improving soil structure and fertility especially done by their widder rooting net work that loosens compact soil thus increasing water percolation because of decreased run off, there will be minimal erosion. Trees help in improving environment i.e. animals and people rest under tree shades. Agroforestry can be a source of employment.
AGRO - FORESTRY SYSTEMS 37
a. Agrisilvi culture: In this case trees are grown in association with crops. b. Silivi pasture: Trees are grown in association with livestock. c. Agrosilvi pasture: Trees grown in association with livestock and crops. Characteristics of a good agro forestry tree species A good agroforestry tree species should be: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
of light canopy to allow sunlight penetration. Nitrogen fixing so as to improve soil fertility. Nutritious and palatable for our livestock as feeds. Easily coppicing. Non - competitive with crops. Fast growing for biomas production. Deep rooted with narrow root zone, not to compete with shallow rooted crops. Multipurpose thus produce various products like firewood, poles and green manure. Easy to establish and get rid of.
QUESTION ON CROP/PRODUCTION AND THEIR ANSWERS 1. (a) list the characteristics of vegetable, seedlings raised under too much shade. o Their stems are exceptionally long o Their stems are slender o They are pale, yerllow in colour o Their leaves are reduced in size o They are very weak when transplanted o They have very long internodes o They have too much hair o They tend to grow towards sources of light (b) Explain the meaning of the following words as used in vegetables growmg
(i) Pricking out 38
(ii) Hardening off Pricking out: It is a process of thinning seedlings to another space in the Nursery or Nursery Box before transplanting them to the field. - This helps to control overcrowding in the Nursery bed. NB Thinned seedlings are not thrown away being aware of high costs of vegetable seeds. Hardening off. - It is the gradual removal of shade and reduction of watering intervals to seedlings in the nursery bed. - Usually seedlings are watered twice in a day (morning and evening) depending on the moisture content ofthe soil. - This practice allows seedlings to get used to the harsh field conditions after transplanting them. 2. (a) Give examples of cereal crops other than maize, sorghum and millet. o o o o o
Rice Wheat Rye Oats Barley
(b) Give differences between legume and cereal crops. Legumes have nodules but cereals do not have; Legumes fix nitrogen but cereals do not; The floral structure oflegumes is different from that of cereals, crops Cereals are mostly wind pollinated while legumes are insect pollinated; o Cereals have fibrous root system while legumes have a tap roots system; o The leaves of cereals are parallel veinated while thse oflegumes are net veinated; o Most of the leaves oflegumes are trifoliate while those of cereals are o o o o
39
o Legumes provide mostly proteins where as cereals provide mostly carbohydrates, Bean plant (legume crop)
Maize plant (cereal crop)
I (c) Name common pests and diseases of a maize crop and suggest preventive measures for each of them Preventive measures for maize pests. Early planting before pests break out Burning crop residue to destroy larvae, eggs and slow moving adults. Avoiding intercropping because its a host to many pests e.g. American bollworm. Destroying volunteer crops that offer alternative habitat to pests. Crop rotation to break life cycle of the pest. : Scaring offbirds and monkeys especially when maize cob is at milk stage Use of insecticides/pesticides to kill the pests. : Use of scarecrow to keep away weaver birds and monkeys. Use of sound well recorded intervals of shouts in a tape / CD and played in radio. Disease: •
Maize leaf rust, maize streak, white bacterial blight and maize smut. Preventive measures of maize diseases:
• • • • •
Early planting. Using resistant varieties e.g.longe i, ii and iv Using healthy planting materials from clean seeds : Seed dressing to control maize smut and blight. Rogueing e.g. plants affected by smut. - Early maturing varieties / hybrids to escape disease attacks.
40
3. (a) Mention two reasons in each case why the following soil properties are important to crops. Soil texture: o o o o o
It influences soil aeration; It influences movement of water in the soil or drainage; It influences water holding capacity of soil; It influences root penetration and development in the soil; It affects soil temperature e.g. clay soil is colder than sandy soil. Soil capillarity;
o It enables roots to get access to water brought up from deeper layers of the soil; o Brings up dissolved nutrients within the reach of plant root. Soil structure: o o o o o o
It affects the water holding capacity of soil; It influences availability of nutrients; It influences plant root penetration; It affects drainage/water percolation. It influences soil aeration i.e. movement of air in the soil; It affects the susceptibility of a soil to soil erosion.
4. (a) Mention one chemical properties of soil. • Soil pH or soil reaction; • CEC Cation Exchange Capacity of the soil; • Mineral nutrients content of the soil (b) State reasons why a gardener digs around the plants. •
To improve aeration around plant roots;
•
To improve water percolation and penetration around plants;
•
To cover plant roots that may have been exposed to sunshine; 41
•
To encourage anchorage of plants;
•
To remove weeds;
•
To loosen the soil so that tubers or bulbs may grow e.g. Irish potatoes, Onions etc.
•
To incorporate fertilizers.
5. Other than mechanization, discuss other factors which may increase crop production. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Use of improved varieties. These are tested and high yielding. Use of good, clean and certified seed; to ensure good germination since they are viable. Use offertilizers or manures; to boost nutrient levels in the soil. Control of pests and diseases; to avoid economic losses. Irrigation where necessary; to ensure adequate moisture in the soil. Early / timely planting; to allow plants benefit from Nitrogen flush. Proper seed bed preparation; to facilitate other operations and germination. Proper / recommended spacing; to ensure proper plant population. Thinning; to minimse overcrowding and competition. : Timely harvesting; to avoid crop loss in the garden by pests and bad weather. Good soil and water conservation measures; to maintain soil fertility. Weeding; to reduce competition and pests. Crop rotation; to avoid multiplication of crop pests. Pruning where necessary; to control fruiting and ease management e.g. weeding Mulching in some cases to conserve soil and water.
6. (a) Outline the procedure for taking a top soil sample from the field for laboratory testing; •
Divide the area in sections depending on method used (zigzag or transverse/grid pattern).
42
•
Clear the vegetation from various spots where soil samples will be got; o Select necessary tools to use e.g. soil auger, hand hoe, spade, containers/use clean tools o Take a soil slice or when using an auger cut randomly to a depth of 15cm; o Put soil in a sampling bag / container; o Mix soil from various points to have a sub sample to get a representative sample; o Label the bag / container - inside and outside, Putting date, place of collection, sample destination; Avoid the following: o o o o o o o o
Anthills: Kraals: Old house sites: Burnt areas:
- Have mainly sub soil. - Because it is highly organic - Also have a lot of organic matter - Because some nutrients have been destroyed e.g. sulphur Road embarkments: - Have sub soil Ditches: - Have concentration of nutrient by drain pool Do not contaminate the soil with some smoke (cigarettes) Dry the soil. Carry out tests to determine:
(i)
Sodium content
(ii)
Phosphorus content.
(iii) Soil pH. (b) What is the value of having the soil tested? • • •
To determine fertilizers /Iime requirements; To determine soil pH; To decide what type of crops are suitable to grow in the particular area. 43
7.
Write short notes on the following: Advantages. • • • • • •
Utilizing early rains; Results in good harvest (yields) because crops grow well when there is adequate moisture in the soil; It is possible to harvest when conditions are optimum (ideal); It prevents damage to crops by pests and diseases as crops escape pest attack. Plants utilize nitrogen flush. Inter cropping: - It is the planting of a minor (secondary) crop within a major (primary) one. Example maize (major crop) Intercropped with beans which is a minor crop.
Advantages of intercropping: • • • • •
Total yields per unit area are higher; Soil erosion is reduced; If the minor crop is a legume, the later fixes nitrogen to the soil. Maximises use of soil nutrients. Brings all the labour into one garden hence efficiency.
Disadvantages of intercropping: • • • •
There will be competition for moisture, light, nutrient and water resulting in lower yields; Mechanization is difficult; It encourages pests and diseases; attack/spreads It is wasteful as fertilizer will be used by plants it was not meant for.
( c ) Seed dressing: • • • (d)
It is the treating/coating/mixing of seed for planting or storage with chemicals e.g. fungicide or bactericide; It protects seeds from soil pests, soil borne diseases and storage pests; It ensures uniform and good germination, since seeds remain viable.
Seed selection: 44
It is the sorting out of good quality seeds for planting. The seed selected should be: •
Large and well filled (not wrinkled)
•
Should not have blemishes I disease.
•
Should be from high yielding varieties;
•
Should be from varieties resistant to diseases;
•
Should be early maturing varieties:
•
Should be free from pest damage.
•
Should be of right and uniform size.
8. (a) • • • • • • •
Why is it necessary to dry a crop before storage? It reduces rotting / decay by fungi; It reduces insect damage; The quality ofthe seed is maintained; It preserves viability of seeds; It prevents / avoids germination of seeds in the store. Removes unnecessary weight / volume. Suitable drying enable good processing - milling and grinding.
(b) Discuss ways by which a farmer can minimize crop losses during storage. o Drying the crop; to reduce moisture content and prevent fungal attack. o Store should be vermin proof; to minimise crop damage by rodents. o Store should be rain proof; to avoid dampness which may lead to seed germination. o Treating crops with chemicals before or during storage; to avoid damage by storage pests. o Store should be raised to avoid dampness; to avoid fungal attack. o Store should be well ventilated; to keep seeds viable. o Store should be securely located; to minimise crop loss through theft. o Regular checking of the stores; for security purpose. 45
o Clean the store before putting in the new crop; to avoid recycling of pests. o Dusting cracks with lindane or smearing cracks with cow dung or mortar; to seal breeding grounds of insect pests and rodents. o Avoid mixing new seed with old stock to avoid infesting new stock. 9.
Put a tick in the brackets against the best possible answer to each of the following questions; (a) The practice of a abandoning land after it is exhausted and then moving to virgin land is usually referred to each: A:
Nomadic farming
B:
Shifting crop husbandry
C:
Shifting cultivation
D:
Pastoralism
(b) Which one of the crops named below is not a cereal? A Sorghum
()
B: Grains ( / ) (c) The statements below are either true or false. Put ‘T’ if the true or ‘F’ if it is false in the space provided against each. C: Rice
()
D: Oats
()
statement is
(a) Soil structure and soil texture mean the same in the study of soils. (F) (b) Draining can be a procedure in the process of reclaiming land for Agriculture use rather than a principle of cultivation. (T) (d) Cannibalism in poultry is usually caused by overfeeding the birds with carbohydrates in the diet. (F) 46
A soil profile - Is the natural state of different layers of soil from the top soil vertically through subsoil down to the parent rock. (T) Is the natural appearance of the soil horizons in form of A, B, C, D, E. Bumper crop - It is a crop which yields higher than expected in a particular season than the previous season. (T) (e) Explain the causes of food shortage in Uganda in 1980, mention four ways for overcoming food shortage in a community. Causes of food shortage • Effects ofthe economic problems of the country; • Acute shortage of foreign exchange to import farm inputs for farm producers’ use; • Very low income, so some farmers were unable to purchase input • Acute shortage of farm inputs for farmers to buy; • Acute transport problems making it difficult to distribute goods for making production better; • Political instability in the country; • Effects of the liberation war - population disturbed in areas causing massive death; • Ten year cycle of drought in East Africa: Lack of adequate rain water for crops and livestock including for domestic use. • Cattle raids by the Karamojong and Turkanas in North Eastern Uganda Ways of overcoming food shortage: • Increasing production of food on farms in the community by proper use of farm inputs; • Creation of food banks during times of surplus to give supplies during famine for the community; • Use of irrigation (methods); where technology and capital allows. • Buying food from other communities in the countries that have. • Transporting food from another country by the Government of the state the community belong to; • Famine relief donations from international agencies. 47
• Teaching the masses in the method of good farming practices. • Breeding to obtain high yielding breeds of crop and livestock. 12. State the role trees play in the conservation of soil and water. • • • • • •
Trees provide cover or form a canopy that protects soil from being washed away easily by rain; Organic matter from decaying leaves or rotting of dead leaves improve soil structure and water retention capacity of the soil; Roots of trees bind the soil particles together and constantly reduce soil wash or erosion; Trees act as wind breaks; Dead tree leaves act as mulch and thus preserve moisture content of the soil. Forests are water catchments.
13. (a) List down the names of common trees found in our forests. Two species found in Ugandan Forests: • • • • • • • • • •
Muvule; Musizi Eucalyptus; Nkoba; Africanmahogany; Muyoru; Satin wood; Elgon Olives; Iron wood; Mango;
(b) State different farm operations that may have to be carried out on a virgin piece of land before planting. • • •
Clearing, slashing, cutting down, burning of trees or bum other vegetation. Removal of tree stumps and burning them; May need drainage in preparation for ploughing 48
• • • • •
Leveling especially filling up holes from where tree stumps were removed; Laying out contours and fields to take care of soil erosion Ploughing and digging to increase aeration. : Pulverizing or rolling to enable germinanon and moisture storage. Removing stones to allow easy movement of machinery and penetration of a plough.
14. (a) Using example, list the chief differences between cereals and perennial crops. • • • • • •
Cereals are grown for their grains while perennials grown for other purposes; Cereals are annual crops while perennial take more than one year to mature; Most cereals have fibrous root system while most perennial are tap rooted; Most cereals are mono cots while most perennials are dicots. Most cereals have wind pollinated flowers while perennial are insect pollinated. Most cereals are parallel veined while perennials are net veinated;
(b) Out line how you would establish a good plantation of coffee starting with seedlings from a nursery bed up to the time of first harvest; • •
•
• •
Seedlings should be planted at the beginning of rain. Before planting all couch grass or other notorious weeds must be removed and anti-erosion bunds built i.e. seed bed preparation is essential; Holes are made in form of cross 60 cm wide and 60 cm deep, should have been already dug and refilled with top soil one month before planting. Holes should be made 3 months before planting. Put manure (form yard manure or compost) in the holes; Dress holes with SSP (single super phosphate) fertilizers at planting time; 49
• • •
• • • • •
Shading of transplanted seedlings is essential for the first few weeks till the young plant has rooted properly; Transplanted, seedlings should be planted in the hole at the same depth they were in the nursery; Correct spacing at planting is very important but depends on the species, variety and type of pruning to be used later e.g. Robusta, 3 m x 3 m (10’ x 10’) Arabica, 2.4m-2.7m x 2.4-2.7m (8 x 8/9 x9). Clean weeding regularly; Mulching should be regularly done; Cover crops will help check erosion in early weeks; Pruning should be done to stimulate branching and bearing berries and done at 2 metres high. Control of pests and diseases that crop up until harvest Yz - 3 years later;
15. Write brief notes on the following:Rotating grazing: When farm animal graze pasture at definite intervals on different fields of pasture. These definite intervals are the grazing cycle. Importance of rotational grazing: • • • • •
Avoids grazing pressure on the pasture. Allows pasture to regenerate adequately; Helps overcome build up of parasites and disease in one field; Efficient use of pasture and its conservation; Allowsreestablishment of pasture in some fields;
Strip grazing: Is grazing of a strip of pasture with farm animals for a short time and then moving to another strip. Animal movement is controlled by an electric fence. Reason: Efficient uses of pasture. Zero grazing: Is cutting grass of pasture and taking it to feed animals housed in barns or in shelter. 50
Advantages of zero grazing: • • • • • •
Animal do not waste energy walking about in the fields while grazing; Chances of exposing animals to some disease and parasites Efficient use of pasture; It is easy to collect or conserve farmyard manure; Costs of farming are avoided; e.g. labour to look after cattle. It is easy to estimate how much pasture each animal requires daily
Disadvantages of zero grazing: • • • •
Animals lack exercises; It is labour intensive; Fertility of soil reduced as grass is always or constantly cut and carried away and no subsequent replacement made; Only few animals can be kept. :
Stocking Rate: This is the number of animals kept in a unit area of pasture. Good measure of efficient use and productivity of pasture; High stocking rate on poor pasture leads to soil erosion. (b) What are the chief advantages of mixed farming? Diversifies business as such, good insurance on yields of different enterprises or get insurance against crop or animal failure, price fluctuation and spreads risks. Animals and plants mutually benefit from each other; Through organic manure additions to the fields by animals, the soil and its fertility is built and maintained; I Better utilization of land; A farmer gets a diversified supply of products for his/her needs e.g. balanced diet; Labour is well distributed or utilized throughout the year;
51
16. Give the ecological factors affecting the distribution of Arabic coffee in Uganda. o o o o
High altitude Lower temperature; F ertile/ good/rich; Rainfall distribution.
17. What are the types of manure that are commonly used on farms Farm yard manure; (FYM) Compost manure; (C.M.) Green manure; (GM) 18. Mention the important cultural practices that are used in production of a crop. • • • • • • • • • •
o Spacing; Planting;. Weed control; Use offertilizer (manure); Pest And disease control or crop protection; Harvesting; Pruning; Thinning; Seed bed preparation; Mulching; Staking;
19. (a) What is the significance of early planting and adequate weeding of a maize crop? • • •
The crop takes advantage of early rains for establishment. It helps to control infestation by some insects I pests that may spread streak disease; The crop takes advantage of the market price (high) as a result of harvesting early;
52
• • •
It allows better weed control; It increases yields; It takes advantage of the Nitrogen flush;
Adequate weeding: o Reduces competition for nutrients and photosynthesis requirements with the maize crop; o Reduces the chances of the weeds becoming host plants for insects and diseases which would attack the maize crops; o Other conditions for growth remaining good,high yield would be obtained from the maize crop. (b) Out line the major storage problems of maize / cereal crops in Uganda.
o o o o o o o
Wet heating of grain; Insect damage; Rodent damage; Shortage of proper storage facilities] bags and stores; Fungal attack and deterioration; Shortage of seed-dressing chemicals; Theft of the crops in the store
(c) Suggest ways to over come these problems. Good proper drying of maize to reduce moisture content to less than 14 %. Seed dressing maize with lindane dust to control the maize weevils (30gm per l0 kg of seed); Construct a good rodent proof and use rat poison to kill rats. Use a trap or use cats to deter infestation and attack by rats. The store should be secure to avoid theft of produce. Sprinkle outside of bags with 1 % lindane; Do not place bags / sacs / containers of grain near the wall. Clean store and disinfect before storage of the produce. I 53
The store should be raised from the ground The new stock should not be mixed with the old one. Storage containers should be clean and dry The store should be leak proof. The store should be well ventilated. Walls and floors of the store should not have cracks or crevices; Dust / fumigate the store with recommended insecticides before storage. In large stores use fumigants; Different types of produce should be stored separately to avoid cross infection. Mix maize with ash and drying over smoke. Keep the surrounding of the store clean. 20. Describe in details how a farmer would grow or manage a cotton crop in Uganda from planting date to the time of harvest. o A seed bed should be well prepared before planting; o Use appropriate variety for an area e.g. Northern and Easter regions, o use Serere Alber Type Uganda (SATU), Buganda and Western regions use Bukalasa progeny Alber (BPA) variety; o Good well dressed seed of disease resistant varieties should be used especially for the control of bacterial blight; Planting date: Early and correct timing is important for good yields; Eastern, Northern and Bunyoro areas ofU ganda should start in mid-April and end by mid-June and Buganda and Western Regions ofU ganda planting should start in mid May and by mid July. :
G' Sow not more than 5 seeds per hole; 54
Spacing: SArU, use 60 cm x 15 cm i.e. between the rows and within the row respectively (2 ft x 12 ft) Q[ BPA, use 60 cm x 30 cm (3 x I ft) G' Thinning: Thin as early as possible, preferably before they are 15 cm or 16 high. For close spaced plants leave one plant and else where two plant per hole. Gap filling: When 4 or more consecutive gaps occur, sow again; For smaller gaps leave extra plants at thinning: : Weeding: Keep crops free from weeds especially when young: Clean weeding 3 or 4 times will give higher yield. Fertilizer application: Single superphosphate at the rate of 125 kg to 250 kg per hectare can be applied to the seed bed before planting; Sulphate of ammonia should be sprinkled to each plant or in a band alongside at 4 - 6 weeks from germination after weeding or apply farm yard manure at the rate of 8-13 tons per hectare. Spraying: cotton must always be sprayed. o Use insecticides such as Ambush and Ripcord to control bollworm; o The sucking bugs, cotton lygus and cotton stainers; are also controlled by use of Ambush. o First spray should be at 6 weeks form sowing date; o Thereafter spray every 2 weeks and minimum spray of 4 times should be done. Harvesting: o Pick cotton when the lint is dry; o Pick crop as it ripens and continue to do so at frequent intervals of say 1 day; o Avoid breaking off pieces of dried plant materials together with lint cotton; o Put good cotton (safi) into separate bags from poor (fifi) cotton in the field to facilitate sorting. 21. (a) What does crop improvement mean? Describe briefly how a bean crop could be improved. 55
Crop improvement means the total sum of processes to upgrade the genetic potential of a crop and create the most suitable environmental conditions for its growth to attain high yields which pay. Or selection of good quality high yielding diseases resistant, etc., crop varieties by breeding for a particular area. How to improve a bean crop: o Select a variety of bean adapted to a climate and the ecology of the area; o Identify the suitable soils for the crop and provide the necessary soil improvement; o Use the scientifically proven, good agronomic practices for the management of the bean crop; o Control the pests that can cause losses to the crop especially caterpillars, American bollworms, bean aphids and bean flies. o Control the diseases that cause losses especially anthracnose bacterial blight, rust and angular leaf spot. o Use the genetic potential, of the bean for higher yields especially for more pods, bigger seeds, quick maturity and resistance to pests and diseases. (b) Out line the safety precautions required in the use of insecticides on crops in Uganda. Correct insecticides should be applied on the crop for the control of insects recommended; Correct rnixtureor form should be applied using the method recommended on crop for the right insects; Correct amount should be applied as recommended for the right insects; Correct number of times should be adhered to as recommended. Crop sprayed should not be consumed or used until after a recommended period. Government regulations or byelaws on the restrictions of insecticides must be observed; Protective aids should be used during application to reduce dangers of poisorung; Note the time of the day when a particular insecticide should be applied especially on calm day; 56
Clean yourselfthoroughly after application of insecticides; Wash and rinse the equipments after use; Do not smoke, drink or eat when spraying; Avoid direct contact with concentrated form of insecticides; 23. Define the term parent rock. Explain how temperature, rainfall and living organism influence soil formation. Parents rock is unconsolidated mineral material which through weathering may form soil. Effects of temperature: Expansion and contraction of minerals in a rock causing peeling off rock surface; Freezing of water and consequent expansion in cracks to break the rock; High temperature causes increased rate of chemical weathering of rocks, Frost weathering due to influence oflow temperature (Glaciation). Effects of rainfall: Erosion -runoff water carries rocks which knock against each other and break into smaller particles; Rainwater acts as a solvent, dissolving rock compound and rendering the rock easily broken down by other agents. Carbon dioxide dissolves sparingly in rain water to form carbonic acid which dissolves carbonate rocks. Direct impact of raindrops which may loosen the rock surfaces. Effects of living organisms: Roots of plants growing through cracks in rocks enlarge the cracks and split the rocks; pounding by hooves of animals tend to break rocks; Addition of organic matter by bacterial action; 57
Action of man through activities of cultivation, mining, road construction; Action of termites earthworm, etc. resulting in profile mixing and nutrients recycling; Some roots produce certain chemicals in the root tips which tend to dissolve rock particles. 24. Out line briefly the external factors that affect the normal growth of plants:• • • • • • • • • • • •
Rainfall! water/moisture: - should be adquate to form solution of minerals, Oxygen and keeping enviromnent cool. Temperature: - to encourage germination, photosynthesis. Soil fertility: - good nutrient supply; all types in correct quantities. Soil pH: - allows nutrient availability. Pests and disease: - which are soil born should not exist Altitude: Influences temperature, day length: -long enough to allow enough light, amount oflight: - Enough and of required quality for photosynthesis. Competition with other plants: - be minimal to allow full plant potential. Soil erosion: - disturbs growth, carries away good soil. Should be minimal or absent. Soil drainage: - be good for proper aeration enabling root growth. Soil depth: - Adequate for full root growth, nutrient exploitation and firm anchorage. Mechanical support: - to heavy fruit yield crops to avoid breaking before maturity.
30. Describe the various types of soil erosion and their control. (a) Rill erosion: Water flows in tiny rills (channels) down the slope. It occurs in areas where there is little vegetation or in fields where land has been ploughed. Some of the rills are as shallow as 0.6 cm. Control measure 58
Mulching with dry grass to encourage water seapage. Strip cropping - growing alternately crops with different ability to cover soil. Contour cultivating • •
Cultivating along contour to create ridges that reduce the speed of running water. Furrows holds water and encourage it to sink
Use of graded banks (channels cutto trap water) Use of diversion channels dug in the upper part ofthe plot it helps: - To trap large amount of water encouraging water infiltration. - Carries away excessive water along the sides of the field to avoid flowing over the field. Use of bunds. Use of absorption banks - channels constructed along; contour to check on run off and aid absorption of water into the soil. (b) Sheet erosion:
Control Ensure rough seedbed, this reduces surface run off thus controls erosion.. Use of grass bunds, also traps soil and reduces surface run off. Use of absorption banks - channels constructed along; contour to check on run off and aid absorption of water into the soil. (c) Gully erosion: Is the result of rill erosion, it is characterized by deep usually long ditches dug by running water. Gullies are a result of enlarged rills. Control measure •
Use of earth dams across the gully to hold back excess water.
59
:
•
Use of gabions( see diagram below). To act as obstacles to flow and filter for soil.
This is caused by wind. Its work is encouraged or aggravated by lack of vegetation cover. Ensure effective vegetative cover to control wind erosion. (e) Effects of Soil Erosion. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Dislodge or washing away of crops. Removal of fertile soils hence the nutrients are lost. Creates silting of water bodies, blocks drainage and irrigation channels. Creates deposition of sandy infertile soils that cover the fertile soils. Creates gullies that limit movements of machinery and animals. Plant grass in the floor of the gabion. Terraccing to remove the slope, hence reduce on speed of run off. Washes chemicals to lakes I streams thus leading to pollution ofthe water. The soil texture or type / soil structure is altered. Creates gullies that reduce the size ofthe farm land. Lowers the water table or water level. Distabilizes the soil profile by exposing the sub soil thus affects depth of soil. Burries crops in the lowlands. Leaves the soil surface bare and hard. May lead to formation of fertile soils in some areas. : Increases costs to farmers in controlling it. Spread of soil water borne diseases is made high. : Spread of weeds is also made quick. Leads to extra costs and labour in maintenance of drainage channels and roads.
31. Discuss the cultural practices that would increase crop yields Timely opening up and preparation of land. Land should be opened up early to allow a break down of organic matter before crops are planted. If planting is done-immediately after ploughing; seedlings 60
suffer from a shortage of nitrogen; microorganisms use it up in the process of decomposing organic matter. The plants so affected are chlorotic and stunted in growth. Early or Timely planting: It enables faster growth, flowering and fruiting of crops; lt enables a proper programme of farming activities to be carried unless crops are planted early the whole farming calender gets delayed. Early planting enables crops to get nitrate - nitrogen which accumulates in the soil surface during the hot and dry weather. If planting is delayed, the nitratenitrogen will not be available to crops because it will have been leached down the profile. Row cropping: This is the practice of planting crops in rows or lines. Advantages • • • • •
It is possible to achieve the optimum plant population per unit area. This leads to high yields; It becomes easy to carry out agronomic practices such as planting, weeding, spraying and harvesting either by hand or mechanically; Close spacing is achieved which can help controlling certain diseases in some crops, e.g., ground nuts rosette; Lower seed rate is used than if seeds are broadcast; Mechanization is only possible when crops are grown in rows. Planting at the recommended spacing:
Advantages: Weeds are smothered-weeds do not grow big enough to lead to considerable reduction in yield; It provides the optimum plant population per unit area, which in turn leads to high yields; Each crop gets enough plant nutrients and therefore crop growth and production is adequate.
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Application of fertilizers and manure: • •
•
Phosphatic and potassic fertilizers are always incorporated in the seedbed. Among other things phosphorus encourages root establishment while potassium boosts up growth of meristematic tissue. Nitrogenous fertilizers are applied later on in the growing season to encourage vegetative growth. Organic manure such as F. YM. and compost are applied to specific crops e.g. to vegetables, flowers and fruits such as pineapples. Recommended fertilizers and manure are a must and they should be applied at the right time so as to realize high yields.
Weeding: Weeding is done to reduce competition for various factors of growth, namely, air, sunlight, soil moisture, plant nutrients and space. Delayed weeding reduce growth and yield of crops. Thinning: This is done to reduce competition for various factors of growth. Thinning enables the right number of crops per unit area to tap as much water and nutrients from the soil as possible. This leads to good growth and yield. Pests and disease control: Failure to control pests and diseases leads to reduced yields. For Example, a severe attack of maize stalk-borer (Busseols fusa) a major pest of maize may lead to as much as 50 percent damage. Harvesting and drying: Crops should be harvested on time to reduce field losses through destruction by rain, birds and rodents. Proper drying is essential so as to avoid rotting of produce. 32. Discuss the problems caused by weeds in farming. A weed is any plant growing where it is not wanted. 62
Problems caused by weeds include: Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, soil moisture, soil air, light and space; Some weeds are poisonous to man and livestock. For example, the leaves of the thorn apple (Datura stramonium) and the green berries of lantana camara are poison to livestock; Weeds greatly affect the formation and distribution of roots. There are relatively less roots on each crop in plots heavily infested with weeds; They lower the quality of farm produce e.g. blackjack in cotton. Its seeds stick to the lint thus lowering the quality and during sorting out lint is lost along with the weed seeds Weeds reduce crop yields. The plant size and height are reduced. As a result, the photosynthetic area per plant is also reduced. This results in fewer carbohydrates being produced during photosynthesis. Some weeds are alternate hosts for some of the most destructive pests of commercial crops, e.g. cotton strainers and cotton lygus live on wild plants related to cotton, They lead to extra work during cultivation and harvesting. 33. (a) Explain what you understand by soil fertility. (b) In what ways does soil lose its fertility? Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to produce and sustain high crop yields indefinitely. The soil is able to do this only ifit can adequately meet the nutritional requirements of the crop-plants in question; The common ways in which soil fertility may be lost include the following: • • •
Soil Erosion: - By either water or wind; Soil capping: formation of an impervious layer of soil on the surface of the soil, which obstructs rain infiltration leading to runoff; Development of hard pans a short distance below the surface of the soil which impede water percolation as well as root penetration. 63
• • • • • •
Loss of organic matter through rapid oxidation by soil microorganism due to unduly too frequent cultivations. Leaching: Especially serious with such nutrients as the nitrogen which are highly soluble in water. Loss of nut; ients through crop removal without replacing the nutrients removal in the produce; Alteration of soil pH, e.g. through misuse of certain fertilizers. Weeds level Pests and diseases.
34. What are the advantages and-disadvantages of growing vegetables compared to other crops? (a) Advantages: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Source of forein exchange in a country attracts development of processing industries. Provide minerals and vitamins in the diet; Supply roughages for proper functioning of the digestive system. Supply fodder for livestock. Used as green manure. Used as cover crops to control soil erosion. Creates employment; Are short term crops that provide stable income throughout the year I source of mcome. Require less land compared to other crops; Used as flavouring and spices I used as relish. Can be eaten as salads. Legume vegetables provide proteins. Some have medicinal values; Source of raw material for processing industries. Legume vegetables add nitrogen to the soil;
(b) Disadvantages: • •
Lack of organised markets; Market is restricted to urban centres. . Vegetables are highly perishable; therefore need ready market. 64
• • • • • • • • • • •
Lack of processing facilities. Lack of proper storage facilities; Prevalence of pests and diseases; make cash of production high Lack of transport to the markets; Lack of capital; it is generally capital intensive. Lack of technical knowledge and skills to ensure high quality. Low soil fertility; in most areas reduces output. Unreliable rainfall; may bring total loss. Natural disasters e.g. hailstorms, floods I heavy rains. Inputs are expensive; Intensive labour;
35. Give different ways by which one can improve and maintain the fertility of soil. • • • • • • • • • • •
Maintain good drainage of land. Mulching: - To conserve soil moisture and improve aeration. Addition of artificial fertilizers: - to increase nutrients. Controlling invading weed species Crop rotation: - To control soil pests, soil structure, nutrients. : Manuring: - To improve soil physical conditions and increase nutrients Practice suitable Agro - forestry at some moments Soil erosion control: - to maintain top soil and plant nutrients Avoid overstocking: - To prevent overgrazing and soil erosion : Growing of legumes: - for natural addition of nitrogen. Ley farming: - to give the soil alternative production of animals while rebuilding soil structure.
36. Shifting cultivation and nomadic herding are the two main features that characterize subsistence farming. (a) Define subsistence farming; (b) Give five characteristics of nomadic herding; I ( c) What recommendations would you make to improve on subsistence farming? 65
Subsistence farming • • • • • • • •
Is the practice of growing crops and rearing of animals on a small scale purposely for home consumption. Characteristics of nomadic herding: The system specialize in animal farming; Livestock kept in large number as quality is less emphasized; : Animals are moved from place to place in search of food and water; Movement and duration dictated by climatic conditions e.g. rainfall availability. Poor unimproved methods of management employed; Disease and pest control not practiced;
Recommendation to improve subsistence farming: • • • • •
Diversify agricultural activities; Use improved methods of farming e.g. fertilizers, disease and pest control, etc. Utilize agricultural extension services; Provide incentives to farmers e.g. loans, inputs, etc.; Provision of market.
37. (a) Explain briefly the processes by which nitrogen is added to and removed from arable soils. • •
•
Artificial fertilizers containing N, e.g. sulphate of ammonium, C.A.N, etc. During a thunderstorm, when lightening occurs, atmospheric N combines with H to form NH3 which dissolves in the rain water and is washed into the soil; Atmospheric N can be fixed in the root nodules oflegume plants Rhizobia bacteria.
Nitrogen is removed from soil by: •
Plant uptake-crops and other plants absorb the N from the soil; 66
• • • • •
Leaching-when soluble forms of N are washed into lower layers of soil; Volatilization-when nitrates are changed into gaseous nitrogen by denitrifying bacteria: Soil erosion -when soil-containing nitrogen is washed away by water or wind. Crop removal-when crop and residues are not allowed to decompose. Bush burning. Heat created will lead to loss of nitrogen in gaseous form.
(b) Out line the differences between organic and inorganic fertilizers. The following processes add Nitrogen to the soil: The remains of dead plants and animals (organic matter) and animal refuse yield nitrogen when acted on by soil micro- organism; Immobilization-when soil microorganisms utilize the nitrogen to build up their tissues. Organic fertilizers release their nutrients slowly while inorganic fertilizers release quickly and all at once. Organic fertilizers are cheap and easy to obtain, while inorganic fertilizers are expensive and can only be bought. Organic fertilizers are remains of or derived from plants and animals, while inorganic fertilizers are manufactured salts or inorganic elements; Effects of organic fertilizers are relatively short lived. 38. (a) List all the desirable characteristics of a good pasture plant. • • • • • •
Suitable height of pasture plant; Palatable and attractive-animals should voluntarily and readily take it; Nutritive-should contain adequate nutrients for animals; Should be resistant to pests and disease; Should be resistant to grazing; Should be resistant to drought; 67
• •
Should establish and grow fast or should regenerate quickly after grazing and or cropping; High yieldingl high dry matter productivity.
(b) Describe the management of an already established pasture • • • • • • •
Control weeds from the pasture; Practice, correct grazing management e.g. rotational grazing to allow pasture to recover; Maintain correct stocking rate to ensure proper pasture utilization; I Broadcast fertilizers especially N to enhance growth an,d nutritive quality. Over sow with legumes to maintain balance between spectes; Carry out topping to ensure fresh growth; Drain water logged areas.
39. (a) Explain why some farmers have adopted chemical weed control in the production of crops. •
Lack of labour for weeding. Chemical weed control is less labour intensive;
•
Cost oflabour. Employment of workers to weed manually may be expensive; The use of mechanization may be expensive; 'Mechanization used under wrong soil conditions may destroy soil structure; Farmers may want to practice minimum tillage to maintain soil structure and control erosion; Weeds reappear more slowly after chemical treatment, hence less frequent need for weeding; Facilitates timely weeding.
• • • • •
(b) Why is this method of weed control not the best alternative to a small farm? •
Expensive and therefore not economical for a small farmer whose scale of operation is small; 68
• • •
Lack of knowledge in application; Most small farmer do not get extension services; For a small farmer, family labour is free hence no extra cost needed to be incurred in purchase of chemical.
40. Write down advantages and disadvantages of the following: (a) Mulching with organic matters. Advantages: • • • • • • • •
Conserves soil moisture; Controls soil temperature; Add humus] manure to soil after decomposition; Improves soil structure, thus facilitating proper aeration on decomposition; Suppresses controls weed; Minimizes soil erosion. Improves soil aeration and root growth. Renders the soil relatively soft for good root growth and cultivation Disadvantages:
• • • • •
Creates optimum conditions for parasites, pests and disease; Risky in cases of fire outbreak; Wrong mulching materials (plants with weed seeds) may introduce weeds; Creates an imbalance in soil nutrients; There is increase in C.N. ratio.
(b) Using sprinkle irrigation; Advantages: Water supply can be regulated; No leveling ofland is required; Soil erosion is minimized; 69
Fertilizers and herbicides can be applied when mixed in water tank; Much water infiltrates the soil helping easy absorption; An ideal method to use in sandy and hilly areas since no special skill is required. Disadvantages: • • •
• • • • •
Top soil may harden due to impact of water droplets; High labour costs can be experienced in moving orjoining materials from one part orfield 10 another; There is tendency for water not to penetrate deeper layers of soil profile when it is pumped in small amount. This tends to limit root penetration; Salts can accumulate in root zones; Application of water becomes uneven during windy weather; Expensive to install pump and pipes. Encourages diseases in certain crops, e.g. Tomato blight as fungal spores splash on plant leaves. Close spacing groundnuts:
Advantages • • • •
• • • •
Controls spread of groundnuts rosette by aphids. Preserves soil moisture. Crops form a good cover I canopy which suppresses weed growth. Forms good soil cover that checks on soil erosion. Disadvantages: Competition for plant requirements (Light, nutrients) becomes high and resulting to low yield or poor growth. Makes farm operation difficult (spraying, weeding, harvesting). High seed rate required, therefore expensive. Can affect / lower yields.
(d) Contour cultivation and contour strip cropping.
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Contour cultivation is the cultivation of the land along the contours while contour strip cropping is the growing of crops in alternate strip along the contour line e.g. dense crops (beans) alternating with less dense crops (maize). 41. Describe any method used in making good quality compost manure. Indore pit method: • • •
• • • • • • • •
Used during dry season; Five pits, 1.2 m wide, 1.2 m long and 60 cm deep are dug. The first pit is filled with house hold waste, grasses, followed by a layer of cow dug to provide organisms to decompose the fresh materials. Artificial fertilizers (SSP or muriate of potash) are added to increase nutrient level Layer of top soil is used to cover the compost. The same process is repeated until the pit is full. The pit is kept moist during the dry season by appl ying water. For thorough mixing the pits 2,3,4 are equally filled. After 3 to 4 weeks the material in pit 4 transferred to 5, 3, to 4, 2 to 3, 1 to 2 and pit 1 is agan filled with fresh materials. The process continues until the materials are fully decomposed (after 4 months). move materials to the shade to cool before it is applied to the garden. Heap method:
• • • • • • •
Use during wet season for good quality. 4 to 7 heaps are used. Each heap contains household wastes and plant remains (layer) : Is followed by decomposed manure F. YM. to provide micro organism to decomposed fresh materials. Artificial fertilizers (as in pit method) are applied. A layer ofthe top soil follows which contains microorganisms for decomposition After 3 to 4 weeks turn to ensure proper decomposition. This also helps aeration. 71
The compost must be kept moist but not wet. Protection from severe sun or rain in order to conserve nutrients After another 3 to 4 weeks, the material is transferred to another heap and stays there for 3 to 4 weeks before finally it is taken to the field as compost. (b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using organic manures in gardenmg, Advantages: • • • • • • • • • •
Improves soil structure/ aeration. Facilitates proper water infiltration. Supplies plant nutrients. Induces microorganisms necessary for decomposition of plants and animals remains. Reduces rapid soil temperature fluctuations. Preserves soil moisture. Has buffering effect on the soil i.e. balances acid and base condition of the soil (PH). Controls soil erosion. Cheap source of nutrients. Long lasting effect on soil. :
Disadvantages: • • • • • • • •
Bulky-difficulty to transport and apply. Encourages soil pests and diseases. Cause imbalances of plant nutrients in the soil. Has bad smell/ pungent and may be source of disease. Encourages rapid weed growth. If used prematurely, it produces heat and burns the plant root. Cannot be used in large-scale farming. Low release of soil nutrients.
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42. Describe how you would raise a coffee seedling starting from nursery bed preparation up to and including transplanting into the field. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Pick seeds from high yielding healthy trees. Process and dry in shade. Choose a suitable site-good deep fertile soil and well drained, away from shade. Dig seed bed to a depth of 0.6/ adequate depth, to a fine tilt, remove stones, plant roots, weeds and level it. Incorporate manure/ compost// S.S.P. in the nursery bed. Plant seeds in rows spaced 15 cm, x 19 or 20 cm x 20 cm. Apply full shade for at least one month. Timely thinning/ pricking out, to avoid competition. Water regularly when necessary. Timely weeding. Hardening off the seedlings before transplanting. Thorough preparation of the seedbed all weeds removed, all trees stumps removed, at least 6 months before transplanting. Dig holes 3 months before transplanting (60 cm wide 60 cm deep) Fill the holes with mixture of top soil and double super phosphate or manure, at least 2 to 3 weeks before planting. Transplant at the beginning of the long or main rains after 1 year when plant is 25 - 35 cm high. While transplanting, the roots should not be bent or broken. The seedlings should be planted at the same depth as was in the nursery bed. Tap root is trimmed off and some leaves removed. Provide shade and mulch. Watering is done when necessary. The spacing for Arabic coffee, it is 3.3 m x 2.7 or 3 m x 2.4 m or 2.7 m x 1.4 m. For Robust coffee, it is 3.3 m x 3.3 m.
43. (a) Why are cereal crops the most widely grown crops in the world. Provide the basic food world over. The grains are consumed by both man and livestock. Stems and leaves may be used as forage and silage. Feed for livestock. 73
They lend themselves to easy mechanization. They store well. They are used as famine food. Cheap compared to other foodstuff. They stand a wide range of growth conditions. Their straws can be used to construct bricks. (b) Outline the kinds of damages which may be caused on a cereal crop in store. • • • • • •
Growth of moulds on the crop. Mould cause loss of viability in seed. Moulding affects the baking quality of wheat. A general loss of nutrients occurs in green food reserves due to breaking down by the activity of micro - organism. Grain may be attacked by storage insects liked the maize weevils. These bite the grain and the larvae bore into the grain and consume the endosperm. Rodents Gause damage by consuming grain, contaminating the grain with their excretions and also boring holes in containers. Leaking stores may cause the grains to rot.
44. List the problems associated with growing Arabic coffee at altitudes mentioned below: (a) Lower than 1400 m above sea level. • • • • (b)
Rainfall becomes unreliable. Problems of pests and disease increase. Pruning cycles are shorter. Temperature are higher than optimum. I
Higher than 2000 m: Continuous small flowering. Crinkle leaf disease. Temperature much lower than optimum.
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45. (a) Which characteristics would a farmer consider while selecting a crop variety for commercial production? (b) How would you test for the percentage viability of a seedling?
• • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • •
A farmer should consider: The yield ofthe variety: It should be high yielding. Palatable / taste of variety. Should be good to eat Resistance to diseases and pests: It shoul be resistant to pests /diseases. Rate of maturity/ growth, it should be fast maturing. Suitability of the variety to environmental conditions, it should be able to grow even in poor soil/wide range of soils. Storage qualities of the variety, should be easy to handle and store. It should be of suitable / convenient height. Attractiveness hence availability of market. Should be drought resistant Value of the crop variety, should be of high value/ fetch more income. It should be of high nutritional value.
Pick a number of seeds say 50 from the lot. Provide conditions necessary for germination. Leave to germinate for a few days. The seeds which have germinated are viable. Count the seedlings. Divide the number by the initial number of seeds used. Convert into percentage to give percentage viability of the seed seeds with 65% - 70% are good for planting so they are viable. Second method could run as follows: Use tetrazolium salt. Pick a number of seeds. Immerse them into Terrazolium salt. Remove seeds from salt. 75
Open seeds to see embryo. Count the number of seeds which have pinkish embryos. Those will be viable. Divide and calculate the percentage. seeds with 65% and above are good for planting.
:
46. (a) Describe the various methods used in the improvement of grassland pastures. (b) How can a farmer ensure proper growth of swards and maintain a balance between plant species on a pasture. • Methods of improving grassland and pastures:• By cleaning the unwanted bush/ weeds to avoid competition. • Plough and replant seeds with better grass species. • By inclusion oflegumes in the pasture by over-sowing. • Apply irrigation when necessary. • Broadcasting fertilizers over the pasture. • Drain water logged pasture. • Fence to ensure better grazing management e.g. rotational grazing. • By allowing animals to remain long enough in a pasture to eat up the less palatable species. • By grazing plants at the right stage. • Use of fertilizers especially nitrogen. • Carrying topping by mowing or slashing. 47. Enumerate methods of reclaiming land. • • • • •
Draining swampy areas. Irrigation in dry areas. Terracing hilly land. Deforestation. Bush clearing or stumping.
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• Blasting or rolling off rocks to create cultivable land/ surface. • Application of fertilizers to poor soils. I • Control of tsetse flies. I • Sorting out non degradablr waste in dumping sites. • Washing of salted soils 48. Give ways by which the following soils may be improved for crop production: (a)
Clay:Drainage to increase soil temperature. Drainage to increase aeration. By marling (addition and mixing) with sand. Application of organic matter to improved structure. Liming to increase fluctuation (clay particles coming in aggregates.)
:
(b)
Sandy soils o o o o
Addition of organic matter. Mulching. Irrigation. Addition of fertilizers.
49. Mention three ways by which pests may be controlled through biological method. • • • • • 50. (a)
By use of predators. By use of microorganisms (fungi, Bacteria) By use sterile males. By use of parasites and viruses. Through genetic manipulations producing genetic combinations that are lethal.
What role does vegetation play in soil and water conservation?
• Protects soil from the impact of rain thus controlling raindrop erosion. 77
• Reduces the speed of surface runoff. • Roots bind up soil particles thus making them more resistant to soil erosion, • When they decompose they increase the organic matter content in the soil thus improving soil structure. • Dead foliage cover the ground and act as mulch. • Vegetation aids in water and nutrient recycling (rain formation). List the characteristics of soils suitable for healthy plant growth. List Characteristics of soils suitable for plant growth:o High nutrients content. o Moderate good water holding capacity. o Good aeration for good root growth, Nitrogen fixation, decomposition of organic matter. o Favourable pH; to enable nutrient availability : o High organic matter content, to moderate both physical and chemical properties of soil. o Good drainage, to enable good aeration. o Good texture, to enable, drainage, aeration, resistance to erosion etc. o Deep soil, to give adequate root zone, and plant anchorage. o Presence of beneficial soil microorganism:-Nitrifying bacteria, earth worms decomposers to reduce organic matter. 51. Write short notes on the following: (a) Wet coffee processing from picking to the production of dry coffee parchment. (b) Disadvantages of chemical pesticides. (c) Flue curing of Tobacco. Wet coffee processing: • • • •
Harvest red, ripe berries. Pulp the same day. Wash the pulped beans with running water. Place in wooden boxes and cover. 78
• Allow to ferment until mucilage layer comes off easily through rubbing. • Wash the beans to get rid of the disintegrated layer of mucilage. • Dry on raised stands/mats. Disadvantages of chemical pesticides: o o o o
Poisonous to man and other animals. Their broad spectrum makes them kill harmless and beneficial insects. Require Skill in applying. Pests can acquire resistance to the chemical pesticides.
Flue curing oftobacco:• Is a method of curing tobacco where by heat is passed through a network of metallic pipes called flues inside a barn. • Harvested ripe tobacco leaves are packed inside the barn stand from up coming downwards. • Leaves hang without fire until they change colour from green mottled to yellow. • This process is known as yellowing and takes 4 - 7 days. • Humidity must be high during yellowing. • After yellowing the colour is fixed by increasing the temperature and ventilating the barn to reduce humidity. • Continue supplying heat until the leafis thoroughly dry. 52. (a) Why are Root crops popularly grown in Uganda: o o o o o o o o o o
They can grow well in a variety of soils. Planting materials are easily avaiilable. Production process requires little labour. They can stay in the soil/ ground until required. They land themselves to gradual harvesting. : They are treated as femine crops. They have fewer pests and diseases. They require little processing before eating. They grow in a wide range of climatic conditions. They are drought resistant. 79
o They can be put to many uses. o Have high yields per unit area. (b)
Disadvantages of root crops: o They are bulky and therefore difficult and expensive to transport. : o Have high moisture content and thus cannot be stored for long unless dried. o Have low content of proteins, fats, vitamins and mineral salts. o Fetch little money in the market/ Are low value crops. o Have limited market. o Planting materials are bulky.
(c)
How a Cassava crop is raised from land preparation to harvesting. Clear the land. Carry out deep cultivation. Leave the soil to rough tilth to reduce erosion. Select suitable varieties e.g. varieties that are resistant to cassava mossaic, sweet varieties, Early maturing varieties. Use clean planting materials / stem cuttings. Select and plant suitabler cuttings Plant during rains Plant at correct depth Gap fill to ensure optimum plant population Weed at early stages of its growth Control pests and diseases Harvest the crop when mature
54. (a)
Define the term crop rotation.
(b)
What should a farmer have in mind while planning a rotation programme for crops?
(c)
Draw a rotation programme for the following crop. Millet, cassava, cowpeas, sorghum and cotton. 80
I
(d)
State the advantages of crop rotation. :
Crop-rotation is the growing of different crops at different times in an ordered sequence in the same field followed by a period of resting the land to maintain soil fertility. Points to be considered. • • • • • • • •
Crop plant with high nutrient requirements come first in the rotation. Deep rooted plants alternate with shallow rooted plants. Plants with similar nutrient requirements should not follow each other. Plants with same diseases and pests should not follow each other in a rotation. Legumes should be included especially after a cereal to put back Nitrogen. Crops that make weed control difficult should be alternated with those which make weed control easy. A rest period under grass should be included to allow the rebuilding of soil fertility. crops that do not cover soil properly should be followed with those which form dense ground cover.
Diagram showing possible rotation programme for millet, cassava, cowpeas, sorghum and cotton.
Advantages of crop rotation • It improves soil structure/fertility. • It checks on soil erosion by providing soil cover. • It controls insect pests and diseases by breaking their life cycles when host crops are not available. • Nutrients are utilised maximally by being drawn from different levels of • soil profile by different crops. • It evens out labour requirements over the year. It spreads financial risks over several crops. • It controls parasitic weeds such as striga which is specific to cereals. 81
55. (a)What is soil pH? (b) Describe an experiment one would carry to determine the pH of a soil by use of a universal indicators. (c) How would a farmer correct the pH of a given soil sample? Soil pH • Soil pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a soil is. OR It is defined as a soil reaction. OR The potential of hydrogen concentration in the soil. • OR It is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration
• • • • • • • • •
Experiment Place 10g of soil sample into a test tube. Add 10g of Barium sulphate to precipitate or flocculate clay. Add 10 cm3 of distilled water to the test tube. Add 2 cm of the universal indicator or soil indicator to the test tube. Shake the test tube vigorously. Return the test tube to the rack and allow the test tube to settle. A clean area will appear whose colour gives an indicator of the pH. Hold the co loured area against the pH colour chart. Describe the colour that corresponds closely to that in the tube which gives the pH of the soil.
Ways of correction on pH of a given soil sample. o o o o
Addition of organic matter/manure. Use oflime to correct low pH. Use of acidic fertilizers e.g. Sulphate of ammonia to lower pH. Irrigation/Drainage.
56. What is the importance of phosphorus element in plant growth? • • • •
It is for proper root development. Gives plants resistance to diseases Prevents lodging in cereals or It gives strength to straw in cereals. It influences flowering, fruiting and seedling. 82
• • • • • •
Promotes early maturity. Counteracts the effects of excessive nitrogen in maturation. : For cell division. For fat, protein formation as such metabolism and photosynthesis. Improves crop quality. Helps in the break down of carbohydrates during respiration. 57. How can soil regain the nutrients lost? o Addition of fertilizers. o Addition of organic matter. o Mineralisation in / within soil rocks. o Nitrogen fixationllightning. o Use of crop rotation. o Use f crop residues. o Mulching/use of organic mulches. o Leguminising the land o Growing fallow period
58. (a) (b) (c)
Name common pests of cotton crop. How can farmers successfully achieve pest control through chemical method? State the dangers in using chemicals for pest control. Common cotton crop pests
American bollworm, lygus bug, spiny boll worm, cotton stainer, pink boll worm, red cotton mite, aphids, yellow tea mite, cottonjassid. How farmers can achieve pest control through chemical method. applying correct concentration as recommended. spraying in dry weather. applying at correct/appropriate stage of growth of cotton plant. spraying at intervals recommended. using the correct applicator. applying insecticide at correct stage of pest development (vulnerable stage) 83
Dangers of using chemicals o o o o o
59 (a)
Can cause damage to plants ifhigh concentration is used. Pollution of environment. Health risk to farmer, his/her children, livestock if poorly used. Some useful insects are killed e.g. wasps and bees. Pests tend to develop resistance iflow concentration is continuously used. Outline objectives of crop breeding
(b)
What is crop propagation?
(c)
Describe the major methods of vegetative propagation.
Objectives of crop breeding. • • • • • • • • • •
For increased yields. To increase resistance to harsh environment. To improve the palatability of the crops. To improve crop characteristics to ease practices like weeding and harvesting. To shorten the growth periods of the crops. To improve the nutritional value of the crop / produce. To improve resistance to diseases. To improve resistance to pests. To get the crop of short height to prevent lodging e.g. rice varieties. To improve quality of the crops e.g. shape, colour and size.
Crop propagation It is the formation and development of individual plants which can be used in the establishment of new planting materials. It may be done by use of seeds or plant parts. Major methods of vegetative propagation include: Use of cuttings. These are portions of plants which are" cut and used for multiplying plants. 84
They may be a stem, root, leaf or part of shoot. Examples of crops propagated in this method:Cassava, sweet potatoes, coffee, ornamentals, grape fruits, sugar Layering: Involves inducing of plants to produce roots on the stem or branches before they are cut off from the parent plant for planting. Types of layering. (i) Ground layering. Stem from a tree is forced to bend and touch the ground. This stem is bruised at a point in contact with soil. That point is covered with soil and water is regularly applied. After a few days, roots will develop. When roots properly develop, the stem shoot is cut off and planted as a new plant. NB a peg is inserted on the ground to hold the steps in position. (ii)
Air layering. o o o o
A stem is bruised. Moist soil or cotton-wool is tied on the bruised part of the stem. This point will develop roots. When roots are fully developed, it is cut and planted.
(iii) Mound/ stool layering. Done with potatoes etc. (iv) Compound layering/ sepentive layering. Examples of crops. grapes.
Hard wooded crops e.g. coffee and ornamentals,
Grafting
85
It is the uniting of two separate usually woody plant structure. Grafting is done by uniting one stem to another. The upper part is called scion and the lower one stock/rootstock. Examples of crops; Citrus e.g. oranges and mangoes. Use of storage structures/ perennating organs. These are vegetative structures which store food for the next growmg season. Storage structures such as bulbs, suckers, stem tubers, root tubers, splits, rhizomes, stolons, bulbings, runners may be used. Examples of crops. • • • • • •
Onions, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, some grasses, bananas, pineapples and sisal.
Budding. This is special type of grafting in which the scion is a bud. A bud is obtained from a mature branch. This is then inserted into a T-cut stem of a root stock. One example of the crop is citrus. 60. (a) (b)
What are the benefits of draining farm land.
What are the disadvantage met in draining farm land.
Benefits: • It removes surplus water from a sufficient depth to improve crop growth. • It improves soil aeration and crops are not attacked by root decaying fungi. • Disease risk from parasites e.g, liver flukes and microbes is reduced on drained land. 86
• Grazing land is made firmer to accommodate grazing stock. Reduces mineral; fertilizer/ manure loss through leaching. • It renders mechanization farm operation easy on the farm land. It increases the activities of beneficial soil microorganism. • It modifies soil pH for crop growth. Disadvantages. • Disrupts ecosystem in the swamp and may lead to the disappearance of useful plant and animal species. • Water table is likely to be lowered to the detriment of crops which are shallow rooted.. • Fish which is a cheap source of animal protein is likely to disappear as drainage will destroy their habitats. • Swamps form essential part of the water cycle and their drainage will affect the ramfall pattern. • Amount of rain falling will reduce thus leading to drought and high temperature e.g. in Kabale. I • The overall effects w ill be change in climate which may necessitate breeding/ developing New crop varieties to fit the changed climatic regime. • in places where swamps are used to purify sewage, their drainage will lead to pollution of fresh water sources. 61. (a) (b)
Describe steps followed when making a good nursery bed. What are managemental steps when caring for the seedlings in the nursery bed until transplanting. A good Nursery bed.
• Clear the land remove shrubs and trees complete with their roots. • Remove perennial/ rhizomic weeds and place in a pile to rot and provide manure. • Rocks/ stones of more than 5 cm in diameter should be removed (large stones). • If the land is uneven then level the area to be used. 87
• Cultivate the area deeply to a depth of 20 - 25 cm using a hand hoe or a rotary cultivator. • Sterilize the soil before sowing seeds. • Prepare the beds of 1 m in width. • Rake off weed stems/ trash to leave a fine tilth on the bed. • Make raised beds for humid tropical areas or sunken bed in semi - acid areas. • Apply compost or F. YM. at the cultivation stage in organic fertilizers if necessary. • Firm the piled soil to prevent washing away by rains. Care for the seedlings:• Weeding- This is done to remove weeds that may compete with the seedlings. Do hand weeding. • Watering- To be done twice a day to ensure that seedlings have adequate moisture. Use a watering can. • provision of shade-Not to expose seedling to direct sunshine and/ • Pests and diseases control-To avoid destruction of seedlings by pests and disease causing organism. • Thinning/Pricking out-As seedling grow thinning is necessary to reduce competition amongst seedlings. • Hardening off-As transplanting comes near seedlings should be made used to field condition by gradually reducing watering intervals and shade. • Provision of an enclosure-To exclude livestock that may trample and destroy the seedlings. 62. Name and describe the factors that influence soil erosion by running water. How can water erosion be controlled? • Rainfall intensity. Rainfall with high intensity does not allow adequate time for infiltration and the resulting large volume of runoff carries away plenty of soil. • Topography. Run off is plenty and stronger on steep slopes than on gentle slopes. Erosion by running water is more effective on steep slopes than flat land. 88
• Soil type. The ability of soil to resist erosion depends on its structure stability because loose soil e.g. sandy soil is likely to be washed away faster than firm clay soil. Also soil with little or no organic matter is washed away easily. • Type of vegetation: Vegetation that covers surface protects soil against erosion. Bare soil surface encourages soil erosion. Plants also protect the soil from wind erosion. • Farming practices. Some farming practices like over cultivation, ploughing down the slope etc may encourage soil erosion. • Destruction of vegetation. Deforestation and bush burning leaves soil bare and as such exposed to erosion by running water. • Plant grasses along water ways to slow down the speed of runoff and encourage infiltration. • Construct diversion channels at the lead of a gully. • Uses barrages/gabions made from earth, stones, grasses at the length of the garden. • Maintain grass bund or strips between plots or at the head of the gully. This will slow the speed of the eroding water. • Mulch perennial crops e.g. coffee and bananas. • Practice contour cropping. • Practice contour plough. • Plant cover crops. 63. (a) (b)
Describe single and multiple system of coffee pruning. What are the advantages of pruning coffee plants?
• Single pruning: This system leaves one permanent stem capped at 1.5 - 8 m (5 ft - 6 ft) with a permanent frame work oflaterals. • It is established by capping seedlings when knee height 69 cm or 27" height) • Capping involving the cutting off 6" or 15 cm of the tip of the plant. • Primaries are allowed to grow. • The one growing upwards is allowed to grow and capped when slightly above waste height, 130 cm 52" 89
• After the 1 st and 2nd capping, the primary immediately grows. • Annual pruning consists of removing old wood which has bom crops and selecting New vigorous growth for future cropping. Multiple system: Consistent of pruning to provide growth of two or more stems. Capping is done in the nursery at about 15" or 3 8 cm high or in field when the crop is 21 " (53 em) high. Both suckers are allowed to develop and when they are 4" - 5" (10 - 15 cm) long, the two laterals branches immediately below them are careful cut off. Each lateral is allowed to bear two crops and it is removed. When the tree becomes too tall for easy picking, the stems are cut back and New shoots are allowed to develop. Annual pruning consists mainly of cutting the laterals from the long parts ofthe stems. I Secondary pruning must be done during the main rains. I Advantages of pruning coffee: Controls cropping and avoids over bearing which would lead to deformation of trees and poor quality coffee. I Makes managemental practises easy e.g. spraying, picking, and weeding. Reduces microclimates which would otherwise harbour pests. Easy to harvest pruned coffee because of reduced height. 64. (a) • • • • •
Outline the effects of soil erosion in farming.
Soil surface is left bare / exposes sub-soil layers. Makes soil difficult to cultivate; Leads to loss of organic matter, minerals and micro-organisms; The soil profile is distabilized; Roots of crops are exposed; 90
• • • • • • • • •
Crops are washed away; A layer of poor soil may be deposited over fertile soil; Crops may be burried by debris carried by runoff; Create which make movement of farm machinery difficult; Reduces the H2 ° table; Spread of soil borne diseases; Spread of weed seeds; Blocks irrigation and drainage channels; Leads to destruction of soil structure;
(b) Describe the Mechanical methods of controlling soil
erosion.
Use of contour bunds; these are continous heaps of soil placed across the slope and grass like paspalam notatum is planted on top to hold the soil in place. Contour ploughing; ploughing is done a long the contours / across the slope; Terracing; theses are structures constructed on the slope to reduce the slope of land; Use of graded banks; the land is divided into small areas by constructing banks and this reduces the length ofthe slope. Use of diversion channels; theses are chanels constructed on the upper part of the field to catch the running water and carry it away along the sides. Use of absorption banks / pits; these are channels constructed across the field to catch running water and retain it; Use of barrages / gabbions; these are structures constructed across the gulleys to reduce the speed of running water and encourage sedimentation. Use of grass water ways; theses are drainage channels planted with grass e.g. paspalam, star grass or kikuyu grass to lead away excess water. Use of ridges; heaps of soil are put across the slope; Use of stabilizers; these are structures that are added to the surface ofthe soil to hold the soil and increase H20 infiltration : 91
65. What factors should a farmer consider while selecting seed lot for planting. • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Seeds should be free from pest damage. No evidence of disease attack. Properly dried and stored. Fully developed. From a high yielding cultivation/ parent plants. It should have past domancy period. Should be viable/ able to germinate. Should have uniform size. Should have uniform colour. Should have unirm colour. Should have uniform conformation. From an early maturing variety. Free from mechanical damage
66. (a) State the qualities of a good fertilizer.
• • • • • • • (b) • • • • • •
It should: be easy to apply be easy to handle be easy store supply the required nutrients readily to the soil be affordable and cheap have a long lasting effect in the soil. have high nutrient content. Name two methods of fertilizer application Broad casting Foliar application or spraying Ring application Band/side application Drilling/Row placement/base application. Plough sole application 92
• Through irrigation water (c) State two problems associated with the use of fertilizers. • It can burn / scorch plants if not properly used: • It may be washed into the rivers and lakes where it encourages growth of algae. • It may pollute the environment. • It may be dangerous to the person applying them • Excessive application cause improper plant growth e.g. lodging. • It may alter the pH ofthe soil. • It may become toxic to beneficial micro -organisms in the soil. • It may be easily leached/lost from the soil/short lived effect in the soil. • It may be difficult to apply. • It may be expensive to buy/make. • Some fertilizers are a source of pests and diseases. 67 (a) What are the advantages of using compost manure? • • • • • • • • • •
Improves the soil structure. I It is a major source of soil nutrients especially nitrogen and : Prevent leaching of nutrients and release the nutrients slowly into the soil. I It favours the survival of microorganisms in the soil I It has a long-term effect in the soil. I It forms humus, which imparts a dark colour to the soil therefore making it good at absorbing heat and keeping it warm. Compost manure forms humus, which binds the. soil particles together therefore controlling soil erosion. It improves aeration of the soil. It buffers the soil pH hence maintain pH of the soil within a given range. It improves water-holding capacity of the soil.
(b) Describe the cultural methods used in weed control. • Crop rotation; certain weeds tend to follow particular crops e.g. striga in cereals hence if crops are alternated striga will be controlled. • Proper spacing; this helps to smother weeds. 93
• Timely planting; enables crops to establish and grow early enough so as to out compete weeds. • Flooding; this kills weeds that can not resist waterlogging; good for control of weeds in rice field. • Use of trap crops; the weed grows on the host plant which is then ploughed in when the weed is still greenlbefore seeding. • Mulching; deprives weeds of sunlight and suppresses their growth • Cover cropping; crops with a dense foliage are planted to shade the ground and smothers weeds. • Planting weed free seeds; before seeds are planted they should be cleaned of foreign materials especially weed seeds. • Controlled burning; this helps in destroying both weeds and their seeds. • Controlled grazing; this reduces over grazing and that desirable pasture are not out competed by weeds. • Inter cropping; provides dense cover to suppress/smother weeds. • Proper fertilizer placement; fertilizer should be placed in such a way that it benefits the crop more than the weed in order for crops to out compete the weeds. (c) What are the disadvantages of using chemicals to control weeds? • • • • • • • • •
Herbicides can destroy crops if not properly used. Herbicides may persist in the soil. They pollute air and water/environment. They are expensive to buy. They require technical knowledge to use. They are poisonous to human and animals. They require special equipment for application. Chemicals can kill useful insects such as pollinators, predators etc.. Chemicals can alter the, soil pH thus affecting crop growth.
68. (a) Give advantages of early planting in crop production. • Crops escape pest and disease attack. 94
:
• • • • • • • •
Crops benefit maximally from the rains. Crops benefit from nitrogen flush. One can have more than one planting in a year. Ensure efficient distribution oflabour on the farm during the year. Farmers take advantage of high market prices as a result of early harvesting. Crops mature when conditions are suitable for harvesting. Leads to high yields. Crops have a good start against the weeds :
(b)
• • • • • •
Give considerations to ensure high quality of produce during harvest.
Harvest when fully mature. Harvest when soil and water conditions are suitable. Put harvest in suitable containers. Avoid mixing harvest with foreign materials. Avoid mixing diseased produce with clean ones. Harvest carefully to minimise damage of produce.
69. (a) Describe farming practices, which demonstrate diversification in agricultural production. Mixed farming: Is a practice of farming in which both crops and animals are produced on the same farm at the same season e.g. keeping any type of animals Inter cropping / mixed cropping. Is the practice of farming where two or more crops are grown in the same plot e.g. maize and beans /bananas and beans. Agroforestry. Is having trees plus crops and animals in the same farm at same season. (b)
Outline advantages of diversification.
• Reduce / minimise the risk ofloosing entire harvest. • Total loss of entire enterprise is minimized in case of mixed farming. • A farmer is able to get some income throughout the year from crops and livestock products. • Better utilization of soil nutrients. 95
• Efficient use oflabour throughout the year. • Crops may be used to feed livestock and wastes from livestock may be used to improve soil fertility. • Trees act as wind breaks. • Trees provide timber, poles and fruits. • In case there is a change in price /demand /governrnent policy on one product the farmer can still make for losses on the next enterprise / • The farmer gets a balanced diet. • Inter cropping reduces the incidences of pests and diseases. 70. Outline the steps to be followed in raising tomato seedlings from nursery bed preparation until the seedlings are transplanted. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Remove all roots and weeds from the seedbed. Raise the soil level in case the place is poorly drained. Rake soil to remove clods or stones. Fumigate the soil to kill nematodes. Put support side logs e.g. banana stems to protect the bed from getting washed away. Ensure a fine surface by use of a rake. Incorporate well rotten FYM or compost manure or fertilizers. Make beds of 1 m wide by any length. Make rows 15 cm apart. Thinly drill seeds along rows. Cover seeds using a thin layer of soil. Put a thin layer of mulch. Water the bed regularly. Remove the mulch as soon as the seeds germinate. Make a shade. Carry out hand weeding to control weeds. Carry out thinning or pricking out to reduce competition. Spray seedlings using dithane M 45 /fungicides to avoid damage by early blight. Spray with appropriate chemicals to kill pests. 96
• Do hardening off two weeks to transplanting. • Transplant whenmonth old and preferably in the evening Imoming/dull weather. • Prior to transplanting wet the bed to ensure the soil is soft to avoid breaking the roots. • Transplant using a trowel or any suitable implement. • Water immediately after transplanting. • Spacingshould be 90 x 60 cm. • Cover seedlings using leaves toavoid scorching by sun's heat. 71. (a)
How can disease spread in a crop? o o o o o o o o o o o o o
Through wind; air currents blow spores. Through water; rain splash carry spores. Contact of plant to plant/animal to plant. Affected plant materials/seeds/cuttings. Pruning knives, pangas etc. carry disease organisms. Sucking insects inject infected saliva into the plant. Soil implements can carry spores. Contaminated seed when it germinates spores attack the new plant. Microorganisms like bacteria, virus and fungi. Irrigation water. Mulching materials. Crop waste / previous residue. Organic manure.
(b) Describe the methods that can be taken into account when controlling disease spread in crops. I • Plant resistant which with stand disease attack. • Weeding to remove plants that may be alternate hosts of a disease organism. • Crop rotation; to prevent a build up of disease on one site. • Draining the soil; may prevent water borne diseases. • Spraying with recommended fungicides, to kill the disease. • Spraying with recommended pesticides to control vectors. 97
• • • • • • • • • • •
Seed dressing; can be used to destroy spores on the seeds. Heat treatment: may be given to seeds to kill spores in them Diseased parts of plants / whole plants should be removed and destroyed Soil can be sterilized by heat to kill spores / pathogens. Early planting; for crops to escape disease build up. Close spacing; to create a micro - climate for the microorganisms which minimize the virus for groundnut rosette. Closed season; in order to starve the organism to death. Use of disease free planting materials to prevent spread of disease. Quarantine / legislation; to restrict movement of planting materials from one place to another. Destruction of crop residues; which can harbour pathogens that cause disease. Pruning; to reduce micro - climate that favours growth of microorganisms.
• Use of disinfected tools; to prevent spread of diseases. 72. (a) Describe the factors that should be taken into account deciding spacing for a given crop or variety.
when
Soil fertility; the more fertile the soil, the closer the spacing. Amount of rainfall / soil moisture content: ifhigh moisture content carry out close spacing hence supporting more crops. Type of growth habit; spreading crop require wide spacing while erect crops require close spacing. Accessibility; the need to have access into the crop during. spraying. Purpose for which the crop the crop is planted; crops used for livestock feed should have close spacing while commercial crops should have a wider spacing. Type of crop; different crops have different spacings Rooting system; crops with excessive rooting system require a wider spacing while those with restricted rooting system require a close . 98
(b) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of broadcasting as a method of planting. Advantages of broadcasting; • • • • • • •
Quick method / time saving. Easy method / require less skill. More yield may be got per unit area. High plant population per unit area. Broadcast plants tend to smother / suppress weeds. It requires less labour. Provides vegetation cover to prevent soil erosion.
Disadvantages of broadcasting. There may be crowding of plants in some areas / crops tend to compete for space, water, nutrients, sunlight etc. Operations like weeding, harvesting, spraying are difficult to mechanise.. Weeding, harvesting are very difficult to carry out. The seed rate is high fuses more seed than row planting. The spread of pests and diseases is very high. There may be poor quality of produce. 73. (a) What are the reasons for draining land? • • • • • • • •
To improve soil aeration. To raise soil temperature. To improve soil structure. To facilitate growth of certain crops, which can not grow in water logged conditions. To increase area for cultivation/reclaiming land for cultivation. To control water-loving pests/parasites/weeds. To facilitate tilling /cultivation ofland by use of machines/ facilitates mechanization of operation. To allow timely operations e.g. seed bed preparation. 99
• Obtain a firm foundation for farm structures. (b) ( i) Describe any methods of draining land. • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Surface/Ditches/channels Land is cleared, Land is leveled, Make ditches of suitable shapes that will facilitate flow of water Sub surface/tiles/pipes/stones/rubblelFrench ditches. Land is cleared, Construct ditches where to lay tiles/pipes to facilitate flow of water, Lay pipes in the ditches, Cover the pipes. Rubble method Land is cleared Ditches in slanting gradient are made Lay stones in ditches Cover with soil
( ii) State the disadvantages of using each method
described in b( i) above.
Surface/open drainage prone to gully erosion prone to silting up occupy good land that could have been used : Intedrrferes :mthlmeChaniCal tillage operations/movement of animals (for ox- awn imp ements). • It requires less labour. • Provides vegetation cover to prevent soil erosion.
• • • • •
Disadvantages of broadcasting. There may be crowding of plants in some areas / crops tend to compete for space, water, nutrients, sunlight etc. Operations like weeding, harvesting, spraying are difficult to mechanise. Weeding, harvesting are very difficult to carry out. 100
The seed rate is high fuses more seed than row planting. The spread of pests and diseases is very high. There may be poor quality of produce. 74. (a) Outline the desirable characteristics that a green manure crop should have. • It should be disease and pest free. • It should have a rapid growth. I • It should have a high nitrogen content, preferably a legume. I • It should be leafy/highly vegetative/high leaf to stem ratio. • It should rot quickly. • It should be easy to plough into the soil. • It should be able to grow in relatively poor soils. (b) What problems are associated with the use of green manure? • Most of green manure crops are food crops, which can not begrown, and then ploughed into the soil. • Difficult to turn the green manure into the soil unless it is done mechanically • Increases the cost of production because the rapid growth of the manure crop requires the purchase and application of fertilizers for rapid root development • The effect of green manure is short lived. • Plants that are old have a high fibre content and do not decompose easily. • Delays the cropping programme. 75. Describe the practices you would carry out in the growing of a maize crop. • • • •
Clear the land to remove tree stumps bushes etc.. Primary cultivation must be done/deep ploughing. Secondary tillage is done. Selection of a suitable variety. 101
• Timely planting. • Row planting should be done. • Spacing should be according to the variety/use recommended spacing depending on the variety. • Put 2 - 5 seeds per hole. • Use dressed seeds. • Select good quality seeds for planting. • Apply ssp fertilizer at planting time. • Holes should be made at proper depth 2- 5 cm and the seeds covered uniformly. Carry out gap filling. • Carry out thinning leaving 2 - 3 plants per hole. • Weeding should be done early. • Apply nitrogen fertilizer when the maize is knee height. • Control pests by dusting Ispraying with insecticides. • Control diseases by uprooting/roguing affected plants. • Harvest when green if maize is for green eating/roasting. • Harvest when the maize is dry. 76. Suggest advantages of mulching a garden. • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Controls soil erosion. Preserves/conserves soil moisture. Controls/suppresses/smothers weeds. Improves on water infiltration. Improves on soil structure. Moderates soil temperature. Enriches the soil with organic matter on decaying. Helps in trapping banana weevils. Helps in the development of feeder roots in coffee and vanilla. Helps in the control of nematodes in pineapples. Reduce the spread of soil- borne diseases. Organic mulches provide food for soil living organisms. Add nutrients to the soil.
102
77. (a) Explain the factors that influence soil formation. • Climate; rainfall/temperature/wind: Control the rate of weathering/decomposition have an effect on physical and chemical weathering. • Parent rock material: the nature of the parent rock material determines the soil texture/soil physical and chemical composition. • Living organisms/vegetation; influence the condition of the soil by helping in decomposition/ aeration/weathering and addition of matter/stabilizing the soil structure. • influences soil depth/translocation of mineral nutrients/drainage. • Time; influences soil depth and maturity. : • Human influence; man alters the physical and chemical properties of soil due to his activities. (b) Describe the CULTURAL methods that can be used to conserve soil and water / control of soil erosion. Minimum tillage; • less disturbance of the soil leaves the soil structure stable and hence reduce soil erosion. • Provides a soil cover which reduces a soil erosion. • Leave the soil surface in a rough state which improves water infiltration. • Reduces loss of organic matter which improves water holding/capacity of soil. Deep ploughing; • breaks hard pans hence improving water infiltration and reduce erosion. • Achieved by use of heavy farm implements e.g. Disc plough and chissel ploughing. • Encourages water intake by the soil hence reducing surface run Mulching;
103
• reduces the rate of surface run - off thus increasing infiltration. Reduces beating action of rain drops thus soil erosion. • Covering soil surface with dry grass etc. • Keep soil moist thus reducing wind erosion. • Provides organic matter on decaying improving soil structure. • Covers loose soil surface reducing soil erosion/wind erosion./ Manuring; • improves soil structure which encourage water infiltration and retention, thus reducing soil surface run off. • Addition of organic matter to the soil Crop rotation; • crops with less vegetative cover should be alternated with those, which have a dense cover to reduce surface run - off and hence soil erosion. • Crops are grown in an ordered sequence in the same piece of land in different seasons. Afforestation / reforestation; • Actual planting of trees to establish forest cover or replanting trees where trees are cut. • Trees act as wind breaks/roots bind the soil particles together/reduce the impact of raindrops on the ground, hence reducing/soil erosion. Cover crops; • Growing crops with creaping stems and can form dense soil sweet potatoes • leaf crops reduce runoff and water evaporation
cover e.g.
Strip cropping; • Alternating crops with different ability to cover the soil at different stages of the slope. • Cover crops will reduce surface run off. 104
• different crops planted along the contour / across the slope reduce water run off, and hold dislodged soil particles. Inter cropping / mixed cropping; Growing minor crops together with major crops in the same garden in the same season. It gives dequate cover to the soil to reduce erosion and water evaporation. Wind breaks; Planting rows of trees on the wind ward side of the gardens / farm. Tree canopy helps to reduce the speed of wind. It therefore reduces erosion by wind and ability by wind to sweep away soil. . Wind rows; Crop residues are placed in rows across the slope. It helps to hold dislodged soil particles and also reduce surface : run off. Old maize stems, potatoe vines may be lined. reduce soil erosion by reducing the velocity of wind. Grass strips / grass lines; Grass like paspalam moturtam is planted across the slope. It reduces run - offby trapping the soil. Plant pastures / Ley farming, pasture grasses and legumes form dense soil cover which effectively controls soil erosion. to control run - off thus control soil erosion. Controlled grazing / correct stocking rate: This avoids bare ground. It maintains soil cover hence reduce soil erosion. Recommended spacing: Reduces open gaps in the garden. Such crops ensure proper cover on the soil surface and reduce surface run off and wind erosion. High density planting: 105
It ensures effective soil cover thus reducing surface run off and wind erosion 78. How can seed dormancy be broken? Breaking the seed coat / testa by opening the seeds.
:
Scarification by rubbing seeds between sheets of sandpaper. Soften the seed coats by soaking / immersing the seeds into cone. Sulphupotassiumnitrate, and ethylene / soak the seeds in suitable reagents Prechilling by soaking the seeds in cold water to soften testa Soak the seeds in cold /hot water. Store the seeds for sometime to improve viability; Soaking seeds in gibberellic acid to remove germination inhibitors /soak seeds in suitable growth promoters. 80. (a) Outline characteristics that make weeds more successful than crop plants in the field. • Some weeds produce toxic substances that exclude other plants growing around them.( allelopathy). • Weeds have fast growth rate / short life cycle; enabling them to colonise an area quickly • Weeds are more aggressive / vigorous than crop plants / out compete crop plants. • They can grow under more hard conditions / are hardy e.g. on poor soil. • Weeds produce a lot of seeds to ensure survival. • Weeds under go dormancy enabling them to germinate at the right time. • Some vegetative propagated weeds will develop even from a small portion of • Weeds are more resistant to pests and diseases than crops. • Some weed seeds can germinate even when they are immature. • Some weeds havpereating organs that can sprout. • Weeds have diverse dispersal mechanism, enabling them to spread very fast. • Most weeds are less palatable to livestock than crop plants. • Weeding seeds can 'remi'n viable for a long time than crop plants. 106
• Some weeds are parasitic enabling them to survive on other plants.. 82. (a) Outline the basic climatic and soil requirements for growing arabic coffee. Climatic requirements: • Rainfall 1500 - 2250 mm/year not; less than 300 mm per year in bimodal, not less than 350 mm per year in monomodal. Heavy rains. • Evenly distributed rainfall through out the year. • Dry spell 13 - 4 months of dry spell for flowering and ripening. • Temperature 10-150C/lowtemperature. • High humidity. • Soil requirements: • pH 4.2 - 6.2 1 acidic soils. • Deep soils. • Fertile soils. • Well drained soils. • Volcanic soils. (b)
Outline the advantages of propagating coffee by vegetative means.
• Qualities from parent are maintained. • Easy establishment than use of seedlings individuals have high chances of survival. • Reduced gestation period 1 crops mature early. • Seedling diseases and pests are eliminated. • Delicate seedling stage is eliminated. c)
State the benefits of pruning coffee. Avoids over bearing and encourages uniform production Removes the microclimate that favours pest and disease build up. Facilitates easy spraying of chemicals against pests and diseases. : Facilitates picking 1 harvesting of coffee as it keeps the plant in convenient shape and height. • Keeps the plant healthy and vigorous.
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Allows enough light penetration. Facilitates the use of available nutrients by the desired parts of the plant. Minimizing the decline in yield Encourages good quality products to be produced.
84. (a) • • • • • • • • • • • • •
State the characteristics that a good cover crop should have.
Easy to multiply and establish. Grow rapidly and vigorously to suppress weeds. :. Should not compete with the main crop. Should require less labour. Tolerant to slashing and pruning. Tolerant to infertile soil. I Have a lot of foliage which spreads over the soil I should be leafy. Able to fix nitrogen to the soil I should be a leguminous crop. Should be tolerant to shading. Should be drought resistant land tolerant to unfavourable conditiols. Should be pest and disease resistant. Easy to remove when necessary. Should not produce toxic substances that affect the crop.
Description • • • • •
Rain falls on the land.. Surface run off and percolation takes place. Evaporation from open water bodies occurs. Transpiration from vegetation occurs. Condensation into clouds and rain falls.
86. (a)
What are the advantages of proper spacing of crops?
• Weeds smothered and not allowed to grow large enough to cause damage. • Provide optimum plant population per unit area better yields/reduces competition among plants. • Each crop plant gets adequate nutrients. • Farm operations are made easier e.g. weeding. 108
• Reduces incidences of diseases e.g. groundnut rosette in groundnuts. • Correct seed rate / planting materials is used. (b)
State the advantages of interplanting. Advantages of inter planting
• Control of weeds since little space is left. • Risk of total loss is minirnised in case of disease and pest attack. • Crops mature at different times ensure no famine as early maturing crops can be utilised • Legumes in the mixture fix N2 in the soil for the benefit of other crop plants. • Reduces risk of erosion since crop cover is better. • Total yield per unit area is higher. • Varied diet is possible with more food crops inter planted.
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Disadvantages of inter planting • • • •
Mechanical operations are made difficult. Crops with aggressive growth habit may suppress others. If spacing is too close, competition may lead to poor overall yield. Certain pests and diseases may be encouraged.
87. (a)
Describe methods of applying fertilizers.
Methods of applying solid fertilizers to the soil; • Broadcasting; Random application of fertilizers by hand. : • Drilling; fertilizer is placed in the soil as near the seed as possible at the time of sowing using a drill. • Top dressing I side dressing; fertilizers put or broadcast on soil surface after the crop has established especially for easily soluble fertilizers. • Band application; fertilizers placed in bands along crop rows, few centimeters away from crop plants. • Plough sole; fertilizers placed at plough sole during ploughing and cocovered by furrow slice. • Ring placement; fertilizers placed in a ring around the crop. 109
(b)
What factors affect response by crops to fertilizers?
Soil factors • Permeability if movement of dissolved fertilizer element is impeded. • pH of soil may be unfavourable to fertilizer. • Soil structure, if poor, interferes with crop growth. • Low soil moisture content may mean less fertilizer dissolves and used by plants. Method of application (if placed too far from crop) • Time fertilizer application ( if early in crop life will ensure better response). • Plant population ( best with optimum plant population). • Weed infestation;( will reduce response due to competition). • Balance of elements; ( ifun balanced in soil may affect response). • Type of crop; (different crops differ in fertilizer demands). • High temperature (may lead to volatilisation). 88. (a) State the advantages of using herbicides for weed control. Advantages of using herbicides; • • • • • • • • • •
They are highly effective as weed killers. Herbicides eliminate the drudgery of hand weeding. Time saving as large areas ofland can be effectively covered in a short time. Labour required for weed control is greatly minimized. Herbicides do not disturb soil structure thus advantage of minimum tillage is realized. Can be used in control of weeds in closely spaced crops e.g. millet where mechanical means will difficult. Roots of crops not disturbed like in mechanical means. Cheaper than hand labour for high value crops. Good where topography hinders mechanical cultivation. Convenient where crop morphology makes handing weeding unpleasant e.g. in sisal and sugarcane plantations.
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• Translocated herbicides are more effective against perennial rhizomatous weeds. (b) What precautions should a farmer take while using herbicides in weed control? • Users should read and follow manufacturers instructions. • Avoid wind when spraying I spray following the direction of the wind. • • • • • • (c)
Wear protective clothing. Avoid eating or smoking when handling herbicides. Avoid inhaling or swallowing herbicides. Dispose off empty containers safely. Wash your selfthoroughly after spraying herbicides. Store all herbicides in a safe place away from reach of children. Conditions that ensure maximum effectiveness of Herbicides.
• A farmer must apply herbicides at recommended rate to avoid over dilution of herbicide. • It must be applied at correct stage of weed growth because older weeds resist herbicides. I • It should be applied at correct stage of crop growth because at some stage of crop growth, herbicides damage crops. • Avoid spraying in windy weather so that there is no chemical drift, to ensure uniform spraying. • Avoid applying herbicides when it is likely / about to rain because the rain can dilute the herbicide before it acts. • Adequate wetting spraying proxides proper dosage to kill the weeds. • Using non - expired herbicided ensures effective killing of weeds by the herbicides as it has not lost its toxicity. • Use the correct herbicide for the intended weed to ensure faster action by the herbicide. • Ensure correct timing of pre-emergence herbicides or apply before weeds germinate for pre-emergency herbicides. • Ensure that the spraying equipment is in good working condition, 111
• Use surfactants to enhance stricking of the herbicide on the weeds / to increase absorption of the herbicides. • Use clean water for mixing herbicides. • Ensure correct speed of operation while spraying herbicides. • Use correct / right herbicide for the intended crops. (d) Explain why frequent weeding by cultivation is undesirable. It ruins / destroys the soil structure. It encourages water loss by wvaporation, It improves germination for burried weed seeds. Excessive root damage is encouraged. It exposes soil surface to agents of erosion. It increases weeding costs of production. I It may encourage rapid loss of organic matter from the soil. : It encourages multiplication / spread of certain weeds. It encourages spread of soil - borne diseases / pests by rain splash / tillage implements. • May lead to loss of nutrients. • It is tediovs • It needs a lot of labour.
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101 • e purpose of reproduction mammals IS to mcrease m t e num er an continuity of the generation. • Higher animals and plants reproduce by sexual means. This involves fusion of two reproductive cells called gametes. • The female gametes are called ova or eggs.. :. Male gametes are called sperms. • Eggs in female animals are produced by the ovaries. • Sperms in male animals are produced by the testis. • Female gametes fuse with male gametes in the process called fertilization. • Fertilization results in the formation of zygote. • The zygote later develops into an embryo. 112
Reproductive system of a cow: There are 2 ovaries in a cow. Ovaries produce ova ( eggs). Oviduct; Eggs are released into the oviduct where fertilization occurs. Uterus; This is where a fertilized egg will implant and develop into zygote or embryo.Also called womb. Cervix; This is the end part of the womb also called the neck of the womb. It enlarges to allow easy passage of calf during parturition. Vagina birth canal. This is a bath canal and allows easy passage of sperms. It is also a passage for the calf during birth (parturition). Vulva: It is the end part of the female genital track. Usually enlarges when a cow or female animal is on heat and about to give birth. Process of egg formation and release in cows. The process of egg release also called ovulation is controlled by hormones.
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When the egg matures in the ovary, a hormone called oestrogen is produced by graafian follicles found in the ovary. Oestrogen is produced under the influence of another hormone called follicle stimulating hormone (FS.H). Oestrogen induces a cow to come on heat. At this time the ovum (egg) is released from the ovary. The egg release is influenced by another hormone called luteinizing hormone. (L.H). Luteinizing hormone apart from causing ovulation also causes formation of corpus luteum. The egg is received in the oviduct where fertilization occurs. The zygote implants it self in the uterus. Zygote develops to embryo then calf. 113
N.B. I FS.H. is used for growth of follicles. It also controls formation of sperms. Follicles. produce oestrogen which reduces secretion ofFS.H. then LH is produced and is responsible for rapture of mature follicles. Raptured follicles also induce production of progesterone which maintains pregnancy in females. The reproductive system of a bull. Urethra Epididymis penis fufu Reproductive system of a bull C?
Parts and functions:
Testis: Housed in scrotum. They produce male gametes or spermatozoa and androgen. Epididymis: I -Found within the scrotum and it stores spermatozoa. 102 Vas deferens:
I
Also called sperm ducts. They charmel spermatozoa from epididymis to the urethra. Prostate and seminal: Secrets seminal fluid into the urethra to form part of the semen. (a drop of semen has thousands of sperms). Urethra: It carries urine from the bladder and sperms from testis to the penis. I Penis: Passage through which sperms/semen is deposited to the female reproductive system. The management practices that should be carried out to raise beef cattle, using natural rearing methods, starting from birth to market stage of the steers. • As soon as the calf is born ensure that the calf is breathing. 114
• If the calf is not breathing check for foreign bodies in the mouth and nostrils and remove if any. • Induce breathing by applying artificial respiration. • Disinfect the naval cord to avoid infection. • Ensure the calf is licked dry by the mother or wipe the calf dry. • Ensure the calf sucks colostrums / help the calf to suckle colostrums within 12 hours of birth. • Leave the calf to stay with its darn to suck milk at will. • Wean calf at six to eight months of age. I • Separate weaners to graze in good quality pasture after weaning. I • Spray calves to weaning time after which they can be dipped to control external parasites. • Dehorn calves. Calves should be dehorned within the first four months. • Castrate bull calves not intended for breeding 6 - 8 months of age. • Castration should be done at weaning time. I • Identify calves as early as possible after birth. • Separate uncastrated bulls from heifer at weaning time. • Give mineral supplements where necessary. • Deworm weaners regularly to control internal parasites. I • Give supplementary feed stuff during dry periods. • Clean water should be provided all the time. • Vaccinate the calves / weaners against prevalent diseases. • Observe and treat sick animals. • Separate sick calves/weaners from healthy ones. • Animals should be ready for marketing depending on the breed from 12-30 months. • Keep proper records. • Cull defective animals. Management of calf from birth to weaning • Clean mucus from calf as soon as it is born/ensure cow licks calf dry. • Ensure calf is breathing/administer artificial respiration if necessary. • Cut and disinfect umbilical cord. 115
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Ensure calf suckles the mother to get colostrums within first 8 hours. : Feed the calf on colostrums for the first 4 days. Introduce feeding whole milk/milk replacer after 4 days/Train to bucket feed. Feed the calf2 - 3 times per day for the first 4 weeks. Feed the calf with milk at body temperature in the bucket. Provide adequate clean water to drink. Weigh calf regularly. Introduce palatable solid food e.g. concentrates, good quality grass from 3rd week. Feed the calf the correct amount of milk up to weaning Feed calf with milk 10% of its weight. Put appropriate identification marks. Treat calf if it is sick. Castrate male calf Provide proper housing for the calf. Keep calf in individual pens up to weaning time. Control external parasites with appropriate chemicals spray / deep to control external parasites. Drench / deworm calf against internal parasites. Observe hygiene in the calf pens. Remove extra teats if necessary Dehorn /disbud calf using appropriate methods. Release calf occasionally for exercises. Keep records on calf performance. Wean calf at 8 weeks (2 months). Reduce amount of milk gradually towards weaning.
Causes of milk fever in dairy cows
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Low calcium level in the blood or high milk yield without calcium replenishment. Symptoms that would show that the cow is suffering from milk fever. • Paralysislinability to move or rise. 116
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Muscular twitching. Stiffening of the whole body. Head turned back. Unconsciousness. Walking in staggering manner. Control measures of disease in livestock and a disease in each case. Use of drugs - animals are given drugs routinely to control certain diseases.
• Use of antiseptics and disinfectants - antiseptic and disinfectants contain germicidal chemicals for example cleaning poultry houses or calf pens with disinfectants helps control certain diseases e.g. calf scours. • Quarantine - during an out break of certain diseases like foot and mouth, livestock movement is restricted to avoid spread of disease. • Isolation- animals suffering from infectious disease e.g. scours are isolated to prevent spread ofthe disease to healthy ones. • .Mass slaughter or cull animals suffering from certain dangerous disease e.g., zoonotic diseases like anthrax • Vaccination - animals usually vaccinated against certain diseases e.g. . blackquarter, Newcastle etc. • Control of vectors - disease carrying parasites e.g. testse - flies are controlled by spraying and clearing of bush to control diseases like nagana. • Use of healthy breeding stock or use of A, 1, helps to prevent breeding diseases like brucellosis. • Proper nutrition - Well balanced diet to be provided to animals to prevent nutritional diseases like anaemia in piglets or ricktsia. . • Drenching to control internal parasites - internal parasites such as roundworms. • Keep resistant types of livestock - keep Zebu cattle to reduce occurrence of E.C.F. • Proper housing to prevent disease like pneumonia etc. • Foot trimming to reduce occurrence of foot rot/removal of sharp objects.
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• Feed animals with dry roughages before feeding them succulent roughages to minimize occurrence of bloat and other nutritional disorders. • Predisposing factors to the occurrence of mastitis in diary cattle. • Injury to udder. / improper use ofmilking machine. • Level of production/high producing animals are more prone to mastitis than low producers. • Age of cow/old cows more prone. • Stage of location/early vs late lactation. • Genetic factors -- some breeds are more susceptible to mastitis than others. • Unhygienic handling of cow/surrounding. • Incomplete milking. • Pendulous udders. Symptoms of mastitis in dairy cattle • • • • •
Blood or pus cells in milk. Pain in the udder / teats. Swollen or inflamed udder / hard to feel.. :. Rise in body temperature. Clot in milk / thin milk/ waterv milk. :. Drop in milk yield Blocked teat canal.
Effects of bacteria/brucella abortus. • • • •
Abortion/premature birth Yellowish/brownish shinny and ordourless discharge through vulva. Retained after birth/placenta. Cows become barren.
Control of brucella. • • • • • •
Use of health v semen bull/cows Cullldestroy- affected cattle/destroy carriers. Proper disposal of foetus and carcass. Observe hygiene in the farm. Test the breeding cattle against the disease. Avoid contaminating hands with aborted foetus. 118
Procedure to follow when artificially inseminating a cow. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Recto - vaginal method Animal on heat is restrained. Wash hands with soap or detergent. I Put on clean gloves. I Lubricate gloves. Thaw the semen in a basin in water at room temperature. Sterilize equipment before use. Insert the straw in the inseminating syringe or pipette or catheter. Washing hind quarters with clean water. Use the left hand to locate the position of the cervix. Insert the inseminating syringe through the vagina and gently direct it into the cervix. Release the semen. Gently remove the inseminating syringe. : Speculum method : Restrain the animal on heat. Wash hands with soap or detergent. Put on clean gloves. Lubricate gloves. Thaw semen in warm water at room temperature. Sterilize equipment before use. Insert the straw (of semen) into an inseminating syringe, pipette or catheter. Wash the vulva with clean water and soap. Insert a sterilized speculum gently to enable the inseminator locate position of cervix. Insert inseminating syringe through speculum. Push semen when syringe reaches cervix. Remove inseminating syringe. Remove speculum gently.
An outline of the advantages of artificial insemination • Eliminates the cost of keeping a bull. 119
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Allows controlled selective breeding/prevents inbreeding/planned breeding. Easier to transport semen than a bull. Cheaper than buying a bull. Semen from lame bull can be used. Semen can be stored and used even after the bull has died. Avoids injury of young/small female animals by heavy bulls. Semen from old proven bulls can still be used for breeding. Semen from one bull can serve many cows. A single ejaculation can be used to serve many cows. Helps to improve livestock breeds in areas where good or pure bred bulls would not survive. Easier to detect infertility or sterility in females; Increases chances of conception; Money a farmer would have used to buy a bull can be used to buy more cows or for other activities. Semen of sick bulls can be used. Management practices that should be carried out during the mating season in sheep Deworming Flushing Hoof trimming Crutching i.e. cutting hair around reproductive organs or tugging or ringing or cutting wool around reproductive organs/removing any stained wool Raddling - painting males. Paint will remain on an ewe, that has been served. Wigging or cutting wool around the face.
The management practices of sheep from birth to mating. • Clean mucus from the lamb's nostril soon after birth or ensure the lamb is breathing or provide artificial respiration. • Cut and tie the umbilical cord. • Disinfect the umbilical cord with a tincture of iodine. • Ensure the lamb sucks colostrums or assist weak lambs to suck the milk from them 120
• Provide a foster mother to disowned or orphaned lambs or feed orphaned lambs artificially. • Dock lambs 2 - 3 weeks after birth. • Castrate rams not required for breeding within the first month after birth. • Mark the lambs for identification. • Deworm the lambs against internal parasites. • Vaccinate against common diseases. • Control external parasites or dip or spray. • Isolate the sick animals or treat sick animals in good time. • Provide high quality pastures/balanced diet. • Provide adequate clean water. • Provide mineral salt supplement. • Wean at 4-6 months of age. • Select the breeding stock. • Separate males from females to prevent early and undesired mating or fit rams with aprons or breeding chutes. • Trim hooves to control foot rot. • Provide proper shelter. • Observe hygiene by regularly cleaning the pen. • Flush lambing ewes 3 weeks before mating. This is called tupping. • Shear wool around reproductive parts / tugging/ crutching / ringing before mating. • Keep records and use them to evaluate the flock • Cull poor performers. • Mate sheep at the appropriate age / mate when 8-12 months old / at a time that allows lambing to occur when there is enough pasture. • Ratio of male to female should be 7 rams - 35 45 ewes. • Raddle rams. • Remove wool around teats after birth to allow easy sucking • Weigh lambs regularly. Factors that should be considered when siting a bee - hive in the farm • Nearness to the nectar producing flowers 121
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In shady / cool place / bushy. Safe distance from livestock / living houses /roads. Away from disturbance. Protect them from predators. Accessibility to water. The factors that influence the quality of honey Presence of impurities or foreign materials Source of nectar or food type Stage of maturity.
Reasons why bees swarm from a beehive • • • • • • • • • • • •
Lack of food, water, outbreak of pests, diseases Overheating of the hive, direct sunlight damages the hive combs Bad smell - overcrowding or presence of more than one queen in the hive. i Dead infertile queen Management practices that ensure maximum harvest of fish in a fish pond. Control of stocking rate. . Control of water pollution. Supply of food for fish / nutrients for aquatic life. Aeration of water / flowing water. Maintaining appropriate depth of water in the pond. Harvest at the right maturity stage. Control predators.
(b) Explain the major factors which could retard work aimed at boosting pig production in Uganda today. Hyper - inflation in the country which makes it difficult to acquire inputs for production; Lack of good breeds for production; Unavailability of feeds; Low income of many fanners that would be interested in pig production as such cannot invest in the enterprise; 122
Unavailability of water in some areas for sanitation in piggeries and 89. Explain the meaning of the following terms (a) Casting tackle; (b) Quarantine
A casting tackle: It is a piece of ropework usually used to cast down large fann animals in order to perform an operation on them while they are alive e.g. a casting tackle for cattle used for throwing down cattle for restraint. Quarantine:Is the restriction of the movement from one place to another of farm animals by the veterinary department in order to try to contain the problem of disease spread i.e. cattle quarantine. It is also applied to restrict movement of plant materials to avoid the danger of disease and pests spread i.e. plant quarantine. 90. (a) What are the qualities of a good stockman on a farm? • • • • • • • • • • • •
A healthy hard working person with a high standard of personal hygiene. Must not be suffering from disease e.g. T.B. Should have good integrity, be trustworthy; Should be interested in working with livestock; Should ensure that the environmental conditions in the buildings or in the fields do not predispose livestock to ill health; Should care for the proper feeding and good health oflivestock including other necessary aspects of management; Should be kind to animals; Should be able to identify sick animals and get them treated; Should keep good records on production of his or her stock to include breeding, feeding, health and other management on stock; Should have some knowledge of animal husbandry; Should be able to make some decisions when necessary. Lack of readily available extension service on the pig production that could advise farmers. 123
• Pigs compete with man for the same type of food. 91. (a) In selecting beef cattle for breeding, what desirable characteristics must be looked for? • Fertility/fecundity which takes into account calving interval and conception rates; • Efficiency of grain I conversion ratio; • Growth rate i.e. reaching slaughter weight quickly; • Blocky well shaped, stout strong legs, thick flesh around the bone; • Lack of inheritable abnormalities in the breed, some of which are lethal; • Fattening I marbling ability (i.e. fats well distributed); : • Carcass weight and expected dressing percentage; • Adaptability to the environmental conditions in point, • Resistance / tolerance to diseases; • Early maturing. (b) Explain the importance of pasteurizing milk for human consumption • Milk is highly perishable product and pasteurizing preserves it for relatively longer period; • Potential disease causing agents such as micro - organisms are destroyed rendering milk harmless to human beings; • Transport of milk over longer distances is made possible after pasteurization. 92. Mastitis and East Coast Fever are the two most serious disease of cattle especially for exotic dairy cattle in Uganda. Discuss their causes, symptoms and how they can be controlled. Causes of Mastitis • • • •
Incomplete milking; Stripping the teats; Misuse of machine during milking; Leaving the milking machine on the udder when it is empty or using too much suction pressure; 124
• Mechanical injuries on udder; • Bacterial organism especially streptococcal, staphylococcai types. Symptoms: • Decrease in milk production or yield; • Udder or mammary gland including teats are noticeably swollen with wounds/blister; • Animal kicks when udder is touched; • Abnormal milk is produced with blood clots and pus. Control: Milk cows with mastitis last and pour away such milk; use a machine properly during milking; Check for injuries on the udder and treat them; Inject antibiotics into the udder to treat bacterial infections; : Dress wounds on the udder and wash the udder with disinfectant or udder wash chemicals; use of oxytocin injection to prevent milk production temporarily Causes of East Coast Fever: Protozoa parasite transmitted by ticks or theileria parva as the causal organism. Symptoms: • • • • • •
c:? High fever; Loss of appetite; General weakness; Lymphatic glands are swollen; Difficult breathing or respiration stress at a latter stage; death at a latter stage.
Control: • Dipping or spraying or hand dressing to kill ticks by use of acaricide; • Double fencing to control ticks; • Hand picking of ticks; 125
• Controlled burning of grass to kill ticks. (c) Mention ways of preventing an outbreak or spread of diseases in farm animals. • Use of vaccines and serums; o Use of antiseptics and disinfectant • Good general hygiene or good management care; • Proper disposal of dead animals on farm; : • Use of quarantine; • Spraying to kill ticks. • Drenching to deworm animals. • Proper feeding. • Isolation of sick animals; • Slaughtering of the sick animals. • Artificial insemination 93. What are the conditions of a farm animal that directly influences its output. • Breed of the animal: • Feed conversion ratio / ability of animal to convert feed to required product; • Health standard ofthe animal; • Genetic make up ofthe animal; • Age of the animal; • Physiological conditions of the animal. 94. Give reasons why milk is highly perishable. • It has a high water content; • It contains fat which easily goes rancid; : • It has well balanced composition of nutrients ideal for the prolific growth of a wide range of micro - organisms; • It is rich in carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins for microbial growth. • It readily absorbs smell or odours. 126
95. Name four uses of ropes on a farm. • For tying or tethering of farm animals; • For binding up farm harvest in bundles or otherwise; • For raising timber or concrete blocks or other materials during building or construction; • For marking lines in fields during planting; • For tying or casting animal for slaughter. 96. Give a simple account of how a cow digests the grass it eats to give the requirements it needs. Credit will be given for use of well drawn and labelled diagrams.
It masticates or chews the grass partially or fairly well and mixes it with saliva. I Oesophagus: Allows the swallowing of the eaten grass from the mouth to the rumen. (pauch) Rumen. Partially masticated grass is stored here; Rumen fermentation or break down of the grass occurs by the action of micro organisms, particularly bacteria; Fermentation of cellulose to volatile fatty acids and ammonia gas occurs here; : The micro - organisms in the rumen synthesise proteins from non - protein nitrogen that may be in the grass, Vitamins especially K and B 12 can also be made by the micro - organisms; Absorption ofVF.A. (Volatile Fatty Acids) and NRl gas takes place here. I Reticulum: Acts as a screening device; Coarse materials goes back to the rumen and finally ground material passes to 127
Omasum: Re - grinds the grass; Absorbs water from the bulk of grass material
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Abomasum (True Stomach): Broken down grass is churned up and mixed up with digestive juices especially gastric juice; I Protein digestion to peptides occurs here.. Duodenum: Digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats is completed through the action of digestive juices in this zone; Small intestines: Digestion of carbohydrates is completed in small intestines. Absorption of the end products of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins occurs here. Large Intestines: The caecum completes the digestion ofthe grass residues and absorption of end products. Re - absorbs water from bulk of undigested materials and semi - dry materials pass out through the anus as dung; 97. (a) What is the difference between selection and breeding in livestock? Selection in livestock is the process of deciding which animals in a generation will be.allowed to become parents ofthe next generation and how descendants will be permitted to live. Breeding in livestock is the process of allowing animals with desirable characteristics or traits to become parents of the next generation. (b) Suggest the desirable characteristics a breeder may consider when trying to obtain selected poultry strains. • • • • • • •
Egg production or carcass - Good egg production; Food consumption - Good food consumption; Quality of eggs or carcass - High quality eggs; Hardiness of eggs or carcass - should produce hard eggs; Hardiness or adaptation to an environment; rate of growth- fast rate of growth; : Age at which laying starts or slaughtering ag;._ 128
• • • •
Disposition to broodiness - should not go broody; Docility for cocks - should be docile; Food conversion ratio - Good food conversion ration; Feathering characteristics (i.e. black plumage);
(c) Name the breeds that can be used in commercial poultry production. : Starbro; White leghorn; Bobbs hybrid; Rhode Island Red; Light Sussex; White Plymouth rock; New Hampshire breed; Black Australorp; Urpmgton; Wyandotte. . 98. (a) Name common diseases of cattle caused by bacteria. Tuberculosis Contiguous abortion Scours/calf scours Black quarter Anthrax Foot rot o Pneumonia
o o o o
(b) Discuss briefly the causes, symptoms and control of New Castle disease of poultry. Coccidiosis in poultry Causes: o Protozoa called coccidia;
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coccidiosis and
o Eight different species of coccidia cause different types of coccidiosis but Eimeria SPP causes the severest form of coccidiosis called caecal coccidiosis. Symptoms: • • • • • •
Blood - stained diarrhoeria in the bird; Loss of appetite; Whitish and yellowish masses in the diarrhoea; Vent tissue in necrotic or looks tom; High mortality in chicks; Poor or loss of condition of the birds, Anaemia and drop oping wings.
Control of coccidiosis
Add coccidiostat in drinking water
New castle diseases in poultry: Causes: • Virus. Symptoms: • • • • • • • • •
Marked drop in egg yields in layer birds; Lack of appetite; Some paralysis and muscular tremors; Lengthy gasping with the beak open i.e. difficulty in breathing; Frequent discharge of mucus in the nostrils; Yellowish green diarrhoea; Nervous movements in circles or backwards; High mortality rate in the birds; Purple co loured comb and wattles.
Control: o Outbreak must be notified to the veterinary for quarantine or law enforcement; o Burning or burying of the dead ones; o Vaccination of the chicks for immunity; 130
o o o o
High standard of hygiene in the buildings, equipment and personnel; No introduction of new stock to old ones; Avoid over crowding the birds in quarters; Disinfect and clean the premises.
103. Explain the steps that are often followed in a good milking procedure. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Ensure the milking place or parlour is clean; Ensure all the milking equipments are clean and dry i.e. ready; Bring the cows near the milking place early and allow them to settle; Restrain the animals to be milked; Give the cows some feeds e.g. concentrates during milking but not silage; Wash hands thoroughly and dry; Clean the udder with clean warm water or udder wash disinfectant, to stimulate the process. Dry the udder with clean towel; Draw a few drops of milk from each teat to the strip cup to check for any abnormalities (especially mastitis); Apply milking salve on each teat to reduce friction; Milk quickly to take advantage of the milk let down; / to maxirnise effect of oxytocine. Milking period should not be interrupted; Avoid exciting the animal before and during milking time; Strip the udder or make sure all the milk is finished from the udder; : Milk at the same time everyday. When using machine, remove the teat cups as soon as milk stops flowing to avoid injury to the teats; I Dip the teats in disinfectants e.g. iodine solution; Weigh the milk and record; Filter the milk in a clean place; Cool the milk. Store or keep the milk in a clean place; Wash the milk utensils using detergent e.g. Tripol; Dry and store the milking equipments properly. 131
104. Describe the management practices for dairy calves from the time they are born up to wearing. • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Assist in removing the mucus from the nostrils and mouth; Dry the calf with some straw or let the dam to do it by licking; If the calf is not breathing properly do massaging on the ribs and chest. Disinfect the naval cord with tincture of iodine; Ensure that the calfis able to get colostrum for the first four days Remove the calf from the dam and take it to a clean dry pen. Provide dry beddings of straw. Teach the calfto drink from the bucket; Feed the calf twice a day and the milk must be at body temperature and regularly; Give whole milk or replacer pellets; Ensure that the feeding utensils are clean; Ensure that the calf gets adequate clean water; Give green soft grass after 10 days to assist the development of the rumen (introduction of roughage); Make identification marks on the animal e.g. ear tagging;
Castrate male animals; o o o o o
Dehurn the animal. Make sure the ped is clean and change the calf beddings regularly; Take the calf out for regular exercise; Wean at 8 - 10 weeks; Keep the calf in individual pens or rooms to avoid suckling navels of the others.
Digestion in birds differs from that of mammals in that birds have no teeth to break food physically. The glandular stomach in the bird is known as the proventriculus.
132
Between the mouth and proventriculus is an enlargement of the gullet known as the crop; The ingested food is stored in the crop temporarily before it is moved to the proventriculus. Food passes quickly through the proventriculus to the gizzard. The function of the gizzard is to crush and grind the coarse food. This is aided by the grit and gravel which the bird accumulates in the gizzard from birth. No digestive enzymes are secreted in the gizzard of birds. From the gizzard, food passes through the intestinal loop called the duodenum. The duodenum parallels the pancreas in position. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains amyloptic, lipolytric, and proteolytic enzymes and these break down starches, fats, proteoses and peptones respectively. Liver bile also containing amylase enters the duodenum.
Food materials move through the small intestine whose walls secrete intestinal juices containing erepsin and some sugar splitting enzymes. Erepsin complete, protein digestion, yielding aminoacids. The sugar spitting enzymes convertdisaccharides into simple sugars (monosaccharides) which can be assimilated by the body. Absorption is accomplished through the villi of the small intestines. 109. (a) (b)
What is the importance of livestock in a mixed farming
What are the problems facing the livestock industry in
system.
Uganda?
Importance of Livestock in a mixed Farming system: Additional income: A farmer earns income from both animals and crops instead of relying on one enterprise alone; A farmer can get income from Livestock enterprise if crops fail due to pests, diseases and bad weather, etc., thus safeguarding against total failure; Labour can be used continuously throughout the year; After harvesting crops, labour can be switched to animal; 133
The remains of some crops such as maize stalks, potato vines, groundnut husks and banana peelings can be fed to livestock instead of being wasted; Animals provide manure used in crop production; : Livestock products - milk, etc., are an important source of proteins required in a balanced diet to avoid malnutrition; Draft animals are a source of farm power e.g. pulling ploughs, arts, etc. Problems facing Livestock Industry in Uganda: Diseases and parasites; Lack of capital to purchase grade stock and other input; I Inputs - drugs, feeds, are very expensive; I Lack of transport to send products to market; Inputs not adequately available; Land is a limiting factor in some areas; Livestock installations like dips and spray races are expensive; Lack of veterinary services; Lack of plants to process livestock products. insecurity e.g. cattle rustling. 110. (a) What is artificial insemination? (b) In the breeding of livestock, why is artificial insemination sometimes preferred? • Artificial insemination is a method of serving cows in which instead of bulls serving cows naturally, an inseminating syringe is pushed through the vulva and vagina and semen is deposited in the lower part of the uterus. • By usingAL a farmer is able to control or eliminate venereal or breeding diseases; • One avoids inbreeding in livestock; • It enables a farmer to use semen from different types of bulls which gives him more chances of improving his herd; • AI. is very economical, especially to a small farmer because it is cheaper to pay for the services of AI. than to keep a bull. Costs offeeding, drugs, housing, etc. are avoided; 134
• Semen from old bulls or bulls which are lame or those which died long ago can be used; • Breeding can be controlled farmers can breed animals based on a systematic program. • A farmer will have accurate knowledge of the time of conception and hence calving which enables him to make plans ahead for housing, feeding, etc.; • AI. Increases the fecundity ( fertilization) of some animals because spermatozoa are deposited in a strategic area, the lower part of the uterus. • Up - grading oflocal breeds can be achieved easily without buying breeding stock. For example, inUganda and Kenya semen from many breeds has been introduced from Britain, Canada and the U.S.A. for crossing with indigenous breeds; • Infertility or sterility can be easily detected. 113. Distinguish between homogenisation and pasteurisation of milk: Homogenisation: Breaking up of tat globules in the milk to achieve a homogenous mixture of fat in milk; Pasteurisation: Heating milk at a temperature below boiling point to kill some pathogens especially TB bacteria. 114. (a) Explain how you would differentiate between laying hens non - laying hens in a flock of layers.
and
(b) State factors that affect egg production in a laying flock Signs of: A laying Hen
Non-laying Hen
The vent is large,
The vent is small,
moist and active.
dry,inactive and pigmented
The wattles, comb Wattles, comb are dry, cold to are large, warm; red and touch and shrievelled. Abdomen is expanded, soft
Abdomen is contracted
hard and fleshy
with little flesh. I 135
I
Eyes are bright
Eyes are dull
Pelvic bones are thin and
Pelvic bones are hard :
:pliable.
and blunt.
Pelvic bones are spread a part and 2-3 Pelvic bones are close together fingers fit in between them. and 2-3 fingers cannot fit in between them. Distance between keel / breast bone Distance between keel breast and pelvic bones is wide enough and bone is very narrow and cannot can accommodate 34 fingers accommodate 3-4 finger. Skin is soft, loose with little fat
Skin is thick, under laid with fat :
I Do not go broody
tend to go broody
Rough tom feathers Smooth, shinny feathers. Shanks, beaks are not pigmented
Shanks, beaks are pigmented.
(b) Factors affecting egg production in a laying flock. • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Level of feeding. Presence of diseases Presence of parasites Prevalance of reproductive disorders e.g. prolapse. Vices within the flock. Stress factors e.g. change of feeds, environment etc Level of management standards. Quality of feeds. Type of breed. The age of the birds Condition oflighting in the house Stocking rate Availability of water. 136
115. (a) Explain how you would render and maintain a dairy farm ticks in order to keep exotic cattle.
free of
• Perimeter fence to keep out outside stock that would bring in ticks; • Double perimeter fence; with clear space between to avoid ticks on to the farm; • Enough water and pasture on the farm so as to avoid animals going out; • Use recommended concentration of acaracide; • Use indigenous stock, resistant to tick - borne diseases as bait and spray to kill the ticks; • Spray regularly once or twice a week; • Spraying should continue even after introduction of exotic animals; • Plough down / burn infested pasture. (b) Outline the measures you would take to avoid outbreak of animal diseases on the farm; • • • • • • • •
Vaccination should be done regularly. Isolate bought animals Good sanitation in animal quarters; Burying dead carcases; Burying or burning animal excreta; Isolation of sick animals; Buy stock from reliable source; Quarantine / restrict stock and stock products movement in or out of the farm.
116. (a) Define castration and give the reasons for castrating farm animals. Castrating is the removal of the testis from male animals. Reasons: • • • •
Make male animals docile for easy handling; Avoid inbreeding in the herd / control breeding; Fatteninganimal; I Avoid bad smell in the meat of male animals especially boars and billies; I 137
• To increase feed efficiency. • Improve quality of wool in sheep.
I
(b) Describe the open or surgical method of castration and give three disadvantages it might have. • • • • • • • •
Restrain the animal and cast it; manouver the scrotum I Wash the scrotum with warm water and disinfectant/soap. Inject pain killer to reduce pain. Use sterilised blade to cut open the scrotum longitudinally at the bottom. Squeeze out testis and cut cords. Stop bleeding / add disinfectant or healing oil; I Apply tar to the wound to avoid flies laying eggs. I I
Disadvantages: • Risk of excessive bleeding; • Risk of infection oft he wound; • Risk of maggot infestation. 117. Name the types of damage that ticks can do on farm animals. • • • • •
Sacking blood thereby causing anemia; May transmit disease causing organisms; Spoilage of hides and skins reducing their economical value; Cause wounds which allow infections by bacteria; Irritation of the animal.
Describe Burdizzo and elastrator ring methods of castrating animals. • • • • •
Burdizzo plier / close operation: Burdizzo pliers are used; Restrain the animal and cast it down; Apply a pain killer / anaesthesis; Manouver the spermatic cord towards the scrotum; 138
• • • • • • • • •
Place the jaws of the instrument around the neck of the scrotum; Crash the spermatic cord of each ofthe testis. Elastrator band / Elastrator rubber ring / Use of loop: Rubber ring is used; Elastrator instrument is needed to stretch the rubber ring The scrotum and the 2 testis are passed through the ring end The ring is released at the neck of the scrotum; This results in stopping blood circulation to the testis and scrotum. After 1 - 2 weeks the scrotum together with testis will drop off.
119. Write briefly on the following topics as they apply to animal breeding; Selection: Definition: Picking up an organism because of certain desirable characteristics for breeding. Characteristics of Selection are: • • • • • • • •
Physical appearance and size; Conformity; Fecundity; Resistance to diseases; Rate of egg laying; Longevity; Good milk / butter fat content; Ability to work.
Inbreeding: Definition Advantages Mating closely related animals e.g. brother and sister or parent and offspring. Bad genes may show up / concentration of good genes for uniformity. May lead to loss ofvigour /encourages hereditary diseases. 139
Disadvantages Cross Breeding Definition Mating two pure breeds e.g. Friesian bull + Zebu cow. Advantages
Hybrid vigour. Reduces inheritable diseases in the herd.
Grading up: Definition Advantage. When a more productive animal (bull) is crossed with a less production one (cow) in order to improve the inferior type. Offers efficient method of improving local breeds. Briefly describe how a cow lets down her milk. When the udder is stimulated either by the washing done before milking or by the suckling of the calf, a message is sent to the anterior pituitary gland in the brain; A hormone, oxytocin is released into the blood stream; The muscles surrounding the alveoli contract, squeezing the milk out to the glandcistern through ducts. The action of milking or suckling causes the milk to pass through the gland cistern to the teat cistern through the annular folds; The milk goes down further and flows out freely though the teat canal. Describe the following diseases of cattle 'with reference to causes, symptoms and ontrol: (a) Rinder pest; (b) Anthrax. Causes of Rinder pest: • Virus Symptoms: • High fever (Rise in Temp. Over 40°C). • Loss of appetite. 140
• • • •
Profuse diarrhoea which is blood stained. Fast breathing. Liquid, discharged from eyes and nose sunken eyes. Rapid dehydration with emaciation. Control:
• Yearly vaccination of animals. • Quarantine restriction when outbreak occurs. • Slaughter all affected animals Causes of Anthrax:. Caused by a bacterium called Bacillus anthrasis. Symptoms: • • • • • •
Temperature rise (high fever); Loss of appetite; Blood stained faeces; Sudden death in cattle in 24 hours. No rigormortis in a dead animal. e swollen stomach/bloating of body parts after death. . Control
• Vaccinate animals yearly. • Dispose carcass by burning I burying deeply. • Avoid opening a carcass of an animal suspected of having died of 122. (a) Name any breeds of Exotic dairy cattle. (b) What precautions should you take before and after introducing : • • • •
Exotic cattle on his farm Examples of Exotic Dairy Cattle: Holstein Friesian Jersey 141
• • • •
Guernsey Red poll BroS Saihwal and Jamaica.
o o o o o
Before: Fence the area into paddocks.. Ensure enough water into the paddocks. Stock the area with the indigenous Zebu cattle to clear ticks. Dip/ Spray these animals twice a week till ticks are eradicated. Improve pastures on the farm. Ensure that there is shade in your pasture.
After: • • • • •
Spray twice a week to control tick borne diseases Ensure regular vaccination. Ensure adequate stock of drugs for treatment. Ensure adequate supply of feed and water. Ensure that there are calve pens and paddocks. Why adopting exotic cattle has remained a challenge. o o o o o o
Extra hot climate they are not used to heat. Inadequate and poor pasture - they eat a lot. Lack I inadequate supplimentary feeds. Ticks they are very susceptible to tick born diseases. Limited I lack of knowledge about life style of exotic animals Poor attitude of people to exotic or in animals many are tied by culture.
123. Explain the factors to be considered when establishing a beef herd. o Land; these should be enough land where to establish a beef herd. o Pasture I feeds; there should be enough pasture Ifeeds for the animals. o Breed; choose a suitable breed for the area I market.
142
o Prevalance of tsetseflies, Tsetsefly infected areas are unsuitable for beef cattle. o Uniformity of stock, decide whether to keep the animals of the same size or breed. o Size of the herd; keep the number of the animals that match with the available resource. o Source of stock; buy stock from reliable source. o Record of individual animal to be bought, this helps to determine the health and productivity of the animal. o Veterinary services/ Extension services, to provide treatment to the animals and education to farmers. o Labour, there should be both skilled and unskilled labour. o Water, there should be enough clean water for the animals. o Market, there should be reliable market for animals and animal products. o Security, to minimise theft of the animals. o Accessibility/ transport, to ease movement to and from the farm. I 124. Discuss the systems of poultry keeping. State which of the systems is commonly practiced in Uganda and briefly explain its advantages and disadvantages. Systems of poultry rearing include the following: Free range system: This is a system for a large number of birds. In this system, layers and growers are left to roam in an open space with or without perimeter fence. Simple shelter is provided. Birds get green grass and insects. Fold system: This is a system for few birds. Birds are confmed in small movable houses called arks or folds. The fold is moved to a fresh area daily. Deep litter system: 143
Birds are confined in a house called deep litter house.
I
The floor is covered with 15 cm oflitter (coffee husks or wood shaving). The house should be well ventilated. 0 1 m? of space is allowed for 2 - 3 birds. Feed, water, laying nests are provided in the house. Battery cage system: Birds are confined in cages. Cages are made of wire and placed in tiers. Cages have a slanting floor to allow eggs to flow away from the bird to a place where it will be collected. (b) A system commonly practiced in Uganda is Deep litter system. Advantages: o o o o o
High stocking rates can be afforded. Birds are not subjected to hazards of weather. Sick birds can easily be identified and culled. Provides high quality manure. Easy to collect eggs. Disadvantages:
o High incidents of vices. o Hygiene standards must be high otherwise disease incidents are high o It is not possible to keep accurate records of individual birds' egg production. (c) Outline the advantages and disadvantages of free range system of poultry rearing. Advantages of free range system. •
Low investment as only simple structures are required. o Birds have access to greens and insects. o Birds get plenty of exercise. o Bad I vices are controlled I fewer. 144
o o o o o
Good quality eggs are produced. Low feeding costs are met. Birds get access to vitamin Chicken manure is evenly distributed on the farm land. Requires less labour
Disadvantages of free range system. • • • • • • • • •
It requires alot ofland I space. Birds are exposed to predators e.g. kites. Birds are exposed to thieves.. It is difficult to monitor the production of individual birds. Low production of eggs. Easy spread of diseases and parasites. Birds may destroy crops. Difficult to control breeding. Birds are exposed to bad weather conditions e.g. Hail storms, Heavy rains etc.
Generally difficult to collect eggs. 125. State the meaning and the objectives of (a) Steaming up of farm animals. :
(b) Flushing
:
(c) Drying off. (a) Steaming up is when a pregnant animals is fed on highly nutritious diet two months to parturition. Objectives: o o o o o o o
To meet the increase nutrient demand of unborn foetus. To prevent milk fever. To make heifers get used to milking routine. To make heifers get used to milking parlour. To enable the animal put on weight. To increase milk production in cattle. To make in calf animal strong in preparation for parturition. 145
o To stimulate development of mammary glands. (b) Flushing: Feeding practice when pigs/sheep are fed on highly nutritious feeds towards oestrus period I before they are served. Objectives: o o o o
Increase chances of twining in sheep. Stimulate release of many ova. Increase number oflitter during farrowing. Prepare ewes and gills for mating.
(c) Drying off: When af
ilkin 1
.
. al
h
..
en a Larmer stops mi g a actatmg amm two mont s to parturition. Objectives: • • • • •
Allow udder tissues to undergo repair before the next lactation. Allow animals body to replenish calcium and phosphorous I minerals. To direct nutrients for the use by the developing foetus. Allow the cow to gain weight in preparation for the next lactation. Allow increase in milk production in the next lactation period.
126. Briefly explain the following terms: Ley farming; Ley farming: This is farming system where arable crops alternate with sown pastures. The pastures being temporary in duration. Milk fever: It is a metabolic disease resulting from depletion of calcium from the body of a lactating animal. Or it is characterized by low levels of calcium in the blood. Silent heat: It is when an animal comes into heat without manifesting external signs of heat. 146
Absorption banks 10es ug across the slope to hole surface run off and allow properr water : inflitrallon. 127. (a) State characteristics of a good dairy cow. • It should be wedge shape • It should have large body capacity I belly I abdomen to accommodate much food • It should have a well developed formed and big udder. • It should have good temperment / Docile / Easy to handle. • It should have sound legs / hind legs wide apart to accommodate large udder. • It should have prominent milk veins • It should have good network of veins on the udder. • It should have high longevity. • It should have high fertility to enable it calve regular / Feacundity. • It should have high food conversion rate • It should be able to produce high milk yield. • Easy in calving. • It should have a well suspended udder /Not pendulus udder. • It should have a long lactation period. • It should calve easily. (b) Mention challenges / problems of rearing Exotic cattle. They are susceptable to diseases and parasites. They require strict feeding routine. They require high quality feeds Require adequate clean water all the time. Not easy to find market for large amounts of products Requires strict hygien / sanitation. Requires high level of skill to manage. Expensive to establish. They are not resistant / tolerant to draught. 147
They have very many reproductive problems. (c) State reasons why most farmers in Uganda have continued to rear Local/Indigenous cattle. • Local cattle can walk long distance in search of pasture, water without getting excessively tired. • They are better converters of roughage into utilizable products e.g. meat and milk. • Are relatively tolerant to tick borne diseases e.g. E.C.F and Heart water. • Have few reproductive problems and can breed regularly up to about 15 years. • • • • •
Are hardy and can withstand adverse conditions of tropical climate. Are strong and can be used to do farmjobs. Are cheap to buy. Produce high quality meat and milk. Ugandan farmers are generally conservative.
128. In what ways may liver flukes be controlled on a cattle farm? • Cattle should not be allowed to graze in marshy areas where there are snails in stagnant water. • Spray areas where snails breed with copper - sulphate. : • Do hand picking and killing of snails. • Use antihelminties e.g. Ranide or carbon Tetrachloride to drench animals affected. • Drain marshy grazing areas/ pastures. • Use ducks in such marshy pastures these will pick snails. 129. Discuss the management procedures for a laying flock under deep litter system. • Birds come into lay at 19 - 21 weeks of age. • Carry debeaking to prevent / minimise cannibalism, wastage of feed and egg eating. 148
• Do frequent / regular turning oflitter to help it dry and absorbent thus preventing thriving of disease organisms. • Supply clean feed (layers mash), and water ad-lib. • Maintain clean, feed troughs, and drinkers. • Provide greens for vitamins and occupying the birds. • Provide insoluble grit to assist in digestion. • Provide lighting periods of 16 hrs. per day for the initiation and maintenance of egg laying. • Provide perchers - perching is their natural habit to create more space and to occupy bi d • Provide enough space e.g. 2 - 3 birds per 1 m?. • Provide enough laying nests 1 for 5 birds and should be dark to facilitate laying and minimise cannibalism. • Identify non - laying birds and cull to save the feed. I • Collect eggs regularly to prevent breaking and egg eating. • Remove sick birds from the rest. Carry regular vaccination and Deworming. • Disinfect walls to kill pests and parasites. • Avoid exciting birds this will make them nervous and may stop laying.
130. (a) With the aid of a diagram, describe the life cycle of the pork tapeworm (Taenia Solium). (b) How can Tapeworms be controlled? Description: • Mature eggs (segments) break off from adult tape worm and are passed out in human faeces. • Pigs take in segments during feeding. • Eggs develop into bladder worm and get embedded in the muscles of the tongue, heart and diaphragm of the pig. • Bladder \\ orm develops into cysticercus and becomes inverted. • Man eat:" \ ladder worm by feeding on pig muscles. 149
• The cysticercus becomes everted and develops hooks and suckers. • The cysticercus develops into an adult tape worm and attaches itself through hooks to the intestine of man and feeds on blood. • Mature segments break off and are passed out through the human faeces. Life cycle of pork tapeworm
Control of tape worm: • • • • •
Proper disposal offaeces by use oflatrines. Eating meat that is properly cooked. Carrying meat inspection to eliminate infected meat. Dewonning person infested. Treating animals (Pigs) with sulphate and 40% Nicotine.
131. Write short notes on the following: -
:
Debeaking Cutting / burning of pointed part of the upper beak. Done to minimise cannibalism and other poultry vices. It also minimises feed wastage by scooping. Hot knife / iron is used to cut and seal off blood vessels resulting from the cut. o It is done from time to time as need be.
o o o o
Concentrate feeds • These are feeds with higher percentage of body building and energy constituents per given weight than other feeds. • Ensures adequate supply of nutrients when a high nutrient intake is required e. g. high milking cows. 150
• They are less bulky. • They are more expensive than other feeds. • Normally fed as supplementary feed. Feeding concentrates alone may cause digestive disorders. Milk hold up: • It is a failure of the milking cow to let down her milk. : • It is caused by the adrenaline hormone secreted into the blood stream when the animal is frightened. • A cow must be treated well during milking to avoid milk hold up. • Irritation during milking, sores on the teat may cause milk hold up. Culling. • • • • • • • •
Removal of an animal because of old age. Removal of unproductive/sterile/of low milk yield. Due to sickness May b ready for sale I mature. Having slow growth. Due to physical deformity. Due to over stocking. 0 Due to bad habbits.
Caponisation: • • • • •
Is a method of suppressing male secondary sexual characteristics in poultry. It can be done surgically, chemically or by castration. It is done to speed up growth rate and fattening ofthe birds. Meat becomes tender. Birds become docile. Grooming: • It is the keeping of hind quarters of milking cows or animals free of dug and loose . • It facilitates clean milk production. • It also facilitates mating in sheep and rabbits. 151
• • • • • •
Removes lice and other skin parasites. Cattle and Poultry may be groomed to be fit for a show. Cleans animals hair coat for good appearance. Removes scurf and loose hair. Keeps the skin loose and pliable _ Helps to massage and stimulate blood and lymph circulation in the skin of the animal
132. (a) Describe how you would train a calf to drink milk from a
bucket.
(b) Of what advantage is it to a farmer to train a calf to drink milk from a bucket? (c) State disadvantages of bucket feeding in calf rearing. Bucket feeding • • • • • • •
Obtain fresh warm milk. Put in a bucket. Dip first middle fingers into milk. Put the fingers with milk in the mouth of the calf. As the calf sucks, gently lower its head into the bucket. Slowly remove the fingers, Do this more times. Advantage of bucket feeding
• • • •
Facilitates early weaning. Calf obtains adequate milk. Amount fed can be determined; avoids over feeding. Calf becomes independent even when the dam dies.
Disadvantages of bucket feeding: • Calf may not receive milk at the warm body temperature of the dam. • Calf scour may result form dirty bucket. • Labour consuming.
152
133. (a) Describe management practice for an in calf cow up to time of delivery. (b) What is the importance of feeding calves on colostrum? Management: • Dry off the cow two months before calving to allow time for the repair of udder tissues. • After drying off carry out dry cow therapy to control mastitis on teats. : • Provide clean water to the cow adlib. • Carry out pregnancy diagnosis 2 months after service to confirm pregnancy. • A record should be kept to determine the expected date of delivery. • Protect from high temperature by providing shelter; shade. • Deworm pregnant cows early to kill internal parasites. • Provide adequate food; ration throughtout the pregnancy • Steam up the cow two months before calving. • Carry out proper disease control to reduce economic loss. • Carry out regular control of external parasites by spraying. • Isolate the pregnant cow in a nurse paddock for close monitoring and avoid injury by others. • Do not tie a pregnant cow. • Disinfect and provide new bedding; calving grass in the calving area. • During calving, assist the animal with calving difficulty. • If the after birth is retained call the veterinary officer for help immediately. • After calving down, give warm water to drink to ease contraction in the uterus. Importance of colostrum feeding: • Contains antibodies which gives the calf first line up of defence. • It is rich in proteins and vitamins quite suitable for the calfs nutritional needs. • Acts as a laxative; pagative element to remove first dung. • It is easily digestible to the calf at that stage because the stomach is not fully developed to handle coarse feeds. 134. (a) What are the signs of pregnancy in a cow? 153
(b) Mention signs of calving in a pregnant cow. (a) Failure ofa cow to come on heat following service, • Enlargement of the belly / abdomen. • The udder ofa cow develops a thick honey like secretion when a heifer is 4 - 5 months of pregnancy. • The body weight of the animal increases considerably especially from 5th month. • The skin of the animal becomes smooth and shiney. • Abdominal movements are visible especially in the late periods of pregnancy. • The cervix closes. • The corpusluteum can be felt when examined by the vet officer. • When the uterus is pulpated (vet officer) the foetus can be felt through the rectum. • There is increase in the level of progesterone in the urine and blood. • There is enlargement of udder tissues. • The flanks become more hallow, while the back bone / spine and the root of the tail become more prominent. • The temperature of the cow is slightly above normal. • The pulse rate of the cow increases. (b) Signs of calving. • • • • • • • • • • •
A cow stays away from the herd and lies down rather than stand. Udder and teats become filled and distended especially in heifers. Udder secretions change from transparent to thick yellow (colostrum). Vulva becomes swollen and flabby. Cow becomes un easy. Cow repeately arches her back and raises her tail. Discharge of slimy fluid from the vagina. Cow becomes nervous and restless. The pin bones widen. Cervix muscles relax. The ligament at the base ofthe tail slacken. 154
• The amniotic sac / water bag comes out ofthe vulva. • Frequent urination. 135. (a) How does a pig digest its food? (b) Why does a pig need other feed stuffs apart from grass only? A pig is a non - ruminant. Food passes through the following stages: Digestive system of a pig Mouth • It is mixed with saliva to ease swallowing. • The action of salivary amylase starts on starch. • Food is then swallowed I passed into the stomach through oesophagus Stomach • • • • •
Food is mixed with gastric juice which contains HCL acid and Pepsin. Mucus, lubricates and softens food. Food is churned. Enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins to peptides. HCL acid kills bacteria and provides the right pH for the enzyme activity. Small Intestine:
o Food reaches first portion called Duodenum where: o Bile salts from the liver, neutralise the acidic media for the purpose of proper functioning of enzymes. o Pancreatic juice is secreted into the duodenum. : • A mylase acts on starch to maltose. • Bile also emulsifies fats. • Fats are broken down by lipase to fatty acids and glycerol. • Food reaches the second portion called ileum where Digestion of maltose by maltase to glucose. • Peptides by peptidases to Amino acids. • Lactose by Lactase to glucose and galactose. • Sucrose by sucrase to glucose and fructose. 155
• Proteins by chymotrypsin to Amino acids. • Proteins by erapsin to Amino Acids. • Absorption of digested food occurs. Large Intestine: There is a portion oflarge intestine called Ceacum. It is here, where there are ceacum bacterial enzymes which breakdown vegetable fibre to fatty acids. Absorption of water occurs. Undigested wastes are expelled through the rectum and out through the Anus There is mucus to annul the effect of abrasion. Because it has a simple stomach. It cannot obtain all its nutritional requirements e.g. proteins etc. from grass alone. 136. State factors which may lead to an outbreak of diseases in poultry house Poor ventilation I Humid and Hot environment. Poor quality feeds. Dirty and contaminated water. Over crowding of birds. Presence of dead or sick birds among healthy ones. Failure to vaccinate birds against common diseases. Allowing unauthorised persons into poultry house who might carry disease causing organisms. • Failure to provide foot bath with disinfectant for persons entering the poultry house. • Wet and boggy litter. • Failure to change litter periodically.
• • • • • • •
137. (a) Mention and Explain factors you would consider when selecting an animal for breeding purpose. (b) Outline problems a farmer may face while keeping exotic cattle breeds. 156
Factors • • • • • • • •
Succeptability - animals that are not succeptible to diseases. Growth rate: - fast growth rate. Feed conversion ration - good food conversion ratio. Productivity - Should be highly productive e.g. high milk yields, egg and meat production. Fertility: - Fecaundity (should calve easily and regularly). Adaptation. Highly adapt to new environment. Size: - Where feed is a limiting factor choose smaller ones as larger ones need more food. Calving interval. It must be able to produce offsprings at regular intervals. Problems:
• • • • • • •
Susceptibility to diseases. Require high level of management. Require high standard of feeding. Do not with stand drought conditions. Poor and inadequate extension services. Problems of marketing dairy products. Lack of Drugs / chemicals.
I 138. (a) Describe the life cycle of a two - host tick. (b) Give reasons why ticks are a problem to livestock farmers. Life Cycle of a two host tick (Red legged tick) Adult female sucks blood from the host. Engorged female drops to the ground. Females lay eggs on the ground. lOIn 4 - 6 weeks eggs hatch into larvae. Larvae climb plant leaves and grass. Larvae brush on the h,)J y \ If passing animal (1 st host) and start sucking blood. • Engorged larvae moult and Nymphs emerge. • Nymphs suck blood of the same host:
• • • • • • •
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• • • •
Engorged Nymphs drop to the ground. While on the ground Nymphs moult and adults emerge. Adults climb a passing animal (2nd host) suck blood and mate. Engorged females drop to the ground to lay eggs (Cycle complete)
2. Larvae feed,get engorged I and moult into nymphs.
5. Adults feed and mate
I
Problems • • • • •
Transmit diseases to livestock. Lower quality of hide. Loss of blood thus lowering production. Increases cost of production. Since a farmer has to buy drugs / chemicals. Suck blood causing anaemia.
139. State advantages of using a spray race in tick control. • • • • • • • •
Less labour is involved. Many animals are sprayed within a short time. Better coverage of animals with acaricide. Less risk of accidents during spraying. It is easy to control the concentration of the acaricide. Pregnant, sick and young animals can be sprayed easily. Acaricide wastage is reduced. Small livestock like goats, sheep etc. can easily be sprayed. 158
140. (a) Explain the reasons for making silage. U sed in seasons when forage may not be there. Avoid wastage offorage during periods of plenty. To conserve nutrients in fresh form. (b) Describe the procedure of making silage. o Select mature crop with high carbohydrate/ sugar content and little moisture. o Cut the crop from the field. o Wilt the crop after cutting. o Chop the material to ease packing. o Add additives like sugar, molasses and minerals! salts. o Consolidate the material with a roller to reduce oxidation. o Seal the silo immediately. o Provide shelter over the silo to avoid seepage of rain water. o Dig a trench around the silo to drain rainwater. o Check the temperature iflow add more materials ifhigh add water. (37.8°C high) (c) What problems are encounted in silage making and use? o o o o o o o o
High capital costs of machinery and equipment. Loss of nutrients. Additional expenses are involved in buying preservatives. Smell from poorly fermented silage is not good. Need larger qualities of material for rapid fermentation. When fed before milking, the smell may contaminate the milk. Requires a lot oflabour. May be difficult to compact materials properly.
141. (a) Describe the qualities of good litter for a poultry house. • • • •
Should be easy to get/locally available. Should be cheap. Should not be poisonous. Should not cake/ form lamps. 159
• • • • •
Should not be too dry/ too wet. Should be able to absorb moisture. Should not be very fine or dusty. Should not hurt the birds. Should not cause irritation to the birds, cause respiratory problems.
(b) Explain the possible causes of wetness of litter in poultry houses. Poor ventilation increases humidity. Leaking from the roof, makes the litter wet. Short over hang, so that wind blow rain inside. Over crowding of birds, increases humidity. AccFulation of birds dropping. Condensed water from the roof in areas where temperatures are low, makes the litter wet. • Seepage by capillary action from below the floor, makes the litter wet. • Spillage of water, makes the litter wet. • Flooding can wet the litter. • • • • • •
142. (a) Explain why it is important to make permanent marks on farm animals. Importance • To prevent ownership dispute. • Lost/ strayed animals can be identified. • Essential for proper record keeping on the farm. (b) Describe the various methods of making permanent marks on farm animals. Branding (Hot iron) • The iron with the required mark is heated till it is red hot. • It is then put on the animal in the position where the mark is required. Chemical branding: o Area to be branded is clipped. 160
o Iron is dipped in the branding liquid. o Extra liquid is drained off to prevent smearing. o The wet iron is applied on the clipped part. Freeze branding: • Branding iron is dipped in liquid nitrogen. • it is then applied on the animal where the mark is required. • This does not spoil the hide. Ear tagging: Metals made of light materials/ plastic with numbers on them are fixed on the ears of the animal. Some are self-piercing through the ear. In others a hole is made in the ear before they are put. They should not be pressed too tightly or else they stop circulation of blood. Ear notching: This is the cutting of v shaped notches at specific places on the ear by means of scissors or pincers. Tattoos: • Consists of piercing out lines of a desired number or letters on the skin inside the ears. • Pigment or ink is put in it. 143. (a) What is milk let - down? Flow of milk from the alveoli into the large/ gland cistern. (b) Give conditions that encourage milk letdown in a cow. • • • •
Washing/ massage the udder. Sucking by a calf/ attachment ofteat cups. Approach of milking time. Presentation of feeds. 161
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Rattling of milk utensils. Seeing other cows being milked. I Noise made by milk drops from other cows! milking machines. Sight of a calf or milking utensils. I
144. (a) Describe the procedure to be followed in preparing hides and skins for sale. • • • • • • • • • • •
Washing the hides and skins; to remove the dugs, soil etc. Hanging up for the water, to drain/ drip. Fleshing, to remove meat and fats from the hides and skins. Trimming; to remove odd flaps. Curing/ salting/ drying; to remove moisture. Add pesticides; to avoid attack by beetles. Grading of the hides and skins before balling; to remove bad hides. During balling use ropes/ balling iron to avoid damage (by wire). Weigh hides and skins before sale; to determine the value. Fold the hides/ skin once along the spine with inside out to avoid spoilage. Carry out proper storage to avoid damage moisture. (b) What are the factors that affect the quality of hides and skins?
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Branding; if done on the most valuable parts. York calluses; may damage the hide. Tick bites; which cause irritation resulting into wounds. Diseases like ring worms, cow pox etc. lead to loss of hair. Bruises, resulting from bad throwing, on slaughter ground. Dragging on rough floor, leading to loss of hair. Poor bleeding, which encourage putrefaction. Cuts by knives when flaying. Delay between flaying and drying which result into hair slips. Putrefaction/ rotting due to poor folding hide/ skin. Curing on the ground. May encourage rotting of the hides at certain places. Over stretching or poor roping which results into distortion of the hide/ skin. 162
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Pests like rats, beetles cause damage. Improper transportation cause rubbing against each other leading to hair slip. Poor storage, where hides/ skins can be damage by moisture. Injury caused by other animals and person! sharp objects on the skins/ hides. Poor fleshing ofthe hides/ skins. I
145. (a) State the signs of good health in cattle. • Bright and clear eyes. • Smooth and pliable skin with a shinning appearance. • Normal body temperature. • Pale/ straw co loured urine. • Fairy loose faeces. o Good appetite. • Alert and active. • Upright posture. • Normal pulse rate. • Moist nuzzle, (b) Give the effects of disease on farm animals. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Reduction in quantity of yield/ production. Reduction in quality of products. Less efficient use of feeds; puts on weight slowly. Slower/ retarded growth, animal takes low to reach reproduction / selling a get Animal is weakened. - animal cannot perform at work Loss of appetite. - hence less feed intake, slow growth, weak. Death. - due to severity of attack Emaciation/ thinness/ loss weight; as the body tries to fight pathogen. Infertility. - when reproductive system and hormones are affected. Abortion. - Due-to attack on uterus. Lameness. - if the animal happens to recover. Blindness. Dwms Deafness Wounds 163
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Madness.
146. (a) Describe how you would prepare to receive day - old - chicks for rearing. • • • • • • • • • o o
Prepare brooder 2 weeks before arrival of chicks. Scrub brooder house or room with a hard brush and plenty of water. All equipments should be washed and disinfected using hot water /steam /by putting them out in the sunshine.. Allow the place and equipment to rest for one week/few days. Introduce litter to a depth of 3 – 4cm. Place a confinement ring 45 - 60 cm high around the source of heat to prevent chicks from straying from warmth. Cover the litter with paper to prevent chicks from eating the litter. Start source of heat overnight to adjust the temperature in the brooder before the chicks arrive. Arrange the water and feed troughs around the heat source in the confinement Make sure the feeds and water is available. Drugs should be stocked well in advance.
(b) How would you manage day old chicks from the day of arrival are four weeks old? • • • • • • • • • • •
till they
Count the chicks to ascertain the number. Isolate weak/sick ones. Provide them with fresh sugar solution on the day of arrival and no feed should be fed on that day (glucose solution) Provide proper brooding temperature 33°C reduce by 2.5°each week till 21 °C (i.e. room temperature) is attained Provide adequate ventilation. Ensure proper spacing which should gradually increase as the chicks grow. Remove the paper covering the litter after 2 weeks. Provide adequate feed/chick mash in feed troughs. Provide clean fresh adequate water. Vaccinate the birds. Provide coccidiostats in drinking water and feeds. 164
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Maintain general hygiene/any dead chicks should be removed immediately. Debeak the chicks to prevent pecking injuries and cannibalism to other chicks.
147. (a) Describe the factors that affect the distribution of livestock in Uganda. • • • • • • • • • o
Presence of tsetse flies/ other pests in the area which transmit disease; Occurrence or prevalence oflive stock disease which cause death. Ethic bias to live stock/ some tribes do not keep; Availability ofland/ competition, where there is shortage of land more crops are grown than keeping of animal. Terrain/ topography; in steep or hilly areas less livestock are kept; Availability of feeds/ pastures; lower number oflivestock; Social factors attributed to livestock keeping; e.g. keeping cattle for prestige; Religious belief; Moslems do not keep pigs; Climate influences distribution oflivestock; e.g. areas with high rainfall are mainly for crop growing than keeping livestock; Cattle rustling and raiding; has reduced animal numbers in some area e.g. Teso; Kapchorwa and Mbale
(b) What is the role of cattle in the livelihood of a Ugandan farmer? • • • • • • • • • •
Source of high value foods e.g. meat, milk, blood etc. Used as work animal; Produce other useful bi-products e.g. hides, hooves etc. U sed for ritual and other religious function; I Used in social/ customary functions e.g. marriage It is a source of income; In any societies it is an indicator of status and respectability of the person; When kept together with the growing of crops, their dung and urine may be used to fertilize the soil Source of employment to the farmer. It is a reserve of family wealth;
148. (a) What problems do ticks cause on farm animals? 165
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Suck blood causing anemia; I Damage hides arid skin; Cause wounds, which are entry points for the pathogens; Transmit tick-bomediseases which can lead to death; Vectors oflivestock disease; Loss of weight/ condition; Reduce production in terms of milk, meat etc.; :
(b) Describe the life cycle of a one host tick and three host ticks. • • • • • • • • • •
One host tick Eggs hatch; Larvae climb on host; Larvae feed on host; Engorged larvae moult nymphs; Nymphs feed on host; Engorged nymphs moult, adults emerge; Adults feed on host; Adults mate on host; Engorged female.falls to the ground; I Engorged female lay eggs;
• • • • • • • • • • •
Three host ticks Eggs hatch; Larvae climbs first host; Larvae feed on first host; Larvae drops on ground moult into nymphs; Nymphs climb on to second host; Nymphs feed on second host; Nymphs drop and moult into adults; : Adult climb third host;. Adults feed on host; Adults mate on third host; Engorged females drop on ground to lay eggs;
:
149. (a) Describe the process of egg formation in a hen. 166
Diagram showing the reproductive system of a hen/female fowl
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• • •
Ovary; ova develop into mature yolk inside the follicle which raptures to release yolk; Yolk rolls down to the funnel called infundibulum Infundibulum; yolk is engulfed byfunnel formed by this infundibulum and egg is fertilized; Magnum; -in the magnum the egg white (albumen) is added on to the egg yolk; Isthmus; -the immature egg moves into the isthmus where water, mineral salts and shell membranes are added; Uterus; -the shell and some pigment are put on to the egg in the uterus; Vagina; -in the vagina, the cuticle is added then the egg is inverted; Cloaca; -the egg is then passes out through the cloaca;
(b) Out line the condition necessary for the proper hatching of eggs. • • • o o o o o o o
Changing the position of the eggs to avoid embryos sticking on one side ofthe egg; Eggs must be ventilated; Provide suitable humidity; Provide suitable/ optimum temperature 37.5°C - 39.5°C (95°F - 104°F) Eggs must not have any defects; Eggs must be fertile; Absence of vermin, parasites, etc. Good nesting place; Good feeding/ balance ration; Egg should be of normal size/ shape. 167
150. (a) Describe the abnormalities that may occur in eggs during their formation. Meat spots: a piece of tissue may be tom from the ovary at the time of ovulation and it comes down with the yolk. Blood spots: occurs in the egg when at ovulation a drop of blood is shed and comes down with the yolk; Doubl yolk: due to physiological detect III the oviduct/ovary releasing\same time. Shell less eggs: due to a defect in the uterus/shell gland/ failure of the shell deposit calciferous shell around the egg; Thin shell: may be due to disease or nutritional deficiency of vitarninAi or cal phosphorus; Deformed eggs: do not have the normal oval shape due to a defect in the isthrn where the characteristic shape of th' egg is determined; Rough surface eggs: Where there is uneven deposition of the eggshell and the egg- have a rough surface; Soft shelled eggs: may be due to immature laying of the egg;/ failure of shell gland (uterus) due to calcium deficiency in the feeds-s, Abnormal colourl smell of the yolk: may be due to feed i.e. the yellow colour is due to carotene from feeds; Size of the eggsl small sized eggs due to hormonal imbalance. (b) State and explain the measures that a farmer could take in order to produce high quality eggs in Deep litter house. Give the birds a balanced ration: - to provide the necessary nutrients for the formation of eggsl provide adequate minerals (calcium) in the diet; Feed birds with good quality feeds: - that will not impart bad smell in the eggs; Provide clean nesting materials: - to avoid.soiling the eggs; 168
Clean the dirty eggs: - to remove contaminants and make it more attractive to the consumer; Gather the eggs from the nesting boxes regularly: - to avoid egg breaking and getting dirty; Candle the eggs: - to detect internal abnormalities in the egg; Grade the eggs according to size: - so as to produce uniform products; Keep the eggs in a cool dry place: - to prevent deterioration of egg quality;
:
Store eggs in egg trays with broad end ofthe egg up to allow air circulation in the egg; Sell the eggs as soon as possible: - to avoid loss of quality before consumption; Controlling diseases in birds: - especially those transmitted through eggs; Ensure the house is well ventilated to keep the bird healthy. Ensure the house is insulated. Site the house in a well drained and easy to clean area. Fill the floor of the house with litter at appropriate depth. Mix old litter with new to inject bacteria to breakdown droppings to keep the litter dry and warm. Rake the litter regularly. Provide adequate floor space for the birds. Provide roosting perches Vallinate birds regularly Ensure the house is vermin proof Control parasites by deworming I dusting. Cull birds that are not productive and healthy, Provide greens in the deep litter house. 169
151. What factors affect milk composition? • • • • • • • • • • •
Breed of the animal: exotic animals tend to have low butterfat content than indigenous; Diseases: mastitis makes milk have blood clots and pus; Age of the milking animal: old animal produce less butter contentthan younger ones; Feeds: the amount and composition of milk depends on the types offeeds given to the animal; Stage of pregnancy: changes in hormonal pattern in a pregnant animal affect milk composition by increasing the solid non-fats and proteins; Seasons of the year: butter fat content tends to increase during the dry season and vice-versa; Frequency of milking: the shorter the milking internal, the less the butter fat content; Heat period/ oestrus: increases the butterfat content;. Excitement: nervous animals produce milk of varying composition in terms of butter fat con tent; Exercise: the more exercise the animal is inflicted upon the less butterfat content; Use of drugs: some traces of drugs may change the composition of milk;
152. Explain the following terms: selection; cross breeding; inbreeding; as used in livestock improvement. : Cross breeding: It is the mating of two different pure breeds. E.g. Friesian and zebu or any other pure breeds. It leads to hybrid vigour/ heterosis. It is used to introduce desirable genes or characteristics. Inbreeding: • •
It is the mating of closely related animals e.g. dam + son or brother + sister. It is the fastest way of fixing/ maintaining desirable characteristics in an animal.
170
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It leads to appearance of undesirable traits/ characteristics in an off spring.
171