Stan Sakai is a Japanese-American independent comic book writer and artist. His most celebrated work is entitled Usagi Yojimbo, which in Japanese means, "Rabbit Bodyguard" (Sakai). The saga tells the tale of a Ronin, or masterless samurai named Usagi, an anthropomorphic rabbit traveling through "turn of the century 17th century Japan" (Sakai). Sakai's tale, based loosely on the story of famed samurai Miyamoto Musashi, is a distinct anomaly within the genre of samurai comics. As a general rule, samurai comics have been produced primarily in Japan. Samurai comics such as Kazuo Koike and Goseki Kojima's 1976 title Lone Wolf and Cub, exhibit the distinctly Japanese art style and storytelling techniques of Manga, or Japanese comics. Manga, "developed in relative isolation" from Western comic book influences, "spawning a host of unique approaches to making comics" (McCLoud 210). Though Sakai was brought up in Hawaii, he was born in the Japanese city of Kyoto in 1953. Usagi Yojimbo is a testament to the pride Sakai feels in his Japanese heritage, which was fostered by the sizable Japanese-American community in Hawaii. The comics exhibit a stark commitment to historical accuracy in both its art style and themes, which borrow heavily from both Manga and Japanese cultural tradition. Sakai's bi-monthly series began in 1984 and this year marks its 30th anniversary. Sakai is one of only a select few artists such as Erik Larsen, Dave Sim and mentor Sergio AragonĂŠs, whose characters have maintained such long lasting popularity (Toucan). This analysis of Sakai's work will focus heavily on a compilation of Usagi Yojimbo's first ten chapters, entitled Book 1: The Ronin. Within these first chapters, Sakai's unique stylistic choices, story structure, humor and attention to detail immediately stand out as exemplary of a fresh take on the samurai genre. These
elements have persevered throughout the entire Rabbit Bodyguard saga, and contributed a great deal to the series' longevity by speaking to a culturally diverse fan base. Usagi Yojimbo is informed by a long list of multicultural influences. Sakai's work is inspired by fellow comic book artists from America, Japan and most recently Europe, but also by a number of different media such as film, and traditional Japanese folklore, history and fine art. Growing up in Hawaii Sakai read the Manga of Osamu Tezuka, cherished in his place of birth, alongside traditional American comics from such pioneers as Stan Lee, Jack Kirby and Steve Ditka (Watchmojo). Thirty years into his storied career, Sakai has collaborated with comic book legends from both the Japanese and American traditions. Sakai recently worked on a re-telling of the Japanese tale 47 Ronin, with Lone Wolf and Cub writer Kazuo Koike. However, in an interview at ComicCon 2014, Sakai cited working with Stan Lee as one of his most rewarding experiences in creating comics, because Lee's superhero comics were amongst the very first Sakai remembers reading as a child (Watchmojo). Despite his undoubtable passion for Japanese comics, American comics were Sakai's first love, as indicated by the giddiness in his voice when describing his experience collaborating with Stan Lee (Watchmojo). It is no wonder then, that Sakai first sought employment in the American comic industry, in the form of a lettering (producing hand drawn/written text within a comic book) job for Groo the Wanderer by Sergio AragonĂŠs and Mark Evanier. Sakai still continues to work on Groo, which was one of the most widely renown creator-owned comics of its time. Usagi Yojimbo began as an independent comic itself. Though Sakai's work is now printed by major comics
publisher Dark Horse Comics, he maintains full creative control and decision making power when it comes to his work (Toucan). Sakai likely learned his appreciation for creative control, and many other valuable lessons from working closely with AragonĂŠs. The humorous story lines, signature lettering style, and cartoon-like characters showcased in Groo, were certainly influential in the development of Sakai's personal style, which makes Usagi Yojimbo so special. Under the tutelage of AragonĂŠs, Sakai first experimented with anthropomorphic animals, simply drawn cartoon characters, comedic writing and historical themes in his medieval comedy strip The Adventures of Groundthumper and Hermy, influenced heavily by Groo. These characters were stylistic predecessors to Usagi, and in 1984 began appearing in issues of comic magazines Albedo #1, Critters, GrimJack, Amazing Heroes and Furlough. It was around the same time that Groundthumper and Hermy was first published, that Sakai began experimenting with the idea of producing a samurai comic. Sakai was initially inspired by the Japanese hero Miyamoto Musashi, author of The Book of Five Rings, a strategic tome and guide to master swordplay. When Sakai began his creative process, he had initially conceived of the Usagi character as a human. However, Sakai had already been working with animals, specifically rabbits, in The Adventures of Groundthumper and Hermy, and decided on a whim to create some test sketches of his samurai as a rabbit. "One day sketching in my sketch book I drew a rabbit with his ears tied up into a chonmage, a samurai top knot, and I loved the design. It was simple, but it was unique. It was visually striking. So I left my character as a rabbit," Sakai said (Toucan). Though Sakai insists that he simply stumbled upon the idea of a rabbit samurai,
he has made statements that indicate otherwise. "There's a long history of anthropomorphic animals in Japanese literature. The so-called 'funny animal scrolls' were the first narratives in Japanese history, and the heroes of many folk tales have animals as their companions" (Solomon 1). It is likely that Sakai was influenced by these ancient Japanese scrolls or emaki, which mark the beginning of Japanese manga's artistic lineage. The scroll is called the Choju Jinbutsu Giga, known in English as the Scroll of Frolicking Animals (Shirai). The scroll, painted in ink between the 12th and 13th centuries, served as a comedic satire on the state of Buddhism and Japanese aristocracy (Shirai). The correlations between this scroll and the works of Sakai are many. First, the satirical nature of the scroll is clear from the outset, thanks to its cast of anthropomorphic animals such as rabbits, frogs, foxes and monkeys, which take on the roles of laymen, monks and even samurai. These animals, like Sakai's characters, are placed in situations designed to reflect the everyday lives of Japanese people and serve as a "strategic and parodic veiling of the human" (Chaney 129). The animals are depicted competing in wrestling or sumo matches, participating in Buddhist rituals, archery competitions, and leisure activities such as bathing and gambling (Shirai). The style with which action is portrayed in these scrolls will also be of particular interest later in this discussion. Sakai's cast of anthropomorphic mammals is one of the Usagi series' most interesting and endearing elements. In an interview, Sakai commented on his diverse readership saying, "When people ask me who I am writing for, what's my readership, I just tell them it's a readership of one. These are the stories I would have liked to read as a kid, and I'm just fortunate that other people like to read them as well" (Watchmojo).
Usagi Yojimbo has been printed in twelve different languages (excluding Japanese) and is read all over the world (Watchmojo). Sakai attributes the popularity of his characters to their universality. "For Usagi it’s Japanese characters, but people could relate to them because they are animals. It’s not traditional Japanese people and they don’t have the Japanese type of stereotypes because they are animals" (Toucan). With these likable characters, Sakai distinguished himself from the traditionally violent samurai manga of Japan. "The soft-spoken artist seems an unlikely creator of fierce battle scenes, but he suggests deadly combat in his drawings without actually depicting it" (Solomon 1). In an early battle scene with ninja in the chapter Lone Rabbit and Child, Usagi's sword cuts are indicated by graphic blood spatters (Figure 1). This level of gore is an anomaly within the ten chapters of The Ronin, but perhaps this scene was meant to pay homage to its inspirational source, Lone Wolf and Cub, which is known for its brutal depictions of violence. However, in this same scene, the characters die with comedic facial expressions, frozen in place with eyes wide and their faces distorted, falling over one another in a slap-stick routine. This comedic depiction of violence is indicative of American cartoon influences in Sakai's work. These tame visions of violence become the norm in the later chapters of The Ronin. The graphic blood spatters of this early fight scene are later replaced with representational, tear-drop shaped spurts (Figure 2). Even these tame depictions of blood are largely omitted, as Sakai often uses motion lines to imply sword cuts, rather than depict their brutal results. In this way, Sakai is able to tell samurai stories in a more light-hearted, comedic manner than had been seen in the genre thus far. Sakai's decision to create universally lovable characters, correlates directly to
Scott McCLoud's discussion of the iconic and relatable effect of simply drawn cartoons in his book Understanding Comics. On McCLoud's pyramid chart entitled, "The Picture Plane," Usagi sits near the right corner of the angle formed by "The Conceptual Edge" and "The Representational Edge" (McCLoud 52-53). On this graph, Usagi sits next to other beloved cartoon icons such as Mickey Mouse, Astro Boy and Scrooge McDuck (Figure 3). Paraphrasing McCLoud; the less realistic a character's appearance, the more relatable it will be, so long as it can still be recognized as a human-like entity (MccLoud 42). By creating simply drawn, cartoon animals that retain certain human characteristics, Sakai has adhered directly to this principle, which is the reason that "cartoons have historically held an advantage in breaking into popular culture" (MccLoud 42).
Sakai's anthropomorphic protagonists appeal to the
innocent, childish imagination. It is no wonder then, that the story's primary antagonist, Lord Hikiji, introduced in the second chapter entitled Lone Rabbit and Child, is portrayed as a human (Figure 4). In fact, on the rare occasions that humans appear inThe Ronin, they are always portrayed as evil or at least suspicious. There is also the character Ocho, a human woman residing in a village terrorized by a horrible cat-like creature in the chapter Village of Fear (Figure 5). In reality, the beast terrorizing the village and Ocho are one in the same. She is an evil shapeshifter, hellbent on murdering every innocent villager, all portrayed as anthropomorphic animals. There are two other instances of note in which humans appear, when evil is implied, but not overtly stated. In a council with the child panda Lord Noriyuki, whom Usagi saved from an assassination attempt ordered by Lord Hikiji, a human vassal sits in attendance (Figure 6). This human's presence at the meeting, though subtle and serene in temperament,
implies that perhaps this human is a spy connected to Hikiji, feigning loyalty to the young Lord in order to relay secrets to the cunning Hikiji. On the final page of chapter four, Bounty Hunter, a human samurai walks the same street as Usagi, glaring at him menacingly (FIgure 7). It is likely that this man is another malevolent servant of Hikiji, who sees Usagi as a threat to his plans to assume leadership of the Shogunate. The use of humans as symbols of evil is indicative of a Japanese trend outlined by Scott McCLoud, in which "the objectifying power of realistic arts" is used to emphasize the "otherness" of evil characters (McCLoud 44). In Japanese manga, "while most characters were designed simply to assist in reader-identification, other characters were drawn more realistically to objectify them, emphasizing their otherness from the reader" (McCLoud 44). By assigning the distinct identity of adult humans to his villains, Sakai bolsters his young readers' ability to identify with his anthropomorphic protagonist. After all, aren't grown-ups, with their strict rules and boring lives, the ultimate evil to children? In many ways, Usagi Yojimbo is a children's comic book of the western cartoon style, with its comedic, toned down violence, and the protagonist's unwavering commitment to doing good for those in need. "Usagi has a more complex personality than most comic book characters. An honorable and highly disciplined practitioner of Bushido, the warrior's chivalric code, he despises all bullies" (Solomon). Like Sakai himself said, these are stories akin to the ones he'd read as a child. What child wouldn't want a hero like Usagi looking our for him or her, or to become him themselves? However, despite its childish overtones, the books still manage to appeal to readers of all ages. This contradiction calls for a focused discussion of the stylistic evolution of
Sakai's work in The Ronin. In this ten chapter compilation, Sakai's careful blending of distinct Japanese and American art styles and storytelling techniques, make for a comic that is not only accessible and comedic, but highly sophisticated and culturally informed. "Usagi represents a unique fusion of East and West, combining traditional samurai virtues with the flamboyance of Kurosawa's heroes and the understated authority of a Hollywood frontier marshal" (Solomon 1). Usagi Yojimbo's first chapter was published in 1984 via Albedo #2. The story's first chapter, The Goblin of Adachigahara is uncharacteristically dark considering the saga's widely accepted reputation as a children's comic. It is clear that despite his use of endearing anthropomorphic creatures, Sakai has in this first edition, held onto some of the realistic conventions of traditional samurai manga. With each succeeding chapter, Sakai's characters become more exaggerated, cartoon-like, and thus more lovable. However, the realism displayed in this first chapter set a number of precedents which contributed to the more sophisticated elements of Sakai's stories, which appeal to mature readers. The story opens with what will become a familiar scene and panel structure. A large panel dominates half of the page. Usagi, an enigmatic character shrouded by a wide-brimmed straw hat, walks through a dark, snowy night toward a humble house in the mountains. (Figure 8) Below are three smaller panels, where Usagi is promptly introduced to the specific scenery in which the story's drama unfolds. This panel structure is repeated throughout The Ronin, and adheres to a distinctly Japanese method of storytelling which will be discussed after first addressing a number of artistic elements exhibited in the opening chapter.
In this first panel, Sakai's stylistic choices reference a number of Japanese traditions from not only manga, but fine art. First and foremost it must be noted that Sakai's Usagi comics are all done in black and white. While this choice immediately draws associations to manga, which is known for its graphic black and white style, it must also be said that black and white was used by American artists such as Will Eisner and other creators of underground comics not unlike Sakai's independent works. The use of black and white in this context however, is closely related to the eastern concept of Yin and Yang, positive and negative, action and inaction or balance. Between the snow on the ground and the blackness of the sky looming over the protagonist, dynamic shapes are formed by black positive space, and white negative space. This stylistic trend in Sakai's work is often used to visually convey tension and drama. A later scene exhibiting this particular use of contrast, is the stare down between Usagi and the Blind Sword-Pig Zato-Ino, based on the mythical blind swordsman Zato-Ichi (Toucan). As the warriors prepare for battle, black grass stands tall in the still air, rife with tension created by the stark contrast between the dark grass below and the white sky above. (Figure 3) The same concepts of balance and contrast symbolized by these visual cues, are also essential to understanding the pacing of Sakai's stories and their distinct panel structure, which will be of major importance in distinguishing the cultural origins of Sakai's storytelling methods. Returning to the opening scene, the tree to the right of the yet unnamed protagonist, with its extreme curves and bends, is defined by thick, gestural, black outlines, and harkens back to a style of landscape painting pioneered by the Japanese painter Sesshu Toyo (Shirai). The tree, despite its exaggerated, gestural outline, is made to look more realistic through Sakai's implementation of linear shading,
in which parallel lines are drawn closely together in a pattern to mimic the appearance of shadow. The environments in which Sakai places his characters consistently exhibit an astounding level of detail. As is the case with the aforementioned tree, and the others in this first scene, Sakai allows for a certain amount of stylization in natural forms, but aims for realism with his shading techniques. When it comes to architectural structures, Sakai is extremely precise in his efforts to create a historically accurate setting for his story. The house in this scene, the home of a haggard old widow, is drawn with technical exactitude, perfectly resembling structures typical of 17th century Japan. In this first chapter, that realism extends beyond the scenery, as Sakai sets up the historical background of the story with a flashback. In this scene, Usagi remembers the day his master died in battle at Achigaharah, and he became a wandering, masterless samurai (Figure 9). Sakai's depictions of the samurai in this scene contribute to his career-long commitment to historical accuracy. His illustrations display numerous iterations of samurai garb, from the ornately crafted armor worn by high ranking generals such as Usagi's Lord Mifune, to the simple headbands and martial clothes of foot soldiers. Usagi, becomes more lovable in the coming chapters, when his furry face and floppy ears are freed from the shadows cast by his battle helm in this dire memory. However, Sakai establishes a number of his stylistic goals for the series within this first chapter, by allowing for excessive realism in this instance. With this flashback, he not only introduces the chaotic political dynamic of the Tokugawa era, in which warlords jockeyed for power over the land, but he also emphasizes the central theme of Bushido, or honor and duty to serve one's master (Sakai 4). With his master slain, Usagi was left
masterless, without purpose. Throughout the book, Usagi encounters animals in need of help, and they become surrogate masters for the Rabbit Bodyguard, who unwaveringly puts his life on the line for their safety, all thanks his stalwart sense of duty and honor. In the final pages of the first chapter, Usagi faces off against a goblin, a former soldier transformed by guilt and hatred. This soldier, once the old widow's husband, was a deserter in the same battle recounted by Usagi. The soldier was denied the right to commit seppuku or ritualistic suicide, a rite performed out of shame to regain one's honor (Sakai 10). The contrast between the loyal Usagi, and the shameful goblin, portrays the cultural expectations of warriors during this period, and also introduces the reader to the story's prevalent fantasy elements. The goblin or tengu, is a staple in Japanese folklore (Toucan). Its presence in this chapter allows Sakai to display his commitment to the cultural norms of life in 17th century Japan, and to imagine what it would have been like to encounter the nightmarish creatures dreamt up in the ancient past he so expertly portrays. The realism presented in Sakai's scenery can be attributed on one hand to extensive cultural research on his part, and on the other, to the pervasive use of what MccLoud calls the "masking technique" in Japanese comic books (MccLoud 43). The masking technique calls for a combination of relatable cartoon characters and realistic environments. "This combination allows readers to mask themselves in a character and enter a sensually stimulating world" (MccLoud 43). According to a psychological study entitled Framing Attention in American and Japanese Comics, this development became so prevalent in Japan due to differences in viewing preferences from East to West. "Research has shown that Americans focus more on focal objects of a scene while East
Asians attend to the surrounding environment" (Cohn, Taylor-Weiner, Grossman). Sakai, while clearly influenced by other comic artists, has said that he is even more inspired by film (Toucan). The works of masters like Akira Kurosawa, have moulded Sakai's distinctly cinematic story structure, which he has developed through thoughtful organization and pacing of his panels, and the artistic methods uses to portray action within. McCLoud addresses the distinction between panel to panel transitions in the American and Japanese comic traditions. In American comics, McCLoud has deduced that three types of panel transitions have been overwhelmingly dominant, based on precedents set by the likes of Jack Kirby and his peers. These transitions and their average percentage of use in American comics are: "action-action (65%), subjectsubject (20%), and scene-scene" occupying the remainder (McCLoud 74-75). This proportion, says McCLoud is indicative of a storytelling style focused on "showing things happening in concise, efficient ways" (McCLoud 76). McCLoud determines that the American tradition, characterized by short stories printed on a frequent basis, is less concerned with background details that foster a sense of place. Japanese comics however, display a far more even distribution of the six types of transitions outlined by McCLoud. The Japanese proportion similarly distributes the same three transitions so dominant in the American tradition. However, two other types of transitions are an essential characteristic of Japanese comics, and are almost entirely omitted from the American tradition. These distinctly Japanese transitions are "moment-moment," and "aspect to aspect" (McCLoud 78-79). Moment-moment transitions are similar to action-action, but
while the latter takes the reader from start to finish in two panels, moment-moment transitions use more panels to depict the minute physical changes that occur in order to achieve a single action. Aspect-aspect transitions are of the same ilk. Like momentmoment, the purpose of these transitions is to slow down the pacing of the story, to give the reader further insight into the environment before them, and to foster a clear sense of "mood" and feeling within a setting (McCLoud 79). These panels achieve this affect by depicting seemingly unimportant aspects of a scene, unrelated to the action unfolding within it. However, panels like this are essential to establishing a participatory relationship with the reader, who is encouraged to consider the tonal significance of these ambiguous panels, especially in Sakai's work. Usagi relies heavily upon this second set of transitions to achieve the cinematic style for which it is known, making Sakai's comic a unique addition not only to the samurai genre, but to the American canon as well, with its proportionally Japanese distribution of panel transitions. What makes Sakai's work cinematic, is his willingness to pause from the action in order to build tension or develop the significance of a particular scene. He does this in the same way that a film might cut to a panoramic shot of an imposing mountain range, following a dialogue heavy scene in which a group of impassioned climbers discuss their plan to reach the summit. Sakai's rich, cinematic scenes exhibit a great deal of historical accuracy and provide the reader a distinct sense of place. However, referencing the aforementioned concept of Yin and Yang, prompted by Sakai's expert use of positive and negative space, it can be said that his omission of certain details balances out the ratio of given:withheld information in The Ronin. This balance adheres to the same dynamic
acknowledged by McCLoud, "The idea that elements omitted from a work of art are as much a part of that work as those included has been a specialty of the East for centuries" (McCLoud 82). The prevalence of cinematic panel transitions, and the concept of Yin and Yang so evident in Sakai's work, prompt a closer examination of particular scenes within The Ronin. In chapter three, The Confession, Usagi's cat-woman ally Tomoe Ame charges into battle on her steed (Figure 10). This scene, alongside many others within the series' first ten chapters, exhibits moment-moment style panel transitions. In the first panel of four, Ame appears far in the distance, in the next she is slightly closer, and her horse kicks up larger, more detailed clouds of dust as she comes nearer in each panel. A tokage lizard, Sakai's non-anthropomorphic substitute for animals in nature, sticks its long neck through the first two panels depicting Ame's approach. This detail indicates that Ame is approaching rapidly, since the lizard maintains its position through the events of all four panels. Sakai employs this technique often. Most frequently, he connects moment-moment transitions in battle with Usagi's signature shout, "RYAAAAHHHHH," as the letters follow Usagi through each panel charting his violent encounters (Sakai 27) (Figure 11). These panels are also "polyptychs," as discussed by McCLoud, in which a single scene is depicted over a number of panels, while the central character moves within it (McCLoud 115). With this polyptych, Sakai shows Ame moving both forward, and to the right in this series of moment-moment transitions, which culminate at one large panel below. In this panel Ame and her steed are the lone subjects over a white background, their eyes wide and filled with rage. Sakai's distinctly dramatic lettering reads, "HYAAAA," behind Ame, reflecting both her rage and the
panel's dramatic composition, which is achieved though the careful addition and omission of detail with regards to positive and negative space. Sakai's use of momentmoment transitions to depict the movements of his anthropomorphic characters, bears stark resemblance to the techniques used to portray movement in the aforementioned Choju Jinbutsu Giga scroll. Throughout the scroll, images of rabbits and frogs dance across the expansive page, each movement represented by sequential depictions of the same characters, with slight variations in placement on the page and body position. Sakai's cinematic style can also be attributed to his use of aspect-aspect transitions in his scenes. There are two types of aspect-aspect transitions used often by Sakai in The Ronin. The first are depictions pertinent to the mood and of the scenery, where the story's drama or conclusion will likely unfold. These panels may illustrate natural or architectural forms. For instance, in chapter five, The Horse Thief, Usagi is encountered and threatened by an angry host of warriors. In the next panel, he approaches a village on his steed, while a farmer picks rice without a care in a nearby paddy (Figure 12). The village has no name, and the reader does not yet know that it is connected to the angry warriors. However, this panel is very telling despite its lack of dialogue. The clouds above are menacing, and the village, though quaint in size, is uninviting, hidden behind a series of short, rolling hills. All the reader may infer is that Usagi has come up against a sizable force recently, and that no matter where this next step takes him, he will have to face it alone. These aspects of Sakai's work are certainly derived from Japanese artistic traditions, but American influences within The Ronin also contribute immensely to the unique character of Sakai's work. The cartoon-like quality and innocence of Sakai's
characters cannot be ignored, for it is this characteristic that most assuredly defines Sakai's book as a Western comic, albeit once influenced enormously by Japanese stylistic traditions and culture. In a large panel depicting a conflict between Usagi and a drunk pig, the pig's eyes bulge as he flinches away from Usagi's blade (Figure 13). The pig screeches, letting out a dramatically illustrated "YAAAH," and Usagi's sword strokes are depicted not with elaborate, chaotic motion lines, but with a single, smooth line, which diminishes the drama in the scene (Usagi 94). These elements all contribute to the innocence and comedy of the scene, which ends not with the pig's death, but with he and his crew running off in terror. Usagi meant them no harm, just to scare them by cutting three flies in half, boasting his impeccable skill with a blade, allowing him to sit back and enjoy his sake (Figure 14). Such comedic story-lines are amplified by the exaggerated, cartoon lettering style perfected by Sakai since he began lettering for Groo. Exclamation points and question marks drawn in three dimensions highlight moments of confusion or alarm for Sakai's characters (Figure 15). Bold letters stream across the landscape to provide an auditory reference for the reader, allowing them insight into the depths of a character's anger, or the heights of their joy (Figure16). Simple details such as this add to the lighthearted, comedic character of Sakai's tales, but also compliment the realism and richness of the historic scenery. The balance between the contrasting cultural traditions of Japanese and American comics achieved by Sakai, is remarkable. How did he so expertly determine the extent to which he should blend these seemingly incompatible traditions? According to McCloud, elements of Japanese comic art began to creep into American comics
during the mid 1980s (McCLoud 114). If so, then Sakai was certainly an early adopter of these Japanese techniques in America. Having read both manga and western comics, Sakai would have been well aware of the trends he favored in Japanese comics when they started to become acceptable in the American tradition. Full of knowledge about Japanese culture and tradition, fostered in his birth-place and through his upbringing in a Japanese American community, Sakai was an ideal candidate to write the first great American samurai comic book. McCLoud says that some believe the Japanese style unfit for the American format. American comic books come out very regularly, and are shorter than the large publications in which Japanese manga are published. However, Sakai employs the stylistic techniques of the Japanese in every bi-weekly edition of Usagi. The Japanese format is not so unfit for the American tradition. For Japanese comic traditions to succeed in the American market, they must be coupled with the right story. McCLoud says that the Japanese allow the reader time to wander, while the goal oriented American tradition encourages readers to push through to the end, in a flurry of action. Sakai's character Usagi is by definition a wanderer. Throughout his adventures, he faces a great deal of action, violence and adversity. However, the reason Sakai's series has lasted so long, is because the reader does not expect resolution. There are certain chapters in The Ronin which are clearly more pertinent to the overarching story of Usagi Yojimbo as a whole, but between these chapters are comedic interludes or isolated incidents that leave the reader wondering where their beloved Rabbit Bodyguard will go next. Sakai's ability to cater to such a diverse audience, secures his position as a forefather in the growing pantheon of "World Comics" artists, as described by comics scholar Paul Gravett. "As artists combine the genres from manga, European
comics, American comics and other sources, rather than forging a single 'universal' style, they seem to be ushering in a post-imperialist, transnational culture of 'World Comics'" (Ruh 181).
Works Cited
Brayton, Rebecca. "Stan Sakai: Usagi Yojimbo Creator Interview, Sketch."WatchMojo.com. Web. Nov. 2014. <http://www.watchmojo.com/video/id/10237/ >. Chaney, Michael. 'Animal Subjects of the Graphic Novel'. College Literature. Vol. 38. No. 3. (Summer 2011). 129-149. West Chest University. Cohn, Neil, Amaro, Taylor-Weiner, and Grossman, Suzanne. "Framing Attention in American and Japanese Comics." Framing Attention in American and Japanese Comics. pag. 240-245. Tufts University Center for Cognitive Studies. Web. Nov. 2014. <http://mindmodeling.org/cogsci2012/papers/0054/paper0054.pdf>. "Dark Horse Comics: THE ADVENTURES OF NILSON GROUNDTHUMPER AND HERMY PREVIEW." Dark Horse RSS. Dark Horse Comics, pag. 1-8. Web. Nov. 2014. <http://www.darkhorse.com/Books/Previews/24-843?page=0>.
McCloud, Scott. Understanding Comics:. New York: HarperPerennial, 1994. Print. Ruh, Brian. "Historicizing Anime and Manga: From Japan to the World."Mechademia 1.1 (2006): 180-83. Web. Sakai, Stan. Usagi Yojimbo Book 1: The Ronin. Seattle, WA: Fantagraphics, 2007. N. pag. Print. Shirai, Yoko. "Later Heian Lecture Part 2." Occidental College. 20 Oct. 2014. Lecture.
Shirai, Yoko. "Muromachi Lecture." Occidental College. 3 Nov. 2014. Lecture. Snoke, Shane. "Comic-Con Special Guest Stan Sakai: 30 Years with Usagi Yojimbo." Comic-Con International: San Diego. The Toucan Blog, 4 July 2014. Web. Nov. 2014. <http://www.comic-con.org/toucan/comic-con-special-guest-stan-sakai-30-years-usagiyojimbo>.
Soloman, Charles. "Don't Get between the Rabbit and His Sword." Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, 18 Dec. 2005. Web. 10 Dec. 2014. <http://articles.latimes.com/ 2005/dec/18/books/bk-solomon18>. Soloman, Charles. "Warrior Rabbit : Take One Part Toshiro Mifune. Then Add Adventure and Humor to Get Artist Stan Sakai's 'Usagi Yojimbo.'"L.A. Times 8 Mar. 1993: n. pag. 1-2. <http://articles.latimes.com/1993-03-08/news/vw-1786_1_usagi-yojimbo> Figures Fig. 1- Sakai 27 Fig. 2. -Sakai 122 Fig. 3-McCLoud 52-53 Fig. 4- Sakai 32 Fig. 5-Sakai 81 Fig. 6- Sakai 45
Fig. 7- Sakai 62 Fig. 8-Sakai 3 Fig. 9-Sakai 5 Fig. 10-Sakai 41 Fig. 11-Sakai 27 Fig. 12-Sakai 68 Fig. 13-Sakai 94 Fig. 14-Sakai 96 Fig. 15-Sakai 91 Fig. 16-Sakai 90