Malcolm MacLeod AH 266 The Arts of Japan Fudō Myōō Sculptures and the Evolution of Esoteric Buddhism 12/1/14
During the Heian Period, three branches of Buddhism emerged in Japan: Shingon, Tendai, and Pure Land, all derivatives of Mahayana Buddhism. Tendai, with its many monasteries and temples, focused heavily on Buddhist philosophy and disciplined thought. Pure Land Buddhism became popular amongst the common people thanks to its simplicity, which required believers to simply chant the name of Amida to seek enlightenment. Finally, Shingon or esoteric Buddhism, which made its way to Japan from China during the late Nara period, was less philosophical than its counterparts, and its tenets were shrouded in ritual and secrecy. The Shingon sect of Japanese Buddhism was initially elite and exclusive, with rights to perform certain rituals reserved only for the learned and initiated men, or Yamabushi (Swanson 55). These initiated monks worshipped and performed rituals in honor of a number of Hindu deities, which were brought into the Esoteric Buddhist pantheon alongside Amida, Dainichi, Shaka and the many more Buddhas worshipped in Japan. Shinto and Taoist deities were also assimilated into the Buddhist pantheon to a lesser extent. Among the Hindu deities re-appropriated by the Japanese were the five Great Wisdom Kings. The the chief among them was known as Acala or as the Japanese called him, Fudō Myōō (Okada 51). Fudō is known as the "Immovable One," an earthly iteration of Buddha Mahavairocana or the Celestial Buddha (Okada 51). There is one sculpture of Fudō in particular, crafted circa 1125 C.E. by an unknown artist, that serves as the central point of comparison throughout this investigation into Fudō Myōō sculptures and their relationship to esoteric Buddhism. This Fudō sculpture is on display at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art or LACMA. Japanese artwork depicting Buddhas through the Heian period and beyond, is generally characterized by sculptures with soft and inviting features. Japanese Buddhas were most often portrayed with pudgy faces and bodies, lacking distinct musculature underneath their waving clothes, which varied in thickness depending on the artist. Sometimes they smiled, and other times seemed indifferent. The facial expression is the first feature any patron will notice when looking at any image of Fudō Myōō. Though the LACMA sculpture's characteristics contrast to those of typical Buddha statues in many ways, there are certain aspects of its appearance which conform to the stylistic traditions of Japanese Buddhist sculpture. Further examination these correlations will allow for consideration of how and why this later iteration of Fudō Myōō is different from others, and is more like a typical Japanese Buddha sculpture than perceived at first glance. Fudō Myōō is known as the "indomitable foe of evil in the Buddhist pantheon" (LACMA). Throughout all of the Japanese artwork depicting Fudō, his facial expression is consistently one of anger. The sculpture of Fudō at LACMA seems more calm in comparison to some other depictions of the deity, such as one of the earliest known Fudō sculptures from the early Heian period at Toji temple in Kyoto. Anger is still the first word that comes to mind when confronting the visage of Fudō at LACMA. His nostrils are flared, his plump cheeks roll downward and in. There, they meet his lips, pursed and tight as he bites his upper lip with two fangs protruding through, one pointing up, the other down. Fudō's eyebrow's are thick, and slant inward, with the natural grain of the wood forming his waving, furrowed brow. The muscles atop the bridge of his nose are tensed, folding into one another. His eyes are all but covered by bulbous lids which are not clearly delineated, but rather emerge organically from the wood. The mere slivers of his visible eyes exude feelings of judgement and disappointment, anger and frustration, as he looks down upon those before him. Fudō's angry expression as portrayed in Japanese sculpture, is intended to ward off demons and the foes of Buddhism, while also converting non-believers and lost buddhists with scare tactics and raw emotion.
Fudō Myōō: The Indomitable Foe of Evil, Japan, c. 1125 C.E If defending the tenets of Buddhism and forcing worshippers back toward the path to enlightenment were considered Fudō's primary goals, then the tools he holds in every iteration make certain his motives. In his right hand, Fudō "holds a sword to cut through illusion" known as a Vajra or Kongōsho sword (LACMA). The blade is certainly not Japanese, looking nothing like the specialized blades wielded by samurai on the field of battle. Fudō's blade begins thin at the hilt, and widens slightly until ending at a triangular point. The hilt and pommel are sculpted in the shape of a Vajra, which in Sanskrit can be translated to mean diamond (About Religion).The Vajra not only brings symbolic meaning to the blade, but also confirms that its non-Japanese appearance is a remnant of Fudō's Hindu origins.The symbolic significance of the of the Vajra as a diamond, especially in LACMA's Fudō sculpture, is emblematic of strength and immovability or, conviction and dedication to the tenets of Shingon Buddhism. In many paintings and sculptures of Fudō, these ideals would be symbolized differently than in the sculpture at LACMA. Fudō is most often depicted "seated or standing upon a rock", a banjakuza or "huge rock base" as translated from Japanese (On Mark). This structure is noticeably missing from the depiction of Fudō at LACMA, and thus, the Vajra sword's diamond hilt and pommel may act as a substitute, paralleling the symbolic intent of the banjakuza. In his left hand, Fudō is always depicted holding a lariat, or lasso. Like the Vajra sword, Fudō's lasso holds great symbolic weight. Though Fudō's appearance might cause some to flinch, with further investigation one will learn that Fudō, despite his tough exterior, was believed to be notoriously caring toward all living things. "His vow is to do battle with evil with a powerful mind of compassion and to work for the protection of true happiness" (Shingon). With the same rope he used "to bind up devils and demons," Fudō also employed compassion in order to guide and pull his followers back onto the path to enlightenment, which under the beliefs of Shingon Buddhism, could be achieved "in one life time" (LACMA, Okada 51).
Fudō Myōō: The Indomitable Foe of Evil, Japan, c. 1125 C.E. Fudō's compassionate nature is displayed symbolically in a number of ways on the LACMA sculpture and others. First there is his hair, which "is tied into seven knots and falls down from his head on the left side…in the style of a servant" (Shingon). Second, the teeth which are perhaps Fudō's most distinguishing and grotesque characteristic, are exemplary of his constant search for those in need of spiritual guidance. The tooth pointing upward, is symbolic of his "upward search for Bodhi" on the verge of enlightenment (Shingon). His second tooth, pointing downward, "represents his bestowing unlimited compassion who are suffering in body and spirit" in the secular realm (Shingon). Finally, there is the contrast between Fudō's front and back side. In front, his features are distinct, rigid and intimidating; though when compared to the earlier Toji statue, this figure's facial features are rather obscure. On the back side, the artist employed a very different aesthetic in the LACMA sculpture. Fudō's back side is smooth and rounded, almost feminine as his right hip is popped slightly outward. This contrast and balance between rigid and soft features, is indicative of the balance between masculine and feminine, good and evil, Yin and Yang. " From the front he is all power and strength, but from the back our Fudō shows a more feminine side—a softer, gentler stance, with flowing tresses. This is the yin-yang of masculine/feminine, force/gentleness, so deeply rooted in East Asian philosophy and art " (LACMA). Perhaps, these stylistic cues within this iteration of Fudō, are indicative of the need for balance and change in esoteric Buddhism and its rituals.
Fudō Myōō: The Indomitable Foe of Evil, Japan, c. 1125 C.E. The pristine condition of this sculpture and its accessories imply that it was hidden, worshipped as a Hibutsu or secret Buddha by the Yamabushi, away in a secret temple or shrine. The sculpture is done in the style of ichiboku-zukuri or "pure wood" style. In this style, the artist would craft the entirety of the sculpture by carving away from a single block of wood. It is clear that this style was employed because the contours of this Fudō sculpture are dictated by the grain of the wood from which he is composed. "Amazingly, the arms, hands, and hair braid are all original and unrestored, as can be easily proved by examining the unbroken fine wood grain across the sculpture, down to the tips of the fingers on each hand" (LACMA). By comparing the sculpture at LACMA to other Fudō and Buddha sculptures from periods surrounding its creation, it is possible to track the evolving status of esoteric Buddhism in Japan from the early Heian period into succeeding periods. The first sculpture to which the LACMA Fudō should be compared is the Fudō Myōō sculpture from Toji Lecture Hall in Kyoto. This sculpture was produced between three and four hundred years prior to the LACMA Fudō, during the 9th century C.E. Though sculpted in the same pure wood style, this Fudō is different in many ways from the LACMA version of the deity. First and foremost, it must the noted that this earlier iteration from Toji is sculpted with much more attention to detail and realism than the LACMA sculpture. The LACMA sculpture of the late Heian period, has very nondescript facial features, and is much more gestural in nature, allowing the grain of the wood to dictate the deity's features, especially in the face and chest. The late Heian sculpture's eyes, mouth and brow, though distinguishable, all blend into the grain of the wood and are far less pronounced on the deity's visage than in the earlier iteration.
Fudō Myōō Toji Lecture Hall 9th Century C.E In the Toji sculpture, Fudō's facial features are very distinct. His brows, though slightly enlarged and dramatized, exhibit anatomic realism, as they slope down seamlessly into smooth eye sockets. Within those sockets are two wide eyes, covered only slightly by very clearly carved eyelids. This sculpture's nostrils are flared like his later counterpart's, but the structure differs greatly. This nose is not so flat, but pointed. In the same way, this Fudō's lips are also much more realistic. Whilst the late Heian Fudō's lips are more an implication than a statement, with protruding teeth and a small crease being the only intimations of a mouth, this early iteration has a very distinct pair of lips and an intimidating set of accompanying teeth. The late Heian iteration had only two teeth, while this version has six, each distinguishable from the rest, while retaining the symbolic detail of upward and downward facing fangs on either end of his snarling maw. Finally, the early Heian sculpture's hair is sculpted with the same detail as the rest of the face. The artist used many finely sculpted lines, which flow in parallel to the deity's signature knotted braid. In the later iteration, Fudō's hair curls rather than flows, and is sculpted into a number of rustic curves and grooves, which contrasts to the fine line employed on the earlier sculpture. The stylistic differences between these two statues are many, from the aforementioned details in the early statue or lack thereof in the deity's facial features later on--to the fact that the early Heian figure is sitting, while the late Heian figure is standing. That difference in positioning is essential to understanding the LACMA Fudō's relationship to the evolution of Buddhist statuary and esoteric Buddhism, but will be discussed in a later comparison. For now, it is important to discuss the religious imagery which accompanies the early Heian figure, and is missing from the late Heian sculpture. While the LACMA Fudō retains the symbolic sword and lasso common among all Fudō Myōō, there are two other symbols blatantly missing from this later iteration. These symbols are one, a flaming mandorla or backdrop, and two, the banjakuza, or Fudō's seat of stone. In reference to the aforementioned banjakuza, it is possible that the LACMA sculpture once stood upon such a stone, and that the sculpture was removed from it or the platform was destroyed. Initially, one might believe that there was no banjakuza to begin with in this iteration. Perhaps the Vajra hilt of Fudō's sword, with its symbolic relationship to diamonds, was a replacement symbol for the seat that is ordinarily Fudō's primary symbol of strength. However, the early Heian sculpture holds a sword with a similar Vajra hilt, which weakens the theory that there was no accompanying banjakuza. The prominent banjakuza of the early Heian sculpture indicates the growing strength and conviction of the Shingon faith during this time. More important though, is the absence of a flame mandorla in the late Heian figure. The stark red, flaming mandorla which adorns the area behind the early Heian sculpture, is symbolic of Fudō's passion, anger and raw emotion. It was to through these aspects of the persona which Fudō appealed to his worshippers, and aimed to lead them down the path to enlightenment. The inflammatory emotions used by Fudō to intimidate and subdue worshippers, are also secular, in the same way that Fudō was the earthly counterpart to the Celestial Buddha, who was beyond such feelings. The "three poisons of avarice, anger and folly," are all emotions felt by humans when they've failed or lost something in the secular realm (R.S.C 81). Therefore, many of the ceremonies of esoteric Buddhism were designed to purge oneself of these petty emotions, allowing the worshipper to seek enlightenment unhindered by earthly desires or disappointments (Early Heian Lecture).
Fudō Myōō Toji Lecture Hall 9th Century C.E By considering the absence of a flame mandorla in the late Heian sculpture, it is possible to begin a discussion on the rituals of esoteric Buddhism. How might these rituals have affected stylistic shifts between the early and late Heian Fudō sculptures under examination? The raw emotions embodied by Fudō Myōō and the flame mandorla, were brought to life in a ceremony known as Goma. Such ceremonies were performed by monks trained in the secrets of esoteric Buddhism. These monks would have been trained to read the Mandala of the Diamond and Womb Worlds, maps of the celestial realms which guided and mandated one's actions and ritual practices. They practiced ascetic feats such as fasting, hard labor, and pilgrimages (Swanson). It was through this training and the knowledge it fostered, that the Yamabushi became the authority on esoteric buddhism and its ceremonies. During the Goma ceremony, a ritualistic burning was intended to rid oneself of ignorance and other worldly desires that hinder the path to Buddhahood. However, the ceremony was interpreted in many ways, and sometimes worshippers made secular requests for monetary success or good health from Fudō Myōō. It is no surprise that secular values such as economic prosperity made their way into esoteric Buddhist rituals because with time, the
esoteric monks gained a great deal of influence, and thus wealth, allowing them to "indulge in luxurious lifestyles and pursue prestige and power" (Wakabayashi 482). The monks were responsible for bringing members of royal and aristocratic families on pilgrimages, acting as their spiritual advisors. There are also recorded incidents of the now aristocratic monks going to war with one another for influence (Wakabayashi 482). The affluence of esoteric monks and monasteries reached a high point right around the time that the LACMA sculpture was created. Perhaps the pure wood style in which it was made, with its rustic, simple appearance, and lack of adornments such as a mandorla or banjakuza, indicate a sculptural commentary on esoteric Buddhism that explains the artist's to return to traditional sculptural methods. As mentioned prior, it is very possible that the LACMA Fudō was a Hibutsu, hidden away in the traditional, rustic mountain temples of the Yamabushi. The violence incited by the warrior monks during their period of wealth and affluence in the late Heian, is reminiscent of the fire and violent emotion of Fudō Myōō. By eliminating the flame mandorla, all that remains on the LACMA sculpture are Fudō's sword and lasso, which would have symbolized cutting through the illusion that esoteric Buddhism had become in comparison to its humble but exclusive origins. Perhaps the sculpture serves as a plea for deity to guide the faith back onto its former path. It is this idea that the LACMA statue serves as a criticism of esoteric Buddhism in the late Heian which leads to comparisons between the two Fudō discussed thus far, and statuary depicting not the Immovable Wisdom King, but Buddhas such as the standing Yakushi of Jingoji, crafted in the pure wood style during the early Heian period. The early Heian Fudō sculpture was seated in the cross legged style of a Celestial Buddha, holding an opulent gilded sword and garnering respect equal to that of the era's most prevalent deities. The extravagance with which this iteration of the deity was displayed on its banjakuza foreshadows the growing opulence and influence of the faith. The LACMA sculpture however is standing, almost slumped over, humble with a simple wooden sword to accompany its rustic design. The LACMA Fudō's posture is not unlike that of the standing Yakushi, who was a Buddha dedicated to healing something the faith of esoteric Buddhism direly needed. The Yakushi Buddha is not dissimilar to the LACMA Fudō sculpture. Both deities are plump in the face and stomach. Neither of them is very inviting. In fact, it seems that the standing Yakushi is almost frowning, and his downward gaze is very similar to that of the late Heian Fudō sculpture. The rolls on their necks are also similar. Though there are certainly differences between these two sculptures, they are both humble in posture and material, their facial features each indicating disapproval or disappointment, and harkening back to traditional Japanese sculptural styles. With the use of the pure wood style in the LACMA sculpture, the artist encourages the balance symbolized by Fudō's contrasting natures in front and back. The reverence and supernatural mysticism characterized by the Yakushi's opulent folds, is physically missing from the late Heian Fudō, but is implied within the sculptures inherent contrasts. With its fierce front and soft behind, the sculpture implies the need for balance, humility and healing within esoteric Buddhism, in the form of reverence for not only the wonder and mysticism of esoteric ritual, but also for the simplicity of the natural world which provided the materials with which these sculptures were constructed and provided a home for the earliest practitioners of esoteric Buddhism deep in the mountains of Japan.
Standing Yakushi Jingoji, Early Heian Period
Standing Yakushi Jingoji, Early Heian Period
Standing Yakushi Jingoji, Early Heian Period
Fudō Myōō: The Indomitable Foe of Evil, Japan, c. 1125 C.E.
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