THE PURSUIT OF SALVATION: JAIN ART FROM INDIA
Robert J. Del Bontà
THE PURSUIT OF SALVATION: JAIN ART FROM INDIA
Robert J. Del Bontà
FRONT COVER
INSIDE FRONT COVER
Seated Jina with Attendant Deities Catalog no. 15
Nemi, the 22nd Tirthankara’s Renunciation, folio from a Kalpasutra manuscript Detail, Catalog no. 44
BACK COVER
Samavasarana (The Holy Assembly of the Jina), folio from a Kalpasutra manuscript Detail, Catalog no. 46
© 2021 New Orleans Museum of Art ISBN 978-0-89494-130-6 PROJECT DIRECTOR Lisa Rotondo-McCord PUBLISHER New Orleans Museum of Art GRAPHIC DESIGNER Mary Degnan PHOTOGRAPHY Sesthasak Boonchai, Judy Cooper PRINTER Pel Hughes Printing, New Orleans, Louisiana
INSIDE BACK COVER
Seated Sumati, the 5th Tirthankara, folio from a Caturvimshati Stava manuscript of the Twenty-four Jinas Detail, Catalog no. 48
TABLE OF CONTENTS Director’s Foreword | Susan M. Taylor..............................................5 Preface | Robert J. Del Bontà.............................................................6 Jainism and the Image of the Jina | Robert J. Del Bontà...................8 Exhibition Checklist..........................................................................31 Select Bibliography............................................................................64
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DIRECTOR’S FOREWORD The Jain bronzes in the collection of New Orleanian Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali have long been recognized, studied and admired by specialists around the world. While selections from the collection have been presented in major exhibitions over the years, no publication has ever provided an accessible and representative overview of this material. The noted Jain specialist and independent scholar, Dr. Robert J. Del Bontà has rectified this omission, serving as guest curator for the exhibition and accompanying publication. It was my distinct pleasure to open the New Orleans Museum of Art’s first dedicated gallery for the art of the Indian sub-continent in 2017, the culmination of over forty years of generosity, and most importantly, passion for these objects on the part of Dr. Bhansali, His numerous gifts as well as his contributions of time and expertise have benefited NOMA’s collection tremendously. This gallery, which serves as a locus for both scholarly and community engagement, is now home to its first special exhibition, The Pursuit of Salvation, presenting over sixty works of art made in the service of the Jain faith. The bronze and stone sculptures are accompanied by a rich selection of manuscripts and paintings; many are being published for the first time with this catalogue. I am grateful to everyone who made this project possible. In particular, I would like to acknowledge Dr. Del Bontà for his scholarship and Lisa Rotondo-MCord, NOMA’s Deputy Director for Curatorial Affairs for her leadership in both conceptualizing and implementing the exhibition and publication plan. I would also like to thank NOMA’s Registrars and Art Handling team, who have installed the gallery with their usual care and expertise, and Mary Degnan, our Creative Design Manager, who provided the elegant catalogue design. Of course, my greatest appreciation goes to Sid, whose generosity is only matched by his passion for collecting. As we come to the close of a tumultuous year, I am especially appreciative of the opportunity to present works of art created in the service of Jainism. Non-violence, or non-injury, is one of the fundamental tenets of the faith—a belief that extends to all living things. The works of art presented in this catalogue and exhibition embody this fundamental value and serve as potent reminders for all of us. Susan M. Taylor The Montine McDaniel Director, New Orleans Museum of Art
Seated Rishabha, the 1st Tirthankara Catalog no. 10
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PREFACE To date there have been only a few major exhibitions of Jain art including The Peaceful Liberators at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 1994; Steps to Liberation at the Etnografisch Museum in Antwerp, Belgium in 2000; and Victorious Ones: Jain Images of Perfection at the Rubin Museum of Art in New York City in 2009. Each exhibition was represented by catalogs that covered a wide expanse of time periods and styles. Pieces from the collection of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali were featured in the two U.S. exhibitions; however, this publication focuses solely on this remarkable collection, and publishes many of its holdings for the first time. The Jain sculptures and paintings from the Bhansali Collection featured here cover as broad a spectrum of styles and periods as did these major exhibitions. This essay focuses on selected works from the Bhansali Collection and intends to give a sense of the richness of art produced for members of the Jain faith from the third through the nineteenth centuries. The material featured here includes examples from many areas where Jains maintained a historical presence. Now, Jains live in many parts of India, but their main concentrations are in the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan, and in Karnataka in the south. Representations of the spiritual teachers and exemplars of the faith, known as Jinas—translated as conquerors or spiritual victors—first developed in the Mathura region in the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh (Plate 1) then spread east and west before moving south. The word Jain can be translated as “pertaining to the Jina.”
The Course of the Moon, folio from a Samgrahanisutra manuscript Catalog no. 53
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Pancatirtha of Rishabha, the 1st Tirthankara, an Ensemble with Five Jinas Catalog no. 34
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JAINISM AND THE IMAGE OF THE JINA Jainism is a major religious force in India, but is little known in the West. Perhaps because Jainism never spread outside India as did Hinduism and Buddhism, it is considered less influential. In actuality, certain tenets of Jainism have had a sweeping impact on India for more than twenty-five centuries. Its primary tenet, the importance of ahimsa (nonviolence—extending to all living things) is the main reason for the widespread vegetarianism practiced today among many, but not all, of the various sects that we label as Hindu. Its artifacts, too, cover the entire history of Indian art; some have even argued for connections to the early Indus Valley period. The earliest sculptures of the Buddha were created shortly after the first images of the Jinas were produced and many of these are hard to distinguish from one another, as the conventions for depicting the two were virtually identical. It is only when we see that the figure is nude that we can label it as a Jina. An early example in the Bhansali Collection illustrates this phenomenon; it is clearly nude, but had the head been separated from the body, one would be at a loss to decide if the head was that of a Jina or a Buddha (Plate 1). The name of the Jain religion, Jainism, is derived from the word Jina, which can be translated as a spiritual victor. A Jina is also called a Tirthankara, or “builder of the ford (tirtha),” serving as an exemplar for devotees on their journey to cross over an interminable series of reincarnations. He functions as an omniscient spiritual teacher and organizes the Jain community. The Jains believe in a line of twenty-four Jinas, who live at various points in the history of the world. They are all considered essentially the same; they did not found the religion, but rather propagate the same doctrine, a path to moksha (liberation or salvation). After a Jina achieves deliverance from rebirth, he does not aid future Jains in any way, except through emulation. Although often given titles that signify deities in other religions—such as the suffix -natha (meaning “lord”), which is often added to the names of the Jinas—they are not gods and do not intercede with any sort of godhead or actively assist the living. Jina images are revered and venerated, but not actually worshipped because they are not deities. When Hindus create images of the divine, they undergo an elaborate ritual to actually make the likeness into the god itself. Devotion to the Jina image allows the devotee to focus thoughts on how to reduce the karma that accrues from bad action, to lead a pure life, and to follow the Jina’s example.
PLATE 1
Standing Jina Catalog no. 3
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To understand Jainism, it is important to understand the connection to Buddhism. The last Jina, Vardhamana (599–27 BCE), called Mahavira or “great hero”—and often labeled the historical founder of Jainism—was a near contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Their doctrines were quite similar. Both teachers were of the warrior caste and espoused an atheistic philosophy at odds with the ritual-oriented Brahmanical Hindu traditions of the day.
There is ample evidence that rather than depart from the norm himself, Mahavira was heir to a religious movement of great antiquity; the Jains believe that he is the twenty-fourth in a line of teachers. The twenty-third Jina, Parshva, also is considered an historical figure. Other nonBrahmanical (shramana or non-vedic) mendicant sects existed at that time, but Jainism is the only religious movement of its type that has remained viable in India until the present day. Jainism has remained doctrinally conservative and never departed from its early tenets, never developing anything like the Mahayana phase of Buddhism. This is not to suggest that Jainism did not evolve. As with other faith traditions, various sects have emerged over the centuries. There are Jain sects that do not make and revere images, however, there are two major sects that do: the Digambaras (Skyclad), with their nude mendicants, and the Shvetambaras, whose mendicants wear white garments (shveta means white). On the whole, only fine points separate the doctrines of the two sects. The earliest images of the Jinas were depicted as nude because Mahavira, the last in the line of twenty-four, shed his garments. Over time, the images of Mahavira and other Jinas made for the two sects came to differ: the Digambaras retained the earlier nude image, an image that cannot be defiled with clothing, jewelry, or other decoration, while the Shvetambara images are clothed and often heavily adorned. Other minor points, such as the manner in which the monks and nuns beg for food, separate the two main sects. All Jains practice strict vegetarianism, a point that attracted Western attention from early on; even Herodotus mentions it in his famous Histories. Each of the successive Jinas essentially teaches the same doctrine that does not add to the teachings of the other. So, rather than thinking of the last Jina, Mahavira, as the founder of the religion as it now exists, he merely continued the tradition from the line of Jinas that came before him in the world of men. All sects believe that there were twenty-four Jinas or teachers in each half-cycle of world history. Unlike Hinduism, which teaches creation and destruction of the world, the Jains believe in an endless cycle of improvement and decline. Jains developed an elaborate cosmography that describes a vast universe. Time in part of this universe moves continuously in two halves. One half moves from a state of degeneration to a state of perfection, and conversely the other goes from perfection to degeneration. The full cycle is unceasing; there is no state of pralaya or de-manifestation between the shifts. Time does not begin at a point of creation nor end in dissolution. There is a succession of twenty-four Jinas born in each half-cycle within the world of man, but the number of Jinas elsewhere in the universe is actually infinite. The line of the twenty-four Jinas in the present half-cycle appears over a long period of time, but they exist only in a very small section of the full length of the half-cycles, which reflect a huge number of years. At the moment we are near the end of one half, the universe is in full decline. The Jains do not believe in a creator god. Gods do exist, but they are subject to the same cycle of reincarnations as all living beings. The Bhansali Collection includes some images of gods and goddesses that are attendants to the Jinas, but they, like us, also go through a series of births and rebirths. The goal for all Jains is to escape from the cycle of new births by reaching enlightenment or omniscience (kevalajnana). At death, one then attains moksha, where the soul is essentially obliterated and ascends to the top of the universe in a bodiless state. Buddhists use the term nirvana for a similar concept, but Jains use that term merely for the physical death of the body, not the actual soul’s release from existence after attaining kevalajnana.
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On first acquaintance, Jain art can appear simple, concentrating on the repetitious images of the Jinas, figures that do not present much scope for dramatic interpretation. But armed with more understanding of the rich textual traditions of the various sects of Jainism, it is possible to appreciate more fully the complexities of its intricate iconography. Within what at first appears to be very limited possibilities due to a consistent iconography, there is a great deal of variety. By seeing a large number of these bronzes and stone sculptures, one can get a feel for the various options open to the artist that allow for different solutions in organizing and elaborating upon specific features of these religious sculptures. This is especially true when the iconographies include a number of Jinas in a single work. Much of this material can be very beautiful with a delicate handling of details, while other works offer a more pared down approach suitable to the ascetic nature of the lives of the Jinas, and the monks and nuns who follow in their footsteps. The majority of the works in the Bhansali Collection are bronzes (a more precise term would be copper alloy because bronze is of a particular composition) and the main focus is the image of the Jina. Only three of the Jinas are easily identifiable: the first in the line of Jinas of this half-cycle, Rishabha, with his long hair (Plate 2), and Parshva and Suparshva (the twenty-third and seventh Jinas of this half-cycle, respectively), both with snake hoods above their heads. Others can be identified through the presence of their individual cognizances (lancanas) below the figures, or of a specific pair of attendant figures (shashandevatas) associated with each of the Jinas. Digambaras and Shvetambaras used different cognizances for particular Jinas. (See page 12.) Specific Jinas can also be associated with particular colors, although most, as can be seen in Plate 3, have a golden hue.
PLATE 2
Seated Rishabha Catalog. no. 10
PLATE 3 (FACING PAGE)
Caturvimshati Catalog no. 63
10
Although many of the works have as their subject unidentified or generic Jinas, eleven of the twenty-four Jinas are individually represented in the Bhansali Collection, identifiable by their physical attributes, cognizances, and/or color: 1. Rishabha; 5. Sumati; 7. Suparshva (green or blue); 8. Candraprabha (white); 12. Vasupujya (red); 17. Kunthu; 18. Ara; 20. Munisuvrata (blue or black); 22. Nemi (blue); 23. Parshva (green); and 24. Vardhamana/Mahavira. A South Indian painting, a caturvimshati, depicts all twenty-four of the Jinas, each with their pair of attendants, as can be seen in Plate 3. Texts identify a specific pair of attendants for each of the twenty-four Jinas, however, in sculpture and painting, it is not unusual to see a few popular gods and goddesses appearing with a number of different Jinas.
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JINAS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED COGNIZANCE AND COLOR JINA
LANCANA (cognizance)
1
Rishabha
Bull
2
Ajita
Elephant
3
Sambhava
Horse
4
Abhinandana
Monkey
5
Sumati
Shvet.: Heron Dig.: Cuckoo
6
Padmaprabha
Padma (pink lotus)
Red
7
Suparshva
Shvet.: Swastika Dig.: Nandvavarta (a swastika-like emblem)
Dig.: Green
8
Candraprabha
Candra (crescent moon)
White
Suvidhi (Shvet.)
Shvet.: makara (crocodile) Dig.: Crab
9
More commonly known as Pushpadanta
10 Shitala
Shvet.: Shrivatsa (a knot-like symbol) Dig.: Swastika or Heavenly Wishing Tree
11 Shreyamsa
Rhinoceros
12 Vasupujya
Buffalo
13 Vimala
Boar
14 Ananta
Shvet.: Falcon Dig.: Ram, Bear, or Porcupine
15 Dharma
Vajra (thunderbolt) or fan-like leaf or mace
16 Shanti
Antelope or Deer
17 Kunthu
Goat
18 Ara
Shvet.: Nandyavarta (a swastika-like emblem) Dig.: Fish or Flower
19
Malli (Shvet.) Mallinatha (Dig.)
Red
Lota (water pot)
Green
20 Munisuvrata
Tortoise
Black
21 Nami
Shvet.: Blue Lotus Dig: Blue (or Red) Lotus or Ashoka Tree
22
Arishtanemi More commonly known as Nemi or Neminatha
23 Parshva 24 12
COLOR (if not gold)
Vardhamana More commonly known as Mahavira (Great Hero)
Shankha (conch)
Black
Cobra
Green
Lion
One of the gods who appears with a number of different Jinas is the goddess Ambika, essentially a Mother Goddess. She appears in the Bhansali Collection quite often: as separate bronzes and with a central Jina, as well as on an architectural fragment. An early bronze of Ambika depicts her seated on her vehicle—a lion—with a child on her lap, and another at her feet (Plate 4). She is also seen in an elaborate altar piece in a similar pose (Plate 21). Mother goddesses appear in all of the various devotional practices that we label as Hindu and Buddhist.
PLATE 4
The Goddess Ambika Catalog no. 11
Another popular goddess is Padmavati, who attends the Jina Parshva. She is isolated as an object of devotion in a painting from Mysore (Plate 5), and can also be seen in Plates 9 and 14. She is easy to identify due to the snake hood that covers her head. In Plate 12, she takes the form of a woman with a snake’s body.
PLATE 5
The Goddess Padmavati with Fly-Whisk Bearers Catalog no. 59
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Belying its small size, the ninth-century Seated Jina from Karnataka produces a truly monumental effect (Plate 6). One gets a sense of inner breath expanding to fill the form of this sculpture. The Sanskrit term prana, which means breath, is often used to describe this concept. These bronzes were either made as donations to temples to be placed in worship or kept with other donations in large collections of images. Others were made to be revered in household shrines.
PLATE 6
Seated Jina Catalog no. 26
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Many of the works in the Bhansali Collection were made for followers of the Digambara (Skyclad) sect, who believe that all of the Jinas became nude when they renounced the world and started on their path to omniscience (kevalajnana), leading to release (moksha). The Shvetambaras believe that the first and last of the Jinas became nude, but the other Jinas did not shed their clothing during their lifetimes. To the Digambaras, nudity is a prerequisite to becoming a monk, because clothes suggest mental attachments. Because women cannot practice nudity, this makes it impossible for a woman to reach this point in her present life. The Shvetambaras believe that women can and do attain moksha. There are several notable Shvetambara works in the Bhansali Collection. Often even Shvetambara images are described as nude in writings about Jainism, but a careful reading of these seated figures will reveal a line of cloth around the waist and often a stylized fan of material, part of a one-piece garment known as a dhoti, on the cushion between the figure’s legs, as seen in Plate 7. Standing images are easier to read as either naked or clothed. Here the crescent moon at the base identifies the Jina as Candraprabha, the eighth in the line.
As seen in Plate 7, Jina images tend to be very stylized; Candraprabha, is seated in the yogic posture of padmasana (the lotus position, or in the southern region of India often in a half lotus position, ardha-padmasana) and with his hands folded in dhyana mudra (palms up, one on top of the other). In Buddhist iconography, dhyana mudra is a gesture usually read as denoting meditation, but for Jinas, a more consistent meaning of this gesture is enlightenment. While Buddhist images display a variety of hand gestures, seated figures of Jain teachers are always sculpted with hands folded in this manner. Many display an auspicious shrivatsa, a diamond-shaped mark on their chests, as seen in Plate 7.
PLATE 7
Candraprabha Catalog no. 40
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PLATE 8
Seated Parshva with Sarvanubhuti Catalog no. 19
16
PLATE 9 Tritirtha of Parshva, an Ensemble with Three Jinas Catalog no. 35
A convenient contrast of an affiliation to one sect or the other and the evolution of style in Jain sculpture over the early centuries can be seen in a comparison of two seated Parshva shrines (Plates 8 and 9). The earlier depiction of Parshva (Plate 8), the twenty-third Jina in the line, is from the important hoard of Jain bronzes discovered at Akota in Gujarat in 1951. And like all early images, the figure is depicted as nude. The Digambara sect continues depicting Jinas in this manner. In the north it is difficult to place exactly when the split occurs; the images in the collection from the south are all clearly Digambara creations. The more complex Shvetambara shrine of Parshva from Vasantgarh in Rajasthan dates to three centuries later (Plate 9). The Akota shrine displays a single attendant deity to each side (the female of the pair is broken away) and there are eight figures at the bottom of the throne. They relate to the navagraha, or nine planets (the Jains tend to only depict eight of them), who appear in many Jain works, often in a more simplified form, merely appearing as lumps along the base of bronzes. They also appear in Plate 21. As Jain iconography developed, Jinas were often depicted in groups. The two standing Jinas to each side of Parshva in the Vasantgarh tritirtha (a term for depictions of three Jinas) are clearly wearing dhotis, identifying this as a Shvetambara image. As time passed, many shrines became more embellished with subsidiary figures. Here cauri bearers holding fly-whisks appear on each side of the standing Jinas, while garland bearers and other celestial figures flank the elaborate snake hood and hover above the Jina. Parshva’s attendant deities (shashanadevatas), Dhraranendra and Padmavati, flank him at the base. They can be identified by the snake hood above each of their heads. Here the three Jinas are surmounted by umbrellas as well, designating them as important figures, much like the umbrellas used in royal portraits. 17
PLATE 10
Standing Jina Catalog no. 14
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A common pose for Jinas is standing in kayotsarga, an unbending position with the arms held pendant away from the body. This posture is used by both of the major sects, but is particularly popular for the Digambaras because it graphically displays the figure’s nudity. Plates 10 and 11 depict standing figures from South India. The earlier one (Plate 10) offers a youthful figure, while the later one (Plate 11) offers highly stylized features, which remove these images of the Jinas from the human plane. As seen in Plate 6, they can be quite powerful in their impact, creating an immense impression far larger than their diminutive size. Although the twenty-four Jinas are essentially the same and there are a number of iconic representations of specific Jinas in the Bhansali Collection, a few were identifiable from very early on. An early Shvetambara text, the Kalpasutra, dating from the fourth century before the Common Era, works backward in time. The text first tells the life of Mahavira, the last of the Jinas, in some detail. Then it relates specific dates for important events in the lives of Parshva and Nemi, numbers twenty-three and twenty-two, followed by a list of the next twenty as seen in a partial group in an elaborate folio (Plate 12). This heavily ornamented folio not only shows the group of six, but also adds a monk to the right and two crowned figures representing the gods in the center and to the left, each offering obeisance to the Jinas. Deluxe manuscripts often have the text written in gold against red backgrounds as seen in Plate 12.
PLATE 11
Standing Jina Catalog no. 42
The Kalpasutra ends with short details for the first Jina— Rishabha or Adinatha (meaning First Lord). Except for the life of Mahavira, this text actually relates very few details about the lives of individual Jinas. Although events from their lives are not narrated in the Kalpasutra text, many paintings from heavily illustrated Kalpasutra manuscripts illustrate some of the popular stories about these four Jinas known from later texts.
PLATE 12
Six Jinas, folio from a Kalpasutra manuscript Catalog no.49
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The twenty-third Jina, Parshva, has a wide variety of stories told about his various incarnations leading to his last life, as well as his life as Parshva. He is easy to recognize because he has a snake hood over his head and is represented by quite a few works in the Bhansali Collection. An impressive South Indian bronze from the tenth or eleventh century (Plate 13), and a painting from North India from the eighteenth century (Plate 14) both represent Parshva. The differences in the Jina’s presentation illustrates iconographic and regional variation. Typically, Parshva is surmounted by seven snake hoods (as in Plates 8 and 9), while the Jina Suparshva is depicted with five. However, in South India, and particularly in Karnataka, it was quite common for Parshva to be depicted with five snake hoods. A 12th century Parshva (cat. no. 39), clearly illustrates this practice: although the central figure is surmounted by five snake hoods, the figure is unquestionably the twenty-third Jina: he is flanked by Parshva’s attendant deities, and Parshva’s cognizance, the snake, is present at the base. It is likely that the South Indian bronze (Plate 13), also represents the more popular Parshva. Independent Suparshva sculptures are quite rare, and is usually presented in combination with other Jinas, as can be seen in Plate 17, where Parshva and Suparshva flank the central group of three Jinas (one is missing): Parshva with seven hoods to the left and Suparshva to the right with five. In the painting (Plate 14), the number of hoods appears infinite. PLATE 13
Standing Parshva Catalog no. 33
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PLATE 14
Parshva with Devotees Catalog no. 50
The painting of Parshva with Devotees (Plate 14) serves both an iconic and a narrative function. The reverence to the figure of Parshva is obvious with his pair of snake gods, Dharanendra and Padmavati, and devotees on both sides, while the bottom register relates incidents from his life. Throughout Parshva’s various lives there was one figure who constantly tried to thwart his path to salvation. In his last life he came upon his nemesis, Kamatha, performing a fire sacrifice, depicted as the blue man to the left in the bottom half of the painting. Realizing that snakes were being burned alive, Parshva tried to save them. Later, the two snakes, one male and one female, became his attendant deities. As noted above, the female deity, Padmavati, also is represented in the collection, both as an attendant to sculptures of Parshva and as an independent painting (Plate 5). Some stories associate this use of a snake to protect Parshva when his nemesis sent storms and wild animals to distract him from his austerities, in much the same way as the Mucalinda protected the Buddha during his meditation from the assault of Mara told in the Buddhist tradition. 21
PLATE 15
Nemi’s Renunciation, folio from a Kalpasutra manuscript Catalog no. 44
Nemi, the twenty-second Jina, has quite a few stories about his life that expand upon the short notes in the Kalpasutra. Some scenes from Nemi’s life are important because they suggest a conflict between the Jains and the Hindus (Plate 15). Extensive texts relating Nemi’s life describe competitions between Nemi and his cousin Krishna—with Nemi always supreme. Krishna is one of the most revered gods in Hinduism, but the Jains do not accept him as a god. Here on the left, Krishna convinces Nemi to marry, seemingly a ploy to keep him from attaining enlightenment. On the right, Nemi arrives at the wedding to Rajamati and hears the cries of the animals to be slaughtered for the ceremonial feast, they are seen at the bottom left of the register. He is appalled and leaves in his chariot. He immediately renounces the world and takes diksha (becomes a monk), which leads to his enlightenment. Butchering animals is anathema to Jain ahimsa (nonviolence) and vegetarianism. In the Jain tradition, Krishna had in a past life specialized in cooking meat, essentially making this an attack on the Hindu belief that Krishna is god.
22
Related to this story, a folio from a Samgrahanisutra (a work on Jain cosmology) manuscript illustrating the six leshyas (Plate 16) reflects a very important belief in Jainism: nonviolence, or ahimsa. Jains believe in a number of classes of souls, and that one can be born as other living things besides animals and humans, such as trees or insects. The leshyas illustrate the state of one’s soul resulting from the accumulation of sin or karma: the greater the sin, the darker the color of the soul. Jains believe karma is a physical substance. Activity produces karmic matter that attaches to the jiva (the soul). This darkens the soul and dulls its purity. Here the darkest soul of the six cuts down the living tree by its roots to obtain fruit. In order, the next soul cuts the trunk, then a limb for the fruit, and so forth, leading eventually to the pure white soul that only eats fruit that has fallen to the ground.
PLATE 16
The Leshyas, folio from a Samgrahanisutra manuscript Catalog no. 47
The Bhansali Collection also includes many images of Rishabha, the first Tirthankara (Plate 1). He taught various arts, such as music, dance, and even pottery. In this half-cycle he became the first king and later renounced his royal life, leading ultimately to his enlightenment. His long, shoulder-length hair makes him easy to identify. All the other Jinas pull out their hair in five handfuls when they renounce the world and become monks; their hair then does not grow back.
23
PLATE 17
Caturvimshati Catalog no. 24
Eleven of the twenty-four Jinas are individually represented in the Bhansali Collection and there are a few examples of the entire group of twenty-four. A South Indian painting (Plate 3) of the whole assembly also includes each set of attendant pairs of gods and goddesses. The sculpture in Plate 17 displays the entire group, although one of the three principal figures is missing. Except for Parshva and Suparshva with their snake hoods, none of the other Jinas can be identified with any certainty, and none of the small figures appear to depict Rishabha. The multiplicity of the Jinas throughout the cosmos is very important in Jainism, and one finds Jina images in many configurations. Often they are grouped into important numbers like three, four, five, and twenty-four called Tritirtha, Caturmukha, Pancatirtha, and Caturvimshati, respectively.
24
PLATE 18
Worship of Kunthu Catalog no. 58
The Bhansali Collection includes a number of works that illustrate identifiable Jinas who are quite rarely depicted. A Digambara painting from Mysore depicts the worship of the Jina Kunthu, the seventeenth Tirthankara in the line (Plate 18). Rather than relate a particular narrative, the main purpose here is iconic. Similar devotional images are found in great abundance in northern India as well. Out of the eleven figures depicted in this painting, five figures are the most important. The central three figures at the top are labeled in Kannada as Kunthu Tirthankara and his parents. Below them, his unlabeled attendant deities (shasanadevatas) flank a Digambara monk, who holds a feathered broom and faces a lay devotee. Each level is flanked by a pair of godlike crowned figures at the top and a lay couple at the bottom. These are perhaps a suggestion of the couple who commissioned the work. At the bottom is a row of auspicious symbols, representing a group of eight (ashtamangala), which are found in both Digambara and Shvetambara works, although the actual items vary between the two. A few of this group are repeated to create a wide, almost symmetrical band. Other auspicious elements flank the Jina Kunthu. One can assume that paintings like this one either were originally part of sets of the twenty-four Jinas or that they were produced for a specific donor who was particularly devoted to one Jina or the other. 25
PLATE 19
Tritirtha of Rishabha, an Ensemble with Three Jinas Catalog no. 9
The Tritirtha of Rishabha (Plate 19) presents three Jinas in a very common arrangement (tritirtha). As in other examples (including Plate 9) one Jina is larger and provides the focus of the piece. Here Rishabha sits under a three-tiered umbrella with fly-whisk bearers to each side. Two other Jinas are at the base, flanking a wheel in the center framed by two bulls: Rishabha’s lancana (cognizance) is a bull. The wheel relates to the wheel of the law that also is found in Buddhist sculpture, where it would be flanked by two deer representing the deer park at Sarnath, where the historical Buddha gave his first sermon. Elsewhere in the Bhansali Collection, sculptures of the whole group of twenty-four depict three standing Jinas as their central focus, as seen in Plate 17. 26
PLATE 20
Samavasarana (The Holy Assembly of the Jina) Catalog no. 52
Another common grouping features four Jinas (caturmukha), each facing the cardinal directions. The Bhansali Collection does not contain a sculpture of this type, but does contain several paintings of the samavasarana, the Holy Assembly of the Jina, depicting the Jinas preaching the doctrine in the four cardinal directions immediately after attaining omniscience. An elaborate book cover underscores the importance of this event (Plate 20). At the moment that the Jina—in this case Mahavira because his cognizance, the lion, appears below the central figure—reaches enlightenment, the gods create an impressive multitiered structure and the Jina begins to preach soundlessly in the four directions. The gods conveniently produce three copies of the Jina so that he is able to face the cardinal points. They are implied here by the tiered gateways in the cardinal directions. Also seen here, various beings come to hear the Jina—crowned gods hover above and approach from the right while humans come from the left. A monk and nun kneel at the feet of Mahavira while a small figure of a monk seated under a tree at the bottom pulls out his hair symbolizing his diksha or renunciation. A number of folios from horizontal loose-leaf manuscripts are in the Bhansali Collection; these manuscripts were protected by decorated book covers. Where Plate 18 displays the eight auspicious ashtamangala, they also are painted on an extension of this book cover that then folds over the manuscript. 27
PLATE 21
Pancatirtha of Rishabha, an Ensemble with Five Jinas Catalog no. 34
Sculptures of the Jinas often are quite complicated in iconography and a number of examples display five Jinas, called a pancatirtha. In Plate 21, the central seated Jina is flanked by two standing figures with two other standing figures above them. This multiplication again reinforces the fact that the Jinas are essentially all the same and exist in a continuum. At the same time, this connects this image to an important concept in Jainism: the Five Supreme Beings (pancaparameshthin): the Jinas, the Liberated Ones, the Religious Guides, the Teachers, and the Saints—arhat, siddha, acarya, upadhyaya, and sadhu. These five represent the different classes of teachers within the Jain community, each of whom can be emulated by the faithful. The shrine also has eight small figures along the base representing the planets. Another bronze (Plate 8) depicts this group as well. Flanking the altar are various figures. Two carry fly-whisks to the sides of the central Jina while two others fly above carrying garlands. The Jina is lustrated with water by two elephants at the very top flanking an auspicious tiered umbrella. The Jina’s attendant deities, the shasanadevatas, sit to each side. While there is a canonical list of particular attendant deities for each of the twenty-four Jinas—and they are depicted in the South Indian painting seen in Plate 3—in actuality, a few popular gods and goddesses are seen with many different Jinas. The goddess seen here with a child on her lap is Ambika and, as was previously mentioned in the discussion of Plate 4, she is extremely popular and found elsewhere in the Bhansali Collection. 28
PLATE 22
Parshva’s Austerities, folio from a Kalpasutra manuscript Catalog no. 45
For the sects that venerate images, the Digambaras and Shvetambaras, depictions of the Jina is by far the most important focus of their worship. For the devotee, contemplation of the meditating Jina who represents self-discipline and non-attachment leads to the ultimate goal of achieving salvation—release from the cycle of birth and rebirth. Stories from the lives of the Jinas cause the Jains to emulate those lives. The faithful often approach this in small steps. One goal is to cast off all attachments, and for the Digambaras, this includes clothing. Another is to cease all action. Truly devout monks and nuns, and even some lay people, actually fast until they die, in a rite called sallekhana. To prepare for these activities, Jains can begin by fasting for particular periods or, for women, limiting the number of saris that they might own as they grow older. The Bhansali Collection contains works that underscore this important veneration of the image of the Jina. One aspect that leads to the impressive effect one gets from these works is a sense of monumentality. Some of the photographs are misleading and suggest that many of the smaller works in the collection are actually much larger. For instance, Plate 4 is only five inches tall. In painting, especially in the early Kalpasutra folios, figures often practically fill the painted register. This is particularly evident in the folio depicting Parshva (Plate 22). Parshva seemingly expands, encompassing the entire space as he stands in rigid kayotsarga. Again, one can refer to prana, the inner breath, expanding to fill the forms of sculpture mentioned in discussing Plate 6. The four-armed figure seated between Parshva’s legs is most likely the human form of this attendant deity, Dharanendra, in his human form with his multiple snake hoods spread over the head of the Jina. Other depictions of Parshva standing in this pose suggest the assault of the animals who are sent to interfere with his austerities, much like the Assault of Mara in Buddhist tradition. Like Mucalinda, Dharanendra’s snake hoods protect Parshva from the tempest. This discussion of a sampling of sculptures and paintings from the Siddharth K. Bhansali Collection illustrates both the uniformity of the elements that make up Jain art and the range of possibilities for creativity open to the artist. From the small North Indian bronzes from the second and third centuries, through the nineteenth-century South Indian paintings, one gets a good sense of the development of Jain art. It is clear that the image of the Jina is of paramount importance and the ultimate focus for the pious Jain. Some images of attendant deities appear, but their purpose is subordinate to the Jina. At the same time, the collection offers many powerful and beautiful works of art that display a great deal of beauty and presence. 29
Seated Jina Flanked by Fly-Whisk Bearers Catalog no. 20
30
EXHIBITION CHECKLIST All works are from the collection of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, unless otherwise noted.
1.
2.
Seated Rishabha, the 1st Tirthankara Bihar, Kushana period, 2nd – 3rd century Copper alloy, 8 ½ inches
Standing Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara Bihar, Kushana period, 2nd – 3rd century Copper alloy, 4 7/8 inches Published: Granoff 2009, p. 22; Pal 2011, no. 10
31
4. Standing Rishabha, the 1st Tirthankara Bihar, Gupta period, 4th century Copper alloy, 5 inches Published: Granoff 2009, p. 20; Pal 2011, no. 11
3. Standing Jina Uttar Pradesh, Mathura, Late Kushana period, 3rd century Mottled red sandstone, 14 ¼ inches
32
5.
6.
Standing Jina Bihar, Gupta period, 4th century Copper alloy, 4 ¼ inches Published: Pal 2011, no. 12
Standing Jina Bihar, Gupta period, 4th century Copper alloy, 4 5⁄8 inches Published: Pal 2011, no. 13
33
7. Seated Jina Bihar, Gupta period, 5th century Copper alloy, 4 5⁄8 inches Published: Pal 2011, no. 14
ED NE D ES E E NHI-R RES I H
8. Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, as Jivantasvami Gujarat, Gupta period, 5th century Copper alloy, 15 ¼ inches Published: Christie’s New York 1999, p. 33; Pal 2011, no. 42
34
9.
Tritirtha of Rishabha, the 1st Tirthankara, an Ensemble with Three Jinas Bihar, Rajgir, 6th century Stone, 20 ½ inches
10.
Seated Rishabha, the 1st Tirthankara Bihar, Gupta period, ca. 500 Copper alloy, 5 inches Published: Granoff 2009, pp.188-9; Pal 2011, no. 15
35
11.
The Goddess Ambika Bihar, Gupta period, ca. 500 Copper alloy, 5 inches Published: Pal 2011, no. 17
12. Seated Jina Bihar, Gupta period, 6th century Copper alloy, 3 inches
36
13.
Standing Jina Andhra Pradesh, Pallava period, 6th – 7th century Copper alloy, 20 inches Published: Pal 2011, no. 57
14.
Standing Jina Andhra Pradesh, Pallava period, 6th – 7th century Copper alloy, 7 7⁄8 inches Published: Granoff 2009, pp. 206-7; Pal 2011, no. 58
37
15.
Seated Jina with Attendant Deities Gujarat, Akota, Post-Gupta period, ca. 600 Copper alloy with silver inlay, 8 inches Published: Schultz and Marks 2001, no. 3; Pal 2011, no. 47
16. Standing Jina Andhra Pradesh, Pallava period, 7th century Copper alloy, 8 inches
38
17.
The Goddess Ambika Gujarat, Akota period, 7th century Copper alloy, 5 inches 18.
Seated Jina with Sarvanubhuti and Ambika Gujarat, Akota, Post-Gupta period, 7th century Copper alloy, 7 ¼ inches Published: Pal 2011, Pandanus, vol. 5, no. 1; Pal 2011, no. 49
39
19.
Seated Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara with Sarvanubhuti Gujarat, Akota, Post-Gupta period, 7th century, Copper alloy with silver inlay, 8 ½ inches Published: Granoff 2009, pp. 196-97; Pal 2011, no. 48
20. Seated Jina Flanked by Fly-Whisk Bearers Tamil Nadu, Pallava period, 8th century Granite, 27 inches
40
21.
Seated Rishabha, the 1st Tirthankara Tamil Nadu, Kalugumalai, Pandya period, ca. 8th – 9th century Stone, 20 inches
22.
Seated Jina with Divine Attendants Karnataka or Maharashtra, Rashtrakuta period, 8th century Copper alloy, 10 ½ inches
41
23.
Standing Rishabha, the 1st Tirthankara in a Mandala Jarkhand, Manbhum, Post-Gupta period, 8th century Copper alloy, 11 ¾ inches Published: Shah 1986, p. 395; Schultz and Marks 2001, no.14; Pal 2011, no. 27
24.
Caturvimsati, an Ensemble with Twenty-Four Jinas Maharashtra, Rashtrakuta period, ca. 800 Copper alloy, 11 inches Published: Pal 1994, no. 45; Pal 2011, no. 64
42
25.
Seated Jina Tamil Nadu, Nagapattinam, Early Chola period, 9th century Stone, 17 ½ inches
26.
Seated Jina Karnataka, Ganga period, 9th century Brass, 5 inches
43
27.
Shrine with Standing Jina Karnataka, Ganga period, 9th century Copper alloy, 21 ½ inches
44
28.
Standing Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara Tamil Nadu, Pallava period, 9th century Copper alloy, 14 ½ inches
30.
The Goddess Ambika Bihar, Pala period, 10th century Copper alloy, 5 3/8 inches Published: Pal 2011, no. 24
29.
Standing Jina Tamil Nadu, Chola period, ca. 900 Copper alloy, 10 inches
45
31.
Parents of a Jina Karnataka, Late Calukyan period, 10th–11th century Copper alloy, 9 ½ inches
32.
Caturvimsati, an Ensemble with Twenty-Four Jinas Karnataka, Later Calukyan period, 10th – 11th century Black stone, 9 ½ inches Published: Granoff 2009, pp. 182-3
46
33.
Standing Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara Karnataka, Ganga period, 10th–11th century Copper alloy, 10 ¼ inches Published: Pal 2011, no. 92
34.
Pancatirtha of Rishabha, the 1st Tirthankara, an Ensemble with Five Jinas Madhya Pradesh, Chandela period, 1011 Copper alloy, 8 3/8 inches Published: Pal 2011, no. 52
47
35.
Tritirtha of Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara, an Ensemble with Three Jinas Rajasthan, Vasantgarh, Pratihara period, 11th century Copper alloy, 5 inches
36.
A Fly-Whisk Bearing Celestial Rajasthan, Vasantgarh, Pratihara period, 11th century Brass, 16 inches Published: Pal 1994, no. 74B; Pal 2011, no. 53
48
38.
Standing Chandraprabha, the 8th Tirthankara with Attendant Deities Karnataka, Hoysala period, 12th century Chloritic schist, 11 inches
37.
Standing Jina Madhya Pradesh or East Rajasthan, Pratihara period, 11th century Copper alloy, 18 ¾ inches New Orleans Museum of Art, Gift of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, 2011.29
49
39.
Standing Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara with Dharanendra and Padmavati Karnataka, Hoysala period, 12th century Chloritic schist, 8 inches
40.
Seated Chandraprabha, the 8th Tirthankara Gujarat or Rajasthan, 12th century Black marble, 21 inches
50
41.
Architectural fragment depicting animals and two goddesses, Cakreshvari in the center and Ambika at the right Rajasthan, possibly Mount Abu, Pratihara period, 1240 White marble, 10 ½ x 27 inches
42.
Standing Jina Tamil Nadu, Chola period, 13th century Copper alloy, 11 ¾ inches
51
43.
Seated Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara Rajasthan, 13th century Copper alloy, 9 ¼ inches New Orleans Museum of Art, Gift of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, 2017.235
44 .
Nemi, the 22nd Tirthankara’s Renunciation, folio from a Kalpasutra manuscript Gujarat or Rajasthan, 15th century Ink, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 4 x 9 ¾ inches
52
45. Parshva’s Austerities, the 23rd Tirthankara, folio from a Kalpasutra manuscript Gujarat or Rajasthan, 15th century Ink, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 4 x 9 ¾ inches
46.
Samavasarana (The Holy Assembly of the Jina), folio from a Kalpasutra manuscript Rajasthan, 15th century Ink, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 4 x 10 inches
53
47.
The Leshyas, folio from a Samgrahanisutra manuscript Gujarat or Rajasthan, 16th century Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 8 x 4 inches
48.
Seated Sumati, the 5th Tirthankara, folio from a Caturvimshati Stava manuscript of the Twenty-four Jinas Rajasthan, 17th century Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 4 11⁄16 x 10 3⁄16 inches New Orleans Museum of Art: Gift of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, 94.356
54
49.
Six Jinas, folio from a Kalpasutra manuscript Maharashtra, possibly Nagpur, ca. 1750-75 Ink, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 4 x 11 inches
50.
Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara, with devotees and a narrative below Rajasthan, Jaipur, ca. 1750 Ink, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 8 x 5 inches
55
51.
Mount Meru, folio from a Samgrahanisutra manuscript, Rajasthan, 18th century Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 9 5⁄8 x 4 1⁄8 inches New Orleans Museum of Art: Gift of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, 94.357
52.
Samavasarana (The Holy Assembly of the Jina), manuscript cover Rajasthan, Jaipur, 18th century Opaque watercolor and gold on wood, 5 x 8 ½ inches
56
53.
The Course of the Moon, folio from a Samgrahanisutra manuscript Rajasthan, 18th century Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 4 3⁄16 x 10 1⁄8 inches New Orleans Museum of Art: Gift of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, 94.374
54.
Worship of Ara, the 18th Tirthankara Rajasthan, Mewar, 18th century Ink, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 9 ¼ x 8 7⁄8 inches New Orleans Museum of Art: Gift of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, 96.438
57
55.
Worship of Munisuvrata, the 20th Tirthankara Rajasthan, Mewar, 18th century Ink, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, framed dimensions: 14 x 14 ¾ inches New Orleans Museum of Art: Gift of Dr. Siddharth K. Bhansali, 96.4386
56.
Samavasarana (The Holy Assembly of the Jina) Karnataka, Mysore, ca. 1825-75 Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 22 x 22 inches
58
57.
Samavasarana (The Holy Assembly of the Jina) Karnataka, Mysore, ca. 1825-75 Ink, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 23 x 29 inches Published: Granoff 2009, pp. 256-7
58.
Worship of Kunthu, the 17th Tirthankara Karnataka, Mysore, ca.1825-75 Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on layered paper, 11 ½ x 13 ½ inches Published: Granoff, pp. 254-5
59
59.
The Goddess Padmavati with Fly-Whisk Bearers Karnataka, Mysore, ca. 1825-75 Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 14 x 12 inches
60.
Vasupujya, the 12th Tirthankara Karnataka, Mysore, ca. 1825-75 Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 10 ¾ x 9 inches
60
61.
Parshva, the 23rd Tirthankara Karnataka, Mysore, ca. 1825-75 Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 10 ¾ x 8 ½ inches
62.
Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara Karnataka, Mysore, ca. 1825-75 Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 9 x 7 inches
61
63.
Caturvimshati, an Ensemble with Twenty-Four Tirthankaras Karnataka, Mysore, ca. 1825-75 Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper, framed dimensions: 29 x 25 inches Published: Granoff 2009, p. 260
62
Caturvimsati, an Ensemble with Twenty-Four Jinas Catalog no. 32
63
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