applies the same fundamental strategies (such as rule transference) used in learning a language to communicating in that language, there are other communication strategies such as avoidance or message abandonment which do not result in learning. Brown (1994, p.118) concedes, however, that “in the arena of linguistic interaction, it is sometimes difficult.....to distinguish between the two”. Ellis (1986) is another who views strategies for learning and strategies for using, including communication strategies or “devices for compensating for inadequate resources” (p.165), as quite different manifestations of a more general phenomenon which he calls learner strategies. He argues that it is even possible that successful use of communication strategies may actually prevent language learning since skilful compensation for lack of linguistic knowledge may obviate the need for learning. Tarone (1980) takes a different point of view. She suggests that by helping students to say what they want or need to say, communication strategies can help to expand language. Even if the communication is not perfect in grammatical or lexical terms, in the process of using the language for communication the learner will be exposed to language input which may result in learning and which therefore may be considered a learning strategy. The key point in this argument would seem to be that in order to be considered a learning strategy rather than a communication strategy, the “basic motivation is not to communicate but to learn” (Tarone, 1980, p.419). The problems with differentiating between communication strategies and learning strategies on the grounds of motivation or intention, however, as Tarone (1981) acknowledges, are that we have, in practice, no way of determining what motivates a learner, that learners may have a dual motivation to both learn and communicate, or that learners may learn language even when the basic motivation was to communicate. As Tarone (1981, p.290) aptly comments, “the relationship of learning strategies to communication strategies is somewhat problematic”. Ellis (1994, p.530) also concedes that there is “no easy way of telling whether a strategy is motivated by a desire to learn or a desire to communicate”. This inability to differentiate clearly between communication and learning strategies does nothing to simplify the decision regarding what should or should not be included in learning strategy taxonomies such as Rubin’s and others’, and leads to what Stern (1992, p.264) acknowledges is “a certain arbitrariness in the classification of learning strategies”. Working at much the same time as Rubin in the mid-seventies, Stern (1975) produced a list of ten language learning strategies which he believed to be characteristic of good language learners. At the top of the list he put “personal learning style” (p.311). Stern later defined “strategies” as “broadly conceived intentional directions” (1992, p.261), which is more similar to the definition of the term styles as used by other writers such as Willing (1988) and Nunan (1991). The “behavioural manifestations of the strategies” (Stern, 1992, p.261) he called techniques - a definition which would fit better with what Rubin (1975) calls strategies. This inconsistent use of basic
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