Water: Management for a Productive Landscape by Akoaki

WATER WATER MANAGEMENT FOR A PRODUCTIVE LANDSCAPE

In Deep Water 6-31 Big Problems? Little Farms! 4-5

Detroit: Drop In 62-77 What’s the Current Works? 32-61

Combined Systems, Talking Shit 90-133 Knee Deep: Managing Runoff 134-147 Who’s Got What? 02

78-89

On The Ground 340-363 Bigger Picture 186-339

364-365

Full 366-371 Contributors 372-379 Resources

Glass Half

Irrigation Inequities 162-185 Hydration Is Key, How Farms Can Afford It 148-161

IN DEEP WATER

Water is fundamental to Detroit, from its geographic placement in the Great Lakes region, to its historical founding and cultivation as a riverside metropolis. These legacy conditions set the stage for contemporary challenges, fostered on the ecological side by climate change and environmental degradation of Southeastern Michigan wetlands, and on the infrastructural side through rapid expansion of water management infrastructure followed by mass-scale depopulation within city limits. These conditions will be examined in detail, demonstrating the ways in which previous decades of overdevelopment in and around Detroit have created a sprawling sewer system for which residents are both overtaxed-per-capita to maintain, and unfairly charged for water usage that eschews the system. Additionally, the analysis shows how the current system is ill-prepared to manage rainstorms, which leads to the overflow of Detroit’s combined sewer system that contaminates Detroit’s drinking water and endangers its natural environments. This poses a particular threat to Detroit, as the Great Lakes region indicates a trend of higher rainfall in response to climate change. Luckily, the practice of smallscale urban farming and pocket open spaces that implement water management landscaping hold great promise in their ability to serve as a tactical stopgap against overflow events. Detroit already has an active network of some 1,400 urban farms and gardens, but the sustainability of

these agricultural efforts are undercut by unfair rates on the water they utilize to maintain year-long activity. Unlike dispensations offered in places as close as the surrounding suburbs (who are served by the same water and sewage infrastructure), Detroiters are charged sewerage rates on all water used by a household, including that which does not enter the sewer system, but goes into the ground of the garden. Simple changes to the billing system for exterior water use could go a long way in supporting the expansion of grassroots agricultural efforts that can collectively lessen the impact on the city’s outdated systems. The following pages offer a review of Detroit’s history with water and its management for public use. This includes the rise and fall of its water management infrastructure; the ecological concerns that contribute to an accelerating cycle of overflow events; its impact on the well-being and health of city residents; and suggestions and tactics in support of the practices that can disrupt such cycles. Let’s examine why it is the perfect time to chart a new course for efficient, beautiful, and equitable water management in the city.

BIG PROBLEMS? LITTLE FARMS!

What makes a 6-acre urban farm in Detroit relevant to this discussion? Why would we turn to its diverse and passionate group of stakeholders to seek solutions for problems on a city scale? Though perhaps unusual, this heterogeneous composition of contributors is able to collectively offer an informed and multi-approach perspective to the reciprocal relationship between Detroit and its water systems. From community members, private-sector workers, business developers, academic researchers, educators, designers, and engineers in various disciplines, each participant brings a unique perspective to the collective undertaking of designing and implementing approaches to water and land management. These are the voices who need to be leading the charge in innovating water systems, because they represent the hands and lives that interact with the work on the ground, and live with the results. This group of Detroit natives, transplants, and visitors have developed a research methodology that enables each to be heard, traveling together to visit organizations to gather novel solutions from organizations that have addressed similar challenges. By involving all contributors on the ground level of research, we ensure that all the questions that may arise in the process will be identified, voiced, and considered as early as possible. Rather than implementing a top-down approach that conceives of design above the level of implementation, our project has all participants at the table from the

very start. This inclusive approach is the best way we know to ensure collective buy-in, and equitable representation at all levels of realization.

WHO WE ARE

FROM COMMUNITY MEMBERS, PRIVATE-SECTOR WORKERS, BUSINESS DEVELOPERS, ACADEMIC RESEARCHERS, EDUCATORS, DESIGNERS, AND ENGINEERS IN VARIOUS DISCIPLINES, EACH PARTICIPANT BRINGS A UNIQUE PERSPECTIVE TO THE COLLECTIVE UNDERTAKING OF DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING APPROACHES TO WATER AND

LAND MANAGEMENT.

NEED TO BE LEADING THE CHARGE IN INNOVATING WATER SYSTEMS, BECAUSE THEY REPRESENT THE HANDS AND LIVES THAT INTERACT WITH THE WORK ON THE GROUND, AND LIVE WITH THE RESULTS.

THESE ARE THE VOICES WHO

Oakland Avenue Urban Farm Founders, Billy and Jerry Hebron

Oakland Avenue Urban Farm Landscape

Detroit’s North End was once the city’s cultural focal point. It attracted artists from across the United States and influenced fashion, music, and style on a global scale. Today, the visual evidence of this legacy is hard to locate, due to the city’s prolonged economic struggles and several blight remediation campaigns. 70% of the structures in the neighborhood have been erased, leaving the neighborhood in a neo-rural state with barely any access to fresh food and other resources. The residents of this area have remained highly engaged with the neighborhood politically, fighting for equitable local redevelopment amongst the city’s evolving plans for economic resurgence. The Oakland Avenue Urban Farm is a critical project for maintaining a level of equity in local redevelopment of the community. The Oakland Avenue Urban Farm started on a single parcel in 2000 and currently stretches over 30 parcels. Today, along with agricultural programming, the farm has mentorship programs, community and art spaces, and hosts a variety of classes and workshops. During Detroit’s recovery from the 2008 recession, the surrounding area became a place of interest for developers, which threatened the future of the farm. A collaboration of residents, university-based teams, foundations,

The Oakland Avenue Urban Farm

and the design firm Akoaki, has worked to ensure the stability of the farm and design a long-term plan for a series of site improvements that promote economic and environmental stability. The goal of the design interventions was to aid the farm in becoming an autonomous community resource within a complex urban scenario that includes water access issues and unclear land ownership. Support from the Detroit Justice Center and the social enterprise Fellow Citizen further substantiated the effort, and helped establish the Detroit Cultivator Community Land Trust, the first such entity in Detroit, on the footprint of the Oakland Urban Farm. The 6-acre site has various existing structures that will be designed as public amenities. Their transformation is ongoing and developed in collaboration with community. With environmental and water resource specialists Drummond Carpenter, the farm is currently working on a plan to mitigate stormwater runoff by implementing a variety of Green Stormwater Infrastructure techniques. This will create a unique cultural landscape, promote biodiversity, and reduce the burden of water and sewage costs on farm operations.

Akoaki

Akoaki is a Detroit-based architecture and design studio founded by Anya Sirota and Jean Louis Farges. Since 2008, Akoaki has established a reputation for innovative and resonant projects that critically engage the social, spatial, and material realities of place. Bridging the commonly perceived divide between social and aesthetic practice, the work explores urban interventions, perceptual scenographies, and pop actions as responses to complex and contested urban scenarios. Akoaki’s design philosophy recognizes the pleasure and value of collective, aesthetic experience. The creative process, supported by intensive research and fieldwork, builds on existing dynamics and forges relationships between diverse networks of people. The resulting set of inter-related experimental works produces conceptually and materially surprising, unrestrictive, and inclusive environments. With their understanding of a range of existing methods and best practices in water stewardship currently deployed in urban farming both locally and internationally, Akoaki and the Detroit Cultivator team are developing replicable practices that allow the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm and Detroit residents to offset the cost of water. Their research will contribute to ongoing efforts to produce a free and autonomous space for cultural expression in the North End.

Site analysis for a guiding plan at the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm

Community House and Nice Outfit installation

Guiding Plan for the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm Farmers Market and the Landing, Hostel and Community Kitchen

Guiding Plan for the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm Senegalese Hibiscus Garden and Fruit Orchard

THE OAKLAND AVENUE URBAN FARM: JERRY HEBRON

When you first meet Jerry Ann Hebron, the mischievous twinkle in her eye, bottomless determination, and commitment to the health and wellbeing of the community are plain disarming. Since 2009, Hebron has worked tirelessly in the North End to grow greens, jobs, and a sense of empowerment for residents, first as a founding member and chief cultivator at the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm, and later as the co-chair of the Detroit Cultivator Community Land Trust. Jerry sat down with Jean Louis Farges, principal of Akoaki, to discuss food access and water management at the Farm and beyond. Jean Louis Farges: As the founding director of the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm, can you tell us a little bit about the story of the Farm and its response to community need? In more privileged urban contexts, gardening can be treated more like a hobby than an essential service. The situation seems very different here. Jerry Ann Hebron: I’m a former real estate broker, and it was probably around 2004 when Carol [Trowell] and I started following the Skillman Foundation’s investment into the Northend, just trying to figure out what that meant to the community. I think they invested $10 million into the community to develop a governance strategy. What we saw happening as we attended all these forums and activities is that there was a lot of divisiveness in the community because organizations were getting funded, but the work wasn’t happen-

ing, things were not changing within the community. Why weren’t the communities reaping any direct benefits from these investments? We stepped away because what we realized is that this was not really benefiting the community. Skillman was micromanaging how the community made their decisions, which was not really helping people here. Eventually that whole situation blew up, and Skillman pulled out. And here we were again - injured, but still trying to figure out how we survive. So this all happened prior to 2007. Then in 2008, the real estate market collapsed, and my husband and I got invited to come over to the Northend by my mom [Reverend Carter] to run the nonprofit, which meant that we had to make a decision about how to meet the needs of the community. So that’s when we started talking to people in the community. We needed jobs, we needed housing, and we needed food. When you looked around the community, housing was in very poor shape and there was no grocery store that was decent in the neighborhood. People were walking around feeling invisible because there were no employment opportunities within the community. If you stopped to talk to someone, to ask them questions, they were actually surprised that people were talking to them, surprised that you even wanted to have a conversation with them. I thought it was very, very strange,

because this has always been a kind of a porch community where people looked out for each other. We found that people had become detached from each other because of the drugs and the crime and the isolation. So, because there was so much land and we had an aggressive food justice movement, it was easy for us to establish the first goal of addressing the food insecurity in this community. We did that through our first community garden, a really small plot. We would meet with 25 people from the community to talk about what we could do on Oakland Avenue to create an environment of change. They were hoping that we could grow food and plant some flowers and create a space that people could feel welcomed in. We had some technical assistance that was provided to us by Greening of Detroit. Greening of Detroit also had some funding that could help us.

For the next six months, this is what we did. We planned, we designed, and we decided what the space would look like. Come April the next year, we started working on it. It helped us meet other people who currently lived here and had been here a long time.So the first year we planted the initial community garden. The next year, in 2010, we came back and that’s when Dan Cameron from Eastern Market came over and helped us open the farmer’s market that we would run for 11 years and counting. It wasn’t until 2013 that we received our first

funding. That was from the Kellogg foundation. So in the early stages, our work was through collaboration and leveraging resources with other organizations and other people. JLF: The Northend neighborhood, from the geographic point of view, is very well-connected to Downtown and Midtown. It’s the first stop on the Qline. When we started to work together, we recognized the need for the Farm to secure ownership of its land in order to avoid forced displacement should pressures from speculation increase. Can you describe the process for getting ownership of the land, and how the farm went from a single lot to almost six acres? JAH: So it wasn’t until 2015 that the Church was able to purchase the lots on Oakland Avenue from the City of Detroit, even though they had been in communication with the City since 2000. So for 15 years, the Church tried to buy those 10 lots. It was also in 2000 that a group of 15 folks came together and helped us realize that it was a potential threat for us not to buy land. So this group of supporters and collaborators pooled their money and their resources together to buy nine more properties in an auction held by the city of Detroit. We realized that if we did not buy the land and stop the speculative purchases that were happening, it was going to be a major threat to our ability to work. I want to say that it was probably you, Jean Louis, who kind of made me stop and look at this from a different lens.

27 Reverend Carter at Detroit Cultivator’s Crop-Up event in 2017

Jerry Hebron at the farm’s Community House

JLF: From the point of view of an outsider, I saw that without securing the land, the Farm might have been displaced within two or three years. So, it was really important to act at the time that we did because it would be very difficult to do so today. Can you describe some of the work you are doing currently to form a land trust? JAH: It was never the mission of the organization to be large property owners, but when there was an increase of speculative development happening within the Northend, we thought that we better start buying this land now to protect ourselves and prevent displacement. We wanted to remain a part of the community and have a resource controlled by the community. So we placed all the land into the Detroit Cultivator Community Land Trust and developed a board of people to manage that land and serve our mission. It is important that this land remains a part of the community and that it provides access to affordable housing, future production, and affordable retail because we still do not have a decent grocery store in this neighborhood. JLF: Right. There are also issues around water management in many urban agriculture projects in Detroit. Can you describe some of the challenges around that? JAH: When we started to expand, it was

difficult to access water on many of these vacant lots. We installed a cistern that could hold about 600-700 gallons of water, which helped a little. When we started doing some site planning and research with the University of Michigan and Akoaki, we figured out how to consolidate the production areas and get easier access to water for irrigation. We plan to eventually install a drip irrigation system. JLF: So, while we were able to create a path for the irrigation system, there is a political and economical side to this challenge. It seems like there is some form of negotiation that needs to happen between urban farmers, the City of Detroit and the water department to establish special rates for urban farmers since for one they often serve as anchor community resources and at the same time they are uniquely positioned to help mitigate stormwater runoff. JAH: Related to the charges on drainage, we’re not a part of the problem. We’re actually a part of the solution because the water doesn’t run off into the combined sewer system. By remediating the soils with compost and using plants with deep root systems, farmers help reduce runoff. We are also hoping to demonstrate how with the addition of bioswales, rain gardens and other tactics to help mitigate stormwater runoff, we can make an even greater impact. Hopefully, through our research, we can help DWSD understand the ways we

are beneficial, important contributors to the environmental resiliency of the City, so that we can work out some better methods to financially assist urban farming projects in Detroit.

DETROIT: DROP IN

DETROIT: A SNAPSHOT

What makes Detroit such a critical player in the water systems of the state, the Great Lakes region, and even the country? The city’s stormwater runoff affects drinking water quality for a very large portion of the US population. For a relatively small river, the Detroit River, serving as a connector between two Great Lakes watersheds, creates a huge environmental impact during overflow events caused by overtaxed and outdated city systems. Further, rising precipitation under global warming is affecting the Great Lakes region more dramatically than in other places, causing more frequent occurrence of the hard rain conditions that create polluting overflow events. For a single urban footprint, Detroit has an outsized impact, and the moments of spillover are only increasing. Detroit has often been labeled as a “green city” due to its preponderance of open space, but that doesn’t actually translate to it being ecologically beneficial. The open space is post-development ruin, which creates new micro-wilderness, but only in the wake of human intervention. What infrastructure remains is outdated and struggling to appropriately scale down to serve a diffuse population in the wake of outward migration from the city, and adjust to the rising demands of climate change. For Detroit to be truly green, it needs to mitigate the harmful impact of substandard water management. However, these undeveloped spaces present a unique opportunity to leverage the open space to actu-

alize green city practices as Detroit prototypes an alternate shape for future cities. If we can innovate and actualize this vision, the world will learn from Detroit, as it has in past centuries.

Detroit was named after its river, the “Rivière du Détroit” (“River of the Strait”) by French settlers. Early travel was most efficient by water, and the town steadily grew because of its ideal location. To this day, the Detroit River is one of the most trafficked rivers in the United States.1 So even in its name, Detroit alludes to the importance of water to the development of the city. Detroit’s water infrastructure expanded rapidly in the 1950s, driven by demand in the newly-forming suburbs, and was then followed by extreme population decrease in the city proper, seeding decades of tension regarding the management of the overbuilt system. Today, the Detroit Water and Sewage Department (DWSD) owns the largest water and sewer network in the United States and leases the operations of any facilities outside of the city to the Great Lakes Water Authority.2 While the sewer system is typically underutilized, wet weather events have the ability to overwhelm the combined sewer system, leading to the overflow of partially treated and untreated waste into nearby ecosystems, as well as drinking water. The unique environment of the Great Lakes is one of the most heavily altered by human activity in North America, largely due to the negative impacts of industrial pollution from urban and agricultural development. As the average annual precipitation in the region increases and extreme storms occur more frequently, it is imperative that existing and future urban developments

in Detroit implement various forms of Green Stormwater Infrastructure. Many urban farms and gardens in the City of Detroit are already taking measures to implement green stormwater infrastructure and improve the biodiversity of the region. The formerly illegal practice of urban agriculture not only successfully manages stormwater, it creates habitats for various species of insects and animals, protecting the region’s vulnerable ecosystems, and provides education and employment to surrounding communities. However, lack of financial resources and clear paths to the implementation of GSIs and land ownership hinder the operational capabilities of these vital models of environmental stewardship. Detroit Historical Society, “Founding of Detroit,” 2021. Dana Korberg, “The structural origins of territorial stigma: water and racial politics in metropolitan Detroit, 1950s–2010s,” 2016. 1 2

FLOW OF HISTORY

DETROIT IS LOCATED IN THE LAKE ERIE WATERSHED. THE LAKE PROVIDES DRINKING WATER FOR 10 MILLION PEOPLE IN THE UNITED STATES (APPROX. 3% OF THE U.S. POPULATION) AND AN ADDITIONAL 1 MILLION PEOPLE IN CANADA.3 38

US EPA, Water Quality and Control Management Lake Erie Basin

TORONTO

LONDON

BUFFALO

DETROIT ERIE

TOLEDO CLEVELAND

95% OF THE WATER FLOWING INTO LAKE ERIE COMES FROM THE DETROIT RIVER.4 4

Randall Schaetzl, “Watershed of Lake Erie,” 2021

ANNUAL PRECIPITATION IN THE UNITED STATES INCREASED 4% BETWEEN

1901 AND 2015.

THE GREAT LAKES REGION SAW A 10% INCREASE OVER THAT 5 INTERVAL.

Easterling , Kunkel, Arnold, Knutson, LeGrande, Leung, Vose, Waliser, and Wehner. “Precipitation Change in the United States.” 2017. 5

% OF NORMAL

-50

-25

1900

1925 1950

Annual Precipitation (% of normal)

1975

Annual Average Precipitation in Michigan

1.2

SUMMER

Source: NCDC Michigan Climatic Division 10, nClimDiv dataset

12.60

17.12

3.6

1.4 SPRING

3.0

10.75

1.5 0.6 WINTER

% 16.10

cm. 12.3

in. 4.9 ANNUAL

9-year Moving Average (% of normal)

2000

TEMPERATURE (°F)

1895

1915

1935

1955

1995

2015 Source: Midwestern Regional Climate Center, “Climate Annual Comparison Tool.”

1975

ANNUAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE IN THE STATE OF MICHIGAN, 1895-2018

Annual Average Temperature in Michigan

SOUTHEAST MICHIGAN AVERAGES 135 DAYS OF PRECIPITATION 6 EVERY YEAR …

CAUSING DETROIT’S COMBINED SEWER SYSTEM TO OVERFLOW. CSO EVENTS OCCURRED 42 TIMES IN DETROIT IN 2019.7 Current Results Publishing, “Average Annual Precipitation for Michigan,” 2021 Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy, “Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO), Sanitary Sewer Overflow (SSO), and Retention Treatment Basin (RTB) Discharge 2019 Annual Report.”, 2019 6 7

1978

1975

1972

1969

1966

1963

1960

1957

1954

1951

1948

1945

1942

1939

1936

1933

1930

1927

TEMPERATURE (°F)

Annual Average Water T

LAKE ERIE AVERAGE WATER TEMPERAT

Source: Clima

Temperature in Lake Erie

TURE, 1927-2012

The Detroit River is a part of the larger Huron-Erie Corridor which greatly impacts the overall health of Lake Erie’s ecosystems. This graph shows the rising average water temperature of Lake Erie which is likely caused by the effects of climate change, such as rising average temperatures and more frequent wet weather events. More specifically, these wet weather events cause an increase of partially treated and untreated runoff entering these ecosystems from large urban developments. This activity damages the overall health of the lake and creates a productive environment for invasive species and toxic algal blooms.8 Nature Conservancy, Nature Conservancy of Canada, and Michigan Natural Features Inventory, “Returning to a healthy lake: Lake Erie biodiversity conservation strategy.” 2012. 8

SEPTEMBER MAY JANUARY SEPTEMBER SEPTEMBER (LINEAR) MAY

2011

2008

2005

2002

1999

1996

1993

1990

1987

MAY (LINEAR) JANUARY JANUARY (LINEAR) SEPTEMBER (LINEAR) 1984

1981

TURE, 1927-2012

2011

2008

2005

2002

1999

1996

1993

1990

1987

1984

1981

ate of Ohio - Past, Present & Future, “Lake Erie Getting Warmer.” 2015.

MAY (LINEAR) JANUARY (LINEAR)

The City of Detroit is located in the Southern Great Lakes Forest ecoregion, which is one of the most heavily impacted regions by human activity on the continent. UNIQUE ECOSYSTEMS A major staging area for migrating birds, and sand pits hosting unique plant communities, the Southern Great Lakes Forest region includes vast interior wetlands and offers an extension of midwestern prairies. The area is made more biodiverse through its network of islands on Lake Erie, which host a variety of species unique to the ecoregion. CONSERVATION CHALLENGES Agricultural and urban development are the predominant land uses in the region making it one of the most heavily altered by human activity in North America. Remaining patches of wildlife are meager with little to no connectivity in many areas. This region has no protected areas larger than 500 square kilometers.9 Ricketts, Taylor, and Marc Imhoff, “Biodiversity, urban areas, and agriculture: locating priority ecoregions for conservation,” 2003.

The Huron-Erie Corridor, including Lake St.Clair, the St. Clair River, and the Detroit River, makes various contributions to the overall health of Lake Erie. This corridor contains nearshore and stream habitats and extensive coastal wetlands (the Detroit River has over 4,000 acres). More than 65 species of fish, 16 of which are threatened or endangered, use the Huron-Erie Corridor. This area is also part of the central Great Lakes flyway for millions of migratory birds.10 CONTINUED THREATS TO SHORELINE HABITATS In urban areas, like the City of Detroit, continued increases in the intensities of peak storms can overwhelm stormwater and sewage handling systems, leading to a higher frequency of overflows that reduce water quality. Also, the city’s highly developed or hardened shoreline reduces wetland acreage that typically serves as a habitat for various species. Nature Conservancy, Nature Conservancy of Canada, and Michigan Natural Features Inventory, “Returning to a healthy lake: Lake Erie biodiversity conservation strategy.” 2012.

53 LONDON

DETROIT

TOLEDO CLEVELAND

TOLEDO

Lake Erie Watershed

DETROIT

Huron-Erie Corridor

THE SOUTHERN GREAT LAKES FOREST ECOREGION IS ONE OF THE MOST HEAVILY ALTERED BY HUMAN ACTIVITY IN NORTH AMERICA DUE TO LARGE AMOUNTS OF AGRICULTURAL AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT.11 Ricketts, Taylor, and Marc Imhoff, “Biodiversity, urban areas, and agriculture: locating priority ecoregions for conservation,” 2003.

97% OF WETLANDS ALONG THE DETROIT RIVER HAVE BEEN DESTROYED.

Hartig, Zarull, Ciborowski, Gannon, Wilke, Norwood, and Vincent, “Long-term ecosystem monitoring and assessment of the Detroit River and Western Lake Erie.” 2009 12

Altering Ecosystems

During severe wet weather events, stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces can overwhelm stormwater handling systems, causing pollutants to alter surrounding ecosystems.

MIGRATORY LOCATIONS SHIFT AS SHORELINE HABITAT DISAPPEARS

AQUATIC SPECIES INTERACTION IS DISRUPTED

WATER TEMPERATURE RISES WATER QUALITY LOWERED

INCREASE IN INVASIVE SPECIES

INSECT AND FISH LARVAE BECOME DAMAGED

Source: Nature Conservancy, Nature Conservancy of Canada, and Michigan Natural Features Inventory, “Returning to a healthy lake: Lake Erie biodiversity conservation strategy.” 2012.

STORMWATER RUNOFF ENTERS THE DETROIT RIVER FROM THE COMBINED SYSTEM

The age of the Anthropocene means that we cannot take the patchwork of seemingly “natural” spaces across Detroit’s ecosystem at face value. Most of what stands fallow today was previously developed for residential, commercial, or even industrial use, meaning that whatever vegetal resurgence we witness in the present day is still built on an artificial foundation and often overrun by invasive species. 97% of the region’s natural wetlands have been destroyed, so even where the preexisting ecology has been rekindled to some extent, it is growing back from the impact of human intervention. The openspace framework of Detroit is DETROIT paradigmatically modern, but it’s important to remember it is also entirely post-anthropocene in terms of our ecological relationships. By relinquishing our hold on false notions of “purity” in Michigan ecology, we accept that all of the water works in the Great Lakes have been affected by humans, and work forward to make better systems from there. At least we have an unprecedented amount of room in the urban landscape of Detroit to model new processes and systems that can become the standard for cities needing to revise their relationship with water management.

WETLAND AREA LOSS PERCENTAGE OF WETLAND

AREA LOST FROM 1800 - NOW

80-100% LOST

60-79% LOST

40-59% LOST

DETROIT

20-39% LOST

0-19% LOST Map Sources: EGLE Wetlands Map Viewer,

National Estuarine

Research Reserve Science Collaborative’s “Working Wetlands”

DETROIT

WHAT’S THE CURRENT WORKS?

Top: Waterworks Park, Bottom: Springwells Treatment Plant

The Politics of Water In metropolitan Detroit, political conflict surrounding the city’s water system has been driven by the burden of maintaining overbuilt infrastructure and the lack of cooperation between the city and surrounding municipalities. In 1955, when the city decided to provide water to 44 suburban municipalities as wholesale customers, Detroit’s water infrastructure expanded rapidly to increase capacity. By the time mayor Albert E. Cobo left office in 1973, 96 municipalities were being served by Detroit-run water systems. To accommodate the need for heightened water capacity during his time in office, the Springwells Treatment Plant expanded to increase capacity to 540 million gallons per day; the Southwest Treatment Plant opened with a capacity of 240 million gallons per day; and the department introduced an $89M project to build an intake system on Lake Huron to hold 400 million gallons per day. When Detroit elected Mayor Coleman A. Young in 1973, the water system was serving 4 million people versus the 5.5 million people it was designed for, leading to a 39% increase in water rates for both city and suburban customers. This seeded decades of tension between the city and surrounding municipalities, with the suburbs demanding increased representation on the city’s water board.

As the population of the city decreased and the overscaled water systems became further underutilized, water and sewage costs grew more burdensome, increasing negative representation of city water management capability. By 2013, the city water system pumped 610 million gallons daily to the region, while the system was built to carry up to 1.7 billion gallons of water to the region every day. This is less than the 695 million gallons it was pumping daily in 1954, when there was a rush to build up the system to accommodate suburban residents. Today, the DWSD owns one of the largest water and sewer networks in the United States. However, after the city filed bankruptcy in 2014, the terms of their agreement required a forty-year lease of the system outside of the city proper to the Great Lakes Water Authority (GLWA). The GLWA is now the regional water authority. When GWLA assumed operations in 2016, they also assumed $4 billion of DWSD’s debt, in addition to paying $50 million per year for lease of DWSD infrastructure. According to the City of Detroit Great Lakes Water Authority Agreement: “The lease helps protect all wholesale customers against the delinquencies of City retail customers, creating a budget stabilization fund in the initial amount of $23 million for retail revenue protection over the next three years.”14 Dana Kornberg, “The structural origins of territorial stigma: water and racial politics in metropolitan Detroit, 1950s–2010s.” 2016 13

IN RESPONSE TO SUBURBAN EXPANSION, THE CITY RAPIDLY EXTENDED ITS WATER INFRASTRUCTURE TO 44 MUNICIPALITIES IN 1955 TO INCREASE CAPACITY.15 Dana Kornberg, “The structural origins of territorial stigma: water and racial politics in metropolitan Detroit, 1950s–2010s.” 2016

DWSD / GLWA SERVICE AREA

1853-1955

1956-1973

1974-2020 Source: Dana Kornberg, “The structural origins of territorial stigma: water and racial politics in metropolitan Detroit, 1950s–2010s.” 2016

LARGEST U.S. TREATMENT FACILITIES WET WEATHER CAPACITY (M3/DAY) 7,000,000

6,000,000

5,000,000

4,000,000

3,000,000

2,000,000

1,000,000

WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT

DETROIT WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT (DETROIT, MI)

STICKNEY WATER RECLAMATION PLANT (CHICAGO, IL)

DEER ISLAND WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT (BOSTON, MA)

BLUE PLAINS ADVANCED WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT (WASHINGTION DC)

HYPERION SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT (LOS ANGELES, CA)

Source: McFarland, Pam Hunter, and Scott Lewis. “The Top 10 Biggest Wastewater Treatment Plants.” 2016

WATER AND SEWER DEPARTMENT OWNS ONE OF THE LARGEST WATER AND SEWER NETWORKS IN THE UNITED STATES.

TODAY, THE DETROIT

Population 8 million

7 million

6 million

5 million

4 million

3 million

2 million

1879 Water Works Park Water Treatment Plant opens

1836 Department of Water Supply begins supplying water to the city

1 million

1830

1840

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

The graph and timeline above illustrates how the increase of service area and capacity of Detroit’s water infrastructure grew in parallel with the population of suburban areas surrounding the city in the past 190 years.

Source: Dana Kornberg, “The structural origins of territorial stigma: water and racial politics in metropolitan Detroit, 1950s–2010s.” 2016

1920

193

Water Treatment Capacity

1935 Springwells Treatment Plant opens

1953 Board of Water Commissioners formed to operate the water system

1 January 2016 DWSD begins leasing to GLWA

2 billion gallons

1.75 billion gallons

1956 Northeast Treatment Plant opens

1.5 billion gallons

1956 Springwells Treatment Plant expanded

1.25 billion gallons

1964 Southwest Treatment Plant opens 1973 Department officially named Detroit Water and Sewer with new city charter

1 billion gallons

750 million gallons

500 million gallons 1974 Lake Huron Treatment Plant Opens

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

250 million gallons

2000

Population of the City of Detroit (US Census) Population of Detroit Metro Area (US Census) DWSD / GLWA Water Treatment Capacity Designed to serve 7.2 million residents by 2000

2010

2020

Within the City of Detroit, the water system has

approximately 2,700 miles of pipe to transport potable water to residents. Its combined sewer system has approximately 3,000 miles of pipes to transport sewage and stormwater runoff.16 DWSD released plans to replace 1 to 2 percent of water lines per year moving forward, which while much higher than other midwestern cities, offers a solution to Detroit’s water infrastructure woes in fifty to one hundred years. In 2019, their plans to replace 29 miles of water line and 19 miles of sewer line cost 57.4 million dollars. In some areas of Detroit, wooden sewer lines from the late 1800s are still being replaced.17 City of Detroit, “Water and Sewerage Department” Aaron Mondry, “Detroit to Invest $500M over Five Years to Upgrade City’s Water and Sewer Systems.” 2019

Source: sewerhistory.org, 2004

APPROXIMATELY

45 FEET OF WATER & SEWER LINE PER DETROIT RESIDENT.

THERE ARE

The wood stave pipe was commonly installed to transport water and sewage in major cities around the United States, including Detroit. The drawing above shows an example of this type of sewer line that was built in Philadelphia.

77 Source: sewerhistory.org, 2004

COMBINED SYSTEMS: TALKING SHIT

The five water treatment plants shown on the map were built to serve the suburbs surrounding Detroit. These facilities are leased to the Great Lakes Water Authority from the Detroit Water and Sewage Department. In these treatment plants, water sourced from the Lake Huron and the Detroit River is filtered and disinfected before being distributed to surrounding regions. Source: Detroit Water and Sewerage Department, “Water and Sewer Maps.” 2014

Water Treatment & Distribution Lake Huron Water Treatment Plant 400 million gallons per day Opened in 1974 Northeast Water Treatment Plant 300 million gallons per day Opened in 1956 Waterworks Park Treatment Plant 240 million gallons per day Opened in 1879 Springwells Treatment Plant 540 million gallons per day Opened in 1935 Expanded in 1959

Southwest Treatment Plant 240 million gallons per day Opened in 1964

The following municipalities recieve potable water from the Springwell treatment plant, opened in 1935 and expanded in 1959. Each municipality charges a different rate for potable water.

City of Detroit $12.35 for 3740 gallons $0.0033 per gallon

Livonia

Plymouth Township

Northville

$12.90 for 3740 gallons

$15.26 for 3740 gallons

$19.04 for 3740 gallons

$0.0035 per gallon

$0.0041 per gallon

$0.0051 per gallon

Plymouth

Redford

Southfield

$19.93 for 3740 gallons

$22.15 for 3740 gallons

$25.22 for 3740 gallons

$0.0053 per gallon

$0.0059 per gallon

$0.0067 per gallon

*The average water usage per household is 3740 gallons in Detroit.18 *Rates above do not include maintenance charges.

GLWA “Member Partner” rates are based on a combination of distance and elevation from Water Treatment Plants and system demands. This determines the “wholesale rate” that GLWA provide to the community. Then, each community may add operations and maintenance charges, capital expenditure charges, etc.19 Detroit Future City, “Your New Bill Has Arrived!” 2018 GLWA, “Our Water System,” 2021

18 29

Northville

Plymouth

Plymouth Township

Southfield

Livonia

Redford City of Detroit

Springwell Treatment Plant

The Water Resource Recovery Facility DWSD owns the largest wastewater treatment plants in the United States, and treats approximately 650 million gallons of wastewater per day on average. During wet weather events, the flow of water to this facility significantly increases, being able to primarily treat up to 1.7 billion gallons of wastewater per day and secondarily treat 930 million gallons per day.20 Primary treatment typically involves holding the wastewater in a basin where solids can settle to the bottom while oils and grease float to the surface. The waste materials are removed, and the remaining liquid is discharged or moved to secondary treatment. In secondary treatment, suspended biological matter is removed using micro-organisms in a managed habitat. All dry-weather flows go through primary and secondary treatment. Water from the Detroit Water Resources Recovery Facility is discharged into the Detroit River and the Rouge River. The plant was constructed in the 1940s and has been expanded three times since then, due to the extension of services to suburbs and the increased frequency of wet weather events. Before the 1940s, Detroit, Highland Park, Hamtramck, and Grosse Pointe dumped industrial waste and sewage directly into sewers that emptied into Connor Creek, Fox Creek, the Detroit River,

the Rouge River, and Lake St. Clair. The decision to locate the plant near the River Rouge stirred up tensions between the City of Detroit and the league of municipalities downriver. In 1936, the site on Jefferson Avenue was identified as the location for the new wastewater treatment plant. In the 1960s, phosphorus-induced algal blooms occurred in Lake Erie along with oxygen depletion in deeper waters causing fish kills. This caused the U.S. and Canadian government to set target phosphorus loads in order to control these water quality issues. The Detroit Water Resources Recovery Facility was the largest contributor of phosphorus to Lake Erie’s ecosystem at the time. In 1970, the plant started removing phosphorus from the wastewater by constructing aeration facilities for secondary treatment and implementing an alternative sludge removal process.21 The water quality of Lake Erie dramatically improved after this. Today, DWRRF treats wastewater from 76 communities. It treats only sewage from surrounding municipalities and, in the City of Detroit, treats sewage plus untreated stormwater runoff.22 Detroit Water and Sewerage Department, “Wastewater Master Plan Executive Summary.” 2003 21 Water Technology, “Detroit Wastewater Treatment Plant,” 22 Great Lakes Water Authority, “Our Water System Great Lakes Water Authority.” 2020 20

The Water Resource Recovery Facility is owned by the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department and it treats approximately 650 million gallons of water a day. Detroit and some surrounding communities have combined sewer systems so the facility will treat more waste water during wet weather events. Once treated, the water flows from the DWRRF to the Detroit River or the Rouge River. Source: Detroit Water and Sewerage Department, “Water and Sewer Maps.” 2014

Sewage Treatment

Water Resource Recovery Facility Designed fo 24 million people Opened in 1940

The following municipalities send wastewater to the Water Resource Recovery Facility. Each municipality charges a different rate for sewage treatment.

City of Detroit $33.70 for 3740 gallons $0.0091 per gallon

Livonia

Northville

Plymouth Township

$13.05 for 3740 gallons

$20.04 for 3740 gallons

$22.89 for 3740 gallons

$0.0035 per gallon

$0.0054 per gallon

$0.0061 per gallon

Plymouth

Redford

Southfield

$25.81 for 3740 gallons

$26.20 for 3740 gallons

$36.14 for 3740 gallons

$0.0069 per gallon

$0.0071 per gallon

$0.0097 per gallon

*The average water usage per household is 3740 gallons in Detroit.23 *Rates above do not include maintenance charges.

GLWA “Member Partner” rates are based on a combination of distance and elevation from the Water Resource Recovery Facility and system demands. This determines the “wholesale rate” that GLWA provide to the community. Then, each community may add operations and maintenance charges, capital expenditure charges, etc.24 Detroit Future City, “Your New Bill Has Arrived!” 2018 GLWA, “Our Water System,” 2021

23 24

Northville

Plymouth

Plymouth Township

Southfield

Livonia

Redford

City of Detroit

DWWTP

KNEE DEEP: MANAGING RUNOFF

Population Density & Construction of Impervious Area The introduction of hardscape in the built environment is a major contributor to excessive stormwater runoff. It is evident that an increase in the density of a population correlates with a higher percentage of impervious land area. In Detroit, rapid population growth in the early 1900s led to the construction of a large amount of impervious area. Due to the decrease of the city’s population after 1950, the city was left with a much lower population density than cities with the same percentage of impervious land use. In the USA overall, there are millions of new houses and thousands of miles of paved road constructed each year. Constructed impervious surfaces cause many hydrological and ecological disturbances.25 25

Elvidge, Christopher D., Benjamin T. Tuttle, Paul C. Sutton, Kimberly E. Baugh, Ara T. Howard, Cristina Milesi, Budhendra Bhaduri, and Ramakrishna Nemani. “Global distribution and density of constructed impervious surfaces.” 2007

Road Construction at Springwell Treatment Plant, 1935

Source: Detroit Public Library Digital Collections

IMPERVIOUS AND PERVIOUS SURFACES IN DETROIT Impervious surfaces do not allow moisture to pass through them. Commonly implemented impervious surfaces include rooftops, concrete, asphalt, and compacted gravel and soils. During wet weather events, rainfall will not penetrate into the ground beneath the impervious surface, sending stormwater runoff to the storm drains. Pervious surfaces will allow water to infiltrate

95 Impervious Area in the City of Detroit

into the landscape. Examples of pervious surfaces include planted lawn and garden areas, forested areas, and loose gravel. Urban developments have the largest amount of impervious surface area, thus generating a large amount of stormwater runoff that needs to be managed. Source: Detroit Future City “Stormwater 101”

Land Cover in So

Percentage of Im

LIVINGSTON COUNTY

MACOMB COUNTY

ST.CLAIR COUNTY

WASHTENAW COUNTY

The land cover categories shown above include: impervious surfaces (roads, rooftop fields), bare ground (gravel parking lots, agricultural fields), and water. The region’s im roads, buildings, parking lots/driveways. The City of Detroit’s land cover is approximat ous area for the entire southeast region is 14%.

Source: SEMCOG, “Land Cover in Southeast Michigan, 2013”

outheast Michigan

mpervious Area

MONROE COUNTY

OAKLAND COUNTY

WAYNE COUNTY

CITY OF DETROIT

ps, driveways), tree canopy, open space (lawn, mpervious surfaces are equally divided between tely 50% impervious while the average impervi-

Water Bare Open Space Tree Canopy Impervious

Land Cover in

Percentage of Im

ATLANTA

BALTIMORE

MINNEAPOLIS

NASHVILLE

The land cover categories shown above include: impervious surfaces (roads, rooftop fields), bare ground (gravel parking lots, agricultural fields), and water. Among the cit area is Nashville (17.7%) and the city with the highest area is Chicago (58.5%). De compared to the cities above.

Source: USDA Forest Service / UNL Faculty Publications “Tree and impervious cover change in U.S. cities”

n Major Cities

mpervious Area

CHICAGO

DENVER

PITTSBURGH

DETROIT

ps, driveways), tree canopy, open space (lawn, ties shown, the city with the lowest impervious etroit has a higher amount of impervious area

Water Bare Open Space Tree Canopy Impervious

100

101

THE LAND USE IN THE CITY OF DETROIT IS 50% IMPERVIOUS.

Impervious DETROIT IN 1950: 1,800,000 PEOPLE 325 SF PER RESIDENT

DETROIT

PITTSBURGH

ATLANTA

LOS ANGELES

7.12 S 425,4 466 S

MINNEAPOLIS

10.15 S 619,493 456 SF

BALTIMORE

28.31 SQ. MILES OF ROAD 2,706,000 PEOPLE 291 SF PER RESIDENT

CHICAGO

48.72 SQ. MILES OF ROAD 8,175,133 PEOPLE 166 SF PER RESIDENT

NEW YORK CITY

500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

102

ROAD AREA PE (SQUARE

103

s Land Area 21 SQ. MILES OF ROAD 672,662 PEOPLE 870 SF PER RESIDENT

7.80 SQ. MILES OF ROAD 301,048 PEOPLE 722 SF PER RESIDENT

10.12 SQ. MILES OF ROAD 498,044 PEOPLE 566 SF PER RESIDENT

73.94 SQ. MILES OF ROAD 3,990,000 PEOPLE 516 SF PER RESIDENT

SQ. MILES OF ROAD 403 PEOPLE SF PER RESIDENT

SQ. MILES OF ROAD 3 PEOPLE PER RESIDENT

1000

950

900

850

800

750

700

650

600

550

ER RESIDENT E FEET)

THERE ARE 870 SQUARE FEET OF ROAD TO MANAGE PER CAPITA. DETROIT HAS 3X MORE ROAD AREA PER RESIDENT THAN THE CITY OF

104

CHICAGO.

105

106

WEATHER EVENTS, THE DETROIT WATER RESOURCE RECOVERY FACILITY MUST TREAT MORE THAN 200 MILLION GALLONS PER DAY OF RAINWATER FROM THE COMBINED SEWER SYSTEM.26 26

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department, “Fact Sheet.” 2013

107

DURING WET

200 MILLION GALLONS IS ENOUGH TO FILL 303 OLYMPIC SIZE

108

SWIMMING POOLS.

109

BEFORE 1995, THE CITY USED TO POUR ABOUT 20 BILLION GALLONS OF RAW SEWAGE INTO THE DETROIT RIVER

110

EVERY YEAR.27

COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW COMING FROM THE CITY OF DETROIT IS AROUND 1-3 BILLION GALLONS PER YEAR.28

271 28

Brian Benkowski“Sewage Overflow Adds to Detroit’s Woes” 2013

Untreated CSO has been reduced from an annual average of 20 – 25 billion gallons per year (BGY) before submittal of the LTCP in 1993 to a

current estimate of 1 – 3 BGY (varies depending on precipitation).” Detroit Water and Sewage Department, “Fact Sheet.” 2013

111

TODAY, UNTREATED

FLOATING OIL AND OIL-SOAKED DEBRIS FROM INDUSTRIAL SEWAGE IN THE RIVER ROUGE CATCH FIRE

FIRST FEDERAL CLEAN WATER ACT

1948

1836

112

THE FIRST COMBINED SEWER LINE WAS CONSTRUCTED IN DETROIT, DRAINING DIRECTLY INTO THE DETROIT RIVER

1940

DETROIT’S WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT IS COMPLETED, TREATING 420 MILLION GALLONS PER DAY ON AVERAGE, REMOVING 50-70% OF POLLUTANTS

1969

1951

BACTERIAL CONCENTRATION IN THE DETROIT RIVER WAS STILL 3-4 TIMES GREATER THAN IN 1912 FROM INCREASED INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY

Sources: Morris Pierce, “Water Works History,” 2016 and Morris Pierce “Wastewater Treatment Comes To Detroit: Law, Politics, Technology And Funding” 2010

113

INCREASED FEDERAL SPENDING ON PUBLICLY-OWNED WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS

CLEAN WATER ACT AMENDMENT REQUIRED STATES TO ADOPT EPA WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

1972

1970

SECONDARY TREATMENT FACILITIES ARE ADDED TO THE DWWTP, REMOVING APPROXIMATELY 85% OF POLLUTANTS

EPA ISSUES NATIONAL COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW POLICY REQUIRING PRIMARY TREATMENT OF 85% OF COMBINED SEWER OVREFLOW

1994

1994 1995

A SECOND PUMPING STATION IS ADDED TO THE DWWTP, INCREASING WWTP

UP TO THIS POINT, THE CITY OF DETROIT DISCHARGED 20

CAPACITY TO 1,782 BILLION GALLONS MILLION GALLONS OF COMBINED PER DAY SEWAGE PER YEAR ON AVERAGE

2020

THERE ARE STILL 1-3 BILLION GALLONS PER YEAR OF UNTREATED COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW COMING FROM THE CITY OF DETROIT

Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs) are points where the contents of a combined sewer system overflow and discharge excess wastewater directly to nearby streams, rivers, or other water bodies. These overflows contain not only storm water but also untreated human and industrial waste, toxic materials, and debris. Depending on yearly precipitation, partially treated and untreated combined sewer overflow coming from the City of Detroit and surrounding communities is around 1-3 billion gallons per year.29 Detroit Water and Sewage Department “Fact Sheet” 2013 Map Source: Data Driven Detroit, “DWSD CSO Event Data.” 29

Combined Sewer Overflows

114

Untreated CSO Outfalls

Treated CSO discharges pass through Retention Treatment Facilities (RTFs), which are designed to capture combined sewage long enough to provide adequate treatment and disinfection. Many RTFs generally comprise of screening/skimming equipment, storage basin for settling, and disinfection equipment. Such facilities are referred to as Retention Treatment Basins (RTBs). Map Source: University of Michigan, “Factsheets for 17 Combined Sewer Overflow Retention Treatment Basins in the Greater Detroit Region.” 2019

Retention Treatment Basins Retention Treatment Basins CSO Outfalls

116

Water Intakes Water Intakes

OAKLAND AVENUE URBAN FARM JOHN R + BRUSH

95% OF TOTAL RUNOFF IS CAUSE BY WEATHER EVENTS WITH LESS THAN 1” OF RAIN30

U.S. EPA, “Technical Guidance on Implementing the Stormwater Runoff Requirements for Federal Projects under Section 438 of the Energy Independence and Security Act.” 2009

118

119

REGULATOR - SELF ACTING BACKWATER GATE VALVE/REGULATOR - REMOTE OP. CLOSED DAM SEWER METER LEVEL SENSOR SEWAGE PUMP STATION CSO BASIN SCREENING/DISINFECTION IN SYSTEM STORAGE DAM Source: GLWA, Detroit Sewer Collection System

US BR

B2 .) ST

OVERFLOW EVENTS OCCURED 42 TIMES IN 2019 31

EGLE, “ Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO), Sanitary Sewer Overflow (SSO), and Retention Treatment Basin (RTB) Discharge 2019 Annual Report.” 2019 31

ANNUAL NUMBER OF DISCHARGES 16

0 B059A B059B B045 B044 B042A B042B B041 B040 B039 B038 B037 B036 B035 B034 B033 B032 B031

OUTFALL ID

B030 B029 B028 B027 B026

Source: GLWA, Detroit River Outfalls Annual Frequency of Discharge (FY 2017-2018)

B025 B024 B023 B022 B021 B020 B019 B018 B017 B016 B015 B014 B013 B012 B011 B010

NO REPORTED INSTRUMENTATION ISSUES REPORTED INSTRUMENTATION ISSUES

RAINFALL (No Treatment Needed)

STREET (Some Treatm

COMBINE (Full Treatme

122

INTERNAL DOWNSPOUT (Possible Disconnection)

FRONT LAWN (Some Infiltration)

STORMDRAIN (Combines Rainwater + Street Run

123

RUNOFF ment Needed)

RAINFALL (No Treatment Needed)

ED SEWER ent Needed)

noff)

FRONT LAWN (Some Infiltration)

SCUPPER + DOWNSPOUT (Can Be Recaptured)

INTERNAL DOWNSPOUT (Can’t Be Disconnected)

Detroit’s Drainage Charge According to the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department: “Federal and State regulations required DWSD to invest more than $1 billion in combined sewer overflow control (CSO) facilities to help prevent untreated overflows into the Detroit and Rouge rivers and preserve Detroit’s water quality. The drainage charge recovers the cost for operating Detroit’s CSO facilities and treating wet weather flows at the wastewater treatment plant -- $150 million annually. Since 1975, most DWSD customers have been paying for drainage as part of their water and sewer bills. DWSD is updating its drainage charge program to ensure all city parcels are equitably billed for their share of drainage costs.”32 City of Detroit, “Drainage Charge” 2021

124

125

Assessing impervious Area

Roofing will cause runoff into the sewer system

Grass will be able to slow stormwater runoff

Driveways will cause runoff into the sewer system

Impervious Materials: Roofing, Concrete, Asphalt Pervious Materials: Grass, Soil. Gravel, Porous Pavers

Calculations Step 1: To calculate the drainage charge for a parcel, multiply the amount of hard (impervious) surface, in acres, by the rate of $602. If the amount of impervious area is less than .02 acres, the drainage charge will not apply. Step 2: Adjust. “Residential properties receive an automatic 25% Green Credit on their bill based on the assumption they have redirected their downspouts to run onto their lawn instead of directly into the sewer.”

Of the highlighted areas, only the City of Detroit has a drainage charge program based on impervious land area. Stormwater runoff is sent to the DWWTP with sewage. The highlighted suburbs have almost entirely separated sewage and stormwater handling systems and do not send stormwater to the DWWTP. The few areas with combined sewer systems discharge to Retention Treatment Basins..

City of Detroit $18.06 for 0.04 impervious acres (3748 gallons of runoff) $0.0048 per gallon

Redford

Southfield

Livonia

No Drainage Charge

Plymouth

Plymouth Township

Northville

No Drainage Charge

*The average Detroit home has 0.04 impervious acres of land generating approximately 3,748 gallons of runoff per month.33 City of Detroit, “Detroit Water and Sewerage Department Drainage Charge Questions and Answers.”

126

Northville

Southfield

DWRRF Plymouth Plymouth Township

Livonia

Interceptors Retention Treatment Basins

Redford

City of Detroit

DISCUSSIONS WITH DON: DRAINAGE CHARGE POLICY

As described in this publication, billions of gallons of stormwater runoffs from impervious surfaces into the city’s combined sewer system every year. To offset the cost for operating Detroit’s CSO facilities and treating wet weather flows at the wastewater treatment plant ($150 million annually), Detroit has recently revised its drainage charge to be more transparent and equitable. With regards to transparency, since 1975, most DWSD customers have been paying for drainage as part of their water and sewer bills, but it was NOT explicitly shown as a line item on the bill. Therefore, people were paying for stormwater treatment but without knowledge. The program has been restructured so that the drainage charge is now explicitly shown on the bill along with opportunities for “green credits.” With regards to equity, DWSD updated its drainage charge program to ensure all city parcels are billed for their share of drainage costs based on impervious area. Previously, not every parcel was billed fairly for stormwater drainage since the rates were not tied to the amount of stormwater runoff

generated by the parcel from imperviousness. The drainage charge is assessed at approximately $600 per impervious acre and effectively has three components – base cost, annual volume of flow, and peak rate of flow. The base cost (20% of the charge) is the amount of the drainage charge that goes to maintain the system at-large. The remaining 80% of the drainage charge is eligible for removal from a customer’s bill if they implement stormwater runoff management practices such as rain gardens and cisterns. The removal, or a reduction of a portion of the drainage charge, is referred to as a “drainage charge credit.” Drainage charge credits are obtained by managing the annual volume (40% of the drainage charge) and/ or the peak flow (40% of the drainage charge). The annual volume represents the typical amount of stormwater that runoffs of a parcel in a year that must be treated at the Detroit WRRF. The peak flow represents the runoff from large storm events that occur less than once per year on average. If a property owner installs green practices that keep average annual rainfall volumes out of the combined sewer, and thereby keep the WRRF from treating rainwater, they can receive up to 40% off their bill (prorated to the annual average runoff volume). Likewise, if a property owner installs stormwater management practices that manage large rainfall event, they can receive up to 40% off their bill (prorated to the 100-year storm).

129

Don Carpenter is an accredited green design professional and engineer whose expertise includes green infrastructure, stormwater best management practices, hydrologic modeling and design, community engagement and field data collection. He sat down to share his thoughts in simple terms about Detroit’s drainage policies, green solutions for urban projects, and larger-scale GSI implementation in Detroit.

Drainage Charge Assessment

130

On the water bill shown below, from a residential property in the Northend, you will see a line with the calculated drainage charge on impervious areas and a line with a green credit for pervious areas and any additional green stormwater infrastructure.

131 The drainage charge is assessed based on three factors: base costs, annual volume of flow, and peak flow rate. To remove or reduce a portion of the drainage charge, property owners can install green stormwater infrastructure that manages runoff from wet weather events.

Base Costs (20%)

Annual Volume of Flow (40%)

Peak Flow Rate (40%)

The base cost is the amount of the drainage charge the goes to maintain the system-at-large. The annual volume represents the typical amount of stormwater that runs off of a parcel in a year that must be treated at the Detroit Water Resources Recovery Facility. The peak flow represents the runoff from large storm events that occur less than once per year on average.

Research team: Natosha Tallman, Don Carpenter, and Liz Feltz with Tacumba Turner, program manager at Oasis Farm and Fishery in Pittsburgh, discussing rainwater harvesting amd aquaponic systems.

WHO’S GOT WHAT?

APPROXIMATELY 96,825 PROPERTIES IN DETROIT ARE OWNED BY THE DETROIT LAND BANK34 AND 76,427 PROPERTIES ARE OWNED BY SPECULATORS.35 Landgrid, “Detroit Parcel Data,” 2021 Property in Practice, “The Geography of Housing Speculation in Detroit.” 2021

136

137

THE DETROIT LAND BANK AUTHORITY IS THE CITY’S LARGEST LANDOWNER. THEIR PROPERTY INVENTORY CONSISTS OF VACANT LOTS, ABANDONED HOUSES, AND OTHER STRUCTURES. THEY DO NOT OFTEN PERFORM WORK ON ANY OF THE LOTS OR STRUCTURES. THE LAND BANK USES A VIRTUAL AUCTION TO SELL PROPERTIES.

138

Map Source: Landgrid, “Detroit Parcel Data,” 2021

139

Land Bank-Owned Parcels

SPECULATORS CONTROL APPROXIMATELY 20 PERCENT OF THE PROPERTIES IN THE CITY OF DETROIT.36 THEY TYPICALLY PURCHASE PARCELS IN UNDEVELOPED AREAS EXPECTING TO BENEFIT FROM DEVELOPMENT AT A LATER TIME. SPECULATION IS OFTEN PRACTICED WITH MINIMAL INVESTMENT IN THE REHABILITATION OF LAND OR STRUCTURES. Property in Practice, “The Geography of Housing Speculation in Detroit.” 2021 Map Source: Property in Practice, “The Geography of Housing Speculation in Detroit.” 2021

140

141

Speculator-Owned Parcels

THERE ARE APPROXIMATELY 1,500 URBAN FARMS AND GARDENS IN DETROIT.37 MANY OF THESE AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS ARE LOCATED ON VACANT PARCELS. THESE FARMS AND GARDENS OFTEN AID IN THE REHABILITATION OF CONTAMINATED LAND, ASSIST WITH STORMWATER MITIGATION THROUGH THE USE OF NATIVE PLANTS, AND SERVE AS VALUABLE COMMUNITY RESOURCES.

Paige Pfleger, “Detroit’s Urban Farms: Engines of Growth, Omens of Change.” 2018 Map Source: Detroitography, “Urban Agriculture in Detroit”, 2014

142

143

Urban Farms & Gardens

BY THE TIME DETROIT LEGALIZED URBAN AGRICULTURE IN 2013, THERE WERE ALREADY 1,400 URBAN FARMS AND GARDENS OPERATING IN THE CITY.38 IN ADDITION TO BEING A VALUABLE COMMUNITY RESOURCE, URBAN FARMERS AND GARDENERS ARE CONTINUING TO STEWARD LARGE PORTIONS OF DETROIT’S

144

VACANT LAND.

AND GARDENERS HAVE STARTED TO LOOK AT COMMUNITY LAND TRUST MODELS TO SUPPORT AND PROTECT THEIR COMMUNITY SPACES FROM PREDATORY REDEVELOPMENT EFFORTS. COMMUNITY LAND TRUSTS ARE ABLE TO SUPPORT AFFORDABLE HOUSING FOR FARM STAFF AND PROTECT EXISTING FARMLAND. 38

Jacqueline Hand and Amanda Gregory, “The Detroit frontier: Urban agriculture in a legal vacuum.” 2017

145

RECENTLY, URBAN FARMERS

The Detroit Cultivator Community Land Trust

146

A community land trust is a non-profit organization that is meant to secure community stewardship of an area of land. While community land trusts are traditionally used to ensure housing affordability, they are also helpful in supporting urban agriculture operations in the City of Detroit, and beyond. A trust will acquire land and keep ownership over it permanently. Anyone who wishes to occupy the structures on the site will enter into a long-term lease agreement. When the occupant sells, they earn only a portion of the increased property value and the remaining amount can be saved by the land trust to maintain a level of affordability on the site. This land ownership model helps to ensure that residents are not displaced by speculators and gentrification. It is also common for at least 30% of a land trust’s board to be members of the community. There are approximately 225 community land trusts in the United States today. In collaboration with the Detroit Justice Center, the land that hosts the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm’s operations and programs is

now part of the the Detroit Cultivator Community Land Trust (DCCLT), one of the first community land trusts in the city. The board of the DCCLT is comprised of a small group of residents and community-minded advisors. The DCCLT was formed for the following purposes: 1. To assist Detroit residents with limited resources in developing marketable skills and to provide access to quality food and housing 2. To preserve access to food, housing, and skill development in the the North End community 3. To facilitate equitable inclusion in the redevelopment of the North End neighborhood by acquiring and collectively maintaining land and structures for community activity 4. To protect the natural environment of the site and promote ecologically sound use of land and natural resources for the long-term health of the neighborhood

147

IRRIGATION INEQUITIES

Calculating Irrigation Rates In the City of Detroit, urban farms and gardens must pay both a water and sewage rate for crop irrigation despite not needing waste water treatment services. Using the average monthy water use of the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm, the graphs on the following page reveal the seasonal costs of water and sewage for the farm if it operated within the other municipalities surrounding Detroit. In select municipalities, discounts on sewage charges may apply for lawn irrigation or swimming pool filling during summer months and separate meters for discounted

150

outdoor water use may be permitted.

151

Church

Requested to Set Asid

Fellow Citizen

Fellow Citizen Requested

Northend Christian, CD

Private

PROJECT

DETROIT CULTIVATOR TITLE

LOT OWNERSHIP MAP PREPARED BY:

LIZ FELTZ DRAWING SCALE:

N/A FOR:

VARNUM LLP DATE:

12.16.19

Oakland Avenue Urban Farm & Rate Calculations About: Operating in Detroit’s North End, the farm is a non-profit, community-based organization. It is devoted to growing healthy foods, sustainable economies, and active cultural environments. Size: 6 acres Monthly Average Water Use: 50 CCF (5,000 hundred cubic feet or 37,400 Gallons of water) Water Rate: $2.471 per CCF plus a $58.40 water service charge Sewage Rate: $5.484 per CCF plus a $6.28 water service charge Discounts: None Independent Meter for Irrigation Only: Yes Monthly Water Bill: $462.43 Seasonal Water Cost (4 months): $1,849.72

Reading Your DWSD Bill USAGE HISTORY The Usage History will show monthly clean water usage for the past year in CCFs. (1CCF = 748 Gallons). The Oakland Avenue Urban Farm uses approximately 50 CCFs every month.

152

WATER AND SEWER CHARGES Both water and sewer charges are based on the 50 CCFs of potable water used on the farm. Even if there are no structures on a farm site, meaning no household sewage discharges into the sewer system, full sewer disposal charges apply to the site. Due to the absence of structures or paved surfaces in the production parcels, this bill does not include a drainage charge.

153

THE GREAT LAKES WATER AUTHORITY HAS FORMED SEPARATE AGREEMENTS WITH THE MUNICIPALITIES SURROUNDING DETROIT AND SET UNIQUE WATER AND SEWER RATES FOR EACH. GLWA’S WEBSITE STATES THAT THESE RATES ARE BASED ON THE MUNICIPALITIES’ USAGE PATTERNS ALONG WITH ELEVATION AND DISTANCE FROM THE WATER PLANT. SOME 154

COMMUNITIES ALSO OFFER

ELIMINATING SEWER CHARGES ON OUTDOOR WATER USAGE FOR LAWN IRRIGATION AND POOL FILLING. WE CALCULATED THE WATER AND SEWER COSTS FOR THE OAKLAND AVENUE URBAN FARM IF IT WAS LOCATED IN EACH OF THESE MUNICIPALITIES. THEN, WE COMPARED THESE RATES TO THE MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME OF EACH LOCATION.

155

DUAL METER PROGRAMS;

ROYAL OAK CLAWSON EASTPOINTE

3600

3200

2800

2400

2000

1600

1200

800

DOLLARS PER SEASON

COMBINED WATER AND SEWAGE COST NO CHARGE FOR IRRIGATION

DOLLARS PER SEASON

1800

ROYAL OAK CLAWSON EASTPOINTE HARRISON TOWNSHIP STERLING HEIGHTS CHARTER TOWNSHIP OF CLINTON WARREN SAINT CLAIRE SHORES BIRMINGHAM FRASER ROSEVILLE TROY CHESTERFIELD LAKE ORION BEVERLY HILLS SHELBY TOWNSHIP WEST BLOOMFIELD TOWNSHIP ROCHESTER HILLS BLOOMFIELD HILLS BLOOMFIELD TOWNSHIP AUBURN HILLS GROSSE POINTE FARMS CITY OF DETROIT

2019 TOTAL WA

4000

HARRISON TOWNSHIP STERLING HEIGHTS CHARTER TOWNSHIP OF CLINTON WARREN SAINT CLAIRE SHORES

1600 2200

2000

1600

1800

1200

1400

1000

600

800

DOLLARS PER SEASON

SPR NORTHEAST

NO LAKE HURON + NORTHEAST LAKE HURON

BIRMINGHAM

400

FRASER

200

ROSEVILLE

800

TROY

600

CHESTERFIELD

1000

LAKE ORION

1400

BEVERLY HILLS

1200

SHELBY TOWNSHIP WEST BLOOMFIELD TOWNSHIP ROCHESTER HILLS BLOOMFIELD HILLS BLOOMFIELD TOWNSHIP AUBURN HILLS GROSSE POINTE FARMS CITY OF DETROIT

ROYAL OAK

CLAWSON

EASTPOINTE

HARRISON TOWNSHIP

STERLING HEIGHTS

CHARTER TOWNSHIP OF CLINTON

WARREN

SAINT CLAIRE SHORES

BIRMINGHAM

FRASER

ROSEVILLE

TROY

CHESTERFIELD

LAKE ORION

BEVERLY HILLS

SHELBY TOWNSHIP

WEST BLOOMFIELD TOWNSHIP

ROCHESTER HILLS

BLOOMFIELD HILLS

BLOOMFIELD TOWNSHIP

AUBURN HILLS

GROSSE POINTE FARMS

CITY OF DETROIT

156

2019 POTABLE WATER CHARGE SPRINGWELL + WATERWORKS + NORTHEAST WATERWORKS PARK 2400

200

400

2000

2019 SEWAGE CHARGES (F

400

GARDEN CITY

GROSSE ILE TOWNSHIP

HURON TOWNSHIP

GIBRALTAR

BROWNSTOWN TOWNSHIP

RIVERVIEW

BELLEVILLE

ECORSE

HIGHLAND PARK

MILFORD

NEW BALTIMORE

WATERFORD TOWNSHIP

WHITE LAKE CHARTER TOWNSHIP

INDEPENDENCE TOWNSHIP

CLARKSTON

WAYNE

CANTON

GARDEN CITY

GROSSE ILE TOWNSHIP

FLAT ROCK

HURON TOWNSHIP

GIBRALTAR

BROWNSTOWN TOWNSHIP

RIVERVIEW

BELLEVILLE

ECORSE

HIGHLAND PARK

MILFORD

NEW BALTIMORE

WATERFORD TOWNSHIP

WHITE LAKE CHARTER TOWNSHIP

INDEPENDENCE TOWNSHIP

CLARKSTON

PLYMOUTH TOWNSHIP

WAYNE

CANTON

GARDEN CITY

GROSSE ILE TOWNSHIP

FLAT ROCK

HURON TOWNSHIP

GIBRALTAR

BROWNSTOWN TOWNSHIP

RIVERVIEW

BELLEVILLE

ECORSE

HIGHLAND PARK

MILFORD

NEW BALTIMORE

WATERFORD TOWNSHIP

WHITE LAKE CHARTER TOWNSHIP

INDEPENDENCE TOWNSHIP

CLARKSTON

WAYNE

FLAT ROCK

CANTON

PLYMOUTH TOWNSHIP PLYMOUTH TOWNSHIP

FARMINGTON HILLS

NOVI

NORTHVILLE

SOUTHFIELD

REDFORD TOWNSHIP

PLYMOUTH

LIVONIA

FARMINGTON HILLS

NOVI

NORTHVILLE

SOUTHFIELD

REDFORD TOWNSHIP

PLYMOUTH

LIVONIA LIVONIA PLYMOUTH

COMBINED WATER AND SEWAGE COST

157 MUNICIPALITY-OWNED TREATMENT FACILITY SOUTHWEST SPRINGWELL + SOUTHWEST SPRINGWELL ORTHEAST + RINGWELL

REDFORD TOWNSHIP SOUTHFIELD NORTHVILLE NOVI FARMINGTON HILLS

NO CHARGE FOR IRRIGATION

ES (FACILITY LOCATIONS ON PAGE 30)

FACILITY LOCATIONS ON PAGE 32)

ATER BILL CHARGES

Farmington Hills offers a dual meter program including a separate meter to monitor water used outside of the house. There is no sewage charge on water used outside of the house. Redford Township has a 50% discount on sewage when an irrigation meter is used.

WE BLOOM NOVI

PLYMOUTH TOWNSHIP

FARMINGTON HILLS SOUTHFIELD

PLYMOUTH

LIVONIA

CANTON

BELLEVILLE

GARDEN CITY WAYNE

REDFORD TOWNSHIP

HURON TOWNSHIP ECORSE

FLAT ROCK

RIVERVIEW GIBRALTAR

BROWNSTOWN TOWNSHIP

GROSSE ILE TOWNSHIP

CITY OF DETROIT SEASONAL WATER & SEWAGE COST WATER & SEWAGE COSTS HIGHER THAN DETROIT’S

158

WATER & SEWAGE COSTS LOWER THAN DETROIT’S

159 Fraser offers pool credits to residents wanting to save money on water for filling swimming pools in the early summer months.

Sterling Heights discounts summer water bills by up to 20% to offset irrigation costs.

CLARKSTON

INDEPENDENCE TOWNSHIP

Shelby Township has area maintenance meters available to reduce water bills by not charging for sewage on irrigation water.

EST MFIELD ROCHESTER HILLS

BLOOMFIELD HILLS TOWNSHIP

BIRMINGHAM SHELBY TOWNSHIP

CLAWSON STERLING HEIGHTS

ROYAL OAK WARREN

CHARTER TOWNSHIP OF CLINTON FRASER

ROSEVILLE

HIGHLAND PARK EASTPOINTE

ST CLAIR SHORES

CITY OF DETROIT GROSSE POINTE FARMS

The map above shows which municipalities have dual-meter programs, giving them discounts on water used for lawn irrigation and pool filling, and the amount that the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm would pay for one season of water and sewage in each area.

STERLING HEIGHTS ($63,126) GIBRALTAR ($62,167) FLAT ROCK ($61,691)

SAINT CLAIRE SHORES ($58,012) RIVERVIEW ($57,442) FRASER ($56,732)

REDFORD TOWNSHIP ($56,377)

CHARTER TOWNSHIP OF CLINTON ($54,587) SOUTHFIELD ($54,428) GARDEN CITY ($54,102) WARREN ($47,419) EASTPOINTE ($46,601) BELLEVILLE ($45,223) ROSEVILLE ($43,713) WAYNE ($43,672) CITY OF DETROIT ($29,481)

$40,000-$60,000

<$20,000

ECORSE ($27,241) HIGHLAND PARK ($17,550)

160

3200

2800

2400

2000

1600

1200

DOLLARS PER SEASON

2019 WATER AND SEWAGE COST PE 4000

3600

800

400

$20,000-$40,000

MUNIC (LOWEST TO HIGHEST MEDI

161

ER SEASON VS. MEDIAN HOUSEHOLD INCOME

BLOOMFIELD HILLS ($186,563)

GROSSE POINTE FARMS ($132,853) BIRMINGHAM ($117,670)

WEST BLOOMFIELD TOWNSHIP ($100,139)

GROSSE ILE TOWNSHIP ($101,196) NOVI ($92,410)

INDEPENDENCE TOWNSHIP ($91,747) ROCHESTER HILLS ($90,961) CANTON ($89,991)

PLYMOUTH TOWNSHIP ($83,737) FARMINGTON HILLS ($81,203) PLYMOUTH ($79,713) ROYAL OAK ($78,741) CLARKSTON ($78,426) LIVONIA ($76,819)

BROWNSTOWN TOWNSHIP ($74,630) SHELBY TOWNSHIP ($74,379) CLAWSON ($67,237) HURON TOWNSHIP ($65,261)

CIPALITY IAN INCOME PER HOUSEHOLD)

>$140,000

$100,000-$120,000

$80,000-$100,000

$60,000-$80,000

$120,000-$140,000

HYDRATION IS KEY, HOW FARMS CAN AFFORD IT

Urban Agriculture & Water Management

164

In various urban watersheds, the increased amount of impervious surfaces (asphalt, roofing, non-native lawn grassses, etc.) accompanying urban development in the Detroit metropolitan area has led to the degradation of regional species and lowered water quality. As weather events intensify, more excess stormwater runoff leads to the entry of untreated wastewater into nearby ecosystems. Detroit’s vacant lots offer sites of opportunity for the management of stormwater and preservation of vulnerable regional species. Urban agricultural operations in the city are proving to be prime examples of the ways in which these vacant sites can transform into environmentally conscious cultural landscapes. On Detroit’s vacant lots, the open land is often planted with a mix of lawn grass and shallow weeds, occasionally mowed short by city officials with the intent of beautifying the area. These lawn plants, however natural they might seem today, are actually not native to Michigan at all. Most of the grasses grown in the Midwestern United States were brought by European settlers in the 1700s and replaced taller-growing grasses, such as Indian Grass, to imitate French and English lawns. However, the root systems of these lawn mixes are much shallower

than those of plants native to the area. The deep roots of wild American grasses break up soil and allow rainwater to infiltrate further into the ground. Lawn grasses, by comparison, sit only in the top few inches of the soil, and the earth below is compacted by years of heavy snow and rain. The result of this are grassy lots that still flood, unable to digest water like Michigan’s natural deeprooted plants would. When agricultural operations transform vacant lots into food sources for the community, the use of native crops and grasses improve the infiltration of rainwater into the ground, lightening the load of major storm events in the city’s water management systems, while simultaneously promoting biodiversity. The implementation of Green Stormwater Infrastructure in Detroit’s urban farms and gardens can have these same productive effects while additionally creating a place of gathering for the residents nearby. This chapter focuses on several different Green Stormwater technologies, how they can be utilized in urban farm landscapes, their benefits to the health of regional ecosystems and city inhabitants, and their cultural potential. It will also focus on the significance of irrigation meter use when rainwater catchment devices are not able to fulfill all irrigation needs.

165

Indian Grass

Pale Purple

Fox Sedge

Garden Tomato

Lawn Grass Mix

1 foot 2 feet 3 feet 4 feet 5 feet 6 feet

Irrigation Meters

166

While many urban farms in Rustbelt and Midwestern US cities are able to provide for their farms entirely with rainwater catchment devices, Detroit farmers are more often unable to depend solely on collected rainfall. This is not because of a difference in annual rainfall nor a lack of interest and implementation; rather, urban farms in Detroit often have a much lower ratio of roof area to farm area—a product of the desertion of the city and the subsequent demolition of buildings. There is much more available farmland than there are available (stable) roofs for collecting rainwater. If there is to be a sustainable future for urban farming in the city not only as supplementary food production but also as a repurposing of otherwise unused land, the city must develop a solution for providing municipal water to farms. When suburban residents water their lawns or fill their swimming pools, many of their communities allow the installation of irrigation meters for residents to save on water costs. An irrigation meter allows the separate measurement of water that will not be returning to the sewer system, which then can be charged without including sewer rates. Sewer rates are usually determined based on water use; since sewers cannot be metered directly, an irrigation meter allows that water which will not be reentering the sewer system to be charged separately. Some suburbs

have alternative methods for keeping irrigation water inexpensive; for instance the Macomb Township cuts sewer charges after a certain number of water units has been reached, Sterling Heights provides a discount of 25% on summer water bills, and other cities will sometimes charge summer sewer based on an average of winter water usage.

167

168

The city of Farmington Hills has a dual-meter program that allows property owners to use a separate water meter for outdoor water use that does not accumulate sewage charges. The description of their program follows: “Dual Water Meter programs typically allow a property owner to use a second water meter connected for outside use only. At the option of a property owner, this second or dual meter can be installed to meter water that is directed exclusively to a sprinkler system or outside spigot/ connection such as to a swimming pool and will not enter a sanitary sewer. The installation of a dual meter at the home would allow the sewage rate to be billed only on that amount of water that enters the sewer system through the home. Sewage fees would not be charged on the water that flows through the second meter for outside use. The fixed costs are the 1” water meter and permit charges ($535.00 in the city of Farmington Hills). Plumbing charges may vary depending upon the complexity of the changes required to install the second meter. Any water and sewer customer in the city can take advantage of this program. The customer, however, should evaluate individual circumstances based on use to calculate cost effectiveness.”39

169

Dual Meter Programs

If a similar program is created in the City of Detroit, it would lighten the financial load placed on urban agriculture operations by significantly lowering sewage charges. This would allow urban farms and gardens to reallocate those funds on employment opportunities, cultural programming, farm maintenance, and other expenses. City of Farmington Hills “Dual Meter Program” 2021

Rainwater Harvesting Harvesting systems collect stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces, filter it, and store it for later use, which can help offset irrigation water costs on urban farms. They can be configured to fulfill a large portion of a household’s water or landscape irrigation needs. Some of the methods for collecting rainwater include smaller rain barrel systems, “dry” systems, and “wet” systems. The rain barrel is the most commonly used, capable of holding water runoff from a single downspout. “Dry” systems are similar to the rain barrel but hold a larger capacity of rainwater. The collection pipe will “dry” after each event, due to water flowing directly down into the storage tank. “Wet” systems are able to take water from multiple collection locations through underground pipes. As these underground pipes fill, water in connecting vertical pipes will rise and overflow into the tank.40 However, the ability to use this collected water directly on crops requires some consideration of the impervious surfaces that the stormwater runoff touches before entering the storage systems. Some additional filtration may be required, depending on how the water will be used, especially when irrigating plants for consumption. Chris Maxwell-Gaines, “Rainwater Harvesting 101: Your How-To Collect Rainwater Guide.” 2020

170

171

Tensile Structural Hardware Inflatable Chamber

Expandable Membrane

Steel Support Structure Covered Water Pump

Runoff From Nearby Structure

Water Tower Design

Existing Gutter Water Storage

Cross Bracing

Lattice Plant Substrate

Framing Elements Foundation Pilings

Vegetated Wall Systems

172

Vegetated wall systems connect to the outside of an existing structure. They are typically constructed using a modular panel system that can hold the various types of growing media. A common format is the “soil-on-a-shelf” building assembly, which holds loose medium in a storage container as part of a

larger modular logic. Growing media can take the form of a thin mat or thick blocks that can be manufactured in various sizes. Some options utilize polyurethane sheet media to hold the growth medium, because their water holding capacity is much higher and they will not biodegrade (see diagram). These collection systems can connect to an existing gutter, to hold stormwater runoff and potentially disperse it to other rainwater

173

storage systems like rain barrels for re-use.41 In the city of Detroit, these wall storage structures can be made of standard building elements, which may include wood studs, steel beams, aluminum piping, or other materials—depending on available budgets and desired effects. The system can also be grounded with common concrete footings if an existing structure is not reliable. The scale of the water mattress is contingent on the building’s roof surface

area and climatically available rainfall. Some form of lattice, bag, or shelf system can be applied to hold vegetation with shallow root systems. Similar to a green roof, these walls can offset solar heat gain during summer months, promote biodiversity, and create aesthetic interest on a building’s facade. Maria Manso and João Castro-Gomes. “Green wall systems: A review of their characteristics.” 2015 41

Vegetated Roof Systems

174

Vegetated roof systems are considered to be either “extensive” or “intensive.” Intensive green roofs have deeper layers of substrate to support a larger variety of plant species, and can therefore accommodate larger root structures. This system is more successful on newer structures designed to handle the weight of the system. Extensive green roofs have shallower layers of substrate and put less stress on a building’s structure, making them more suitable to hold grasses and smaller plants.42 An extensive system is ideal for use on many of Detroit’s existing structures. The installation of a vegetated roof system can help to slow stormwater runoff and filter it, reducing the burden on Detroit’s water management systems. Slowing the entry of stormwater into water management systems can reduce the risk of untreated sewage from the city entering surrounding ecosystems. In some cases, this water can be stored in a rainwater harvesting device for re-use. They can also provide shading and reduce heat transfer through the roof, improving climatic comfort and lowering energy consumption. In relation to climatic comfort, the use of native plants can improve air quality, add aesthetic value to the space, and provide a refuge from urban heat island effects.

Landscapes can be designed using specific native vegetation to attract birds, insects, and animals, regenerating habitats deeply impacted by urban development in Detroit. When combined with other GSI and the growth of native plants and grasses on an urban farm landscape, large pieces of formerly vacant land can have an immense impact on the preservation of native species and the comfort of human occupants, while simultaneously reducing stress on the city water management system. National Park Service, “What is a Green Roof?” 2021

175

Vegetation

Green Roof Substrate Filter Layer Drainage Layer Protection Mat Waterproof Membrane + Root Barrier Insulation

Vegetated Roof System Layers

OVERFLOW STRUCTURE HARDWOOD MULCH

PONDING BIORETENTION SOIL

UNDERDRAIN WITH UPTURNED ELBOW AND CLEANOUT

SUBGRADE

CONVENTIONAL STORM PIPE

CONDITION 1: RAIN GARDEN SECTION IN LANDSCAPED AREA

HARDWOOD MULCH

OVERFLOW STRUCTURE

CONCRETE CURB PAVEMENT FREEBOARD PONDING BIORETENTION SOIL

UNDERDRAIN WITH UPTURNED ELBOW AND CLEANOUT

CONVENTIONAL STORM PIPE

CONDITION 2: RAIN GARDEN SECTION IN PAVED AREA

HARDWOOD MULCH

OVERFLOW STRUCTURE

CONCRETE CURB PAVEMENT FREEBOARD PONDING BIORETENTION SOIL UNDERGROUND CHAMBERS CONVENTIONAL STORM PIPE

176

UNDERDRAIN WITH UPTURNED ELBOW AND CLEANOUT

CONDITION 3: RAIN GARDEN SECTION WITH UNDERGROUND STORAGE

Bioretention cells (sometimes called biocells) are landscaped depressions that capture and filter stormwater runoff from nearby impervious surfaces. They can reduce the volume of untreated runoff entering the combined sewer system. This practice can be used in a variety of settings with plants that can tolerate a moderate amount of moisture with occasional ponding. Usually, native plants are recommended due to their deep root systems. The subgrade of biocells ensures that runoff moves down through the soil media to filter out pollutants. The size of a bioretention cell is dependent on the contributing drainage area and the imperviousness of that drainage area. This mitigation strategy receives runoff from pipes, curb cuts, or open swales. Some biocells have an underground pipe system, or underdrain, which can aid the drainage of the cell. During larger wet weather events, these underdrains can convey runoff to another stormwater management practice or to the combined sewer system. As shown in condition 3 on the left, additional underground storage can also be added. The soil mix that comprises the biocell is a mix of sand, silt, topsoil, and organic material such as compost. During small to medium storms, you will

177

Bioretention Cells & Bioswales

see runoff flow into the bioretention cell, collect, and drain over a period of a few days. During larger storms, once the biocell fills with runoff, excess water will flow through the overflow outlet or underdrain. The biocell should remain dry between storm events.43 Overall, the multiple biological and geological processes occurring in these biocells can help remove pollutants and slow stormwater runoff, protecting the region’s waterways. C. Guicc Wallover, “Bioretention Cells: A Guide for Your Residents.” 2015 43

LINER WATER INLET RHIZOME NETWORK

Constructed Wetlands

178

Constructed wetlands can be designed to remediate land previously used for industrial purposes and reclaim natural areas lost to urban development. Even though they are engineered systems, they can utilize the natural functions of vegetation, soil, and aquatic organisms to filter wastewater (depending on the level of contamination). The selection of vegetation planted in these wetlands play a major role in the removal of contaminants, as well as the plant bed material. If

constructed at a larger scale, they may serve as a productive habitat for aerial and aquatic wildlife, providing a protective environment for migratory species. These systems can be used after some form of primary treatment that removes larger particles. The microorganisms that grow in these wetlands are known as the periphyton and are responsible for most of the pollutant removal in such constructed landscapes, while the vegetation takes on the rest. The two main types of constructed wetlands are subsurface flow and surface flow wetlands. In a subsurface construction, wastewater flows between the

179

NATIVE AQUATIC PLANTS WATER OUTLET GROWING MEDIUM

root systems of the plants and the water is kept below gravel. This can reduce mosquitos and requires less area to filter the water. Surface flow wetlands appear closer to ponds and require a larger area to purify water. They can utilize a wide variety of silty, claylike soils and rely on predation from other organisms and UV irradiation to remove pathogens. Non-predatory aquatic species can be added to the surface flow systems to help eliminate pests like mosquitoes. Plant selection for these environments are usually indigenous species with root structures that can handle variation in water and soil depth. Stormwater wetlands

have the potential to host amphibian life, but can potentially damage their larvae depending on the types of pollutants being filtered.44 Overall, constructed wetlands can simultaneously filter and slow the entry of stormwater into Detroit’s combined sewer system, preserving the vulnerable habitats of the Great Lakes ecoregion while recreating natural space in the urban environment for at-risk native species. U.S. EPA, Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters, 2000 44

Permeable Paving

180

Traditional paving systems like concrete and asphalt seal a soil surface, speeding up the discharge of stormwater runoff into Detroit’s water management systems and preventing any form of natural filtration of the water using vegetation and soils. Some of the pollutants entering Detroit’s combined system from these impervious surfaces include gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, and other waste. Permeable paving systems allow the infiltration of stormwater runoff into Detroit’s combined sewer system in a more dispersed manner, with added filtration from organic material beneath. These systems include types of pervious concrete, paving stones, porous asphalt, and interlocking paver systems. Layers of soil below

the paving system can slow stormwater runoff and trap pollutants. The permeable surfaces are made of a porous material that water can flow through, or nonporous tiles with gaps in between. Plastic grid systems are typically more popular with homeowners because they can be cheaper and easier to install. Permeable interlocking concrete pavers can take customized forms and bear the load of heavier traffic. In some cases, depending on the soil type beneath the pavement, the pavers can increase air and water flow to tree roots below. In the open spaces between the pavers, micro-organisms can grow to aid in the filtration of stormwater runoff. Permeable paving can help reduce flooding during intense storm events, helping to maintain nearby aquatic ecosystems.45 U.S.G.S. Evaluating the potential benefits of permeable pavement on the quantity and quality of stormwater runoff, 2021 45

181

PERMEABLE PAVER UNIT

STONE BEDDING

STONE BASE AGGREGATE

CURRENTLY, RAINWATER (I.E. STORMWATER RUNOFF) IS BEING TREATED AT THE WATER RESOURCE RECOVERY FACILITY AND THAT IS A WASTE OF RESOURCES (ENERGY, MONEY, ETC.). HOWEVER, WHILE STORMWATER IS NOT 182

“DIRTY” ENOUGH TO

THE SAME AS SANITARY FLOW, IT STILL CARRIES POLLUTANTS OFF IMPERVIOUS SURFACES. STORMWATER RUNOFF FREQUENTLY CONTAINS TRASH, BACTERIA, NUTRIENTS, AND HEAVY METALS.

183

WARRANT TREATING

DISCUSSIONS WITH DON: GREEN SOLUTIONS FOR URBAN RUNOFF

healthier urban environments by improving air quality, beautifying the neighborhood, and in the case of urban agriculture, providing access to fresh food and economic opportunities. Green stormwater infrastructure includes bioretention cells (i.e., rain gardens), bioswales, vegetated roofs and walls, cisterns, permeable pavement, and constructed wetlands. Another reason to integrate green stormwater infrastructure into urban environments is to improve resiliency. Climate change has caused an increase in extreme weather events and also caused urban temperatures to rise. Green stormwater infrastructure is effective at managing increased rainfall intensities while mitigating the urban heat island effect. Promoting the integration of green stormwater infrastructure in urban environments will improve the health and welfare of at-risk populations that are in our urban cores.

185

Section 502 of the Clean Water Act defines green stormwater infrastructure as “...the range of measures that use plant or soil systems, permeable pavement or other permeable surfaces or substrates, stormwater harvest and reuse, or landscaping to store, infiltrate, or evapotranspirate stormwater and reduce flows to sewer systems or to surface waters.” As described previously, stormwater runoff from impervious areas is a major cause of water pollution in urban areas. In Detroit, it is most notably the cause of combined sewer overflow events where partially treated or untreated sewage is released into the Rouge or Detroit Rivers. However, even in separated sewer areas (where the sanitary and stormwater systems are not combined), stormwater runoff carries trash, bacteria, nutrients, and heavy metals from the urban landscape and into our natural waterways. In addition, peak discharges resulting from heavy rains cause flooding in urban neighborhoods thereby damaging stream habitat, property, and infrastructure. Therefore, capturing and treating stormwater runoff is important for all urban areas and not just those serviced by a combined sewer. Green stormwater infrastructure uses vegetation, enhanced soils, water harvesting/reuse and other elements to mimic natural processes such as infiltration and evapotranspiration and thereby reduces runoff. This lessens the demand on existing “gray” infrastructure (conventional concrete pipes and wastewater treatment facilities) but also creates

ON THE GROUND: RUSTBELT FARMS

ON THE GROUND: CAROL TROWELL AND NATOSHA TALLMAN

Jean Louis Farges: Carol, you are one of the founders of the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm in Detroit. How long have you been working with Jerry and the rest of the farm team? Carol Trowell: Yeah, from the onset, since 2006 or seven. We were starting out with the after-school programming and in the end it evolved into a regular little plot garden. And it has grown to be what it is today, six acres and counting. JLF: Very early on, you focused on food safety for the residents of the neighborhood. I imagine that water for irrigation and other growing

resources was also a challenge to secure early on. CT: Yes, water was a challenge. Growing food has always been a challenge because, as I said, Reverend Carter started this off... because she knew that residents in the Northend, and especially the children, did not always have access to food when they got home. She wanted to make sure that they had at least another half decent meal so they would not go to bed hungry. We also had computer access so they could do their homework in a safe place. JLF: Tell us about ways you are working to promote nutrition and healthy eating in the community? How have feelings about healthy food changed in the community? CT: It gets so convenient for a parent or guardian or someone to say, “okay, we’re going to McDonald’s or we’re going to Burger King.” There’s nothing wrong with having that every once in a while as a treat, but it’s actually quite expensive. A trip to the grocery store with a meal plan can secure three meals for $10, whereas that $10 lasts you one meal at a fast food chain. Plus, fresh food tastes a lot better. But it’s a challenge in the Northend where there’s no grocery store that supplies what we consider fresh food. So, we strive to give anybody the opportunity to access home grown, good quality food.

189

Carol Trowell is a founding member of the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm and a long time resident of the North End. In collaboration with the Farm’s Chief Cultivator, Jerry Hebron, she has been working on sustaining the mission-driven community anchor for over a decade. Carol was first persuaded to join the effort through the work of Jerry’s mother, the venerable Reverend Bertha L. Carter of St. John’s Evangelist Temple of Truth, who launched the Farm’s parent organization, the North End Christian Community Development Corporation. Natosha Tallman joined the Farm in 2017 as program director. Together, Carol and Natosha traveled to innovative urban farms in Paris, St. Etienne, Geneva, Pittsburgh, Cleveland and Chicago to learn first hand about best sustainable practices.

JLF: I also wanted to ask how this operation, led by a group of women with similar goals, formed and grew. CT: Again, I’ll go back to Reverend Carter. It all started with her. She saw the need in the community and she came to us, Jerry and I, and talked to us about the project and it all started from there. We were handed over the books and she said “okay, y’all figure this out.” At the time we were really both in real estate and we found a new challenge and we needed to meet it. We eventually met Deborah Martinex from Keep Growing Detroit who planted the idea of starting a community garden. Our first plot was planted right next to the church with the help from the kids from Youthville.

in the Alps, Terre Vivante, was just amazing to me with the varieties of fruits and vegetables that they grew. Plus they had a building with artist housing and a store where they sold seeds and books on gardening. JLF: I remember it was very surprising. They had a range of programming: workshops, education and production all mixed together. CT: I also appreciated the farms we visited in St Etienne. Especially the community garden with water meters from the city. It was a revelation that farmers in St Etienne pay less than the residential water rate to grow on small shared lots. JLF: The idea of having a community garden be part of the landscape and the architecture of the site was very interesting because you can see the potential to have green space contribute to food security and public space stewardship at the same time.

190

JLF: Our studio Akoaki partnered with you on the farm very early, eventually traveling to visit other urban farms in Europe and the Midwest. What are some farms from our first trip to Europe that were memorable for you? CT: Yes. I was also impressed by the CT: Ferme du Rail in Paris. That site was I really liked the farm we visited in also very compact and efficient. They Geneva [Ferme de Budé]. It had a showed that you can have a garden store that was connected to it, and almost anywhere and made out of it was about three or four acres. any material. It used to be connected to an old church building, but they turned it JLF: into a store to sell products from the Natosha, any impressions, takeaways farm right there. I’ll never forget how you would like to share from our site good the cheese was. The farm up visits?

191 Carol Trowell at La Fougère GAEC in Pélussin

192

Natosha Tallman at Oasis Farm and Fishery in Pittsburgh

techniques because they were able to clean up 4-5 feet of contaminated soil with natural methods.

NT: Yes, I was very excited about their compost operations too... how they remediated their soils with non-toxic materials. What was also very impressive to me was that they managed to extend their growing season yearround by packing leaves, soil, and snow around their greenhouses to JLF: keep the ground warm. I also really How does this speak to your work in appreciated how they used African Detroit? Spirituality in their practices. NT: JLF: It definitely helps our vision as we It seemed like their process is deeply continue to scale up. rooted in the community. JLF: Were there any farms in the Midwest that were inspiring or shared some similar challenges?

NT: Yes, they were really trying to bring value back to a community that had been divested.

NT: Braddock Farm in Pittsburgh was also having some of the same challenges around water management and had a reliance on volunteerism and grants to sustain their operations. I was interested in Hilltop because they were also in the process of forming a land trust and their idea of leasing lots for local growers seems feasible for our operation as well.

CT: It’s an exceptional opportunity to learn from others and their best practices. At the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm we hope to pay that back by inspiring growth in our own operations and modelling ways forward for other cities. We are feeling very inspired and very excited about the future.

JLF: Right. When we were in Cleveland, I was also really impressed with Rid-All’s brownfield remediation

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Natosha Tallman: I felt that the trips were transformational for me. When we were in France, it was inspiring to see that a government could support non-profit work so thoroughly. The US could benefit from that approach. When we were at La Ferme du Rail in Paris, I appreciated that they were able to fit so much program in such a small space. The social housing aspect was also very interesting.

Size: approx. 1 acre Location: Pittsburgh, USA Year: 2007 Land ownership: Rented from the county, renewed every 5 years Community Partners: Allegheny Land Trust, Black Urban Gardeners and Farmers of Pittsburgh, Hilltop Alliance, Pittsburgh Food Policy Council Financial resources: Private foundations Employees: 1 full-time Volunteer operations: Accepts volunteers at various levels and ages GAP Certified: Yes Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: Originally compacted, clay, tested yearly Irrigation Methods: Drip system Water Source: Braddock Borough Water Co. Special Water Rates: No Green Stormwater Infrastructure: Rain Garden and Native Plant Zone

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Title: Braddock Farms (affiliated with Grow Pittsburgh) Type: Advocacy Group and Farm Network Uses: farm production, seedling sales, education, community garden resources, farm-to-school procurement, tool lending library Website: growpittsburgh.org

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Approximately 30 percent of Braddock’s residents are living below the federal poverty line. The community is about 80% people of color, who have both found employment through the nearby industry and experienced the detrimental effects of the manufacturing facilities on their health. This makes it difficult to hold these companies, who have provided jobs to generations of Pittsburgh citizens, accountable for the degradation of the community’s health. This borough is currently a food desert.46 About: Braddock Farms is situated along Braddock’s business corridor. The backdrop of the farm landscape is the last remaining steel mill in the borough. The site, originally contaminated from the long history of manufacturing in the area, has been rehabilitated through Grow Pittsburgh’s soil remediation efforts and vegetal growth. On the 1-acre site, Braddock Farms has two hoop-houses, a green house, a shipping container for packing and storing produce, and an office. The Farm also has a farm stand in the borough. As an organization, the Farm enlists student volunteers from nearby high schools to work on the production sites and receive training on agricultural skills and the region’s food systems. The Farm is preparing to negotiate with Braddock Borough Water Co. over discounted rates on irrigation for the following reasons: the farm’s remediation of the land, the creation of more pervious area in a heavily industrialized region, and the non-existent need for waste water treatment on the farm. Grow Pittsburgh, through participation in the Pittsburgh Food Policy Council, assists other farms and growers in the area overcome hurdles around land ownership, contaminated soils, obtaining funding, accessing tools and materials, and increasing educational opportunities. Braddock Farms is one of three farm locations. They have also collaborated with the Hilltop Alliance and Bible Center Church featured in the pages ahead. Takeway: Braddock Farms successfully overcame the stigma of growing on post-industrial soil in close proximity to an operational steel plant. Brentin Mock and David Montgomery. “Environmentalists by Necessity.” 2021

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Context: Braddock is a suburb located south-east of Pittsburgh. The town grew with the construction of the Edgar Thomas Steel Works in 1873. Today, it still operates as a part of the US Steel Corporation. Immigrants from Croatia, Hungary, and Slovenia came to Braddock during the early 1900’s. As the US steel industry collapsed in the 70s and 80s, the community was weakened and became financially distressed. The suburb has lost 90% of its population since 1920.

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A view into one of the greenhouses at Braddock farms.

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Braddock farms is located next to Pittsburgh’s US Steel manufacturing facility.

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Size: 23 acres Location: Pittsburgh, USA Year: 2013 Land ownership: Owned by Housing Authority of the City of Pittsburgh and Allegheny Land Trust Community Partners: Hilltop Alliance, Penn State University, Grow Pittsburgh, Mt. Oliver City/ St. Clair Community Group, Pittsburgh Arlington PreK-8, New Academy Charter High School, Lighthouse Cathedral Financial resources: Private foundations Employees: 13 including Hilltop Alliance Volunteer operations: Accepts volunteers at various levels and ages GAP Certified: In progress Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: Compacted clay soil, required heavy remediation Irrigation Methods: watering by hand, each farmer has their own metered tap Water Source: Pennsylvania-American Water Company Special Water Rates: No Green Stormwater Infrastructure: Irrigation meters, plans for rainwater collection system

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Title: Hilltop Urban Farm Type: Farmer Incubation Program Uses: farm production, youth education, adult farmer incubation program, farmer’s market on and off-site, composting Website: hilltopurbanfarm.org

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In the 1950s, a large public housing project was constructed named St. Clair Village that had 556 units.47 When the steel industry declined and the city suffered an extreme population decrease, the St. Clair neighborhood’s agricultural businesses began to collapse, residents moved out, and the area fell into a state of decay. This neighborhood has lost around 80% of its population since its peak in 1960. Today, the vacancy rate today is 65% and there are no commercial businesses operate in the neighborhood.48 About: Set on the former site of the failed St. Clair Village housing project, which occupied 107 acres of land, Hilltop Urban Farm is working to dedicate 23 acres of the land to youth farming and a farmer incubation programs. The planning of the Hilltop Urban Farm site has been lead by Hilltop Alliance, a non-profit organization working in the South Pittsburgh area, and the Mt.Oliver - St. Clair Community Group. Beginning in 2019, the Farmer Incubation Program at Hilltop Urban Farm hosted a few experienced urban farmers including a composting business, beekeepers, and a flower farm. The youth farm opened around the same time, engaging children and teens from Mt. Oliver, St. Clair, Arlington, and Arlington Heights. The Youth Farm operations include afterschool programs, summer camps with Pittsburgh Public schools, paid employment opportunities for older students to assist with youth programs and farm projects, workshops, and some in-school activities. The Farmer Incubation Program offers small scale farmers support over the span of 3 years. Participants pay a fee for a parcel of rehabilitated land on the site for their operations along with access to storage, hoop houses, mobile coolers, and shared tools. Participants learn business management and growing techniques. Upon successful completion, they develop a customer base, business plan and will be prequalified to rent preserved land with nonprofit partnering organizations. If all of the farmland at Hilltop becomes occupied, it will quadruple the amount of produce being grown within the City of Pittsburgh. Takeaway: Hilltop Urban Farm models strategies to collectivize urban farming through extended community contracted and support programming. Historic Pittsburgh. “St. Clair Village.” Hilltop Urban Farm. “Site History.”

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Context: The Pittsburgh Hilltop community is divided into twelve different neighborhoods, eleven in the City of Pittsburgh and one in Mt. Oliver, which holds 9.5% of the City’s population. Hilltop Urban Farm is located in St. Clair, a neighborhood located in the south end of the city and slightly east of Mt. Oliver. Families farmed in this neighborhood and made a living selling produce, meat, seafood, and other ethnic foods in Pittsburgh’s Strip District in the 1920s.

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One of the streets in the former housing project.

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Hilltop Farm currently leases a lot to a composting operation: DecoDirt.

Size: approximately .25 acres (smaller satellite farm located nearby) Location: Pittsburgh, USA Year: 2016 Land ownership: Yes. Bible Center Church has owned the land since 1956. Community Partners: Business of Humanity, Grow Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Katz Graduate School of Business, University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering Financial resources: Private foundations and Everyday Cafe Employees: 2 Volunteer operations: Accepts volunteers from nearby high schools and the University of Pittsburgh GAP Certified: In progress Organic Growing Practices: No Soil Quality: Compacted soil, currently using raised beds for outdoor operations Irrigation Methods: Hand-watering Water Source: Pittsburgh Water & Sewer Authority Special Water Rates: No Green Stormwater Infrastructure: Various rainwater storage tanks capable of holding up to 1,750 gallons in total

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Title: Oasis Farm & Fishery (operated by Bible Center Church) Type: Micro-farm Uses: farm production, educational programs, and composting Website: oasisfarmandfishery.org

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A thriving working class community in the 1950s, Homewood boasted a population of 34,000. When the City of Pittsburgh cleared the lower Hill District for the construction of Civic Arena, the increase of African-American residents moving to Homewood from the lower Hill District led to the flight of white families to suburban communities. After this shift occurred in the neighborhood demographics, two major events led to severe decreases in population. First, the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King triggered two days of rioting, shaking the neighborhood’s business community. Second, the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1968 with the Fair Housing Act provision, leading to the dispersal of African American families into a wider variety of communities in the Pittsburgh area. Today, the population is just below 6,000 people. Recently, some new homes and businesses have been constructed by the Homewood-Brushton Revitalization and Development Corporation.49 About: Bible Center Church purchased the site and their offices nearby in 1956 in Homewood South. The Farm’s landscaping was completed in 2016 with heritage gardens, straw bale gardens, outdoor education spaces, and the bio-shelter which houses their aquaponic operations and rainwater storage mechanisms. The Farm also stewards a satellite site with composting and additional planting beds. Everyday Cafe, a Farm-run restaurant and coffee shop walking distance from the productive landscape, is owned and operated by Bible Center Church. Featuring farm-fresh produce on its seasonal menu, the Cafe helps to economically sustain the Farm’s activities while also providing compost for growing. It also helps financially support their farm’s operations and provides compost material. Oasis Farm and Fishery provides education programming to children and adults on stormwater management, healthy and sustainable lifestyle choices, aquaponic farming practices, and entrepreneurial skills. Housed in a bio-shelter that is able to collect rainwater from the building’s roof, the Farm has an aquaponic growing system and a rainwater storage tank. The outdoor education spaces use solar panels to lower energy costs. Overall, the farm is currently working toward increased autonomy through the use of renewable energy sources and rainwater catchment on their sites. Takeway: Strong partnerships with a full ecosystem of non-profits, academic institutions, and design and engineering professionals ensure a holistic approach to planning and implementation on site. Homewood Community Development Collaborative. “Homewood’s History.” 2021

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Context: When the Pennsylvania Railroad constructed a line with a stop in Homewood in 1852, industrial activity increased significantly. Streetcar lines were constructed to the neighborhood, enabling middle class residents to escape the “dirtiness” of the industrial city. The population grew with a mix of middle class German, Irish, Italian, and African-American families. Homewood was also home to many of the city’s most successful black artists, athletes, and writers such as pianist Mary Lou Williams, NBA player Chuch Cooper, and jazz composer Billy Strayhorn.

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Oasis’ Farm Manager gave the Detroit Cultivator team a tour of their aquaponic growing system and outdoor production areas.

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Size: 1.5 acres (part of Cleveland’s 26-acres agricultural innovation zone) Location: Cleveland, USA Year: 2009 Land ownership: Owned by Rid-All Founders Community Partners: Cleveland Food Bank, Buckeye Area Development Corp, Environemental Health Watch, Central State University, Growing Power Inc, Ohio State University, West Creek Conservancy, the City of Cleveland, Burten, Bell, Carr Development Corporation Financial resources: private foundations Volunteer operations: yes, youth education programs and adult volunteers GAP Certified: Yes Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: require heavy remediation Irrigation Methods: hand-watering Water Source: Cleveland Water Department Special Water Rates: No Green Stormwater Infrastructure: rainwater collection devices, retention pond

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Title: Rid-All Green Partnership Type: Urban Farm Uses: farm production, aquaponics fishery, educational programs, composting, culinary kitchen, restaurant and farmer’s market Website: greennghetto.org

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In the 1920s, Kinsman experienced a large influx of Jewish people relocating from Cleveland’s city center, bringing notable union and socialist organizers to the area. African Americans moving North as part of the Great Migration, and fleeing the racist impacts of urban renewal projects, moved to Kinsman at around the same time. From the 1950-1980 industrial jobs began to dry up, and the population declined. New housing initiatives sprung up, as public criticisms against Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority for racialized spatial practices grew ever more charged. Today, population loss along with economic marginalization and other inadmissible social impacts continue: High rates of incarceration and unemployment (almost 30%) as well as poor health are just a few of the indicators. One of the responses to these issues includes a 28-acre “Urban Agriculture Innovation Zone” that aims to transform vacant land into sites of food production in the neighborhood.50 About: In 2011, three childhood friends returned to the Clevland area and began cleaning up about two acres of vacant land through extensive soil remediation. Keymah Durden, Randy McShepard and Damien Forshe founded the Rid-All Green Partnership, one of the most successful and profitable urban farming ventures in the Cleveland area with a focus on neighborhood engagement. They have built two greenhouses, four hoop houses, and a 40,000 sq. ft. aquaponics fishery. Rid-All also uses produce discarded by local businesses and food banks in their composting operations, producing soil for their growing operations. Rid-All Green Partnership provides education to youth and adults on environmental sustainability, food production, and nutrition. Their Youth Education Program produces a Brink City comic book series on environmental stewardship and social justice. In Spring 2021, the Rid-All campus will open a new building that will host a culinary kitchen, farmers market, and restaurant facility. It will also serve as classroom and community space for those interested in learning about veganism, vegetarianism, and other healthy food options. Takeaway: Rid-All Green Partnership is fully integrated into the life of the community and committed to incubating agriculture-related small business. Encyclopedia of Cleveland History. “KINSMAN (NEIGHBORHOOD).” 2020

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Context: The Kinsman neighborhood was originally part of Newburgh Township, formerly south of Cleveland. Settled in the 1800s due to the area’s fertile soils, the area was connected to Cleveland by the 1850s, bringing a serge of industrial production via railroad and coach road. By the end of the Civil War in 1865, there were approximately 30 oil refineries and 14 steel mills operating in the Newburgh area.

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Don Carpenter, Mark White (Rid-All co-founder), Jean Louis Farges, and Natosha Tallman viewing Rid-All’s aquaponic zone.

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The Detroit Cultivator team toured Rid-All’s multiple greenhouse spaces, composting areas, and new community center (currently under construction).

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Size: approx. 2 acres Location: Chicago, USA Year: 2018 Land ownership: Owned by Chicago Botanic Garden Community Partners: University of Chicago Dining, Brinshore-Michaels Development, Cabrini Green Legal Aid, Chicago Department of Family and Support Services, Chicago Public Schools, City Colleges of Chicago, Daley College/Arturo Velasquez Institute, Cook County Commissioners, Forest Preserves of Cook County, Hilton Chicago, Industrial Council of Nearwest Chicago, Lake County Health Department, Lawndale Christian Health Center, Liberty Prairie Foundation, McCormick Place, Midwest Foods, NeighborSpace, Preservation Foundation of the Lake County Forest Preserves, Proviso Partners for Health, Roots of Success, Sodexo Financial resources: National Institute of Food and Agriculture’s Food Insecurity Nutrition Incentives program, Chicago Department of Family and Support Services, Private Foundations Employees: Windy City Harvest has 30-40 transitional jobs, 12-week urban farming apprenticeships for college students, and 80-90 teen Youth Farm jobs amongst all operations Volunteer operations: Adult and Youth GAP Certified: Yes Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: Good Irrigation Methods: hand-watering outdoors, aquaponic system indoors Water Source: Chicago Department of Water Management Special Water Rates: No Green Stormwater Infrastructure: Rainwater Harvesting Devices

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Title: Farm on Ogden (affiliated with Windy City Harvest) Type: Urban Farm and Grocery Store Uses: farm production, aquaponics, education programs, job training programs, grocery store Website: chicagobotanic.org/urbanagriculture/farm_on_ogden

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About: Windy City Harvest is the Chicago Botanic Garden’s education and jobs-training initiative launched to help build a local food system, healthier Chicago communities, and a greener economy. Windy City Harvest grows more than 180,000 pounds of produce per year across 15 farm sites, provides paid on-the-job training for over 200 people and places program participants in food system related jobs. Windy City Harvest operates the Farm on Ogden. With a 50,000 gallon aquaponics system, a greenhouse, a commercial and teaching kitchen, a gathering space for workshops, and a year-round indoor market, the Farm on Ogden is a multiuse facility located in Chicago’s Lawndale neighborhood that supports and sustains a healthy community by bringing food, health, and jobs together in one location. The market offers fresh, affordable food prioritizing produce that is locally grown by program participants and graduates. The Farm on Ogden also hosts a variety of courses about aquaponics and sustainable farming and offers a VeggieRx program: a cooperative effort with the Chicago Botanic Garden, Lawndale Christian Health Center (LCHC) and the University of Illinois-Chicago’s Chicago Partnership for Health Promotion (CPHP) to help food insecure patients with diet-related illnesses. The VeggieRx produce packages are prescribed by LCHC providers to patients along with weekly nutrition education and cooking lessons from CPHP. Takeaway: This city-sponsored program, managed through Chicago’s Botanical Gardens, offers small and large scale farming opportunities that reach a range of participants across neighborhoods. Amanda Seligman. “North Lawndale.” 2005

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Context: North Lawndale became part of the City of Chicago in 1889 and several industries developed in the neighborhood, including the Sears, Roebuck & Co. facilities. By 1930, with 112,000 residents, North Lawndale was home to the best known Jewish commercial street in Chicago. 1950s white flight sponsored an uptick in African American resettlements, and the population eventually reached its highest point: 125,000 resident in all. Despite the influx, no additional housing was built to ease overcrowding. Tensions arose between white commuters to Lawndale’s industries and Black residents looking for work in the area. In 1966, Martin Luther King Jr. picked North Lawndale as a base for the northern civil rights movement. Riots following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the closure of industrial operations prompted population loss and housing deterioration. Investment activity in the neighborhood picked back up in the 1990s with a renewed interest in the area’s close knit blocks, parks, low congestion, and affordable housing stock.51

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The Farm on Ogden’s aquaponic growing beds

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In their market space, the Farm on Ogden sells a portion of the produce grown on-site and hosts classes.

ON THE GROUND: FRENCH EXCHANGE

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Invited to participated in the 2017 St Etienne Biennale by Akoaki, the Detroit Cultivator Team met with local urban farmers, community garderners and landscape architects to discuss pressing challenges in equitable food production. What they discovered were a great number of similarities related post-industrial urban contexts, challenges of economic sustainability, and aspirations toward cultural autonomy.

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Size: approx. 5 acres Location: Pélussin, France Year: 2012 (renovation planning begins) Community Partners: La commune de Pélussin, La communauté de communes du Pilat Rhodanien, Le Conseil régional / Contrat de Développement Durable de Rhône-Pluriel, Tissages Coupat, , Soiries Vincent, Tissages Oriol, Moulinages Barou, Fabien Thomas, Sambala et Baobab, Claude Ricci, ESAA La Martinière Diderot, Peggy Rotheval, Adeline Avril, Denis Choron, Philippe et Véronique Grenier, Visages de notre Pilat, Des amis et des livres, Terres des mots, Métiers d’Art du Pilat, Trame de soi, Un brin de soi, Compagnie L’Atecheus - La BatYsse, Maison des tresses et lacets Financial resources: City of Pélussin, Private Funding

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Title: Moulinage des Rivières Type: Cultural Center Uses: Garden, Artist Workshops, Exhibition Space, Residential Areas Website: moulinagedesrivieres.com

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In 2012, two associations undertook a project focusing on the memory of the textile industry in the region. They created an exhibition with the help of local libraries called Silk Road. The exhibit generated renewed interest in the area, sponsoring an uptick in local tourism and media attention. The Moulinage des Rivières association stemmed out of these efforts with the intention to buy and rehabilitate the Gabert Mill for cultural activities. This association now brings together heritage enthusiasts, Pélussin residents, and artists. About: The Association du Moulinage des Rivières is currently working on purchasing the Gabert Factory, adjoining housing, and terraced gardens with the aim of transforming the cluster of buildings into a cultural center and equitable housing development in the defunct factory. This efforts seeks to create employment opportunities, workshops and offices will be created in the factory. Working cooperatively to pool skills and resources, the association’s participants aim to align programming with the site’s textile production history and launch the “Textile Art and Expression Center,” a documentary center, an artist’s residence, and training around textile fabrication that will activate the center year round. Sustainable practices go hand in hand with cultural activation at the Gabert Factory site. Planning is in progress to create a botanical path on the site, educational activities around water management and production of hydraulic electricity, a strategy to protect biodiversity, promote alternate modes of transport to the site, and rehabilitate the terraced gardens with cultivation methods appropriate for the context. Temporary and permanent housing will also be developed in the adjoining factory. Takeway: Urban farming serves as a preservation strategy to reactivate post-industrial landscapes collectively conceived as patrimony. Pélussin: Cœur du Pilat. “Histoire.” 2021

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Context: The Pilat valley was home to the silk industry for several centuries. Moulinage (yarn manufacturing) and weaving have dominated the economy and architecture of Pélussin. Today, 15 textile companies still operate in the region, with distinct artisanal legacy in weaving, trimming, and embroidery. The Moulinage des Rivières was built near the town center, just below the Pélussin Viaduct infrastructure built during the first world war. 52

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One of the galleries and program spaces at the Moulinage des Rivières.

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The Detroit Cultivator team tours the site of the Moulinage des Rivières.

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Size: approx. 220 acres Location: Pélussin, France Year: 1974 Land ownership: Groupement Agricole d’Exploitation en Commun Community Partners: La Ferme du Pilat, Financial resources: Farm sales, foundations Employees: 4 managing partners Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: Good Green Stormwater Infrastructure: unknown

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Title: La Fougère Gaec Type: Farm Uses: Dairy Farm, Butcher

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The process of starting a GAEC is similar to the process of forming a corporation in the United States. Partners in a GAEC have the obligation to participate in trades associated with land stewardship and they receive a share of the farm’s profits in return. This system is ideal for farms located in close proximity to one another that can benefit from a shared pool of resources.53 About: La Fougère GAEC was formed by three young farmers, JeanLouis Eparvier, Joël Eparvier and Sylvain Berland working in Le Priel, in Pélussin. Other farms in the area sell their products, including the nearby Ferme du Pilat. They have about thirty cows and a little over two hundred pigs. Their operation is extensive, utilizing vast expanses of their 220 acres property. The association owns and manages additional plots in the municipalities of Doizieux, Pélussin, Roisey and Bessey where they manage grassland ecologies and work to maintain biodiversity in the region. The operation is fully autonomous, selling and consuming only what they produce at the farm. Dairy products are produced organically and animals are cared for using natural methods. Takeaway: To combat the destructive impact of large-scale supermarket chains, the project designs an autonomous, ecologically-salient, economically sustainable closed loop system that grows, distributes, and sells produce at the regional scale. Bina Agarwal and Bruno Dorin. “ Group farming in France: Why do some regions have more cooperative ventures than others?.” 2019 53

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Context: Near the Moulinage des Rivières, this farm operation is located in Pélussin as part of the larger Pilat Regional Natural Park. This farm is a GAEC or a groupement agricole d’exploitation en commun (agricultural group of joint operations) which operates under a cooperative ownership model. The first GAEC was formed in 1965 in the Vosges mountains as a project between 4 partnering farmers.

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View from La Fougère GAEC

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The Detroit Cultivator team touring the dairy farm’s faciltiies.

Size: approx. 123 acres Location: Mens, France Year: 1994 Land ownership: Owned by Terre Vivante Community Partners: The Terre Vivante Network works with hundreds of small farms, gardens, markets, builders, urbanists, and more. Employees: 30 Volunteer operations: Yes Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: Good Green Stormwater Infrastructure: unknown

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Title: Centre écologique Terre vivante Type: Ecological Village Uses: Market Gardening, Bee Keeping, Livestock, Education Programs, Business Seminars Website: terrevivante.org

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About: For 25 years, Terre Vivante has used their ecological center as a site for experimentation in organic gardening, tourism, and public programming. Since their first publication of Les 4 Saisons du Jardin Bio in 1980, Terre Vivante has established an Ecological Center and a biomimicry research laboratory. In Mens, their center offers training courses on organic growing practices, orchards, bee keeping, and cooking. Terre Vivante’s education gardens offer spaces for composting and vermiculture workshops along with small “insect hotels” and an organic henhouse. The site also has an aquaponic vegetable garden and small educational aquarium. As a part of their Living Earth Biotope Project, Terre Vivante will be hosting a variety of experiments focusing on bio-energies, bio-materials, and bioremediation. In partnership with several organizations, the center plans to provide housing for researchers, engineers, farmers, designers, and artists along with hosting public discovery workshops and seminars. Takeway: The project’s operations are based entirely on educational programming and ecological experimentation, suggesting that the cultural and instructional capacities of growing are more meaningful that the economic gage of productivity. Department of Isère. “ENVIRONMENT & WATER.”

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Context: The village of Mens is located in the department of Isère and has a population of just under 2,000 people. With a long-standing commitment to environmentalism, Isère is a recognized pioneer in environmental policies and the restoration of biological corridors in the region.54 In 1994, French publishing company Terre Vivante created a center for ecological training and experimentation on a large estate in Mens.

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The team toured the walking paths, ponds, and production spaces at Terre Vivante’s ecological campus.

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Size: 1.2 acres Location: Geneva, Switzerland Year: 2009 Land ownership: Association des Marchés de Genève Community Partners: Friends of the Ferme de Budé, L’école à la Ferme Employees: approx. 10 part-time Volunteer operations: Yes Organic Growing Practices: Yes Irrigation Methods: hand-watering Green Stormwater Infrastructure: unknown

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Title: Ferme de Budé Type: Urban Farm Uses: Agriculture, Livestock, Bee Keeping, Composting, Education, Farmer’s Market & Grocery Store Website: ferme-de-bude.ch

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Though the agricultural zone in the park has reduced in size significantly since the 19th century, the Department of Agriculture and Department of Nature and Landscapes have been able to help preserve a small production space in the center of the park. In 1961, the farm manager of the estate founded the Geneva Markets Association, an organization that oversees one of the first farmers’ markets in the city. When the Geneva Markets Association was awarded the lease to Julien Chavaz and Léo Zulauf in 2009, the partners founded the Ferme de Budé.56 About: The Ferme de Budé aims to provide the city-dweller access to fresh foods by maintaining a link with agricultural trades. Since acquiring the gardens in 2009, the farms has cultivated about an acre of land on permanent beds. 35 varieties of vegetable grow on this small farm, where Julien and Léo also run a composting operation. In 2015, they welcomed sheep to help maintain the landscape and later introduced chickens for the sale of eggs. There is also a micro-market on the property that sells produce from the gardens and other products from other local organic farms. Takeaway: Despite the high real estate values in the Petit-Saconnex area of Geneva, the Ferme de Budé has managed to integrate an urban farm within a residential apartment complex by underscoring the value of healthy, locally grown, organic produce. Franz Graf, Mélanie Delaune Perrin, and Giulia Marino. L’oeuvre de Georges Addor (1920-1982)-Inventaire, Evaluation qualitative, Recommandations. 2013 56 Ferme de Budé. “Ferme De Budé: Histoire.” 55

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Context: Home to an urban farm, a primary school, and a housing project, the Parc de Budé is located in the Petit-Saconnex area of Geneva, Switzerland. The Budé mansion dates back to 1770, when it was completed along with its landscape, agricultural plots, and stables. The Budé estate was acquired in 1957 by the state and a set of four multi-family residential buildings along with a luxury hotel were constructed five years later. The project was led by Swiss architect Georges Addor, who designed many other “residential cities” within Geneva in the 60s. The objective was to provide collective worker housing that allowed inhabitants to cultivate part of a shared agricultural landscape in the park.55

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Staff at the Parc de Budé guided the team around the gardens and farmer’s market, offering samples of their products (all produced on-site).

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Size: 0.11 acres Location: Paris, France Year: currently under construction Land ownership: Municipality of Paris Community Partners: grand huit, Travail et Vie, Bail Pour Tous, atoll 75, Réinventer Paris Financial resources: private foundations, government support Employees: Varies depending on number of residents Volunteer operations: Yes Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: required severe soil remediation Green Stormwater Infrastructure: rainwater harvesting basins, aquaponics, roof gardens and green walls

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Title: La Ferme du Rail Type: closed network social enterprise Uses: farm, restaurant, housing, aqua, compost Website: fermedurail.org

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About: La Ferme du Rail is operated by a team of architects, landscapers, social employment enterprises, social workers, and housing associations. They also partner with the Municipality of Paris with the goal of providing affordable housing, sharing knowledge and stewarding productive landscapes. Ferme du Rail plans to provide housing for 15 homeless people and 5 students studying horticulture. Participating students will learn about urban agriculture practices and land rehabilitation for one year. With extensive soil remediation now complete on the site, the team has prepared the landscape for productive uses and educational programming. The farm will also plan to integrate aquaponics into its growing strategy. The team hopes to generate revenue by selling services such as green area maintenance and compost collection. A nearby restaurant will source all of its ingredients from the farm and sell prepared foods to the public at affordable prices. Employment at the farm is conceived through self-guided engagement, where participants determine the scale and scope of their workload, including the location of their efforts and activities. The Municipality of Paris transfered rights to the site for a relatively low rental fee to the team. La Ferme du Rail has been launched with support from a variety of social housing and urban agriculture-oriented organizations, which have helped fund the construction phase of the project. The structure utilizes high-performance straw-bale insulation to reduce primary energy needs and more than 90% bio-sourced or refurbished materials. Some rainwater filtration and storage equipment on the site includes rainwater harvesting basins, aquaponics, roof gardens and green walls. The market gardening operations on the site include vegetable patches, aquaponic gardens, bag cultivation on the green roofs, an orchard, a greenhouse for seedling preparation, and a mushroom farm. Takeway: A public private partnership developed la Ferme du Rail as a closed network that manages issues of ecology and sustainability, while addressing the social and economic needs of houseless people in Paris with self-awareness and dignity. Atlas Obscura. “Petite Ceinture.” 2010

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Context: La Ferme du Rail is located on a formerly abandoned parcel of land along the Petite Ceinture in Paris’ 19th arrondissement. The Petite Ceinture, a railway that transferred supplies to all of the major rail stations around Paris, has been the site for various redevelopment projects around the city.57 In recent years, young residents have moved to the 19th arrondissement from central Paris in search of more affordable housing options, making gentrification a growing issue in the area.

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Carol and Natosha viewing construction progress and composting machiney at the Ferme du Rail.

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Housing construction in progress at the Ferme du Rail

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Size: 0.6 acres Location: Paris, France Year: 2019 Land ownership: Land is leased to REcylerie owners but remains property of the train company Community Partners: Veolia, Service Civique, Werner & Mertz Professional, Fondation Groupe RATP, CityBzz, Magalli Employees: 12 Volunteer operations: Yes Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: Good, Uses raised planters Irrigation Methods: Hand-watering Green Stormwater Infrastructure: rainwater collection

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Title: La REcylerie Type: Urban Farm, Restaurant, Workshop Uses: Agriculture, Tool Library, Repair Shop, Cafe, Composting, Beekeeping Website: larecyclerie.com

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About: This urban farm and cafe aims to introduce biodiverse landscapes to a dense district of the city and educate visitors about eco-responsibility through participation. The farm offers locally grown food and utilizes waste from the cafe to fertilize vegetation. The projects promotes a “reduce, reuse, recycle” mantra in every area of its operation, even using refurbished furniture and building materials in its cafe and event spaces. The cafe hosts workshops and classes on cooking and DIY food production. There is a mini-farm with chickens, goats, and beehives fed with leftover products from the kitchen. Two ponds also assist with vegetable garden irrigation. Aside from food production, La REcyleries offers repair services for small household items and furniture, occasionally hosting events where visitors can trade items or tools. L’Atelier de René, or René’s workshop, offers eco-cultural programs where participants can experiment with urban agriculture and learn how to reduce their own consumption. Larger events hosted at the REcyclerie include yoga classes, relaxation workshops, and concerts. Space is available for rent to host private events. Takeaway: La REcylerie, a linear garden and urban scenography, transforms the quai of a defunct rail into a informal and aesthetically alluring social space, that serves as a public reminder to reduce human consumption across sectors. Atlas Obscura. “Petite Ceinture.” 2010

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Context: La REcylerie is located in a former train station that hovers over the abandoned Petite Ceinture, a railway that operated in Paris from 1862 to 1934. The railway provided supplies to the city’s fortification walls and transported goods and passengers between the major rail stations around Paris. It eventually became the city’s first metro-like transport. Once Paris’ Metro was constructed in the early 1900s, use of the Petite Ceinture declined steadily until its closing in 1934. Since the 1980s, sections of the railway infrastructure have been renovated for the RER passenger train and some of the stations have been adapted for commercial use.58 The REclylerie is located on the Petite Ceinture near Porte de Clignancourt, in the 18th arrondissement.

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La REcylerie’s cafe space and gardens include shared tool libaries, composting areas, bee keeping and production spaces.

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Size: 29.5 acres Location: Saint-Ouen, France Year: 2013 Land ownership: Government of Saint Ouen Community Partners: Le Rucher Audonien and fifteen other associations utilizing the shared gardens and greenhouse Volunteer operations: Yes Soil Quality: required remediation Irrigation Methods: hand watering in production spaces Water Source: water for irrigation comes from on-site reservoirs Green Stormwater Infrastructure: constructed wetlands, rain gardens

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Title: Grand Parc de Saint Ouen Type: Urban Farm & Public Park Uses: Urban Gardening, Skate Park, Playground, Athletic Courts, Event Space, Cafe Website: saint-ouen.fr/services-infos-pratiques/environnement-et-espaces-verts/118-le-grand-parc.html

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About: The Park at the Docks aims to generate a new collective space for the diverse residents of Saint Ouen while rehabilitating the industrial landscape for flood control and biodiversity conservation. The park territory contains a balance between public gardens and natural spaces that are not accessible to people. The natural zones, meadows or ditches, are visible from the occupiable areas and are designed to retain rainwater during wet weather events. The park serves as one large hydraulic system that filters rainwater, highway runoff, and Seine floodwaters for use in its productive landscapes. The ponds and filtering zones contain a wide range of vegetation, birds, and insects. The park also has an educational greenhouse that is linked to the outdoor gardens. Here, gardeners can hold meetings, classes, and events with an accompanying kitchen area. Associations that use the productive areas were present on the site before the Paris-based landscape architecture studio, Agence Ter, began designing the project. For recreation, there is also a large skate park, an urban amphitheater, and three playground areas on the site. This ecological micro-district aims to become a focal point within a reemerging neighborhood that combines environmental technologies, urban agriculture, and public recreation spaces. Takeway: This large scale park and urban farm doubles as visible green stormwater management infrastructure to treat runoff from all hardscapes and architectural surfaces on the site and the adjacent district. Michael P. Hanagan. “The Working People of Paris.”

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Context: The Park at the Docks is located just outside of Paris in the suburb of Saint Ouen. The neighborhood has an extensive industrial past and is currently trying to shift its economic base away from manufacturing. When transport was improved in the 19th century, Saint Ouen and surrounding communities became increasingly industrialized. From 1920 to 1980, dominated by the French Communist Party, the area became known as “The Red Belt.” The communist party’s diminution on the national political stage contributed to the areas ongoing socio-economic decline. Economic crises in the 70s and 80s added to the urban wreckage.59 Today, some of the industrial remnants are still visible and the suburb is home to immigrants from over 140 nations. Due to the emphasis that communism placed on affordable working class housing, the “Red Belt” region has a higher concentration of large collective housing projects.

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A view of the housing projects surround the park.

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The team learns about the site’s Green Stormwater systems with Olivier Philipe, principal of Agence Ter.

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The site’s greenhouse and education center hosts a communal kitchen.

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Size: 750 acres Location: Amiens, France Year: approx. 1300s Land ownership: protected by the Association for the Protection of Safeguarding of the Hortillonnages Employees: 10 hortillons Volunteer operations: N/A Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: Good, natural fertilizers from the waterway ecosystems Irrigation Methods: hand-watering Green Stormwater Infrastructure: unknown

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Title: Les Hortillonnages Type: Floating Gardens Uses: farm production, yearly farmers market Website: hortillonnages-amiens.fr

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About: The people who cultivate fruits and vegetables in the hortillonnages gardens are called the “hortillons.” Today, there are approximately ten active farms and gardens. After Amiens channeled the waterways to create the hortillonnages, market gardening became popular in the region. By using a fertilization process that involves drying and spreading mud from the canals into the gardens, and taking advantage of the region’s consistently humid climate, the hortillons create favorable growing conditions that have sustained agricultural activity for centuries. Today, the land is fertile enough that the market gardeners are able to work without the use of any extra fertilizers. This was the earliest appearance of “organic” or non-toxic growing practices. Despite the decline in market gardening over the past century, expanding interest in organic foods has prompted a renewed focus on the hortillonnages. Takeaway: Amiens’ hortillonnages illustrate the long and enduring historical linear of agriculture as an urban morphology. Ulrike Lemmin-Woolfrey, “In France, Farmers Still Tend Age-Old Island Gardens.” 2020

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Context: Amiens is a city in Northern France at the stem of the River Somme. The city developed a narrow portion of the river where the hortillonnages, or floating gardens, are located. The hortillonnages, cultivated for approximately 700 years, are shaped largely from the extraction of peat for fuel. Due to other urban expansion efforts in Amiens, the activity in the gardens has sharply declined in the past hundred years.60 In 1975, the Association for the Protection of Safeguarding of the Hortillonnages Site and Environment was formed. By 1991, it was recognized as a public utility and and began offering tours. The hortillonnages also extend across four other communities: Camon, Lamotte-Brebière, Longueau, and Rivery.

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A view of some of the plots along the Hortillonages.

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Size: 49 acres Location: Le Bec Hellouin, France Year: 2004 Land ownership: Owned by Farm Community Partners: Fondation de France, Fondation Lemarchand, Lunt Foundation, Fondation Picard, Terra Symbiosis, BALT, Fondation Iris, Fondation Daniel & Nina Carasson, Fondation Ardian, Mairie De Paris, 1 Heart 1 Tree, bpifrance, Region Normandie Employees: 2 Volunteer operations: Yes Organic Growing Practices: Yes Soil Quality: Good Green Stormwater Infrastructure: rainwater collection

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Title: La Ferme Biologique Type: Permaculture Farm Uses: Agriculture, Permaculture Education, Farmer’s Market Website: fermedubec.com

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About: La Ferme Biologique du Bec Hellouin was founded in 2004 by Perrine and Charles Hervé-Gruyer. Their operation started as a large family kitchen and garden that aimed to become self-sufficient in food production. It has evolved into a showcase of permaculture concepts and organic farming practices. To the West, there is a “forest-garden” that grows fruit from different regions of the world and creates a shelter from the winds, allowing surrounding gardens to benefit from the micro-climate. Small pastures create space for ethical animal husbandry. The variety of small environments at La Ferme Biologique have created a successful agro-ecosystem that is more resilient in the face of climate change and natural disasters. To collect rainwater, the farm utilized the slope of the land and created a network of small ponds to retain water for use during the dry season. Takeaway: Le Ferme Biologique du Bec Hellouin operated as a research and development site that share best practices through public programming, publication, and accessible documentation. Hervé-Gruyer, Charles. “PERMACULTURE AND BIO-INTENSIVE MICROAGRICULTURE: THE BEC HELLOUIN FARM MODEL.” 61

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Context: Le Bec-Hellouin is a commune and village located in the Normandy region of France. Located in a rural setting 1 km from the village center, Le Bec-Hellouin Farm deploys many permacultural and market garden traditions popularized in 19th century Paris. These techniques enabled small spaces around Paris’ inner city to yield large quantities of produce year round. Translated to the Bec Valley, which since the Neolithic period have not been cultivated due to extremely shallow soil layers, the applied permacultural methods have demonstrated that productive agricultural zones can be creates despite geological challenges. According to Charles HervéGruyer, one of the farm’s founders, permaculture growing techniques were perfected in Versailles, developed in the United States, and then returned to France where they were implemented at La Ferme Biologique in the early 2000s. The overall goal of permaculture practices is to create a self-sustaining ecosystem for the vegetation that does not rely on outside intervention from synthetic fertilizers, fossil fuel reliant machinery, or any other growing method that relies on the overexploitation of natural resources.61

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Permaculture practices have allowed the farm to produce a large variety of fruits and vegetables with minimal outside intervention.

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BIGGER PICTURE

DISCUSSIONS WITH DON: SCALING UP

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As underscored in this book, it is important to manage stormwater to reduce the burden on the combined sewer system. However, to reduce combined sewer overflows, it is necessary to analyze the system at the sewershed level and not the parcel level. A “sewershed” is similar to a watershed in that it has a common outlet point (in this case a combined sewer outlet) for all rain that falls on the landscape. Oakland Avenue Urban Farm, for example, is located in the Brush Street sewershed which experiences six to ten combined sewer overflow events per year at its Detroit River outlet. Other adjacent sewersheds might experience no overflow events in a typical year. Therefore, if the goal is keeping combined sewage out of the Detroit River, it would be important to scale up green stormwater infrastructure and urban agriculture in certain areas of the city that experience overflows – such as the Brush Street sewershed. Using the Detroit Stormwater Hub as our source of information, as of December 2020 there were 28 bioretention projects in the City of Detroit that manage 5.5 million gallons of stormwater annually. Individually, these are all valuable projects both for the residents who implemented them and for the combined sewer system, but likely do not reduce the number of overflow events due to the scattered locations. By focusing green stormwater infrastructure along the Brush Street, combined sewer overflow events could be eliminated from this sewershed.

28 TOTAL BIORETENTION PROJECTS EXIST IN THE CITY OF DETROIT THEY COLLECTIVELY MANAGE 29.7 ACRES OF LAND 5.5 MILLION GALLONS OF WATER ARE MANAGED ANNUALLY62 Detroit Stormwater Hub. “Projects.” 2020

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OAKLAND AVENUE URBAN FARM

EXISTING BIORETENTION PROJECTS IN DETROIT Source: Detroit Stormwater Hub, 2020

BRUSH SEWER LINE SEWER LINES FROM O.A.U.F. BRUSH SEWER AREA (APPROX) OAKLAND AVENUE URBAN FARM

14 12 10 8 6 4 2

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OUTFALL ID

Source: GLWA, Detroit River Outfalls Annual Frequency of Discharge (FY 2017-2018)

B010

B011

B012

B013

B014

B015

B016

B017

B018

B019

B020

B021

B022

B023

B024

B025

B026

B027

B028

B029

B030

B031

B032

B033

B034

B035

B036

B037

B038

B039

B040

B041

B042B

B044

B042A

B045

B059B

0 B059A

ANNUAL NUMBER OF DISCHARGES

URBAN FARM DISCHARGES STORMWATER RUNOFF INTO THE BRUSH STREET SEWER LINE AND CSO OUTFALL. THIS OUTFALL RELEASES MORE COMBINED SEWAGE INTO THE DETROIT RIVER THAN MOST OF THE OTHER OUTFALLS ALONG THE RIVER; APPROXIMATELY 47 MILLION GALLONS A YEAR.

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THE OAKLAND AVENUE

BRUSH SEWER LINE FARM RUNOFF BRUSH SEWER AREA (APPROX)

350

OAKLAND AVENUE URBAN FARM

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IN-STREET GREEN STORMWATER INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG OAKLAND AVENUE HAS THE CAPACITY TO MANAGE APPROXIMATELY 3 TIMES MORE RUNOFF THAN ALL OTHER BIORETENTION

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PROJECTS IN DETROIT.

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MILLION GALLONS MANAGED (ANNUALLY)

OAKLAND AVENUE URBAN FARM PROPERTIES (BIORETENTION) 5 ACRES 1 MG MANAGED

EXISTING BIORETENTION PROJECTS IN DETROIT 29.7 ACRES 5.5 MG MANAGED

PROPERTY ALONG OAKLAND AVENUE (USING IN-STREET INTERVENTIONS) 24.6 ACRES 15.9+ MG ESTIMATE

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STORMWATER MITIGATION STRATEGY ALONG OAKLAND AVENUE COULD MANAGE UP TO 15.9 MG OF RUNOFF ANNUALLY IN THE BRUSH STREET SEWER AREA.

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A UNIFIED IN-STREET

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OPPORTUNITY A: Runoff from roadways and parcels along Oakland Ave is treated and retained in bioswales that form a barrier between vehicle travel lanes and bike lanes.

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OPPORTUNITY B: Runoff from roadways and parcels along Oakland Ave is treated and retained in rain gardens that frame pedestrian crossing areas and on-street parking.

EXISTING STREET Untreated and partially treated stormwater runoff from Oakland Avenue and the adjacent properties flows directly into the combined sewer system through storm drains.

LOT WITH EXISTING HOUSE

OAKLAND

358

SIDEWALK

ON-STREET PARKING

TRAVEL LANE

359

AVENUE VACANT LOT

TRAVEL LANE

ON-STREET PARKING

SIDEWALK

OPPORTUNITY A On-street parking lanes are converted into two new bike lanes with bioswales to collect, treat, and retain stormwater runoff during wet weather events.

LOT WITH EXISTING HOUSE

OAKLAND

SIDEWALK

360

(EXISTING)

BIKE LANE

BIOSWALE

TRAVEL LANE

361

AVENUE VACANT LOT

TRAVEL LANE

BIOSWALE

BIKE LANE

SIDEWALK (EXISTING)

OPPORTUNITY B A green barriers are created between the onstreet parking lanes and the sidewalk on both sides of the street. These mini-green spaces can treat and retain stormwater runoff from the roadway and adjacent properties.

LOT WITH EXISTING HOUSE

OAKLAND

SIDEWALK

362

(EXISTING)

RAIN ON-STREET GARDEN PARKING

TRAVEL LANE

363

AVENUE VACANT LOT

TRAVEL LANE

RAIN GARDEN

SIDEWALK (EXISTING)

GLASS HALF FULL

Novel governance, particularly with regard to water meter regulation Methods for managing the land in sustainable way, including the facilitation of land trusts that will act as a shield against market inflation and preserve open space for agricultural use, even in the face of rising urban development efforts Strong supportive partnerships with legal aid organizations, environmental assessors, and other land survey resources Targeted policy inflection, developed in consideration of what beneficial measures also work best with other businesses Community engagement that reframes leisure-scaping in a way that

is comfortable and equitable, rather than triggering negative response to agriculture in urban environment We feel heartened to see how the existence of urban agriculture has already served to make cultural, economic, and ecosystemic impact in Detroit, and anticipate the renewed efforts that can thrive with a bit of tactical guidance, governmental support, and best practice implementation. The city on the strait flows ever forward, leading the way to an open horizon of possibilities.

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Our research points to urban farming as a unique asset in tactical water management and environmental remediation—in the city of Detroit, and beyond. The measures we have outlined lead the way to greater facilitation for the food security, community building, diffuse and low-cost urban infrastructure, and hands-on land management strategies embodied by urban farming as a movement and a practice in the city. Our recommendations are concerned with those measures that will lead to a sustainable urban farm in symbiotic relationship to its ecological values, but able to continue economically, so these interim solutions can last temporarily and beyond. These include:

Jean Louis Farges Prinicipal, Akoaki Jean Louis Farges is an architect and curator. As director of Akoaki, a Detroitbased architecture and design studio, his interdisciplinary research focuses on contemporary issues of architecture and urban design, while highlighting the generative impact of cultural infrastructure in the public domain. His recent work in Detroit has established his expertise in the field of emerging social strategies for urban activation, and equitable regeneration. Jean Louis Farges oversees precedent research, schematic design, construction drawings, and implementation strategies for selected water stewardship systems. Anya Sirota Associate Professor, University of Michigan, Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning; Principal, Akoaki Anya Sirota is an architectural designer and educator. As principal of the Detroitbased studio Akoaki, Sirota works at the intersection of architecture and urban design. She has received international recognition for her socio-spatial strategies for urban activation. Anya Sirota oversees precedent research, schematic design, prototyping, and construction drawings of selected water stewardship systems. Akoaki Team Liz Feltz, Designer Abirami Manivannan, Designer Sarah Rose-Sharp, Writer Sarah Wagner, Designer

Jerry Hebron Executive Director, Oakland Avenue Urban Farm Raised in Detroit’s North End neighborhood and education in the Detroit Public School system, Jerry Ann Hebron works to create an inclusive environment where people can feel safe, inspired and culturally independent. After a career in real estate and legal administration, Jerry returned to her childhood district to run the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm and give voice to the community. During the last decade, she enabled the farm to grow from a small urban parcel to a 6-acre hybrid landscape combining food production, civic actions and cultural activities. In parallel, she serves as the Executive Director of the North End Christian Community Development Corporation, which has spearheaded many community initiatives focused on education, social stabilization and equitable economic growth. Jerry Hebron oversees the materialization of the project as a symbiotic set of relationships benefiting the community and makes positive environmental impact in the North End and beyond. Carol Trowell Director, Oakland Avenue Urban Farm Director at Northend Christian CDC and a long time resident of the North End, Carol Trowell is an associate broker certified in Distressed Property and Vendor Resource Management. A leader in the local real estate community, she has earned multiple industry awards. She works with the farm team to oversee the progression of the project and continues to form relationships

CONTRIBUTORS

between the project and the North End community.

James Lesko & Stephen Gliatto Co-Founder, Fellow Citizen

Fellow Citizen is a social venture prototyping innovative community-centered development. Fellow Citizen is reactivating a vacant commercial building Natosha was first introduced to the adjacent to the Oakland Avenue Farm nonprofit world in 2008 as an Executive to create an equitable food-oriented Assistant, as well as Program Director development that will elevate the work of the AmeriCorps Next Steps Commu- of the Farm and local food entreprenity Reintegration Program . She joined neurs while creating a social space the Farm in 2017 as program director. for all. Fellow Citizen looks to inspire She has traveled to urban farms in best-practices around sustainability, Paris, St. Etienne, Geneva, Pittsburgh, including Green Stormwater InfrastrucCleveland and Chicago to learn first ture, and is partnering with the Farm to hand about best sustainable practices. develop an integrated water-use plan for She also works with the farm team to their shared footprint. In support of this, oversee the progression of the project. Fellow Citizen commissioned a detailed analysis of Detroit-specific GSI options Donald Carpenter for its property—information that James Professor of Civil Engineering, and Stephen hope will be useful to other Lawrence Technological University Detroit residents, and that contributed to Vice President, Drummond Carpenter the development of this book. Engineering + Research Partnering Organizations Donald D. Carpenter, Ph.D, PE, LEED AP is an accredited green design In addition to the project’s direct partprofessional and professional engineer ners, the Oakland Avenue Urban Farm whose expertise includes green infra- has been working cooperatively with a structure, stormwater best management range of economic development and practices (BMPs), hydrologic modeling food justice organizations in Detroit: and design, community engagement Detroit Black Community Food Security and field data collection. In addition to Network, Detroit Justice Center, Earthbeing co-founder of Drummond Carpen- works, Feedom Freedom, Keep Growing ter, he currently serves as Director of the Detroit, Detroit Food Policy Council, to Great Lakes Stormwater Management name a few. The Farm intends to involve Institute and a Professor of Practice. these friends, mentors, and experts in Don Carpenter will consult on the engi- all phases of this project, through invineering and implementation of green tations to participate in programming, stormwater infrastructure at the Farm. public conversations, publications, events, and precedent research analysis. Natosha Tallman Program Director, Oakland Avenue Urban Farm

CONTRIBUTORS

The Fred A. and Barbara M. Erb Family Foundation

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A very special thank you to the Fred A. and Barbara M. Erb Family Foundation for their support of our efforts to create an economically, ecologically, and culturally sustainable landscape in Detroit’s North End and to share new knowledge and research with farmers, designers, and residents across Detroit.

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