The Psych Perspective by Harrow International School Hong Kong

WHAT IS THE PSYCH PERSPECTIVE? The Psych Perspective is a student-led publicationbased society at Harrow Hong Kong that showcases student-written material on a variety of psychological topics. The Psych Perspective was created to give pupils the opportunity to explore the fascinating world of psychology and delve deeper into the study of the mind and human behaviour. Students are able to write about anything that piques their interest, whether it be about the horrors of the Little Albert study or the Uncanny Valley hypothesis. We hope you enjoy reading the following articles and appreciate the captivating stories and the thoughtprovoking questions raised throughout the issue.

THE TEAM Director and Editor-in-Chief

Clarinde Sanft Year 12, Wu

Director of Art and Design

Reika Oh Year 12, Gellhorn

CONTRIBUTORS

WRITERS Anjeli de Blank Year 13, Gellhorn

Tiffany Cheung Year 12, Keller

Judy Sheng Year 12, Gellhorn

Sophie Brand Year 11, Anderson

Rhea Kundamal Year 13, Anderson

Jasmine Wong Year 12, Keller

Justin Leung Year 10, Churchill

Zoe Wong Year 11, Anderson

Clarinde Sanft Year 12, Wu

Anne Zhao Year 11, Keller

Gemma Bryant Year 13, Gellhorn Agnes Chan Year 12, Wu

CONTRIBUTORS EDITORS Anjeli de Blank Year 13, Gellhorn Natasha Chan Year 12, Anderson Tiffany Cheung Year 12, Keller Valerie Ho Year 10, Anderson

Jessica Keady Year 10, Anderson Bianca Mak Year 10, Wu Clarinde Sanft Year 12, Wu

ILLUSTRATORS Jacqueline Chen Year 12, Anderson

Reika Oh Year 12, Gellhorn

Rachel Li Year 13, Wu

Megan Siu Year 12, Wu

Se Lyn Lim Year 13, Wu

Jean Wong Year 11, Anderson

Alana Kwan Year 11, Anderson

Tina Wu Year 12, Gellhorn

Kyle MacDonald Year 12, Sun

Annie Yiu Year 10, Anderson

Alyssa Wong Year 12, Anderson Zoe Wong Year 11, Anderson Anna Yiu Year 13, Anderson Carol Yeung Year 12, Keller

MESSAGES I’m honoured to present the third edition of the Psychology Harrovian. This edition inquires into a myriad of topics in psychology, from social prescribing to how personality influences behaviours such as eating meat and the redesign of the little Albert study. It’s truly been a pleasure being able to lead the development of this publication and a privilege to work with our team of contributors and to see all the effort gone into this final product. I hope all the readers take an interest in the articles and the extensive range of topics included in this issue as much as I did. I wish that they are instilled with the aspiration to delve further into the vast subject of psychology. I would like to thank all the writers' artists and editors with whom I had the incredible opportunity to work this term.

— Clarinde Sanft, Editor-in-chief and President I would like to say a huge thank you to everyone who contributed to the third issue of the Psych Perspective. It has been a pleasure to be a part of the creation process, and I very much enjoyed looking at all of the illustrators’ takes on the article titles. I hope that the compelling variety of articles ranging from social prescribing to why time seems to fly when we’re having fun paired with the illustrations provide a deeper understanding of the world around us and leave you with more questions about human behavior.

— Reika Oh, Director of Art and Design

MESSAGES I am thrilled and excited to introduce the Summer term edition of the Psychology Harrovian at Harrow, HK. My congratulations go to all the writers, editors and illustrators for their creativity, hard work and commitment towards this publication. Everyone uses Psychology on a daily basis and understanding the way your mind works helps in everyday life by allowing you to build stronger relationships and make the best decisions. People are fascinating creatures and are so diverse. These articles will give you an insight into why people behave the way they do, how personality forms and how factors like society and culture impact one’s behaviour. Some of the topics in this edition include Psychology in Entertainment, escaping from reality and looking at where our personalities come from. You might find yourself gaining a deeper understanding of the many influences that have impacted your own life. This publication is underpinned by curiosity and passion, it is a journey that these pupils have taken towards engaging with the human psyche. I hope you enjoy reading the articles and the illustrations to go with it as much as I have. — Mrs. Sharin Sikka, Academic Supervisor

TABLE OF 10 Anjeli de Blank

Stalkers: Disordered or Criminal?

16 Sophie Brand

Why does time fly when you’re having fun?

Where does our personality come from, and how does this influence common behaviours, such as eating meat? Gemma Bryant

26 Agnes Chan

Redesign of the Little Albert Study

33 Agnes Chan

The Replication Crisis in Pyschology

38 Tiffany Cheung

Eureka in the Mundane

42 Rhea Kundamal

Why do so many New Year’s resolutions fail?

CONTENTS 46 Justin Leung

The Catastrophic Effects of Self Concept

51 Clarinde Sanft

Uncanny Valley: the Enigmatical Hypothesis

The rationale behind irrationality: is all reasoning logical? Judy Sheng

60 Jasmine Wong

Social Prescribing

64 Zoe Wong

Psychology in Entertainment

Escaping from Reality, Procrastination is easy but fatal Anne Zhao

Stalkers: Criminal or Disordered? Anjeli de Blank

Illustration by Kyle MacDonald

What comes to mind when you hear the word “stalker”? Perhaps a stranger in a trench coat, following someone, watching their every move? In reality, stalkers are often far different from the mythic image that the media have painted. People who engage in stalking behaviours actually tend to vary significantly more than cultural tropes portray. Stalking is a relatively prevalent issue in today’s society: research suggests that an estimated 13.5 million people are stalked in a one-year period in the United States alone. But what causes one to become a stalker? Is there a possible psychological component that could explain such behaviour? More interestingly, are stalkers misunderstood individuals or merely criminals? To put it simply, stalking itself is not a disorder. Rather, it is a behaviour that falls under the umbrella of symptoms of various disorders. It can generally be defined as an intentional pattern of intimidating and intrusive behaviours, often repeated, that is aimed at a certain person. This could lead them to fear for their safety or those around them, as well as cause them to suffer substantial emotional distress. Stalking is often associated with a multitude of factors, ranging from biological, psychological and cultural ones. The motivations for stalking are widespread yet the most common ones are a desire to rekindle a prior relationship, a delusional belief in romance, a desire to reclaim a prior relationship, a sadistic urge to torment the victim, or a psychotic over identification with the victim.

There is a wealth of research on the psychological basis of stalking. One way in which stalking has been explained has been from an evolutionary standpoint. These obsessive behaviours can be considered a criminalised form of natural human competition and mating behaviour. Such tactics have been shaped to provide one with an advantage throughout evolutionary processes, specifically in solving mating problems such as acquiring new mates, fending off competition and reacquiring ex-mates. Another psychological explanation is that stalkers may have a variety of diagnostic labels. Research on stalkers who have entered the American or Australian criminal justice system suggests that at least half of this group experience some sort of mental disorder. These include various psychotic, mood and delusional disorders, as well as cluster-B personality disorders. These are disorders that are characterised by overly emotional and unpredictable behaviour, for instance, antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorder. Generally, these disorders are refractory to conventional psychological treatments. If the stalker knows their victim, it is typically the case that they are nonpsychotic, but instead have narcissistic, paranoid and compulsive personality disorders. Depression has also been correlated with stalking behaviours. Furthermore, many tend to have substance abuse problems, mainly involving alcohol and psychostimulant drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines.

These findings have been supported by a multitude of studies, particularly one conducted in New York City. The study used a rigorous diagnostic tool to examine the correlates of stalking behaviour and psychopathology. The sample consisted of 137 stalking offenders, across various demographics and cultural groups. The participants were interviewed and diagnosed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I and Axis II Disorders. The researchers found that 72% met the criteria for a clinical diagnosis and they discovered high rates of comorbidity: psychotic disorder (10%), mood or anxiety disorder (31%), substance use disorder (46%), and personality disorder (50%). However, it is important to note that they also found that 28% of the sample didn’t have any sort of personality, substance use, or other mental disorder. As is with many other areas of psychology, childhood experience could play a large role in predisposing one to stalk. Studies have found that anger and insecurity, often stemming from childhood, are also common among stalkers, as is impulsiveness. To investigate such an effect, it is useful to look at case studies. Richard Ramirez, infamously known as the Night Stalker, was a serial killer active in the mid-1980s who was convicted for the murders of 13 people. His childhood has been widely considered an influence on his crimes. As a young child, he was abused by his father and after learning of the crimes his cousin, Miguel, committed in the Vietnam War, he developed macabre interests. The same cousin also taught him military skills, many of which he would later go on to use against his victims. When Ramirez was 13, he watched Miguel kill his wife during an

argument. He later said that witnessing the murder wasn’t traumatic for him, but instead kindled an infatuation and sense of fascination. Shortly after the shooting, Ramirez became withdrawn and soon moved in with his older sister and her husband, Roberto. Roberto was an obsessive “peeping tom” who brought Richard along with him when he spied on young women in their neighbourhood. As he grew older, Ramirez began frequently using various drugs, and he often committed burglaries to support his addiction. Perhaps it was a culmination of these factors throughout his early and mid-childhood that led Ramirez to commit his later crimes.

But how do childhood experiences influence our adult life? In psychology, this is called the object relations theory. It states that the way in which mothers and infants interact plays a crucial role in infant growth and development. These early caretaking relationships are internalised and transformed into a sense of self. There are four pivotal subphases and an individual's development throughout these determines the degree of separateness that is achieved and influences the individual's sense of relationships. The phases are as follows: 1. Differentiation. This enables a child to be aware of the mother's separateness. 2. Practising. This stage allows the child to play an active role in determining closeness and distance. 3. Rapprochement. This involves the child's rapid attainment of new skills and independence with continued assistance. 4. Libidinal object constancy. This final stage develops the stable inner representation of the mother so that the child is able to function independently in the mother's absence. Separation-individuation is the process by which internal maps of the self and of others are formed throughout these stages. It is this ability to integrate frustrating and enjoyable experiences with another person that leads to a stable sense of self that can tolerate fluctuating emotional states. The inability to integrate these aspects of experience can lead to psychopathology, and in some cases, stalking. Stalkers often have a complex array of disturbed attachment styles; it has been found that higher rates of

cyberstalking are associated with insecure anxious attachments, which are formed during childhood and persist into adulthood. Yet a negative childhood experience does not automatically make one a stalker. The obsessive behaviour is often triggered by a life event that’s difficult to cope with, such as a breakup, firing, arrest, or rejection. There are certain risk factors including having a prior intimate relationship, the stalker's feeling of being rejected or humiliated, and generic risk factors for violence such as low educational level and substance abuse. In 1993, Paul Mullen, clinical director and chief psychiatrist at Victoria’s Forensicare, a high-security hospital for mentally ill offenders, analysed the behaviour of 145 diagnosed stalkers. From their research, Mullen et al. proposed five subtypes of stalkers to improve diagnosis and treatment plans. These five categories are extensively used today when classifying stalking behaviour. This typology emphasises the context in which the stalking arose as well as the stalker’s initial motivation, incorporates the nature of the prior relationship, and takes into account the role of mental illness. The five subtypes are: 1. The Rejected Stalking Type. They often experience the unwanted end of an intimate relationship causing them to seek revenge. Those in this category typically suffer from severe personality disturbances characterised by a tendency towards dependence, suspiciousness and exaggerated narcissism, however, the majority do not have psychotic symptoms.

1. 2. The Intimacy Seeker. This type is when one identifies a person as their true love and begins to behave as if they are in a false relationship with that person. The stalker is usually deluded by the fact that their love is reciprocated. They often suffer from severe psychiatric disorders and some have delusions such as erotomania— the belief that another person, often a prestigious person, is in love with you —or strange infatuations. 3. The Incompetent Subtype. This category is similar to the intimacy seeker in all senses but they are able to acknowledge that the love is not reciprocal. From a psychological standpoint, these stalkers are often intellectually limited and socially awkward. Because of this inability to comprehend and carry out socially normal courting rituals, they often use methods that others would find frightening. People in this category do not have a serious mental disorder but tend to be intellectually or socially vulnerable or have a narcissistic personality. 4. The Resentful Stalker. These stalkers experience feelings of injustice and desire revenge against their victim rather than a close relationship. They perceive that they have been treated unfairly and view themselves as the victim of a situation; this is reflected in their behaviour where they often have many paranoid traits. 5. The Predator. This stalker has no desire for a relationship with their victim, but rather seeks a sense of power and control. Mullen states that they find pleasure in gathering information about their victim and fantasising about assaulting them. From a diagnostic point of view, most

suffer from personality disorders and choose their victims from people they have not previously known. In many cases throughout these five subtypes stalkers present with multiple mental disorders. It may also be the case that a primary disorder is accompanied by many other personality traits that are not sufficient for an official diagnosis of personality disorder. Although this is the case, some stalkers do not suffer from any mental disorders. Instead, they may simply hold certain beliefs or lack specific skills. Because of this, they resort to using stalking rather than more socially appropriate behaviour. Another type of stalker also exists: the psychotic stalker. This can often occur as a symptom of schizophrenia. They are disconnected from reality and can have detailed delusions. Primary symptoms include an arrogant interpersonal style, for example being overly superficial, manipulative and deceitful. Moreover, they tend to have a deficient affective experience and often hold an impulsive behavioural style. Psychopathy is widely associated with an increased likelihood of perpetrating violence. Researchers examined the association between psychopathy, assessed using the Hare Psychopathy Checklist, and stalking in 61 convicted men. Psychopathic symptoms were rare, but their presence—especially that of affective deficit symptoms—was associated with the victimisation of casual acquaintances. Psychotic stalkers are criminally not responsible for their acts and have to be treated in a psychiatric hospital.

To conclude, it can factually be said that stalking itself is not a psychological disorder yet the empirical evidence suggests that there is a psychological component to predisposing someone to stalk. There may be more than meets the eye than just an obsession with a person. However, it is important to note that not everyone with psychological disorders will become a stalker; the stigma surrounding mental health issues is also at an alarmingly high level and one must be careful when making such generalisations. Similarly, not all stalkers suffer from a disorder in need of treatment, and therefore their criminal responsibility must not be diminished. More research must be done to determine if there is truly a psychological root to stalking. Do you think stalking should be classified as its own disorder?

Why does time fly when you’re having fun? Sophie Brand

Illustration by Jean Wong

If you’re like most people, you probably have a good idea of what time it is throughout the school day. As you're learning, writing notes, and going from class to class, you probably glance at the clock on a regular basis. However, when you get home and allow yourself to relax or partake in your hobby, how often do you look at the clock? Does someone have to remind you to do your homework or go to bed because you just spent 4 hours bingeing your favourite show without even realising? Throughout your life, you may have noticed that time seems to be going much faster when you’re doing something enjoyable and slower when you’re doing something boring. This has led to the rise in the new popular phenomenon: time flies when you’re having fun. The very phrase was first recorded in the 1800s but alternative versions were used earlier than this. It first originated from Virgil's Georgics where he wrote “fugit inreparabile tempus” which, in Latin, means “it escapes, irretrievable time,”. Later on, Shakespeare stated “the swiftest hours, as they flew” and 100 years after him, Alexander Pope, a well-known English Poet, used the phrase “swift fly the years” — all of which are much more elegant versions of the idiom that we have adapted today. Over the years, many neurologists and psychologists have completed numerous studies attempting to scientifically define the cause of this. Although you may be thinking that time is simply a social construct and shouldn’t be taken to science, what we call ‘time’ has actually been based on a discovery called circadian rhythms.

Your biological clock. Which is controlled by the master clock. Circadian rhythms are physical, mental, and behavioural changes that follow a 24-hour cycle. These natural processes respond primarily to light and dark and affect most living things, including animals, plants, and microbes. For example, in the average teen circadian rhythm, melatonin, the sleep hormone, is produced an hour later than adults so we feel less tired until then. Our biological clocks are our natural timing devices that control our circadian rhythms. Nearly every tissue and organ contains biological clocks. A master clock in the brain coordinates all the biological clocks in a living thing, keeping them in sync. In vertebrate animals, including humans, the master clock is a group of about 20,000 neurons that form a structure called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, or SCN. The SCN is in a part of the brain called the hypothalamus and receives direct input from the eyes. Most people notice the effect of circadian rhythms on their sleep patterns. The SCN controls the production of melatonin. It receives information about incoming light from the optic nerves, which relay information from the eyes to the brain. When there is less light—for example, at night—the SCN tells the brain to make more melatonin so you become sleepy. Knowing that we have an internal sense of time allows us to study what can affect it. Even the simple act of having fun. Psychologists who have studied this phenomenon have confirmed that people do perceive time differently depending on their mental state at the time. Researchers who have looked into time perception have made many findings. For example, researchers believe that simply being happy will not necessarily make time

seem to pass more quickly. However, if you're engaged in an activity that is focused on achieving a goal, then time really does fly by as you're having fun. They believe that the excitement generated by the active pursuit of a goal is what causes us to perceive time passing quickly. When you're really engrossed in something, the brain anticipates the "big picture" and sees both the near and the distant ‘ends’, which makes time seem to flutter by. However, when you're bored, you anticipate the closer ‘ends’ such as the end of a class instead of the end of the day; these horizons aren't knit together as a whole, so time seems to elongate. According to neurologists, there isn't a single spot in the brain that's responsible for how we perceive time in this way. Instead, this incident doesn’t actually have anything to do with a specific part of the brain itself. "There are almost certainly a multitude of timing mechanisms in the brain," says Joe Paton, a neuroscientist at the Champalimaud Foundation, a private biomedical research foundation in Portugal. One of these mechanisms involve the speed at which brain cells activate one another and form a network when you're performing an activity. The faster those paths of neurons form, the faster we perceive time. Another more important mechanism involves chemicals in the brain. Paton and his colleagues found a set of neurons that releases the neurotransmitter dopamine which impacts how the brain perceives time. In summary, when you're having fun, these cells become more active, so they

release a lot of dopamine and your brain believes that less time has passed than actually has. Inside your brain, you have millions of cells called neurons. These neurons are your brain’s way of communicating messages throughout your body. They do this through releasing small molecules called neurotransmitters. One neuron will release a neurotransmitter and the other will pick it up. Each neurotransmitter has a specific message that is being transferred from cell to cell. One of these neurotransmitters is called dopamine. Dopamine is a chemical that gives us the sense of pleasure and reward. For example, when you are eating something delicious, you sense pleasure and satisfaction because dopamine is being passed within your brain. In fact, drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine work by enabling more dopamine to reach the receptors on the receiving neurons, giving a person a sense of euphoria. It's a big part of our unique human ability to think and plan. It helps us strive, focus, and find things interesting. Too much or too little of it can lead to a vast range of health issues. Some are serious, like Parkinson’s disease or schizophrenia while others are much less dire.

Dopamine also plays a key role in interval timing. With that, the dopamine clock hypothesis was founded. The dopamine clock hypothesis tells us that increased dopamine release speeds up an animal’s subjective sense of time—its internal clock. For example, rats treated with amphetamine, a drug which enhances dopamine release, respond earlier to their environment than when they are tested without the drug. Curiously, a simple conclusion of the dopamine clock hypothesis would seem to be that time doesn’t fly, but rather slows down, when you’re having fun. This means that dopamine has the ability to interfere with your internal clock. Now, you might think that that doesn’t make any sense. If time “flies by” when you’re having fun, shouldn’t time speed up in my mind? Actually, it’s just the opposite. You have your internal clock that controls your mind and the real clock that is on your wall. Dopamine interferes with your internal clock so that when the clock on the wall moves 30 minutes, your internal clock takes the same amount of time to only move 15 minutes. Therefore, your brain feels like only 15 minutes have gone by but you look up at the clock on the wall and 30 minutes have actually gone by. So why does this happen? When you are having fun or experiencing pleasure, your internal clock is slowed down by dopamine so your brain actually has a better opportunity to engage in the situation. Your brain is therefore able to process things more in-depth because it’s working at a much slower rate. This gives you a better opportunity to engage in situations that are fun or rewarding for you without being fully aware of the time that passes. So our brain makes us feel like time moves too fast, but this lets us

enjoy our situation more. This is also the same reason why time also flies when we are extremely focused on a task. Another interesting find is that we tend to perceive time differently from memory compared to when the events are taking place. For example, if you're on holiday having fun, the days seem to go by so quickly. If you're back at home and doing something unengaging, however, the days might seem to drag by very slowly. When you think about these events several months later, your perceptions of them are usually reversed. On one hand, those boring days that seemed to elongate as you experienced them seem to have occurred quickly when you look back on them. On the other hand, your holiday will seem like it lasted much longer than it felt at the time. Researchers have also studied this and have found that it’s all because of how your memory works in general. When you think back about something, you retrieve events from your memory in order to reconstruct events and attempt to judge the duration of time those events lasted. On holiday, you made lots of memories and there are many events to recover. These many events make your vacation seem longer in memory than it felt as it was occurring. Conversely, when you look back over a typical week with few specific or unique memories, those few memories make that time seem like it passed much more quickly than it did. So just remember, the next time you are having fun with your friends or family, the reason why it felt so fun was because time slowed down in your mind. If this didn’t happen, you wouldn’t have been as engaged with the situation as you were. You can thank dopamine for that. Allow this article to remind you that every minute counts, literally.

Where does our personality come from, and how does this influence common behaviours, such as eating meat? By Gemma Bryant

Illustration by Rachel Li Introduction According to the American Psychological Association, personality “refers to the individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking”. Personality is one of the main governing factors in how we behave in certain situations, such as dictating how we act in social situations based on being extroverted (being outgoing and confident) or introverted (being shy and reserved). Where does personality come from? Personality is one of the main factors which dictate our behaviour in everyday life, but where does it come from? Does personality develop over time or are we genetically predisposed to have a specific personality type from birth? There are certain personality traits that we can be genetically predisposed to have, such as neuroticism (which predisposes us to feel

anxious or angry) and extraversion (tendency to experience positive emotions), however, there are also environmental influences which can shape us into the people we are today. One argument for the origins of personality can come from genetics, suggesting that personality traits are based on nature rather than nurture. Research into molecular genetics has shown that genes play a role in determining our personality, based on predetermining us to have certain traits. A study conducted by J Ekelund, D Lichtermann, M R Järvelin and L Peltonen found a link between the type four dopamine receptor (DRD4) gene and the behavioural trait of novelty seeking. This supports the idea that genetics can dictate certain characteristics of individuals. 21

Another factor that should be considered in shaping our personality is the environment we find ourselves in. The brain isn’t fully developed until the age of 25, with the last part of the brain to be developed is the prefrontal lobe, which is responsible for behaviours such as impulse control (managing emotional reactions). This suggests that environmental factors experienced before the age of 25 may have had a lasting effect on one's behaviour. An example of this is brain injury and the links it has to violent behaviour. A study conducted by Huw Williams et al. (2010) showed that 60% of 196 inmates in a UK prison recorded one or more head injuries in their youth. Acquiring such injuries can cause the developing brain to misfire, affecting regions such as the amygdala, which can affect behaviour, such as making someone more aggressive. When looking at the origins of something, such as personality, it is reductionistic to argue that there is only one cause (either nature or nurture). Personality is a complex idea, which is unique to the individual. To fully understand such a concept, both the role of genetics and the environment must be considered. It can be suggested that our personalities develop into what they are today because we are genetically predisposed to have certain traits, but these traits can be brought about by the environment we live in. For example, one may be predisposed to have more neurotic traits, however it may be growing up in a certain environment which causes these traits to be more prominent.

Personality is extremely flexible. As a person develops, certain traits they once had also change. From childhood to adulthood, we experience different things, which in turn elicit new reactions we once might not have had. For example, a child doesn’t know not to touch a hot surface until they touch it and experience pain and learn to not touch it again. Personality, therefore, in the same way can be classically conditioned. The personality trait of being more quiet can be classically conditioned in response to being told off for speaking. Traits and characteristics can be learned in response to situations we are put in. On the surface, the desire to adopt these new behaviours can come from a desire to be accepted within society, and as society is ever changing, our personalities learn to adapt over time. Looking deeper, the developments in personality could link to evolution, where as a species we are constantly evolving in order to increase our chances of survival, just as birds evolved to be able to fly, Humans evolved to have the desire to change their personality. An important aspect to consider when suggesting that personality can be learnt is child psychology. Children are extremely vulnerable to external influences, especially from parental figures or people in positions of authority. Evidence for this comes from Social Learning Theory, where observing a behaviour from a model can encourage the imitation of said behaviour (however this doesn’t only apply to children). Studies such as Bandura et al (1961) which showed that children who had witnessed the aggressive model were likely to completely or partially imitate the aggression. This shows the susceptibility of children and behaviours they exhibit.

The children in Bandura’s (1961) study were not necessarily born to exhibit aggressive behaviours, but observing aggressive behaviour led to imitation. This can be applied to other personality traits, such as extraversion., where a child observing their parents being confident around other people can lead children to act in the same way. When considering the factors above, the most logical assumption is to see personality traits as something we are predisposed to have, but it is the environmental influences that we are exposed to (such as brain injury and upbringing) that truly determines how we behave. Why is there a debate on whether or not we should eat meat?

Figure 1: “Percentage of self-identified vegetarians in FooDS surveys from May 2013 to May 2018”, graph, “Is the percentage of vegetarians and the vegans in the U.S. increasing?” Animal Charity Evaluators, August 16, 2018, https://animalcharityevaluators.org/blog/is -the-percentage-of-vegetarians-andvegans-in-the-u-s-increasing/#Graph1 The graph shown in figure one outlines data from a FooDS survey, which shows a positive correlation between percentages of self identified vegetarians in recent years. The graph shows that there has

been a steady increase of people becoming vegetarian, despite the prevalence of eating meat in past generations. The somewhat sudden rise in vegetarianism suggests that there are a multitude of issues that are coming to light, including ethical and environmental issues. Ethical issues of eating meat are relevant because it involves ending the life of another being. Although some argue that it is our right to be able to consume animals if we wish, due to being higher in the food chain and being intellectually superior, there are many arguments against this, such as the rights of animals and the idea of a life still being a life regardless of intellectual standing. Taking the life of another sentient being just because we desire it not out of physical necessity raises issues. Why is it acceptable for us to consume farm animals such as cows and pigs, however, countries such as South Korea and Vietnam who consume dog meat are deemed inhumane for doing so. I think the main ethical issues surrounding our consumption of meat is the act of taking the life of another being, which is not completely justifiable, as our only form of reasoning is that we are higher on the food chain. The main issue with the logic of being able to kill beings below us is that in some ways could be extended into our roles within society, where those with a lower status mean less than those with a higher status. Aside from ethical issues, another persuasive factor is environmental issues, and what consuming animal products does to our planet. It is not the specific act of consuming meat which harms the planet, it is the unsustainable nature of

how meat is farmed. As livestock is raised, specifically cows and sheep, create large amounts of methane (through their digestion process), where the UN predicts it makes up more than 14% of all man made greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases have a detrimental effect on our environment through contributing greatly to climate change (by trapping heat in the atmosphere). The Myers Briggs personality There are many personality traits which influence our behaviour. The Myers Briggs test simplifies these traits and categorises them into a combination of five letters to describe your ‘personality type’ based on which traits are shown in response to different situations (answers determined from answering a questionnaire). Each letter represents a certain category, such as, the mind, energy, nature, tactics and identity.

The first letter (the mind) represents introversion (I) or extroversion (E). Someone who is more introverted would tend to observe rather than be the centre of attention , whilst extroverts are the opposite. The second letter (energy) refers to how information is taken, where one can focus on the reality of how things are, represented by the letter S (sensing) or can imagine the possibilities of how things could be, represented by the letter I (intuition). The third letter (nature) represents how one prefers to make decisions where making decisions using logical reasoning is shown by T (thinking) whilst making decisions based on personal value is shown by F (feeling). The fourth letter (tactics) represents how you deal with the world, thinking rules should be respected is shown by J (judging) and seeing rules as flexible is shown by P

(perceiving). The final letter (identity) represents our confidence in our abilities and decisions we make. Being more self assured and even tempered is represented by the letter A (assertive) whilst being more of a perfectionist and self conscious is represented by the letter T (turbulent). The various combinations of these letters make up personality types which we all fit into, such as ISTJ-T, which means that this individual's answers to specific questions makes them mostly introverted, sensing, thinking, judging and turbulent. Although using the Myers-Briggs test can provide a good baseline of what someone's personality is, it can be argued that it is reductionistic as it groups a multitude of characteristics into 5 letters, which may leave some information out. Furthermore, the way in which letters are allocated, with the characteristic having the higher percentage becoming your main personality type, has some issues, for example, someone who is 52 percent introverted and 48 percent extroverted will be represented by the letter ‘I’, but still be somewhat extroverted. The link between eating meat and personality Personality dictates many aspects of our lives, including our choice to eat meat. For example, someone who has the letter T (thinking) in their personality type, may tend to be more apathetic, as they make decisions based on facts rather than feelings, this suggests that they may be more likely to eat meat based on nutritional value, rather than be swayed by ethical issues. In contrast, someone with the letter F (feeling) instead of T may have more empathetic traits, which

suggests they may consider being vegetarian as they are more aware of ethical issues. Personality can encompass many factors surrounding why we choose to eat meat, including how we react to the moral issues surrounding eating meat. Those who have more the sensing trait, represented by the letter S in their personality type may be more aware of the realities surrounding how certain animals are farmed in the inhumane nature behind this, making them more likely to not want to eat meat, whereas those who are more intuitive, may ignore the harsh reality of this and think of the more positive aspects, such as how some meat may be farmed ethically. Perhaps personality itself isn’t completely responsible for our attitudes towards eating meat, however it is the interactions with other factors that have a more impressionable effect.

Overall conclusion Personality type on its own plays a role to an extent, influencing how we react to issues raised by eating meat. However, perhaps a stronger relationship comes from how personality interacts with other factors, such as upbringing. Although there are other factors which provide a valid explanation for differing attitudes, it may be more appropriate to consider a multitude of factors together, such as upbringing and biological disposition, as both social and biological elements are intertwined and influence each other. In conclusion, it is important to consider the range of factors in relation to one another, as each approach individually has weaknesses and is rather reductionistic. Being able to consider personality alongside other influences has allowed us to gain a deeper understanding of factors which affect our attitudes towards eating 25 meat.

Redesign of the Little Albert Study Agnes Chan Introduction This experiment looks to design a variation of Watson and Rayner’s 1920 Little Albert study under modern ethical guidelines and improve the study in terms of generalisability and validity. The purpose of the original study was to observe if emotional reactions could be elicited using associative learning. Little Albert was classically conditioned to develop a fear response towards a small white rat (and by extension, other furry objects) after repeated exposure to the rat, followed by a loud noise. They also aimed to remove the conditioned emotional response but were unable to, as the boy and his mother left the hospital before this could begin. (Davey) The Little Albert study was monumental as one of the first experiments investigating and demonstrating classical conditioning of fear in humans. The study played a vital role in the development of many types of therapies (e.g treatments for phobias); in fact, the basis for modern exposure therapies can be traced directly to the work of Watson and Mary Cover Jones. (Davey). However, weaknesses in the experimental design of the study such as lack of generalisability and ethical considerations pose a number of issues. The results may not have been accurate due to the impact of participant variables and subjective data collection methods, 26 and cannot be applied to a wider

population due to lack of representation in the sample. The focus of this study is to condition a response of love/happiness rather than one of anger/fear. Ideally, this will also set a precedent for how to conduct a study similar to the Little Albert Study ethically while also taking generalisability, validity andreliability into consideration. (Note that in this study the term parent will be used to refer only to the child’s primary caregiver.) The original little Albert experiment The Little Albert study used only one sample, meaning it lacked a control subject and that results could not be generalised to others. Especially because Little Albert did not have a typical upbringing, these findings would therefore have been unique to him and cannot be generalised to other children. In addition, the ethics of the Little Albert study have also been a concern as there are speculations as to whether Albert’s mother was aware of the nature of the study raising issues with consent and deception. Furthermore, Albert was put through severe distress during the procedures and sustained permanent psychological damage (as his fear of rats and furry things remained permanent). (McLeod) Nevertheless, the study provided evidence that fear responses could be conditioned, ‘transferred’ to other stimuli

and could persist over time. The authors suggested a number of possible ways of treatment for ‘deconditioning the phobia’ could proceed. Their first suggestion was to repeatedly expose Albert to the fearprovoking stimuli without presenting the UCS. A second suggestion was to ‘recondition’ Albert by presenting the feared objects while simultaneously stimulating erogenous zones or while simultaneously feeding him candy or other food. Watson also suggested ‘modelling’, which would have allowed Albert to acquire new behaviour by imitating people who did not behave fearfully or by direct manipulation of his responses around the object of fear. (Davey) Research question and hypotheses There were 4 research questions for Watson and Rayner’s study: ‘(1) Can we condition fear of an animal, e.g., a white rat, by visually presenting it and simultaneously striking a steel bar? (2) If such a conditioned emotional response can be established, will there be a transfer to other animals or other objects? (3) What is the effect of time upon such conditioned emotional responses? (4) If after a reasonable period such emotional responses have not died out, what laboratory methods can be devised for their removal?’ (Watson & Rayner, 1920). These have been reconstructed to fit the new aims. 1. Can we elicit a positive emotional response to a certain object using classical conditioning? 2. If such a conditioned emotional response can be established, will there be a transfer to other objects? 3. What is the effect of time upon such conditioned emotional responses?

conditioned emotional responses? 4. If after a reasonable period such emotional responses have not died out, what laboratory methods can be devised for their removal? Null hypotheses 1. Positive emotional responses towards an object cannot be elicited simply through classical conditioning. 2. There will not be any transfer of conditioned emotional responses to other objects. 3. Time has no effect on conditioned emotional responses. 4. There are no laboratory methods that can be devised for the removal of conditioned emotional responses. Experimental hypotheses 1. Emotional responses towards an object can be elicited simply through classical conditioning. 2. There will be transfer of conditioned emotional responses to other objects. 3. Time has an effect on conditioned emotional responses. 4. There are existing laboratory methods that can be devised for the removal of conditioned emotional responses. Method The two conditions of the independent variable will be the presence/absence of the parent’s affection (UCS) paired with the object (NS). The dependent variable will be the reaction/behaviour of the participant; this will be characterised by facial expressions and body language presentation, and will be measured through observation.These responses will be tallied and organised into behavioural categories as a means of operationalisation, this also allows for systematic observations enhancing validity. (Main categories: no/negative/ 27

positive response, subgroups: moderate and strong)

weak,

Sample The target population will consist of children aged 2-3, and their parents, of different genders and socioeconomic backgrounds. Originally random sampling and stratified sampling were considered (as this would collect the most representative sample), however, because the whole target population cannot be listed, these sampling methods cannot be used. Therefore, a volunteer sampling method will be used, as purposive sampling is a good way to get a specialised group of participants (in this case young children and their parents). More specifically, public physical and virtual advertisements will be placed in locations within the general area of the study (e.g. a billboard); this would allow parents to take time to consider participation, then willingly give informed consent if desired. In turn, this would also potentially help identify certain similarities in personality between parents, and, by extension, parenting styles. The participants will all then be screened using body checks and questionnaires to ensure they are all mentally and physically healthy; if a participant shows signs of illness, they will be excluded from the study. The selected participants will then be given an additional questionnaire, that will record the participants’ general information (e.g. age, sex, etc.), and will also evaluate their personality, intelligence quotient and the parents’ parenting style (categorised using Barumind’s 4 styles of parenting).

Design A matched pairs design will be used. The children will be matched by age, gender, personality and parenting style. One

member of the pair will be allocated to the experimental group and the other to the control group. This way participant variables will be accounted for, minimizing their effects on the results of the study. Preparation Before any procedures take place, the parents will be briefed on the nature and purpose of the study as well as data collection, usage and protection. This is to ensure there is no deception, and fully informed consent is obtained, the participants have the right to withdraw themselves or their data at any point of the study. All parents will then be told the instructions they should follow (according to which group they are in) and be given a summary of how each session will be conducted. The children will also be briefed, however in a way they can understand as they are very young. Because the parents themselves are also a part of the study, the children will always have supervision from a familiar adult (decreasing risk of distress). Baseline testing (for the unconditioned and neutral stimuli) Each child will be presented with the stimuli. The researcher will then document which stimuli the child had an emotional response to and which stimuli the child had no emotional response to. The object the child showed the least response to will be used as their NS during the experiment. Each child will be shown different forms of affection from their parents (e.g. hugs, caresses, etc). The researcher will document if the affection evoked a positive response and which action caused the strongest response. This will be the UCS in the experiment.

Illustration by Zia Cheung Procedure (for the experimental group) Each session focuses on 1 of the 4 research questions, sessions 1-2 focus on (1) and sessions 3, 4 and 5 focus on (2), (3) and (4) respectively. Session 1 (takes place in lab environment)

Session 1 (takes place in lab environment) The children will be presented with the NS. If the child reaches for the object, their parents will show them affection (e.g a hug (UCS)). This would be repeated two more times in the session.

Session 2 (takes place in lab environment) - a week after session 1 The children will be presented with the NS, and if the child reaches for the object, their parents will show them affection (the UCS). This will be repeated three more times. The child will then be presented with a random object to ensure that the emotional reaction was to the UCS only. At the end of the session, the child will be presented with the NS (the object) without the UCS. Session 3 (takes place in lab environment) - a week after session 2 The child will be presented with the object without the UCS. They will then be introduced to other objects that are similar to the NS to see if the conditioned emotional response has transferred to them. Session 4 (take place in field environment) - a week after session 3 The child will again be presented with the NS paired with the UCS, to ensure the CR has not weakened drastically. The child will be presented with all the objects they were previously introduced to (but in a different room) ; this is to see if the CR would be replicated in a field environment that the child is more comfortable in. Session 5 (takes place in lab environment)- a month after session 4 The child will be tested again (i.e presented with the object without the UCS). This is done to assess the effect of time on the conditioned responses. Session 6 (takes place in lab environment) - 2 months after session 5 The children will undergo two treatment methods to remove their CR. The child will be repeatedly exposed to the CS without the UCS for 1 week, effectively making the conditioned response extinct. Afterwards, the child will be presented with the CS once again to see if the CR is still present; 29

if it is, the children will observe models who did not exhibit emotional reactions towards the object, in order to incite imitation of that behaviour and unlearning of the CR. Afterwards, the child will be presented with the CS once again to see if the conditioned response is still present. If so, further treatments will take place. Procedure (for the control group) The participants in the control group will go through all the same sessions as the experimental group (in the same time frame and the same environment, etc). However, in all sessions, they will only be exposed to the object (NS) each time and will not be presented with the UCS. Debriefing and post-screening (for all participants) As the parents will be present throughout the entire study, they will be aware of all the procedures that have taken place. However, they will still be debriefed to relieve any discomfort that may have been caused during the study and any enquiries (of both parents and children) will be answered honestly. As the children are still very young and may not understand the study, they will still be told (in a way they can understand) what the study’s aims were and given an explanation regarding the procedures. The parents and children will then be presented questionnaire 3, to ensure that no permanent harm was done. The participants may also go through body checks and if there is any damage present, appropriate treatment will be provided.

Data collection/handling/analysis For each session, multiple researchers will be present to observe the behaviour of the participants. The observations will be written down and also organised into behavioural categories then tallied using the table above. This allows for a range of data to be collected: The qualitative data represents the complexity of human behaviour without reducing them to just numerical values), while the quantitative data is easier to analyse statistically. It should be noted that the qualitative data could be considered subjective due to potential observer bias; multiple observers will be present, leading to inter-observer reliability. Inferential statistical testing could be used to analyse the quantitative data and confirm whether the H0 should be rejected, comparisons between results from when the experimental group underwent the two different conditions of the independent variable can be made using the numerical values. The researcher could then analyse if there are patterns emerging of how the individual observers score and rate the emotional reaction/intensity. Many comparisons can also be made e.g between the control and experimental group or between the two deconditioning strategies. A bar graph can be used to present the data (examples shown on the side*), e.g the number of participants (in both groups) that showed a positive response after each session could be presented on a graph. Additionally, the researchers will use thematic analysis qualitative data to display the key findings in a more concise format, so detailed conclusions can be easily drawn.

The Replication Crisis in Psychology Agnes Chan

Replication and its importance in science and psychology Replication is the action of copying or reproducing something, especially in research. The process of replicating research determines the extent to which findings can be generalised across time and various situations. There are two types of replication: direct and conceptual. Direct replication refers to the attempted reproduction of a previously observed result using a procedure that does not pose any theoretical reason for expecting a different result. In a direct replication, protocols from the original study are followed with different samples of the same or similar materials: as such, a direct replication reflects the current beliefs about what is needed to produce a finding. In a conceptual replication, a different methodology is used to test the same hypothesis: as such, by using multiple methodologies, conceptual replications can provide evidence that allows researchers to converge on an explanation for a finding that is not conditional on anyone's procedure. (Nosek, and Errington) Direct replication can confirm that a finding is reproducible; however, reproducibility does not certify validity. By

providing convergent evidence across methodologies, conceptual replication can promote confidence in the explanation for a finding, but such evidence, on its own, does not certify the reproducibility of any individual piece of evidence. Jointly, direct and conceptual replication provides certainty in the reproducibility of a finding and the explanation for the finding. (Nosek, and Errington) Reproductivity and replicability are extremely important in determining the accuracy of scientific methods because if trials cannot be performed with different input parameters and with certain observed changes in the output, the reliability and validity of the research can be questioned. However, replication is particularly essential in psychology as research is used to learn more about our species and applied in real-life situations in the field of mental health care, medicine, education and other fields like business and politics. Replication in psychology is especially difficult due to the sheer complexity of human behaviour; countless factors that affect the way people act. Thus, replication is crucial to verify results and to determine whether the outcome was due to the specific variables being tested or random chance. Not to mention that some studies

in the past are not able to be replicated today due to new ethical standards and guidelines being put in place.

more highly significant results than those that barely reached the significance threshold.

What is the replication crisis in psychology, and why is it important? Currently, science is going through a replication crisis. This article focuses on psychology because it is the field most closely integrated with the replication crisis and also the field where the most examination has been conducted. The credibility of findings in psychological science is being questioned due to researchers not being able to replicate results when repeating a study using similar procedures. As a result, the accuracy of published findings and research practices is now being questioned and under scrutiny.

This report was controversial because it questioned the validity of research shared in academic journals. Publication in high profile journals requires the research to be subjected to a rigorous peer-review process. It is assumed the conclusions shared are reliable and others can now replicate or build upon the work (Woodell). Following the study, more labs began to perform reproductions and a disturbing trend emerged: a large portion of studies across multiple fields of science failed the replication test.

Maxwell et al. states that "often, the first study showed a statistically significant result, but the replication does not. Questions then arise about whether the first study results were false positives, and whether the replication study correctly indicates that there is truly no effect after all." Replication projects in the mid-2010s raised concerns about questionable research practices and publication bias and the crisis heightened in 2015 when a group of psychologists published a scientific report that highlighted the severity of the issue. When 270 psychologists attempted to replicate 100 experiments published in top journals, only around 40 per cent of the studies held up. The remainder either failed or yielded inconclusive data. And again, the replications that did work showed weaker effects than the original papers. The 34studies that managed to replicate had

Actions taken for the future The replication crisis may result in decreased public trust and confidence in psychology as well as repercussions like renowned psychologists leaving the field due to willful misrepresentation or falsification of research findings. However, this has also become an opportunity for the field to reform in order to make psychological research more credible and improve the perception of the subject as a whole. As there is now more positive selfexamination within our science and the development of new, innovative, accurate methodology and an improved ethic of openness and transparency with research. (Frias‐Navarro et al.) Psychologists are developing various strategies to ensure greater credibility for future findings. Firstly, more replications are now being conducted of emerging findings with more reliable and accurate measures with larger sample sizes. Once a finding is considered significant, a system of rigorous reproduction would review the results

using the same procedure before it is taken as fact. Secondly, preregistration is used more in practice. This involves recording hypotheses and analysis plans in advance. Researchers have had the freedom to alter a study's hypothesis after the results are in for a long time, but this poses the risk of researcher bias. Some researchers may change a hypothesis to fit unforeseen results or interpret data differently and document only the most desired outcomes. Preregistration now gives researchers less space in their analysis and increases the likelihood that any seemingly significant findings are due to more than chance. However, preregistration alone is not likely to solve the problems with research malpractice unless reviewers, editors, publishers, and readers ensure that researchers follow their preregistered hypotheses and analysis plans (Prike). Furthermore, beyond preregistration, registered reports are more commonly used. Registered Reports is a publishing format that highlights the research question's importance and the methodology's quality by conducting peerreview before collecting data. High-quality protocols are then provisionally accepted for publication if the authors follow through with the registered methodology.This design eliminates questionable research practices, such as those we have already mentioned while allowing complete flexibility to report serendipitous findings. Thirdly, there has been considerable discussion about how statistics are used within psychology and other scientific fields. In various articles, books, and

publications, many have criticised the use of p-values, notably the p < 0.05 cut-off traditionally used to determine 'statistical significance' and the phrase 'statistically significant' itself. With many new options of different approaches to take, there is still much disagreement about what new statistical practices should be adopted or how researchers should move forward, with various potential solutions proposed (Prike). Lastly, in addition to the development of specific procedures to lessen unreliable research practices, approaches and incentives in the field have changed; there has been a push for more transparency and openness in the field. Some initiatives devoted to increasing transparency and credibility include the Open Science Collaboration, the Society for the Improvement of Psychological Science, and the Psychological Science Accelerator. Moreover, the process of releasing data and research findings has changed. Traditionally, data collected has been kept private by psychologists; however, more research is now openly available, bringing many possible advantages for the subject as a whole and individual researchers. For instance, other scientists can now reanalyse data to help verify the results or check for errors, provide safeguards against misconduct (such as data fabrication) and even reuse the data for various purposes. Without open data, these reanalyses would not be possible. Therefore the scientific knowledge would either not be generated at all or would require the recollection of the same, or highly similar data, leading to waste and inefficiency in the use of resources (Tenopir et al., 2011 cited in (Prike)). 35

Illustration by Zia Cheung Researchers sometimes release their data publicly, as articles with publicly available data are often more frequently cited (Christensen et al., 2019; Piwowar & Vision, 2013 cited in (Prike)), thus garnering their research more recognition. Additionally, willingness to share data is associated with the strength of evidence and quality of the reporting of statistical results (Wicherts et al., 2011cited in (Prike)).

However, many difficulties that may arise when looking at published data, such as incomplete data, missing instructions, and insufficient information provided. This means that even when data are publicly shared, independent researchers may still regularly face considerable hindrances and may not be able to analytically reproduce the results reported in the paper (Hardwicke et al., 2018; Obels et al., 2020; Stagge et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2016 cited in (Prike)).

Another practice that is happening more frequently in science is the public publishing of study materials or instruments and experimental procedures (Christensen et al., 2019 cited in (Prike)). This practice contributes to increasing transparency in scientific work as it clearly shows the exact procedures used in the study to editors, reviewers, and readers of articles, which allows for easier assessment and evaluation of the study’s methodologies as well as materials used. Furthermore, openly sharing materials and procedures also has the additional benefits of helping other researchers to conduct direct and conceptual replications of the research as well as to conduct follow up studies that attempt to adapt or expand on some or all of the aspects of the study without the need to contact the original authors or spend time and resources reproducing or creating new study materials and procedures. Doing this again ensures the reproducibility of the results (Prike).

replication results from multiple studies rather than single efforts to replicate a finding.

In the future, psychology will be more transparent as well as the study planning and data analysis. All will have more routine follow-up testing of results to make sure they can be reliably observed, and study designs that are well-suited to the scientific questions at hand. There are still uncertainties with which approaches (especially regarding statistics) will ultimately be most useful in increasing the accuracy of psychological findings. Behavioural research is inherently probabilistic, not deterministic; probabilistic results will always lead to failures to replicate, with predictable patterns, even when an effect is present. Therefore in the future, psychological science should focus on overall patterns of

Eureka in the Mundane

Illustration by Jacqueline Chen

Tiffany Cheung

The same four walls of your bedroom. The same dusty laptop screen. The same ‘dings’ of your phone notifications. It’s all the same. The days when attending online classes from the comfort of your bed and having the newfound liberty to schedule tasks whenever your heart desires brought you a dopamine rush are long gone; the monotonous dread of another day stuck inside crept in without you knowing. Routine is nice. Yet, sooner or later, the lack of refreshing stimuli that comes with a routine can leave us feeling extraordinarily dull and uninspired. It is as if, with each passing day, more and more creative juices flow out of our brains, leaving behind an empty shell of what we used to be. But what exactly is ‘inspiration’? Psychologists Thrash and Elliot created the Inspiration Scale to measure levels of inspiration. It describes inspiration as a construct of three main qualities: evocation, transcendence and approach motivation. Evocation: Inspiration occurs spontaneously and without intention; it happens to you rather than something you choose or plan to experience. Transcendence: the experience of something that is beyond usual and everyday occurrences. When inspiration hits, awe and power hit you in waves, and you experience certainty and clarity about things and are acutely aware of new possibilities. Approach Motivation: Inspiration causes you to take purposeful action and motivates you to create or do something new; it introduces you to the possibility of achieving something you had previously thought impossible and transforms your perception of your own capabilities.

So how exactly do we gain or regain inspiration? Archimedes, a Greek Mathematician, is perhaps more famous to some for his shower Eureka moment than his academic achievements, albeit revolutionary. A sudden flash of an idea came upon him while in the bathtub. Upon realising how to detect forged gold, he raced to the streets naked, screaming, 'Eureka!! Eureka!!' The principle of buoyancy came out of his Eureka moment, and perhaps, so did the idea that inspiration comes when one is showering. We cannot force inspiration. When we reach a stump, we often enter a state of forced 'brainstorming' or 'getting my life together, yet that simply implies us staring blankly into the deep abyss—our blank word document. More often than not, it may be because we're simply trying too hard and overloading our brains with information to come up with a solution. Hence, the rarity of solitude and relaxation in our busy lives makes the shower experience compelling. It is a moment of clarity, a clear path to solving challenges and incomprehensible, puzzling situations. It offers us the chance to be distracted. It forces us to take a break to disengage from fixating on ineffective solutions—a burst of realisation away from the complex obsessing thoughts. Through his research survey, Barry Kaufman, a cognitive scientist, discovered that 72% of people got their inspiration while taking a shower. It was also revealed that, unlike in the workplace, people disengage themselves from the world's complexities in the bathroom, giving room for the brain to

There is also value in discovering different mundane situations which work just as well in pulling us out from our creative slump because, well, showers just aren't always accessible. For me, that's sharpening all the pencils in my pencil pouch, reorganising my stationery by colour, and making my morning cup of tea. The half-conscious mode before I fall into deep slumber is also one where many ideas come to me, be it ironic. remain more focused on creativity and inspiration. We’re more likely to have a creative epiphany when we take a shower. Since scrubbing off the soap and standing under the faucet don’t require much thought, our brains flip to autopilot. This frees up our unconscious to work on something else. Our minds wander, leaving our brains to quietly play a no-holds-barred free association game. This kind of daydreaming relaxes the prefrontal cortex —the brain’s command centre for decisions and behaviour. The rest of our brain’s “‘default mode network’” (DMN) is also switched on, clearing the pathways that connect different regions of our brain. With your cortex loosened up and the DMN switched on, we make creative connections that our conscious mind would have otherwise dismissed.

When focused on a task, our brains tend to censor unconventional solutions. When thinking hard about a problem, it deactivates our default network and boosts our prefrontal cortex. It tightens our focus and gives us the power to stop gawking at cat pictures and hit the deadline. It drags you into a creative rut.

Yet, in dire and urgent circumstances, we simply cannot rely on a quick shower or pray for that rare spark of inspiration to come to us. So how can we alter our behaviour in our daily lives to make ourselves more susceptible to sparks of inspiration? Motivation researcher Carol Dweck has found that people with a growth mindset believe they can learn, develop skills, and solve problems through application, dedication, and hard work— while those with a fixed mindset believe their capacity to learn is predetermined and limited. Hence, while inspiration remains spontaneous and cannot be predetermined, there are ways to make inspiration more likely to occur. Perhaps you've always wanted to compose a piece of music. Go to a writers' workshop. Attend a masterclass by your favourite contemporary composer, or simply pick up an autobiography of a prolific composer. Whatever your ambition may be, try to place yourself in an environment with people who can inspire you to grow and learn.

Yet, in dire and urgent circumstances, we simply cannot rely on a quick shower or pray for that rare spark of inspiration to come to us. So how can we alter our behaviour in our daily livesfe to make ourselves more susceptible to sparks of inspiration? Motivation researcher Carol Dweck has found that people with a growth mindset believe they can learn, develop skills, and solve problems through application, dedication, and hard work— while those with a fixed mindset believe their capacity to learn is predetermined and limited. Hence, while inspiration remains spontaneous and cannot be predetermined, there are ways to make inspiration more likely to occur. Perhaps you've always wanted to compose a piece of music. Go to a writers' workshop. Attend a masterclass by your favourite contemporary composer, or simply pick up an autobiography of a prolific composer. Whatever your ambition may be, try to place yourself in an environment with people who can inspire you to grow and learn.

Why do so many New Year’s resolutions fail?

Rhea Kundamal

As we flip our calendars from December to January, many of us tend to also turn a new leaf, commonly done in the form of New Year’s resolutions. We spend hours trying to craft the perfect list of resolutions, each year more ambitious than the next. However, more often than not, they tend to fail. In fact, according to Forbes, almost 80% of people revealed they abandoned their New Year’s resolutions by February each year. Whilst there are many reasons for the failure to keep up with these resolutions, the four most common are: the way these resolutions are framed, the type of mindset we have, an all-or-nothing attitude towards the goals, and lastly, the fact that our goals are not self-concordant. The first reason why many New Year’s resolutions fail is that they are not framed positively enough. When individuals make resolutions, they often frame them with negative language. This negative language acts as a barrier for development, and one is more likely to focus on their flaws rather than the actual need to change. For example, a resolution such as ‘stop sleeping so late’ is often counterproductive, as the individual will likely think about the very thing they are

Illustration by Reika Oh trying to avoid, which in this case is sleeping late. Psychotherapist Jonathan Alpert highlights how framing New Year’s resolutions negatively is "almost like [I’m saying] to you, 'I don't want you to think about what a zebra with pink and blue stripes looks like. You kind of have to think about what that would look like not to think about it”. Instead, if one phrased their goal with more positive language, such as ‘start sleeping at 9:30 pm’, it is likely to have better results. This is because rather than constantly thinking

about sleeping later, an individual is likely to start focusing more of their thoughts on sleeping earlier, leading to more success with their resolutions. Per Carlbring, a professor of psychology at Stockholm University, further supports this theory. In a news release, he illustrated that "What surprised us were the results on how to phrase your resolution. After a year, 59% of those who framed their resolution as an approach goal (‘I will run more’) had kept to their habit, while just 47% of the avoiders (‘I will quit chocolate’, for instance) had succeeded”. Therefore, this exemplifies how rephrasing resolutions using positive language can be an effective method to reach one’s goals. Secondly, the type of mindset we have when thinking about our goals for the New Year impacts their success. Carol Dweck, a Professor at Stanford University, argues that we can either possess a growth mindset or a fixed mindset. She describes a mindset as a self-perception we have about ourselves. Rather than possessing a fixed mindset, where one believes that their abilities are fixed, we should have a growth mindset and believe that our abilities can be developed through hard work. With a growth mindset, an individual will understand that they are able to improve with perseverance, and are thus less likely to give up on their goals. In order to develop a growth mindset, a phrase such as ‘I can learn to do anything I want’ should be used, rather than ‘my abilities are unchanging’. This way, individuals feel as if they are able to improve in different areas of their life. Thirdly, the all-or-nothing attitude is another reason why so many resolutions are unsuccessful. With this mentality, an

individual feels as if success is a complete failure or win; they either win or lose and there is no in-between. This distorts life by oversimplifying everything into two categories, when in fact, our lives are in fact much more multidimensional. In addition to this, the all-or-nothing mentality leaves no leeway for even the smallest mistakes. Once an individual steers slightly off their goal, an all-ornothing mentality will mean they will likely lose hope and give up. For example, if an individual with an all-or-nothing attitude has a goal to run five kilometres a week from January to December, but during one specific week they ran four kilometres instead of five, they would likely feel discouraged and abandon their target. Therefore, this is a key reason why almost 80% of people break their resolutions by February. Furthermore, this all-or-nothing thinking can lead to unconscious selfsabotage. Individuals may start to feel they are undeserving of success, and start constantly overthinking every choice they make, which could lead to frequent internal battles. This makes achieving goals harder as one would lack a clear mind which is needed to focus. It is crucial to note that individuals must view their achievements more holistically, and this concept can be supported by referring to the all-or-nothing thinking. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Los Angeles, which describes the all or nothing thinking as: “Your performance was totally good or totally bad. If you are not perfect, then you are a failure. This binary way of thinking does not account for shades of grey, and can be responsible for a great deal of negative evaluations of yourself and others”. Thus, an all-or-nothing attitudemay inhibit individuals from reaching their goals.

Lastly, another explanation for why New Year targets are not met is because the goals one makes are not self-concordant. Developed by Sheldon and Elliot in 1998, the self-concordance theory highlights how individuals will feel more fulfilled and are more likely to accomplish their goals if their goals have been fitted into their own personal interests and values, instead of their goals being influenced by external factors. For example, if one’s resolution is to learn the clarinet, but only because their friend mentioned that they always wanted to learn the clarinet, then it is likely that the individual’s goal will not be met. This idea is further illustrated by Deci and Ryan’s study in 2000, which demonstrates that an individual has a smaller chance of accomplishing their goals if their reasons for pursuing them are external (an individual persuading another individual to focus on a particular goal) and introjected (due to feelings of embarrassment or anxiousness if one does not fulfil their resolution). Deci and Ryan expressed how an individual is more

likely to achieve their goals if they are selfconcordant. That is, the nature of the goals must be intrinsic (the enjoyment which the resolution will provide is the primary reason for working towards it) and welljustified (it is something the individual really believes is an important goal to have). This therefore conveys that individuals will be happier and have high levels of goal achievements if their resolutions are derived independently, instead of from controlled motives. Overall, whilst there are many individuals who successfully achieve their goals year after year, more often than not, goals are left abandoned by February. The next time you make a new resolution, truly think about how they are framed, the mindset and attitude you have, and the origin of your resolution.

The Catastrophic Effects of Self Concept Justin Leung

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Today you are You, that is truer than true. There is no one alive who is Youer than You. –Dr. Seuss

Have you ever compared yourself to other people or just thought that you were not good enough? Or have you ever felt immense joy after obtaining a good grade but immediately ashamed when a friend achieves a higher grade than you did. Perhaps you’re an insecure person and feel the need to boast incessantly about all of your accomplishments. These examples are all related to our self-concepts, which is how we perceive ourselves daily. Our behaviours and abilities are specifically unique to us, and no one else's, but our own version of ourselves. The idea of self-concept is tremendously crucial as it affects our overall well-being, such as our perception of life, such as how to face the obstacles that it inevitably brings, as well as our mental health to an extent, impacting the way we feel about the person we truly are, embodying the answer to the question ‘Who am I’. Carl Rogers, a renowned human psychologist, separated 3 different parts of ourselves that make up our self-concepts – ideal self, self-esteem and self-image. These points may seem similar but are all vastly distinctive in various ways. The ideal self is the perfect version of ourselves, the person we strive to be, and whose qualities we wish to possess. Self-esteem depicts the value we treasure within but can be influenced by numerous other factors like our position in society or even our moral consciousness. Moreover, early psychologists observed that we often have the same perception of ourselves as others, hence the idea of the looking-glass self. It was used to illustrate the theory that self-concept came from

social interactions because we humans care about how others see us. Then, depending on the social position, we're put in, our 'self' shifts. For example, our selfconcept in the setting of a loving relationship may differ from our selfconcept in a less desired situation. Consider how we form, maintain, and change our self-concept: we have a notion of who we are and act in line with it. As a result, others create impressions of who we are and behave in accordance with those impressions, influencing our perceptions of ourselves. This feedback loop continues to mould us, and interpersonal communication plays a significant part in this process. Our motives, tactics, and interactions with others are all influenced by our selfconcept. If you believe you are always right, you may find it difficult to communicate with others when a dispute arises. Ultimately, self-image is how we perceive ourselves in the moment, which is determined by our personality traits and social conventions. However, these segments can be changed in the blink of an eye as we experience different emotions at varying moments. As we mature, self-concept changes through our daily life interactions and the impact that the people around us have on our lives. Think back to when you were just a child as opposed to the present moment. Chances are that you are more aware of your current surroundings and have more control over your own life, all because of the development of your self-concept.

Childhood is all about being innocent and naive, completely unaware of anything or anyone, and basically just having the time of your life. There’s neither pressure nor stress that’s weighing on your mind. It is the period of time to enjoy life as much as possible, as society depicts childhood as the free trial of life. As you step into the stages of adolescence, however, you’ll eventually grow to better understand the society that you’re living in, causing and experiencing changes to your self-identity. For instance, most teenagers will become more self-conscious of themselves due to how they want to be presented to society as they’re starting to grasp the knowledge of their identity and surroundings. Peer pressure affects teenagers' development of self-concept due to the fact that they desire the need to be accepted and long to fit in with the majority, fearing that they might turn out to be outcasts and rejected by their peers. The media plays a crucial role in the progression of self-concept as well. When social media promotes certain ideals that are rather interesting and trendy, it is more likely that we’ll make those ideals our own. The more we discover varying ideas and opinions, the more it will impact our self-identity and self-concept. Self-concept directly influences the way we see ourselves and the attitudes that we’re facing life with. The results of various experiences shape our very attitudes, which emerge due to personal experiences or observations in our daily lives, such as family relations, traumatic moments or even the idea of equality.

Look at the questions below and answer them in your head. What are your opinions on using animals for experiments? Has gender inequality improved in the last 50 or so years? Should students be divided into ability groups based on their strengths and capabilities? Chances are that you’ve made your mind up from the get-go and have developed rather strong judgments on what you think is right and wrong, influencing your behaviour as well as beliefs. Embarrassment and humiliation spawn from our behaviours, as we accidentally expose ourselves to the public eye, allowing them to criticise our various flaws, as opposed to being the perfect humans, we present ourselves to be. Depression and self-loathing are also linked to self-concept due to the way we think of life as a whole. Some people are optimists; they appreciate and are grateful for everything life throws at them, whether it be pleasant or challenging. They see the brighter side of life; the beauty of nature, the historical monuments that boast themselves impressively at different landmarks, the crystal clear oceans that are home to numerous habitats, etc. On the other hand, there are bound to be pessimists who might view life as unfair and start spiralling down an abyss with their endless worries and stress until they finally fall into the final stage – depression. These individuals might suffer from desperation, hopelessness, and selfdespair, and feel as if the world is crumbling in front of their eyes, enduring the thought that they might be worthless to society.

There will be moments in your life when your self-concept may be at its best and times when it is not. During those tough moments, all may seem lost, but it is extremely vital that you stay positive and keep your head up the whole way through, as there is always light at the end of the tunnel. Firstly, negative self-talk should be avoided. We sometimes spend so much time focusing on our defects that we overlook our assets and may suffer as a result of this way of thinking. Take a moment to realise what you're doing next time you start thinking of negative thoughts, by finding facts to refute these ideas or by changing your mindset to help you see yourself in a more positive light. Next, recognizing and accepting your flaws is equally as important. There is no such thing as a perfect person, and I’m sure everyone has aspects of themselves that they wish could be changed. By dividing your shortcomings into two categories: flaws that can be improved and flaws that can’t, you'll discover peace inside yourself after you've learned to accept yourself for who you are. Spend more time focusing on your strengths than your flaws once you've learned to accept yourself for who you are. Our self-concept is a crucial guiding principle that aids us in navigating the world and comprehending our place within it. Parts of our self-concept may be beneficial or detrimental to our health, depending on the circumstances. This is why it may be useful to understand more about our self-concept.

By Clarinde Sanft

Illustration by Se Lyn Lim 51

Uncanny Valley: the Enigmatical Hypothesis “The uncanny valley can be described as the hypothesised relationship between the extent to which a humanoid entity resembles an actual human being and the emotional response such an entity evokes.” - (MacDorman & Ishiguro, 2006). Now at the height of digital animation, you have probably experienced the feeling before while watching a CGI movie or playing a video game. The animated human might look almost real, but that slight chasm between looking “almost human” and “fully human” leaves you with a feeling of discomfort or even revulsion; that is the experience of the hypothesis uncanny valley. Origin of the concept The hypothesis was first identified and described by the Japanese roboticist Masahiro Mori in an article published in 1970. In his work, Mori noted that people had a more positive and empathetic response and found his robots more appealing if they looked more human but only up to a certain point. “I have noticed that, in climbing toward the goal of making robots appear human, our affinity for them increases until we come to a valley, which I call the uncanny valley,” Mori explained.

When robots appear close but not quite human, people tend to feel uncomfortable or even disgusted. Once the uncanny valley has been reached, people start to feel uneasy, disturbed, and sometimes afraid. However, as the robot’s appearance continues to become even more human, the positive emotions

return, and the level of empathy approaches the level seen in interactions between human beings.

Diagram of Mori’s proposed relation between the human likeness of an object and the human affinity for it. Mori wasn’t the first person to have noticed this phenomenon by following the observation of a trigonocephalous viper’s face; Charles Darwin wrote in The Voyage of the Beagle: “I imagine this repulsive aspect originates from the features being placed in positions, with respect to each other, somewhat proportional to the human face; and thus, we obtain a scale of hideousness”- unearthing certain cognitive processes. Possible explanations Some theories suggest that the uncanny valley is neurobiological, while others suggest that there are cultural and environmental explanations. The following are some factors and causes: Inconsistency to human norms Even in highly realistic depictions, people are adept at spotting even the slightest inconsistencies in a robotic or animated humanoid. Even relatively minor divergences can make a character go from lifelike to uncanny.

In one of Mori’s original examples, a robotic character was suddenly seen as unlikeable and creepy when it smiled slightly too slowly. So it is very possible that the uncanny valley results from a nonhuman entity’s failure to measure up to the standards of an actual human being. When an object appears to be sufficiently nonhuman, its human features become more salient and elicit empathy. Nonetheless, when an object looks almost human, its nonhuman features become more noticeable. The failure of an object of this ilk to measure up to the normative expectations established for a human generates a feeling of strangeness in the observer. This means that a robot in the uncanny valley is judged not by the standards set for a robot to perform various human activities but by the standards set for an actual human being expected to work like a normal person. Hence, according to this explanation, the humanlike robot’s inability to fully resemble the human norms causes the uncanny valley. Survival against pathogens Mori and others have suggested that the uncanny valley is an aversive, evolved response to the potential threats of death and disease. Because something is humanlike but not quite lifelike, it may evoke the same response that people feel when they encounter something dead or dying. This theory holds that the uncanny valley might activate the cognitive mechanism that had initially evolved to help humans avoid sources of pathogens.

According to this proposition, robots and androids in the uncanny valley may resemble human organisms with defects. Since the presence of defects implies disease, a feeling of aversion may be induced in the observers. We know that the more a particular organism resembles a human, the more closely related genetically that organism is likely to be to humans. Moreover, more remarkable genetic similarity is associated with a higher probability of contracting pathogenic viruses, bacteria and other parasites. Therefore, the visual stimuli of the uncanny valley may elicit the same reactions such pathogens do. Robots and androids, for these reasons, can engender the feelings of revulsion or alarm which diseased humans and corpses produce. Perceptual category uncertainty This theory posits that the visual stimuli of the uncanny valley activate contradictory cognitive representations. Human and nonhuman represent two separate and mutually exclusive categories. For instance, a humanlike figure’s possession of robotic features may induce perceptual tension, whereby an observer would receive contradictory cues concerning category membership. This cognitive tension constitutes a psychological discomfort similar to cognitive dissonance. The artificial representation is realistic enough to fool you into thinking it is alive. However, it falls short of reality and clashes with your expectations of a real

living person. This mismatch between what you see and your expectations may make you feel ambivalent or threatened. Research studies into the uncanny valley While Mori first proposed the theory in 1970, formal empirical investigations did not begin until the mid-2000s. Likeness and Eeriness A 2013 study examined the relationship between human likeness and eeriness and found evidence supporting the existence of the uncanny valley. The researchers found a linear relationship between likeness and eeriness when manipulating facial proportions and realism. Children's Responses A 2014 study found that children between the ages of 9 and 11 were also prone to experiencing feelings of uncanniness in response to human-like virtual characters. Virtual human-like characters were seen as being stranger and less friendly. Interestingly, these feelings of unease were more pronounced in instances where the characters lacked upper facial expressions. Startled facial expressions were also more likely to be perceived as uncanny.

Monkeys A study was conducted in 2009 using five monkeys to evaluate the evolutionary mechanism causing the negative reactions in the uncanny valley. Herein, the monkeys were given three pictures: one realistic 3D monkey face, one unrealistic 3D monkey face, and one real photo of a monkey face. The eye-gaze of each monkey subject was construed as the proxy for either aversion or preference

The monkeys looked less at the realistic 3D picture than either the unrealistic 3D picture or the actual photo. This outcome was interpreted as a negative emotional reaction of the monkeys toward the realistic 3D picture. The aversion herein, therefore, seems to be evolutionary in origin. Theorised neuroscience behind the Uncanny Valley A study employing functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) repetition suppression examined the selectivity of the human action perception system, which comprises parietal, temporal and frontal areas for motion or/and appearance of the perceived agent. The study subjects observed the body motions of a human, a robot, or an android. The android had the biological appearance of an actual human but the movement of a mechanical robot. While the extrastriate body area indicated more significant suppression for appearance resembling humans, the action-perception system was not necessarily selective for motion or appearance. Conversely, different responses were found to the discrepancy between motion and appearance. In the bilateral anterior intraparietal sulcus, a key node in the action-perception system, the suppression effects for the android were stronger than those for the human or the robot. This outcome seemed to unveil a heightened prediction error stemming from the brain’s negotiation of an agent that looks like a human but moves like a robot.

Why it remains a hypothesis A common criticism is that the uncanny valley is merely a result of humans’ greater familiarity with fellow humans and does not indicate a unique phenomenon. According to this view, an uncanny valley is simply a form of information processing such as frequencybased effects or categorisation. For instance, the negative emotional reactions that certain visual stimuli elicit could be attributed to the frequency of exposure. Research suggests that altering the frequency of practising items shows a dissociation between the uncertainty related to category boundaries and the uncertainty based on the frequency of the exemplars. The possibility of an uncanny valley for all degrees of human likeness, too, seems to challenge the theory. This proposition holds that the uncanny valley can occur anywhere on a broad spectrum which ranges from the abstract to the perfect human. Hence, it is possible that the uncanny valley results from problems associated with categorical perception, which are particular to how the brain processes information. Conclusion As technology continues to advance, it is possible that robots and digital animations could become so incredibly realistic that they simply blend with reality so people do not experience discomfort or anxiety. For now, robots, digital avatars, and online animations will continue to become an increasingly common part of everyday life, so designers must consider the audience's emotional response.

The rationale behind irrationality: is all reasoning logical? Judy Sheng

“For a man always believes more readily that which he prefers.” — Francis Bacon It may be tempting to believe that we are rational thinkers, but this does not appear to be true. A growing body of research has shown that motives and affect guide our reasoning due to an inclination to draw favourable conclusions. The phenomenon of motivated reasoning, an emotionally biased form of information processing in which a distortion in information recruitment and evaluation, can allow one to arrive at their preferred conclusion. While it is possible that some effects of motivated reasoning can be suppressed with strenuous conscious effort, this essay argues that motivated reasoning is nevertheless inevitable as all reasoning is affected by emotions and experiences that shape our perception of the world around us.

Reasoning is driven by goals which arise from both the conscious and the unconscious. The American Psychological Association (APA) defines reasoning as the sequence of arguments or proofs used to establish a conclusion. This occurs in the conscious mind, which is the domain of information you have access to — the

information and process you are aware of. As Freud put it, the conscious mind is the tip of the iceberg of our mental processes and what lies underneath is a vast amount of unconscious activity driving our behaviour. The idea that most of our cognitive processing occurs in the unconscious has since been confirmed by a plethora of research. By dividing the human cognitive system into two systems –– the conscious system and the unconscious system –– we observe the following. Our unconscious mind processes information intuitively and quickly, but is prone to errors due to its quick reaction time. By contrast, the conscious mind serves as the ‘regulator’ of the unconscious mind, making deliberate judgements based on critical analysis and operating with effort and control; it is thus very slow and needs to be developed over time (Kahneman, 2011). When everything is running smoothly, your unconscious system typically drives reasoning processes and your conscious system can rest; only when problems occur does your conscious system become active. This can be illustrated using our comprehension of language: you cannot refrain from

understanding simple sentences in your language, and only when you encounter unfamiliar words or complex phrases do you have to put in a conscious effort to make sense of the expression. Ultimately, many of our thought processes are like comprehending simple sentences, occurring in the unconscious mind without any conscious effort. In both the conscious and unconscious minds, multiple goals drive reasoning processes. The goals that drive reasoning processes can be broadly classified into two categories: ones aimed at arriving at an accurate conclusion, and ones inclined toward a directional conclusion (Kruglanski, 1980; Kruglanski & Ajzen, 1983; Kunda 1990). Under accuracy driven reasoning, one is more likely to evaluate information from a critical angle. This generally occurs when the stakes for accuracy are high and there is a low preference for a certain cognition, for instance, when one has to justify their conclusions or expect their findings to be made public (Kunda 1990). In this case, one’s primary motive is to be accurate, driving the reasoner to evaluate more sources, consider more alternatives and compare more elements when forming a cognition. When reasoning with accuracy as their principal motive, people demonstrate deeper cognitive processing and are less susceptible to cognitive biases (Kruglanski & Freund 1983). This can be explained by the conscious effort to improve accuracy, which can dominate reasoning processes when the unconscious system makes an error. Directional goals, which lead people to favour a particular conclusion, tend to drive people more towards motivated

Illustration by Tina Wu reasoning. Information processing under such directional goals are distorted, especially during the recruitment and assimilation of information (Epley & Gilovich, 2016). During biased recruitment of information, we tend to pursue information in support of the preferred belief, and in biased assimilation of information, we take in information that is consistent with the consonant belief. Psychological research has demonstrated that it is generally easier to accept knowledge consistent with our cognitions than knowledge that is inconsistent. When considering information in favour of the desired outcome or conclusion, people tend to ask “Can I believe this?”. This implicit question is relatively easy to answer: as long as the reasoner can find some confirming evidence, they tend to accept the belief even if it seems highly dubious. By contrast, when considering

information in discord to the preferred conclusion, people tend to ask “Must I believe this?”, which is evidently more difficult to accept. It is easy to find disproving evidence for a proposition, so only the most compelling evidence can pass this standard (Dawson, Gilovich & Regan 2002; Epley & Gilovich, 2016). These differences in the mechanisms of reasoning further demonstrate how the existence of different directional goals can influence human cognitive processes without conscious recognition.

Biassed processing of information can occur in the unconscious mind even when we are consciously pursuing accuracy goals. Motivated reasoners tend to selectively choose the information used to support their conclusions without being aware of such fallacies. It is this distortion that allows them to feel that they have a reasonable justification for the conclusions drawn, creating what is called an illusion of objectivity (Hahn Harris L&M 2014; Kunda 1990). For instance, in a study conducted on participants who either favored or opposed capital punishment, researchers gave participants information that both confirmed and opposed their beliefs. After reviewing all the sources, the participants did not adjust their beliefs in accordance with what the information demonstrated, they were instead more convinced of their prior beliefs and suggested that the arguments in the information opposing their beliefs were flawed (Hein, G, Silani, G., Preuschoff, K., Batson, C.D. & Singer, T. 2010). Despite receiving the same information, both groups felt that their beliefs were corroborated by the information provided. The inherent biases of these motivated reasoners had led them to evaluate the

information given to them in a prejudiced manner. But due to the biased processing of information, the motivated reasoners did not feel that their reasoning was influenced. What becomes apparent here is that iases arise from the cognitive ease of allowing one’s unconscious minds to favour information that supports one’s prior cognitions. One’s perception of the world around them is largely formed in the unconscious mind and is based predominantly on information collected without conscious awareness. This is the fundamental issue with reasoning. Due to our subjective perceptions of the world, inherent biases can subconsciously motivate one to favour or avoid a certain conclusion, forming directional goals. Preference largely exists intuitively in one’s cognition where in many cases, a conclusion is formed via processes the reasoner is completely unaware of. These preferences can influence us while we remain oblivious to their existence. Evolutionary psychologist Geoffrey Miller used the earnings of lap dancers in a strip club to quantify how sexually attractive a woman is to a man. The men gave twice as much tips to the dancers who were ovulating, a sign of fertility, as compared to those who were menstruating, a sign of infertility, even when they were not consciously aware of the biological differences of these women. Yet, their brains detected the micro cues of fertility — women who are ovulating tend to have softer skin, narrower waists and more symmetrical features –– and had responded to these cues without the men being consciously aware of them. It is therefore crucial to realise that the mind does not always have access to the

myriad complex processes of the brain, yet all these can affect how we reason. A significant amount of our everyday reasoning processes are complex and involve a plethora of different factors, all influencing one another. Even after a conclusion has been drawn in the brain, one may not be consciously aware of the genuine cognitive process. When told to justify why they made a decision, their conscious narrative will not include the factor truly influencing their decision. In every cognitive process, unconscious signals and stimuli can change how we perceive our relationship with the world around us. Only after we have arrived at our unconscious conclusions do we then consciously reason to justify that conclusion. The activities in our brains that occur under the surface create the sensations we feel and drive our thoughts and behaviours. We essentially create our own reality from our experiences, and this shapes our perception of the world around us. As psychologist Willian James said, “My thinking is first and last and always for the sake of my doing.” The question of whether or not we can avoid motivated reasoning draws out a more concerning question regarding human cognition: as practical reasoners, do we have the free will to choose how we think and, consequently, how we behave? While current scholars have not yet reached a consensus on whether we have free will, it has become clear that the unconscious mind plays an essential part in our reasoning. There are wider social implications to this phenomenon of motivated reasoning – officers may ignore substantial amounts of disconfirming evidence when convinced that they have the right culprit; judges and attorneys may refuse to reopen cases of wrongful

convictions; scientists and doctors may find it difficult to recognize a mistake. The subconscious can drive us toward motivated reasoning without awareness of such cognitive processes, which can result in devastating consequences. However, while your unconscious system dominates a majority of your reasoning processes, there are ways we can constrain the effects of unconscious biased reasoning. The conscious system takes over whenever the unconscious system has trouble with cognitive processes or when an error is detected. When we slow down to reflect on the alternatives of a particular choice or potential biases that we may have been influenced by, we are more likely to recognize errors in our initial judgments. A deeper understanding of potential biases we are susceptible to can also assist us in eliminating biases and constraining the effects of motivated reasoning. The conscious system is more likely to eliminate biases when there is a deliberate effort to be accurate, but still remains inactive when everything appears to be working fine. This seems to be the case for a typical motivated reasoner even when reasoning under an accuracy goal –– there is no cognitive difficulty under motivated reasoning, hence the conscious system does not actively notice errors and biases. In this context, while accuracy-driven reasoning is highly sophisticated, it does not eliminate all biases which may affect the constituent branches of the reasoning process which are driven by the reasoning process. It is crucial to realise that all of us are susceptible to motivated reasoning, because only then can we make better decisions to remedy its effects

Social Prescribing Jasmine Wong

Social Prescribing The adage 'it takes a village to raise a child' is an African aphorism that dates back to when families cohabitated intergenerationally. It depicts the core values of social prescribing, as it has a support system and a social group, which are essential in determining the health and well-being of an individual. A village morphs and shapes a child into who they are, both in personality and health. Similarly, the health of a person is determined by their surroundings. A supportive and nurturing community is a prerequisite for any individual to thrive; it instils meaning and purpose into that individual's life. Additionally, it suggests that an individual's health is not solely their responsibility, but rather the responsibility of their community. Communal support is an essential building block for living a healthy life, so physical and mental health should be viewed as a collective responsibility.

Dr Michael Dixon, UCL professor and the pioneer for social prescribing, once said, ‘We’re giving people a tablet when the problem they had was that they were isolated.’ Social prescribing is a holistic approach for healthcare professionals to refer people to local and non-clinical services. It is a way for GPs to address a patient's physical health, mental health and well-being, determined by biological, social, economic and environmental factors. These primary care patients are partnered with a link worker who creates

a tailor-made treatment plan to fit each patient’s needs, including a combination of community-based activities, lifestyle changes, and the fulfilment of personal requirements (such as replacement of prescribing pills). The role of a socialprescribing link worker is to partner with GP practices so that Social Prescribing link workers can refer patients to specific activities. Voluntary sector organisations pioneer thems and the employed link workers often volunteer with excellent listening skills and empathy. They may prescribe someone to volunteer in charities, dance or cook, with the general theme being all these activities allow for more social interactions. It will enable people with a wide range of social, emotional or practical needs to connect and allows the patients to have a more active role in their health. These schemes have been shown to improve the quality of life for patients with mental health problems or people who have been socially isolated. Social prescribing helps support and improve people's lives by providing more control and choice over their treatment. It can act as a long term solution to supporting those with mental health conditions as it allows the individual to create new connections and gain a sense of belonging. Additionally, it is effective at targeting the cause of health inequalities. It has been shown to reduce the pressure on the NHS as fewer patients feel the need to return for a consultation. This can

be supported by a summary published by the University of Westminster, where GP consultations were reduced by 28% and A&E attendances by 24%. A similar evaluation was done in Shropshire. A three-month follow-up study found that GP consultations had decreased by 40% compared to a control group, among other statistically significant positive indicators such as reduced loneliness and increased well-being and patient activation, all associated with better healthcare. Previously, with up to 20% of GP's time estimated to be spent dealing with social issues such as debt and unemployment, social prescribing provides an alternative, cheaper and longer-term solution to patients. This, in turn, frees up more time for the GP to take care of other patients with severe problems. It also relieves some pressure off of the NHS during financial constraints.

Figure 1: A diagram depicting the process of social prescribing, starting from the factors that have affected the individual’s wellbeing. This leads to them visiting the general practitioner, and they are then referred to the link worker to be assessed. They will then receive a personalised community-based activity list.

How does prescribing social work? Recently, it has been more accepted than leading a more active social life impacts health just as much as a person's diet and activity level do. This idea of a 'social cure', put forward by Jolanda Jetten, can be supported by a study done in 2005 on 655 stroke patients by Bernadette BodenAlbala, professor of sociomedical sciences and neurology at Columbia University and her colleagues. It was found that sociallyisolated patients were two times more likely to have a stroke within five years than those who had formed meaningful and active social relationships. This study also highlighted those socially isolated patients were at a higher risk of a secondary stroke, even more so than traditional risk factors such as physical inactivity and coronary heart disease. Face-to-face interactions trigger parts of our nervous system that release a cascade of neurotransmitters (such as oxytocin) that helps lower cortisol levels and, therefore, decreases stress levels. This, in turn, helps alleviate many mental health issues such as anxiety. This makes an individual more able to cope with stress factors. Social interactions also cause dopamine secretion, which acts like a ‘natural morphine’, and temporarily relieves physical pain. Furthermore, it has been shown that social contact can help improve memory formation and recall and have protective effects on the brain from neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's.

Social Prescribing and Parkinson’s disease Parkinson's disease is a degenerative brain disorder that leads to a decline in motor skills, causing shakiness, stiffness, and difficulty balancing and coordination. Parkinson's disease occurs when the nerve cells in the basal ganglia are damaged, causing less dopamine secretion. Dopamine is a hormone responsible for regulating our mood, memory, focus and movement. This typically leads Parkinson's patients to experience Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), firstly due to low dopamine levels, and secondly, because of a decrease in social interactions due to the difficulty in communicating. This has only been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. At the 2020 Movement Disorder Society (MDS) Virtual Congress, a study of more than 1700 patients who have idiopathic Parkinson's disease from the CAM care PD study was presented. It suggested that loneliness and social isolation were significant risk factors for worsening Parkinson's severity. Indu Subramanian concludes MD?, that individuals who reported being lonely experienced a 55% greater symptom severity than those who were not lonely. Contrastingly, those who were documented to have many friends reported having 21% fewer symptoms. Hence, prescribing social interactions for Parkinson's patients encourages stimulating their basal ganglia, causing the dopaminergic reward circuit. It also allows the opportunity to form meaningful and deep connections with other people, reducing feelings of loneliness and the risks of depression.

Furthermore, social prescribing may include activities such as dancing which has been shown to improve the symptoms experienced by Parkinson's patients as well as slow the progression of Parkinson's disease. This can be supported by research led by Joseph Desouza, an associate professor in the Department of Psychology at York University Toronto. He aimed to investigate whether dancing could decrease the rate of progression of Parkinson's disease. He followed 11 men and five women with an average of 69 years old who had been experiencing Parkinson's disease for over three years. These 16 participants were then compared to 16 other participants with Parkinson's disease but not taking dance classes. Dancing incorporates and stimulates all five of the senses, and it also provides an interactive social aspect. Participants were monitored through video recordings and assessed on motor skills using the Movement Disorder Society Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS). The lower the score, the less severe Parkinson's disease has affected the individual. By the end of their study, it was clear that the participants taking dance classes experienced minor motor impairment than those who did not dance, with average MDS-UPDRS scores of 18.75 and 24.61, respectively. Moreover, since all the participants had Parkinson's disease, they could participate in social integration and gain emotional support. This demonstrates the benefits of social prescribing because it prescribes a personalised and suitable activity for the individual.

The limitations of social prescribing While social prescribing can bring many benefits, there is still a lack of evidence for its efficacy as only small scale studies have been done; reports have mainly been qualitative or self-reported rather than quantitative and unbiased measures. The lack of guidelines also causes some controversy, as patient confidentiality can be conserved. (For example, whether Hospitals and GPs should transfer a patient's medical history to community services.) Other limitations or challenges social prescribing could face include the sustainability of prescribing activities in terms of economics, the number of volunteers to be link workers, and the sustainability of the patient doing the exercise. Conclusion In conclusion, whilst prescribing drugs is effective most of the time, social prescribing should not be disregarded because it is a different form of treatment. In the age of holistic medicine, Doctors should prescribe both drugs and social prescribing together depending on the patient's wants and needs and how effective they will be in treating the patient. The personalisation of suggested activities improves the patient's mental health and physical health and reduces the rising pressures placed on the NHS. Activities such as the ‘Green Gym’ room will provide multitudinous benefits, such as increased endorphins from exercising, reduced levels of stress and ultimately, an improved mood. Social prescribing will be incredibly beneficial to society if implemented more often.

Psychology in Entertainment Zoe Wong

Introduction Humans have always been fascinated with behaviour, especially our own. The general public has shown more interest in psychology, and it has made an entrance into the entertainment industry. I will be exploring whether this is a welcome or unwelcome, beneficial or detrimental entrance into the entertainment world whilst commenting on two memorable movies in detail (Joker and As Good As It Gets). I will also spotlight a unique approach one must employ to enjoy entertainment whilst being aware of the dangers such entertainment can bring. Joker

something that exists in each and every one of us: our id. The id - yes, id and not ID - is the part of the mind that houses primitive and impulsive instincts, whilst the ego[1] lawfully quenches the id's desires. For example, children often snatch toys they want from other children without asking for permission: they have not lived long enough to observe the social convention (or simple manners), so their ego fails in holding back their id, and they instinctively grab the toy. If an adult sees someone with an expensive watch, their ego stops their id from stealing (because it knows that stealing is a punishable crime) but still satisfies it through a law-abiding way, such as purchasing the watch with one’s own money. What does this have to do with the Joker? Well, the id wants to do whatever it wants and not be governed by any laws. The Joker is adored by fans and applauded by regulars because the id responds to the law-free DC cinematic universe.

Does the image of a heavily made-up face, a permanent, demonic grin and lurid, green hair spring to mind? The Joker - who has been voted many times as the most popular DC villain - and his lifestyle is attractive to many, not because we admire him for his heinous crimes, but because of

Could this negatively impact society if movies can arouse our id and evoke primitive instincts? Near the release of ‘Joker’ in 2019, the US Army issued warnings of possible shootings the screenings could bring. There was fear of repeating the mass shooting in Aurora, Colorado, which left 12 people dead and

70 injured during "The Dark Knight" screening. Some people slam ‘Joker’ for its violence as they are concerned that such movies will only inspire and encourage mass murderers. While I understand this fear and agree that movies that offer sympathetic viewpoints toward murder and violence shouldn’t be promoted, I disagree that ‘Joker’ endorses violence. The film focuses on the psychological reasons (such as the lack of compassion and understanding, losing your sole support system, and a cold society) that pushes Arthur Fleck over the edge. ‘Joker’ highlights the silent struggle of people with mental illnesses and spreads awareness among the public while informing and educating them. (You can do further research on psychosis, emotional lability and pseudobulbar affect if interested.) The people who are pushed to violence because of such movies may have trouble distinguishing the critical message of the film, and special attention should be directed to those with mental illnesses who intend to watch such films.

Illustration by Alana Kwan Compulsive Disorder, commonly referred to as OCD. This film surrounds the life of Melvin Udall, and while it provides an accurate portrayal of OCD, there may be some elements that the general public wrongfully associates it with. { “Dr. Green, how can you diagnose someone with OCD and then act as though I had some choice about barging into your office?”

-Melvin Udall } Melvin engages in several compulsions, which are This film (starring Jack Nicholson) ‘reassuring rituals’ for people with OCD that help is significant because this was one reduce anxiety. (People with OCD have obsessions, of the earliest mainstream films which are unpleasant thoughts causing anxiety and unease, and they seek temporary relief by committing that highlighted Obsessive to compulsions.) Melvin’s compulsions involve a As Good As It Gets

________________________________________________________ [1] In psychoanalysis, the ‘ego’ refers to the part of the mind modified by the direct influence of the external world. It ‘teaches’ us how to behave based on our observations of social convention.

cleaning ritual: when he arrives home, he washes his hands in scalding hot water and goes through countless bars of soap before disposing of each one only after using it for a few seconds. He wears gloves and warns others not to touch him in public, fearing germs and contaminants. He always eats at the same table in the same restaurant and requests the same waitress to serve him. This representation is entirely accurate thanks to the help of people with OCD who contributed to the production and writing. However, Melvin’s misanthropic nature and emotional insensitivity could be misunderstood as part of his OCD. Some of his actions include throwing his neighbour’s dog down the garbage chute and telling the mother of a chronically ill child that ‘We are all going to die soon. I will. You will. And it sure as hell sounds like your kid will’ are clues of a personality disorder. However, a lay audience member may conflate his misanthropic personality with his OCD symptoms. Therefore, it is vital to highlight this and remind the audience that mental illnesses look different in everyone. I also found the film’s conclusion interesting. Because of Melvin’s romantic relationship, he somehow overcomes his OCD and drops his rituals. He even overcomes the fear of germs and kisses the girl he loves. If only overcoming OCD was that simple. In reality, it is far more complex and anxietyinducing: therapy involves making the person confront their fears and obsessions without relying on their compulsions. It can be very challenging for a person with OCD, as you can imagine.

Conclusion At this point, I hope you are reflecting on the unconscious thoughts movies can create. The main thing to remember is that films portray only one story of a specific mental illness: symptoms and severity may differ from person to person, so don’t let a single story be your only perspective. To reduce the stigma surrounding mental illnesses and prevent stereotypes, we must all practice being cautious entertainment consumers. I would like to end with a quote by the British author, Chris Cleave. ‘Studying psychology is fun because you’re always looking for the same things I think a writer should be looking for, which is the story behind the story.’ The ever-growing impact of psychology in the entertainment industry enables us to hear more voices, hear more stories, and help us find new ways to support and care for those with mental illnesses. Therefore, we should all work towards reducing stereotyping and misguided judgement and let these stories be uplifting and inspirational.

Escaping from reality, Procrastination is easy but fatal Anne Zhao

Illustration by Megan Siu

Procrastinating is a lot like going to Disneyland. You might be confused by this, because how is Disney —a theme park — anything like mindlessly scrolling through your phone, avoiding your growing pile of homework?? Disneyland was created in 1955 as a place for families to have fun together. However, many adults go to Disneyland alone nowadays, causing some to wonder why they would enjoy spending time there by themselves. The reason is quite simple: escape. A little escapism through a fun weekend and Disney from time to time is a great time for anyone, but when you start escaping from reality and running from work and studies — everything you don’t want to do but have to — you don’t go to Disney. You procrastinate. Procrastination comes from the Latin term pro crastinus, which, roughly translated, means “for tomorrow.” These days, the term is widely used to describe the act of escaping from work and deadlines, particularly among students. Picture a student named Annie. She has a 2000 word English essay due in 10 days. She spends 9 days thinking that “there is no need to rush” and focuses on other things instead. On the last day, with only 3 hours to spare, she stares at her document with only 100 words and a simple topic sentence, and starts crying over the time she has wasted . She promises never to procrastinate again, only to do the same thing next week.. Sounds familiar, doesn’t it? Procrastination is a psychological defence mechanism used when people are under pressure and anxious about the future and the external world. It uses excuses to mediate and moderate the threat of conflict to humans so they are satisfied

with reality. These excuses can range from being “too tired” or the false comfort of thinking “I still have time”. A 2007 metaanalysis by University of Calgary psychologist Piers Steel, PhD, reports that 80 percent to 95 percent of college students procrastinate, particularly when it comes to doing their coursework showed that 80 to 95% of college students engage in procrastination, 75% of college students think they procrastinate sometimes, and 50% think they procrastinate all the time. These percentages are much higher than many diseases, and for those struggling with procrastination, it has more in common with illness than laziness. The leading cause of procrastination is a fear of facing reality. When facing a problem, our first instinct is not always to think about how to solve them, but rather how to run away from them. This thought process is prevalent among many people, especially teenagers, whose physical and psychological development is incomplete and thus struggle with self-discipline. There are many harmful consequences of procrastination. The most obvious is the delay in finishing tasks. Things that should be solved today are postponed until tomorrow or the day after tomorrow. As this cycle continues, the importance of completing said things depreciates. The things considered "important" today might not be tomorrow. Secondly, procrastination reduces work efficiency. You'll feel uncomfortable while trying to be productive due to your work efficiency being relatively low. This quickly leads to low self-esteem. People with low selfesteem and self-disapproval often experience a reduction in their quality of life. A survey done by the Procrastination Research Group with over 10,000

respondents found that 94 percent reported procrastination has some negative effect on their happiness, with 19 percent indicating that the effect is extremely negative. 80% of the people categorized procrastination as harmful. This may not just be because they’re upset over missing deadlines. After all, procrastination may apply to personal relationships with others, and continuously letting family and friends down can often feel far worse than a missed deadline..

So how do we change our procrastinating ways? Well, first we need to break down the factors that affect procrastination. Procrastination is related to the time pressure of completing tasks and things that tempt us off task, such as games, TV programs or new movies on Netflix, are environmental factors that allow us to get distracted. Secondly, the difficulty level of the task itself also affects procrastination. The more complex the task, the easier it is for people to procrastinate. Simple tasks such as multiple-choice questions are much easier to finish than writing a thousand-word essay. When individuals are set a task beyond their current ability, they usually delay or avoid doing it.If you asked a group of Year 5 students to write an essay about Shakespeare, they would probably not be able to write anything, causing them to feel dejected, which makes them demotivated and thus not complete the task. It also depends on the level of dislike towards the task. People will first choose to avoid tasks that may bring boredom. If they cannot avoid them, they will delay facing the task for as long as possible. However, in my opinion, individual differences are the most crucial factor. From a psychological perspective, people who are perfectionists or lack self-

confidence do not trust themselves to do important or challenging tasks perfectly or well. People who have encountered significant setbacks at work become scared and lose confidence. They are prone to escape and constantly delay completing tasks. People who are anxious about work experience more anxiety as task deadlines approach. How should we change our procrastinating habits? First or all, we have to change our perception. Procrastination is negatively correlated with some cognitive psychology. Some methods can be used to change these incorrect cognitions, such as using positive cues, increasing successful experiences, and magnifying advantages to gain self-confidence; change perfectionism and help procrastinators analyse and complete tasks. Secondly, we should use positive emotions and motivation to regulate. You can change your mood by resting properly, diverting your attention or relaxing etc. To get temporary positive emotions, you can't escape from reality and ignore the longterm benefits and the fundamental solution of the problem. In terms of motivation, task aversion in the nature of the task affects procrastination, so it is necessary to convert the aversive task to a favourite task or break it to smaller pieces. Thirdly, increase self-efficacy. Increasing self-efficacy can largely prevent procrastination. Individuals are encouraged to self-manage themselves during task completion, actively monitor their own behaviour, and evaluate intervention expectations. Lastly, work as a team or group. The atmosphere of a group can provide members with a special situation, full of understanding, care, and trust, giving them the basic responsibility to finish the work as soon as possible.

In conclusion, generally speaking, procrastination is inevitable. However, you can’t say that procrastination is an illness. Procrastination is a psychological problem and is a failure of self-regulation. The emotion it forms is also important. For example, there will be feelings of guilt, constant self-denial, and constant selfdevaluation. These feelings can even be accompanied by anxiety or depression. Procrastination can be changed by making constant adjustments. Instead of being annoyed at yourself for not completing tasks before the deadline and asking yourself why you wasted so much time, relax and try to do better next time. If your procrastinatory behaviour is so severe to the point that you cannot adjust your habits by yourself, it is recommended for you to seek a psychiatrist and adjust your habits accordingly. A life free of procrastination can lead to more happiness than you expected.

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