COUNTRY REPORT LITHUANIA December 1, 2012
Country Report Lithuania, 2012
INTRODUCTION In 2010, a European project addressing Youth Sexual Aggression and Victimization (Y-SAV) was launched. Y-SAV is a three-year project co-financed by the European Union in the framework of the Health Programme to address the issue of sexual aggression and victimization among young people. The project aims to build a multidisciplinary network of European experts in various member states, bring together the knowledge on youth sexual aggression and victimization in a state-of-the-art database, develop a more harmonised way of measuring these issues and provide recommendations for strategic action to address the problem of youth sexual aggression under different circumstances in different EU member states. This report is part of the Y-SAV knowledge base. The knowledge base presents information regarding youth sexual aggression and victimization for each EU member state. This report presents the current situation in Lithuania regarding policies, legislation, organisations, prevalence, risk factors and evidence-based interventions in the area of youth sexual aggression and victimization. This report was compiled by the Y-SAV principal investigators at the University of Stockholm (Sweden), Rutgers WPF (The Netherlands) and the University of Potsdam (Germany). We would like to acknowledge Dr. Liubove Murauskiene and Ms. Ruta Stankute (MTVC Training, Research and Development Centre) for their important contribution to the Y-SAV report on Lithuania.
This report arises from the project Y–SAV which has received funding from the European Union in the framework of the Health Programme.
Country Report Lithuania, 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS A. B. C. D.
Government and policies ....................................................................................... 1 Legal situation ................................................................................................... 2 Institutions, organisations and services...................................................................... 4 Research on prevalence, risk factors and evidence based interventions .............................. 8
Country Report Lithuania, 2012
A. GOVERNMENT AND POLICIES i. Ministries The primary ministry in charge of youth issues is the Ministry of Social Security and Labour, which has a Children and Youth unit under the Department of Family and Communities, and subordinated to the ministry agency named Department of Youth Affairs. The ministry is a body for the social welfare system. The department prepares and implements state youth policy programs and measures, analyses the conditions of the youth and youth organisations, coordinates the activities of state and municipal institutions and carries out other activities related to youth and youth organisations. The Council of Youth Affairs is a consultative body to the Director of the Department of Youth Affairs, with 6 members from the ministries and 6 members from the Lithuanian Youth Council, mostly leaders of youth organisations. ii. Policies The Program of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania 2004-2008 for the first time contained an article on youth policy, and so does the program for 2008-2012. The issue of youth sexual victimization is not mentioned in the program though there is a task for the Ministry of Education to introduce violence and bullying prevention programmes in pre-schools and schools. In the Government programme Long-term Youth Strategy for 2010-2018 priority is given to the prevention of criminality and addiction. There is a National Strategy on Reduction of Violence against Women, with an action plan, but it concentrates on family violence and not on sexual aggression or on youth sexual victimization. There are national programs for: Violence Against Children, Help for Children (2008-2010; definition of sexual violence against children is provided) and Juvenile Justice (Program 2009-2013. There is also a 2005 law on the youth policy framework (a young person is defined 14-29 years of age).1 iii. Current discussion Not much debate on sexual violence of interpersonal relationships is advancing. The Supreme Court, in a decision from 2004, stated that rape and sexual assault are heavy crimes, therefore imprisonment should be considered as the primary sentence. Currently active women MPs (social democratic party) and women’s advocacy NGOs advocate for the need to include marital rape in the legislation. They aim to establish legal norms to recognise marital rape and introduce effective measures for accountability of crimes against sexual integrity and free consent. This goes together with the advocacy for effective legislation on protection against domestic violence. For more information about current discussion, please read ‘Combatting Youth Sexual Aggression and Victimization in the European Union: stakeholders perspectives and recommendations’ (to be published in 2013).
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Pilinkaite-Sotirovic, V., Report on Lithuania, (2010), in Feasibility Study to Assess the Possibilities, Opportunities and Needs to Standardise National Legislation on Violence Against Women, Violence Against Children and Sexual Orientation Violence, European Commission, available at http://ec.europa.eu/justice/funding/daphne3/daphne_feasibility_study_2010_en.pdf 1
Country Report Lithuania, 2012
B. LEGAL SITUATION i. Law and legal definitions Lithuania reformed the legal system in 2000-2004 and changed laws in order to modernise the legal framework, adapt to the EU requirements and harmonise the national legal system to EU standards.2 The new Criminal Code of Lithuania went into effect on May 1, 2003. It has defined crimes of rape (Article 149), sexual assault (Article 150), sexual abuse (Article 151) and satisfaction of sexual desires by violating a minor’s freedom of sexual self-determination and/or inviolability (Article 151(1)). The force-based approach is defined in Criminal Code and highlighted in the decision of the Judges Senate of the Supreme Court.3 Rape (Article 149) and sexual abuse (Article 150) are defined as crimes against victim’s will by using physical violence or threatening the immediate use thereof or by otherwise depriving of a possibility of resistance or by taking advantage of the helpless state of the victim. Article 151 covers the sexual abuse crimes by threatening to resort to violence, using other mental coercion or by taking advantage of a person’s dependency, compels the person to have sexual intercourse with or otherwise satisfy sexual desires of the offender or a third person. A person could be held liable for an act provided in aforementioned articles only subject to a complaint filed by the victim or a statement by his authorised representative or at the prosecutor’s request if there are no any aggravating legal circumstances of the act. In case of an act against children there is no need for additional request (complaint, etc.) to convict a liable person. In matters of satisfaction of sexual desires by violating a minor’s freedom of sexual self-determination and/or inviolability (Article 151(1)) a person is liable if there were in general sexual intercourse or otherwise satisfied sexual desires with a minor in the absence of characteristics of a rape, sexual assault or sexual abuse. There is also no need for special request to apply Article 151(1). Lithuania also implements Council framework Decision 2004/68/JHA of 22 December 2003 on combating the sexual exploitation of children and child pornography in Criminal Code of Lithuania. The age of consent is 16, as specified by the Lithuanian Criminal Code §151.1, introduced by the bill of 2 July 2010. Previously the age of consent was set to 14 according to the Lithuanian Criminal Code §153 prohibiting any sexual molestation or sexual relationships with a minor under 14 years. The age of consent (14) has been established by the Lithuanian case law: both heterosexual and homosexual acts were allowed once a child had reached the age of 14. There was (and remains) an exception to this rule: §151.1(3) of the Lithuanian Criminal Code prohibits parents, guardians, or other people who are ex officio directly responsible for the upbringing and supervision of a child to have any relationships of sexual kind with the child, if he or she has not yet reached the age of 18. Adult victim of rape does not have any specific status in legal procedure. Victim or victim’s legal representative could submit the complaint to the prosecutor. Victim should provide explanation why a legal representative submits the complaint (intimidation, treat to lose the job, etc.). The Court could proceed crimes of sexual assault or rape non-publicly (Article 9 of the Criminal Procedure Code). According to the Lithuania legislation children victims should not be interrogated more than once during pre-trial and usually psychologist or representative of Ombudsman for Children’s Rights should be present. Representative of a victim under 18 should be present during interrogation in a court. In special cases (possibility of mental shock, etc.) such victim could be not interrogated at all (Article 283 of the Criminal Procedure Code). Criminal Code includes a general provision of prohibition to approach a victim (Article 72(1)) where this is necessary with a view to protecting the legitimate interests of the victim.
2
Lithuania. CEDAW Third Report (2004), P.7. 23.
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Lietuvos Aukščiausiojo tesimo teisėjų senato nutarimas. No. 49 Dėl teismų praktikos išžaginimo ir prievartavimo baudžiamosiose bylose. (2004-12-30). http://www.lygus.lt/ITC/smurtas2.php?tipas=1
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Country Report Lithuania, 2012
ii. Official statistics In Lithuania 208 rapes and attempts to rape were reported in 2010, representing 6 reports per 100.000 in the population. During the period of 2006-2010 the average of these crimes was 195. Compared to the period before (2001-2005) with an average of 233, there has been a decrease of 16%. 152 persons were charged with rape or attempt to rape in 2010. 4 Statistics for 2009 show that the courts received 44 cases under the article 149 (rape), 31 cases under the article 150 (sexual assault) and 7 cases under the article 151 (sexual abuse). Existing statistics on rape by intimate partner are very poor.5 iii. Legal studies The reports of the evaluation of the National Strategy on Reduction of Violence against Women are published by the Ministry of Social Security and Labour. The reports present the quantitative analysis of the implemented measures without in depth qualitative analysis of the effect or impact of the implemented measures. Additionally, the National Strategy does not identify specific measures to combat sexual violence in the Action Plan.
4
Statistics Lithuania, e-mail: statistika@stat.gov.lt.
5
Pilinkaite-Sotirovic, V., Report on Lithuania, (2010). In Feasibility Study to Assess the Possibilities, Opportunities and Needs to Standardise National Legislation on Violence Against Women, Violence Against Children and Sexual Orientation Violence. European Commission, available at www.ec.europa.eu/justice/funding/daphne3/daphne_feasibility_study_2010_en.pdf 3
Country Report Lithuania, 2012
C. INSTITUTIONS, ORGANISATIONS AND SERVICES i. National level Besides the institutions mentioned in the Policy section, the following institutions are involved. Ombudsmen for Children Rights – national office with local network in all municipalities. Currently, there are 238 children rights specialists and 58 specialists working with youth in municipalities paid from the State budget.6 There are three levels Pedagogic and Psychological Service (National Centre, municipal services and professionals at schools). There is Psychological Service under the Prisons Department of the Ministry of Justice. ii. Regional/local level Since 2003 all municipalities have Youth Policy Coordinators with the function to coordinate youth policy implementation, to prepare and spread information, to support youth organisations and to represent youth positions. All municipalities have a Strategic Action Plan, where youth issues often are included. In most municipalities there are also Municipality Councils for Youth Affairs, formed by administration servants, municipal council members and youth organisations. Their function is to prepare offers and general information about youth policies to the mayor and the municipality administration, analyse youth issues and demands and assist NGOs. Some municipalities have Youth Councils, often called ‘Round Table’, as well, formed by youth organisations at the local level. 1. Victim-oriented institutions, organisations and services 1.1 National level Vilnius Women’s House/Crisis Centre for Women Website Type of organisation Short Description
No website available. NGO, partly funded by the state and partly by money raised through international projects. Run by Vilnius Women’s House, the centre provides services for victims of all forms of gender-based violence, with the focus on domestic violence. It offers a free national helpline (telephone service) as well as individual counselling. The crisis centre offers guidance and mediation and advocates for woman’s needs in institutions. It is engaged in political lobbying, legislation initiatives, information and awareness rising campaigns. It organises national and international conferences; works with the media, launches discussions on the issues of violence against women, especially domestic violence. Vilnius Women’s House acts as a resource centre for the local NGOs, working in the field of combating violence against women, prevention of violence and victim support. The organisation gives training, practical seminars and workshops, helps women’s groups to develop services for the victims of violence, organises networking and joined lobbying initiatives.
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see www.socmin.lt/index.php?-1445770994
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Country Report Lithuania, 2012
Women’s Information Portal with women’s NGOs database Website Type of organisation Short Description
http://www.lygus.lt/ITC/ (Women’s Information Portal) http://www.lygus.lt/ITC/nvo_en.php (Women’s NGOs data base) NGO. The Coalition aims to unite NGOs in Lithuania in order to put equal rights for men and women into practice. It associates representatives of all ten counties of Lithuania.
Children’s Support Centre Website Type of organisation Short Description
www.pvc.lt NGO. The Centre is simultaneously implementing several programs and projects, which are supported by Lithuanian people, the State and international foundations. Recently the Centre opened a Centre for Children Victims of Abuse and Violence. A special room was designed for interviewing children victims of physical and sexual abuse for legal purposes. Consultations with psychologists/psychotherapists, social workers, lawyers and child psychiatrists are available.
Secure Child Centre Website Type of organisation Short description
www.saugus-vaikas.lt Public non-profit organisation. Currently Secure Child Centre is supported by the Open Society Fund-Lithuania, and functions independently. The centre is also self-supporting by providing paid services and participating in various projects. From serving abused children the centre has expanded its services to a wider range of clients and now provides psychological counselling to children, adolescents, adults and families. The centre develops and publishes tools for professionals – educational-therapeutic games, workbooks and recommendations. Other services are: organise training for parents and various professionals, provide counselling and supervision for psychologists, psychotherapists and social workers. The centre is involved in projects aimed at child abuse prevention, social inclusion and mental health enhancement.
Youth Psychological Aid centre (YPAC) Website Type of organisation Short Description
www.jppc.lt/index.php?p=67&lng=en NGO. The main aim of YPAC is to provide voluntary and professional psychological and social support for children and youth. The main YPAC activities are crisis intervention and suicide prevention, intervention and postvention.
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Country Report Lithuania, 2012
2. Perpetrator-oriented institutions, organisations and services 2.1 National level Organisation of Maintenance People on Parole (LIAPO) Website Type of organisation Short Description
www.liapo.lt/apie3.htm NGO. The organisation does provide specialised assistance to perpetrators convicted for sexual violence but it provides services for people on parole, such as support and mediation while finding accommodation, managing paper work, providing information about social and psychological services.
PE Fund of Defending Rights of Convicts Website Type of organisation Short Description
Not available. Public enterprise. The organisation describes itself as one to conduct liquidation of unemployment, prevention of crimes through training of unemployed people, employing those people, also, providing legal services and support children’s foster homes through social services for children.
3. Professional Training, Health Education and Research 3.1 National level The Family Planning and Sexual Health Association of Lithuania (FPSHA)/Seimos Planavimo ir Seksualines Sveikatos Asociacija - IPPF Member Website Type of organisation Short description
www.spa.lt NGO. FPSHA focuses on educational campaigns, advocacy, and the protection of reproductive and sexual rights. It organises training courses for health personnel and teachers, and advocate for the introduction of sex education in the school curriculum. FPSHA has collaborated with the Polish Family Planning Association in designing ‘Preparation for Family Life’ programs for schools, and with the Danish Family Planning Association in organising seminars for teachers. The Youth Group publishes a newsletter and has produced a video on contraceptive methods for young people. The FPA participates in the IPPF Contraceptive Social Marketing project, selling COOL condoms of good quality at an affordable price, and an oral contraceptive. It co-operates with several women’s non-government organisations (NGOs) in advocating for the introduction of legislation providing unrestricted access to reproductive health care and services.
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Country Report Lithuania, 2012
Women’s Issues Information Centre (WIIC) Website Type of organisation Short Description
www.lygus.lt/about.php NGO, supported by the United Nations Development Programme in Lithuania. Goals of the Women’s Issues Information Centre: seek equal rights and opportunities for women and men in Lithuania; improve women’s position in social and private lives; develop gender equality environment; combat violence against women. WIIC, in collaboration with Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies, conducted a project gathering data related to rape cases among young women. The WIIC also offers an informative platform dedicated to women: www.lygus.lt
The Vilnius University Gender Studies Centre (GSC) Website Type of organisation Short Description
www.lsc.vu.lt GO. The GSC functions as centre for interdisciplinary academic research on women and gender. It plays an important role in forming gender policy in Lithuania. It educates young people in several academic subjects related to the topic of gender such as: feminist philosophy, gender sociology, visual culture, feminist literature critique, feminist theology, personal law, women’s history, gender and information technology, masculinity studies and women’s health.
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Country Report Lithuania, 2012
D. RESEARCH ON PREVALENCE, RISK FACTORS AND EVIDENCE BASED INTERVENTIONS Inclusion criteria: Studies from 2000 onwards; only quantitative studies; only studies reporting youth sexual aggression (excluding cases of childhood sexual abuse, as defined by legal age of consent). For exceptions, see individual studies. No.
Year of public.
Author
Study characteristics Prevalence data
Incidence data
Perpetration data
Victimization data
Heterosexual aggression Not specified Not specified
Same-sex aggression
Risk factors/ outcomes
1.
Dünkel, F., Gebauer, D., Grzywa, J. & Kestermann, C.
2006
x
-
-
x
2.
Beres, V.
2007
x
-
x
x
3.
Grigutytė, N., Salialionė, I., Skučaitė, V., & Karmazė, E.G.
2008
x
-
-
x
Not specified
Not specified
-
4.
Kouta, C.
2008
x
-
-
x
x
-
x
4
0
1
4
1
0
2
Total
Not specified Not specified
x
1. Dinkel, F., Gebauer, D., Grzywa, J. & Kestermann, C. (2006). Self-reported delinquency and experiences of violence among juveniles in the Baltic Sea Region: The Mare-Balticum-YouthSurvey. In B. Bykowskiej & M. Szulca (Eds.), Zagrozenia wspóczesnej modziezy polskiej (S.97-126). Gdansk: Fundacja Rozwoju Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego. Year of data collection Type of sample Sample composition Design
Measurement of sexual aggression
2003. Convenience sample: students of 9 th grade from all school types. N = 1.007, n male = 446, n female = 561. Mean age M = 14.92, SD = .57. Cross-sectional. Part of a larger study: Mare Balticum Youth Survey on self-reported delinquency and violence among juveniles in the Baltic Sea Region. Modified questionnaire originally developed by the Kriminologisches Forschungsinstitut Niedersachsen. Question about sexual violence (item): ‘Someone forces you –through violence or being seriously threatened with violence– to endure or condone sexual actions that you do not want (for example rape or someone putting their hand between your legs).’
Type of data collected
Relationship(s) between victim and perpetrator Incidence
Respondents were asked whether they had ever been victims of sexual violence and how often this had occurred in the last twelve months leading up to the survey. Victimization reports from boys and girls. Lifetime prevalence. One-year prevalence. Sex constellation between victim and perpetrator not specified. N/a N/a
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Country Report Lithuania, 2012
Prevalence
Findings regarding risk factors Findings regarding outcomes or consequences
Summary of prevalence findings regarding victimization Lifetime-prevalence: 2.2%; 0.4% male victims and 3.6% female victims. One-year prevalence: 1.6%. N/a N/a
2. Beres, V. (2007). The Baltic Sea Regional Study on adolescents’ sexuality. National report for Lithuania. In: S. Mossige, M. Ainsaar, & C. G. Svedin, (75-92), NOVA Rapport 18/07.7 www.childcentre.info/projects/abused/dbaFile15312.pdf Year of data collection Type of sample Sample composition
Design Measurement of sexual aggression
2003/2004. A representative random quota sample. Total N = 3.010. n male = 1.304; n female = 1.706. Age range 16 to 20, the majority (76.8 %) of respondents were 18 years old. Cross-sectional. Part of a larger study: The Baltic Sea regional study on adolescents’ sexuality. Experiences of being exposed to sexual activities against your will: somebody has exposed him/herself indecently towards you; somebody has touched your body in an indecent way; you exposed yourself masturbating towards somebody; you have had sexual intercourse; you have had oral sex; you have had anal sex. Sexually aggressive behaviour: participants were asked whether they had drawn, persuaded, pressured or forced someone into these sexual activities.
Type of data collected
Relationship(s) between victim and perpetrator Incidence Prevalence
Ad hoc question about: age of victim at first sexual assault; age difference between offender and victim. Prevalence (lifetime). Victimization reports from women and men. Perpetration reports from women and men. Sex constellation between victim and perpetrator not specified. N/a N/a Summary of prevalence findings regarding victimization
Sexual victimization defined as indecent touching or exposure: more than twice as high among girls than among boys.
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Norwegian Social Research is a national research institute under the auspices of the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research, and basic funding is provided by the State. 9
Country Report Lithuania, 2012
Penetrative sexual acts are more frequent experienced by boys. For girls: with increasing age unwanted sexual intercourse experiences increases from 13.3% for 18 year old to 20.7% for 19 year old. The difference among boys is smaller: 19.2% of 18 year old to 23.2% of 19 year old.
Age of victim at first sexual assault: the average age at the first sexual assault both for girls and boys was around 16 years. Age difference between offender and victim: 60% of cases offender was 5 or less than 5 years older than victim; 40% of cases the offender was more than 5 years older. Summary of prevalence findings regarding perpetration Note: results presented only for the 18 year-old boys and girls in the chapter: Svedin, C.G. Experiences with sexual abuse, selling sex, and use of pornography.
Findings regarding risk factors
Findings regarding outcomes or consequences
25.5% of boys and 7.6% of girls reported that they had been sexually aggressive towards another person. Summary of findings regarding risk factors for sexual victimization Risk markers: age (the number of incidents increases with age); sex (experiences of any kind of penetrative sexual acts was more frequent among the boys than among the girls). N/a
3. Grigutytė, N., Salialionė, I., Skučaitė, V., & Karmazė, E.G. (2008). Violence at schools: prevalence, forms, causes, preventions and support study. www.smm.lt/svietimo_bukle/docs/tyrimai/kiti/Smurtas%20mokykloje%202008%20tyrimas%20V aiko%20namas.pdf Year of data collection Type of sample Sample composition
2008. 17 randomly selected schools from 9 of 10 counties. Total N = 2.731, respond rate 85%. n = 957 pupils (average age 12.8, from 6 to 19 years old 50.2% girls). Only data for the age group of 15 to 19 year-olds are presented in this report.
Design Measurement of sexual aggression
In addition, information about pupils’ victimization and about the perception of sexual aggression was obtained from n = 537 teachers and n = 829 parents. Cross-sectional. Questionnaire includes questions about ‘whether particular behaviours of peers or adults could be perceived as ‘sexual violence’ for 3 respondents groups’. Questions on experience per year (frequency, for young children - often sometimes, never, for children from grades 5-12, parents and teachers – everyday, weekly, monthly, few times per year, never): somebody has touched your body without your consent; 10
Country Report Lithuania, 2012
Type of data collected Relationship(s) between victim and perpetrator Incidence Prevalence
somebody has kissed, caressed you forcibly; somebody has forced you to take your clothes off; somebody has used physical violence to have sexual intercourse with you. Prevalence (lifetime) in three groups perspectives in particular forms. Victimization reports obtained from pupils. Peers, teachers, adult relatives. N/a Summary of prevalence findings regarding victimization Note: because some of the data refers to child sexual experiences (regarding young children), only results for the older sample are presented.
Findings regarding risk factors Findings regarding outcomes or consequences
Older students (9-12 classes, between 15-18) reported sexual violence from their peers: somebody has touched your body without your consent (9%); somebody has kissed, caressed you forcibly (4%). N/a N/a
4. Kouta, C. (2008). Date rape cases among young women. Strategies for support and prevention. Final results of a project undertaken by five European countries. The Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies (MIGS), Daphne II Program. http://www.medinstgenderstudies.org/wp-content/uploads/date-rape resourcebook_final.pdf Year of data collection Type of sample Sample composition Design
Measurement of sexual aggression
Type of data collected
Study period 2006-2008. Convenience sample: female students. Total N = 394. 18-21 years. Cross-sectional. Part of a larger study addressing date rape by five European countries (among others: Cyprus, Malta, Greece and Latvia). Questionnaire included attempted and completed rape. Based on Rickert et al. (2004) und Zeitler et al. (2006). Example items: ‘Please review each behaviour below that may have happened on a date during the last 12 months.’ A list of several sexual behaviours were presented to the participants, e.g.: performed oral sex on person; had sexual intercourse; responses: my date TRIED to do it against my wishes/my date DID this anyway against my wishes. One-year prevalence in heterosexual encounters. Victimization reports from women.
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Country Report Lithuania, 2012
Relationship(s) between victim and perpetrator Incidence Prevalence
Specified: reported unwanted sexual experience were often perpetrated by a person that the respondents considered to be their boyfriend, friend or sexual partner, in most cases the respondent knew the perpetrator for a period of a few months or several years. N/a Summary of findings regarding victimization
Findings regarding risk factors
Attempted oral sex reported in 2.1% cases, attempted sexual intercourse in 1.4% cases. Date rape. 0.3% of respondents reported forced completed sexual intercourse. Reported unwanted sexual experience were often perpetrated by a person that the respondents considered to be their boyfriend, friend or sexual partner, in most cases the respondent knew the perpetrator for a period of a few months or several years. Summary of findings regarding risk factors for sexual victimization Risk factors: alcohol drinking, drug use.
Findings regarding outcomes or consequences
N/a
All participants who reported unwanted sexual experiences also reported that their partners had been drinking alcohol and/or using drugs. 31% of the participants reported having 2-3 alcoholic drinks during a date. Drug use was low (~ 5%).
References studies Rickert, V.I., Wiemann, C.M., Vaughan, R.D., & White, J.W. (2004). Rates and risk factors for sexual violence among an ethnically diverse sample of adolescents. Archives of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine, 158, 1132-1139. Zeitler, M.S., Paine, A.D., Breitbart, V., Rickert, V.I., Olson, C, Stevens. L., Rottenberg, L., & Davidson L.L. (2006). Attitudes about intimate partner violence screening among an ethnically diverse sample of young women. Journal of Adolescent Health, 39, 119.e1-119.e8.
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