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TIBETAN NATIONALISM
the earlier interaction between Tibet and the Khoshut Mongols, the reputable intellectual tradition of Tibetan Buddhism and medicine was the foundation for Tibet’s greater prestige among other cultures.43 Desi Sangye also established many state-sponsored medical schools in the 7LEHWDQ FDSLWDO RI /KDVD %\ IDU WKH PRVW LQà XHQWLDO RI WKHVH ZDV WKH &KDJSRUL ,URQ Mountain) Medical College, founded in 1696 after the death of Lozang Gyatso. Desi Sangye actually ruled as regent from the death of Lozang Gyatso until 1702 CE, in order to prevent the power vacuum that may have resulted from the lack of a Dalai Lama. Desi Sangye required Chagpori doctors to train new physicians in major provincial monasteries, and establish a series of new medical colleges throughout Tibet following the philosophy of sowa rigpa.44 Many aspects of the medical college structure became standardized, including medical curricula, granting of degrees, and student enrollment procedures.45 During this period, many physicians became part of the civil service, becoming employed by provincial and federal governments; the doctors trained at Chagpori were the most respected, and frequently served as personal physicians to provincial rulers.46 By bridging the religious and political spheres of Tibetan society, Lozang Gyatso and Desi Sangye were able to greatly advance medical education and research by combining the rich traditions of monastic medical knowledge with institutional support. In contrast to the strong federal government system described above, inefÀFLHQW JRYHUQDQFH DQG SROLWLFDO LQVWDELOLW\ FKDUDFWHUL]HG WKH UHLJQV RI WKH QH[W VHYHUDO Dalai Lamas throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Although Tibet was periodically ruled by other empires including the Qing (Manchu) Dynasty of China, the overall structure of Tibetan medicine was left undisturbed since it was again so deeply ingrained in society. The lack of a consistent Dalai Lama (many of them died young, and Tibet was nominally governed by regents) may have hurt the ideal of a coherent Tibetan identity throughout these centuries, but Tibet’s geographic isolation due to the Himalayas allowed the Tibetan people to retain their lifestyle.47 The British Colonial Period Beginning in 1903, Tibet was forced to interact with foreigners as the British sought to increase their empire in South and East Asia. Under the command of Lord Younghusband, British armed forces fought their way from Northern India to Lhasa, and demanded that Tibet enter into diplomatic relations with British India. The British also established a permanent presence in Tibet and built Western-style hospitals to dispense European medicine.48 This episode was extremely troubling for Tibetans because it appeared that their entire identity was under attack. No longer could they pay nominal submission to the Manchu and maintain their traditional lifestyle within their Himalayan sanctuary; the British were constantly attempting to gain control over Indian trade routes and to make matters worse, the establishment of Western medicine threatened to delegitimize the centuries-old Tibetan medical tradition.49 Tibet would need to adapt WR WKH ´PRGHUQ¾ HUD RU IDOO XQGHU WKH SHUPDQHQW LQà XHQFH RI HLWKHU &KLQD RU *UHDW Britain.