WHAT DO WE MEAN BY SOCIAL INCLUSION?
•
61
Notes 1. According to Sen, “a small peasant and a landless laborer may both be poor, but their fortunes are not tied together. In understanding the proneness to starvation of either we have to view them not as members of the huge army of ‘poor,’ but as members of particular classes, belonging to particular occupational groups, having different endowments, being governed by rather different entitlement relations. The category of the poor is not merely inadequate for evaluation exercises and a nuisance for causal analysis, it can also have distorting effects on policy matters” (Sen 1981, as quoted in Hulme and Shepherd 2003, 403). 2. The opposite of social exclusion is not always inclusion. One may be “included” in decision-making processes but have very limited say over outcomes; it is the terms of inclusion that matter. The concept of adverse incorporation suggests a situation where people are included but on highly adverse terms. 3. In the United States, grade-point averages are usually on a four-point scale. 4. The Laeken indicators are a set of common statistical indicators on poverty and social exclusion established at the European Council of December 2001 in the Brussels suburb of Laeken, Belgium. The indicators, which are disaggregated by criteria such as gender and age group, include the at-risk-of-poverty rate, the persistent at-risk-of-poverty rate, regional cohesion, the long-term unemployment rate, yearly school leavers not in education or training, and life expectancy at birth, among other indicators.
References Abrams, D., M. A. Hogg, and J. M. Marques, eds. 2005. The Social Psychology of Inclusion and Exclusion. New York: Psychology Press. Akerlof, George. 1976. “The Economics of Caste and of the Rat Race and Other Woeful Tales.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 90 (4): 599–617. Alkire, S., and J. Foster. 2007. “Counting and Multidimensional Poverty Measures.” OPHI Working Paper Series 7, Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, Oxford, U.K. Alkire, S., and M. E. Santos. 2010. “Multidimensional Poverty Index.” Research Brief, Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, University of Oxford, Oxford, U.K. Atkinson, A. B. 2005. “Measurement of UK Government Output and Productivity for the National Accounts.” Journal of the Statistical and Social Inquiry Society of Ireland 34: 152–60.