3 Environment pollution, alone or with sulfur dioxide, creates an enormous burden
urban areas—but also reflects climatic, geographic, and economic
of ill health.
factors. Energy use has been growing rapidly in low- and middle-
Data on particulate matter are estimated average annual concentrations in residential areas away from air pollution “hotspots,” such
income economies, but high-income economies still use almost five times as much energy per capita.
as industrial districts and transport corridors. Data are estimates
Total energy use refers to the use of primary energy before trans-
of annual ambient concentrations of particulate matter in cities of
formation to other end-use fuels (such as electricity and refined
more than 100,000 people by the World Bank’s Agriculture and
petroleum products). It includes energy from combustible renew-
Environmental Services Department.
ables and waste—solid biomass and animal products, gas and
Pollutant concentrations are sensitive to local conditions, and
liquid from biomass, and industrial and municipal waste. Biomass
even monitoring sites in the same city may register different levels.
is any plant matter used directly as fuel or converted into fuel,
Thus these data should be considered only a general indication of
heat, or electricity. Data for combustible renewables and waste
air quality, and comparisons should be made with caution. They
are often based on small surveys or other incomplete informa-
allow for cross-country comparisons of the relative risk of particulate
tion and thus give only a broad impression of developments and
matter pollution facing urban residents. Major sources of urban
are not strictly comparable across countries. The IEA reports
outdoor particulate matter pollution are traffic and industrial emis-
include country notes that explain some of these differences (see
sions, but nonanthropogenic sources such as dust storms may also
Data sources). All forms of energy—primary energy and primary
be a substantial contributor for some cities. Country technology and
electricity—are converted into oil equivalents. A notional thermal
pollution controls are important determinants of particulate matter.
efficiency of 33 percent is assumed for converting nuclear electric-
Current WHO air quality guidelines are annual mean concentrations
ity into oil equivalents and 100 percent efficiency for converting
of 20 micrograms per cubic meter for particulate matter less than
hydroelectric power.
10 microns in diameter.
Electricity production Carbon dioxide emissions
Use of energy is important in improving people’s standard of liv-
Carbon dioxide emissions are the primary source of greenhouse
ing. But electricity generation also can damage the environment.
gases, which contribute to global warming, threatening human and
Whether such damage occurs depends largely on how electricity
natural habitats. Fossil fuel combustion and cement manufacturing
is generated. For example, burning coal releases twice as much
are the primary sources of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions,
carbon dioxide—a major contributor to global warming—as does
which the U.S. Department of Energy’s Carbon Dioxide Information
burning an equivalent amount of natural gas. Nuclear energy does
Analysis Center (CDIAC) calculates using data from the United
not generate carbon dioxide emissions, but it produces other dan-
Nations Statistics Division’s World Energy Data Set and the U.S.
gerous waste products.
Bureau of Mines’s Cement Manufacturing Data Set. Carbon dioxide
The International Energy Agency (IEA) compiles data and data
emissions, often calculated and reported as elemental carbon, were
on energy inputs used to generate electricity. Data for countries
converted to actual carbon dioxide mass by multiplying them by
that are not members of the Organisation for Economic Co-opera-
3.667 (the ratio of the mass of carbon to that of carbon dioxide).
tion and Development (OECD) are based on national energy data
Although estimates of global carbon dioxide emissions are probably
adjusted to conform to annual questionnaires completed by OECD
accurate within 10 percent (as calculated from global average fuel
member governments. In addition, estimates are sometimes made
chemistry and use), country estimates may have larger error bounds.
to complete major aggregates from which key data are missing,
Trends estimated from a consistent time series tend to be more
and adjustments are made to compensate for differences in defini-
accurate than individual values. Each year the CDIAC recalculates
tions. The IEA makes these estimates in consultation with national
the entire time series since 1949, incorporating recent findings and
statistical offices, oil companies, electric utilities, and national
corrections. Estimates exclude fuels supplied to ships and aircraft
energy experts. It occasionally revises its time series to reflect
in international transport because of the difficulty of apportioning
political changes. For example, the IEA has constructed historical
the fuels among benefiting countries.
energy statistics for countries of the former Soviet Union. In addition, energy statistics for other countries have undergone continu-
60
Energy use
ous changes in coverage or methodology in recent years as more
In developing economies growth in energy use is closely related to
detailed energy accounts have become available. Breaks in series
growth in the modern sectors—industry, motorized transport, and
are therefore unavoidable.
World Development Indicators 2013
Front
?
User guide
World view People view People Environment