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TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C
FIGURE 3.10 Men and women work in different sectors throughout the East Asia and Pacific region percentage of workers a. Indonesia, male
b. Indonesia, female
and Ramos 2011; Sakellariou 2011). Among entrepreneurs, differences in industry and size of enterprise have been found to explain a substantial fraction of the raw performance gaps in profits and revenues among male and female firms.11
What determines gender inequality in economic opportunities?
c. Cambodia, male
d. Cambodia, female
Men and women differ in their economic activities in a number of respects. These differences in activities may represent differences in choices, but they may also represent differences in the constraints that men and women face in their working lives. This section explores the economic, demographic, and cultural factors that determine current gender inequalities in access to economic opportunities in the East Asia and Pacific region.
Determinants of labor market participation commerce
manufacturing
construction
transport
public administration
education, health and social work
Source: CSES (NIS Cambodia), 2008 data; World Bank estimates using Indonesia SUSENAS (BPS Indonesia), 2009 data.
influence factors beyond productivity—from the provision of benefits to gender-sensitive policies.9 In Vietnam, workers in female-run small and medium enterprises are more likely to receive fringe benefits in addition to wage compensation (Rand and Tarp 2011). Female owners are more likely to provide health and social insurance and to allow sick, vacation, and maternity leave with pay. Labor market sorting has been found to contribute to the gender wage and earnings gaps.10 Differences in occupational and industrial sorting explain a greater fraction of gender wage gaps in the East Asia and Pacific region and across the world than differences in human capital (Ñopo, Daza,
Female labor force participation is affected by growth processes and development. As development occurs, changes in household income, education, wages, marital, and fertility choices affect participation. The evolution of market opportunities alters the types of jobs present in the economy, as well as the relative demand for skills. The institutional framework of society affects and is affected by the economic participation of women during the process of development; that is, gender norms, expectations, and perceptions within the household and society affect female labor force participation and are also likely to be affected by its evolution. Female labor force participation and its determinants vary over the life cycle. Early in their careers, women are similar to men in terms of their decisions to join the labor market, but their participation begins to differ as their domestic responsibilities increase. This change is partly due to the increased time that women devote to household activities, such as housework and child rearing, as