the main elements for senior officials to realistically and practically consider when introducing performance indicator and target systems in government to ensure sustainability. Gloria Rubio in Chapter 9 outlines the menu of evaluation types implemented by developing and OECD countries to tackle a wide range of policy and program management issues. The suitability of each type of evaluation depends on the available time and resources, and on capacity constraints. The chapter emphasizes the importance of a gradual approach when introducing evaluation tools into country-level M&E systems. Different paths may work better for different countries depending on the main purpose of their M&E system, existing institutional capacity, the availability of funds, and external technical assistance. Every type of evaluation requires the collection of baseline data before the project or program begins. Once the project or program has been underway for some time, an evaluation can compare its performance with the baseline data—using advanced statistical techniques—to provide an estimate of its outcomes and impacts. However, as Michael Bamberger points out in Chapter 10, it is often the case that a baseline study is not conducted, seriously limiting the possibility of producing a rigorous assessment of project outcomes and impacts. This chapter discusses the reasons why baseline studies are often not conducted, even when they are included in the project design and funds have been approved. It also describes strategies that can be used to “reconstruct” baseline data at a later stage in the project or program cycle. Despite significant methodological advances, the value of monitoring data and of many evaluations is reduced because of an over-reliance on quantitative methods alone, argues Michelle Adato in Chapter 11. The addition of qualitative methods to the M&E toolkit can also inform survey design, identify social and institutional drivers and impacts that are hard to quantify, uncover unanticipated issues, and trace impact pathways. When used together, quantitative and qualitative approaches provide more coherent, reliable, and useful conclusions than do each on their own. Adato’s chapter identifies key elements of good mixed-method design and provides examples of these principles applied in several countries.
M&E Systems in Context The final section of this book illustrates the central themes in a set of country briefings. These show how the different parts of an M&E system interact in a dynamic and challenging environment. The cases were selected to show Introduction
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