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12. With the exception of South Africa, which is not exempt from Article 27. 13. The definition of “product” is subject to some debate but is generally considered to be at the 4-digit level of commodity classification. 14. For example, India’s SEZ program provides tax holidays but requires that companies be “net foreign exchange earners,” which implicitly favors local purchase over imports. 15. In Kenya, a number of private firms have licenses as free zone developers; in reality, however, they are operating as single factory units. The FIAS (2008) data do not appear take the single factory licensed firms in Ghana and Senegal into account. 16. Based on approximately 2,500 zones identified worldwide in 2005, excluding zones in the United States and Europe. 17. The Dominican Republic has 31 private zones, 21 public zones, and three public-private joint ventures. 18. The Malaysian company, Business Focus, was not an established zone developer, so this is not the same type of partnership model.
References Action Aid Vietnam. 2007. Food Security for the Poor in Vietnam. Hanoi: Action Aid International Vietnam. Brautigam, D., and X. Tang. 2010. “China’s Investment in Africa’s Special Economic Zones.” Mimeo (January). World Bank, Washington, DC. Creskoff, S., and P. Walkenhorst. 2009. “Implications of WTO Disciplines for Special Economic Zones in Developing Countries.” Policy Research Working Paper 4892. World Bank, Washington, DC. FIAS. 2008. Special Economic Zones. Performance, Lessons Learned, and Implications for Zone Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. Harding, T., and B. S. Javorcik. 2007. “Developing Economies and International Investors: Do Investment Promotion Agencies Bring Them Together?” Policy Research Working Paper Series 4339. World Bank, Washington, DC. Harrison, A., L. Du, and G. Jefferson. 2010. “Firm Performance and Industrial Policy in China.” Presentation at World Bank Conference on Growth, Competitiveness, and the Role of Government Policies. Washington, DC, June 16. Klinger, B. 2010. “(New) Export Competitiveness.” Mimeo (February). Center for International Development, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Lim, C. E. 1971. Extract of speech by Dr. Lim Chong Eu, chief minister of Penang, when moving the second reading of the Penang Development Corporation Bill. April 10.