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The Cost of Environmental Degradation
In contrast, the percentages of the COED associated with agricultural land, air, and water are greater than the forest-related costs, mainly because of the high level of cropland salinity, the impacts of air pollution in major cities, and the health effects of water pollution.
Notes Lelia Croitoru is an Environmental Economist at the World Bank, Middle East and North Africa Region, 1818 H Street, NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA. 1. Calculated with reference to a total population of 68.3 million inhabitants in 2006 (World Bank 2007). 2. For example, in Turkey, the forestry contribution is only 0.5 percent of GDP, compared to agriculture’s 13 percent contribution (Türker, Pak, and Öztürk 2005). 3. The reported figures of Amirnejad and others (2006) are based on information from Abbasi and Mohammadzadeh (2001) and Agheli (2003). 4. Several local experts argue against the reliability of the 1944 inventory. Some of them argue that the current annual deforestation rate is about 50,000 hectares per year, or 0.4 percent of total forest area (Sagheb-Talebi, pers. communication, 2004). 5. The NBSAP (2000) reports that (1) the Zagros forest area fell from 12 million hectares to 5.5 million hectares over the past 50 years, which would correspond to an average deforestation rate of about 140,000 hectares per year; and (2) in the Irano-Touranian forest region, the area covered by juniper forests (Juniperus polycarpus) diminished from 3.4 million hectares to 500,000 hectares during the past 50 years, or an average deforestation rate of about 60,000 hectares per year of this forest type. These figures are assumed to be too high to be considered for the most recent years. Therefore, this paper considers the ratio of the average deforested areas between the two types of forests. 6. In reality, the losses due to deforestation may occur and persist during time periods other than 25 years. These losses may be either permanent or temporary, depending on whether forest benefits recover in time. For example, loss of timber for future uses is temporary if the forest regenerates in time, and it is permanent if an alternative use of land substitutes for the forests. In addition, the time period during which the benefits recover varies from one benefit to another, depending on several factors, such as type of benefit, climate, and the way in which the deforestation was performed. 7. The timber and firewood price estimates in this chapter are drawn from the expert opinion of M. Seifollahian, member of High Council of Forests and Forestry Organization of the Islamic Republic of Iran.