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countries, voting by mail is possible. Migrants who permanently live abroad can register with an embassy or consulate in the country of their permanent residence and vote there, but the costs of registration may be high. For example, South Africa approved voting rights for South Africans living abroad in 2009, but only about 16,000 voters (out of the estimated 1.2 million South African citizens in the diaspora) who had been registered well in advance were able to participate in the 2009 elections. Members of the Nigerian diaspora asked the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to register Nigerians abroad so they could participate in the 2011 elections.27 The extent of participation also depends on whether voting is required (as it is in Peru) or voluntary (as it is in most countries).
DESTINATION COUNTRIES’ SUPPORT FOR DIASPORAS Some destination countries are devoting resources to helping diasporas promote the development of their countries of origin. Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United States, and the European Union, among other governments and institutions, are becoming more interested in working with the diasporas residing in their countries. Some of their initiatives are at the initial stage of implementation. Other programs, such as those promoting return, have been unsuccessful.28 One area of focus has been the reduction in fees for transferring remittances (see chapter 2). There are few well-defined programs that facilitate diaspora trade, investment, and technology operations apart from small grants or matching grant initiatives (for example, the Development Marketplace for the African Diaspora in Europe, the African Development Marketplace, and the Joint Migration and Development Initiative). There is little information on initiatives and few external evaluations of their effectiveness (de Haas 2006). The United States has focused on engaging with diaspora communities as a core element of its foreign policy, with an emphasis on the role diasporas can play in their origin countries (an example is the role Haitian-Americans played in providing relief to Haiti following the earthquake). The U.S. Department of State and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) have sponsored a new initiative called the Diaspora Networks Alliance (DNA).29 Canada, France, the Netherlands, and the European Commission have funded development projects implemented by diaspora groups. The Netherlands has awarded grants to projects aimed at building the capacity of migrant organizations. In 2007, France added cofunding of diaspora projects to its menu for codevelopment. At the 25th Annual Africa-France Summit,