the short route of accountability is not really short, because actors are just too far away to be reached. The so-called long route of accountability seems shorter for rural people. However, as discussed below, this route is ineffective at improving service provision if only the first leg of the route (from citizens to their political representatives) works. There are thus important reasons for strengthening the long route of accountability for agricultural extension. If, however, funding for agricultural extension is fully devolved to local governments, the provision of service may decline.2 The survey results suggest that agriculture-related services are not a household priority as long as the needs for other basic services, especially water, are not met.3 Hence, there is a need to craft an institutional design that uses the potential of the long route to improve the effectiveness of agricultural extension services while at the same time avoiding the underprovision of this service. Lack of political competition in Ethiopia. The situation is quite different in Ethiopia, where the reach of the state is extraordinarily deep. Decentralization has enabled the state to reach down to the level of groupings of 30–50 households. The kebele, with an average population of about 5,000, is the lowest formal administrative unit at which deliberative, executive, and judicial bodies manage local affairs. But the existence of a formalized state structure at this level has made possible the organization of households into mengistawi budin (government teams), which, through their leaders, coordinate the implementation of government development programs, ensure labor and other contributions from households for government initiatives, and in some cases work closely with and even evaluate the performance of front-line extension workers. The deep reach of the state also manifests itself in the ability of the government to dramatically expand public services that constitute a priority area in its policy framework. Agricultural extension delivery is one such priority area. Hence, unlike in Ghana and India, the short route of accountability is more accessible for rural households in Ethiopia, at least in terms of physical proximity. The challenge in Ethiopia is to make agricultural extension more responsive to the needs of farmers, including female farmers. Could the long route of accountability be used more effectively to achieve this goal? There is some evidence that farmers use this route, contacting the kebele council or chairpersons to lodge complaints. The political constellation in Ethiopia limits the effectiveness of this route, however. The first leg of the long route, which implies accountability of political representatives to the citizens they represent, has never functioned in Ethiopia through the avenue of political competition. Ethiopia has the formal structure of a representative democracy: there are elected representatives, a political machinery suggesting a multiparty system, periodic elections at every tier of government, and constitutionally stipulated political rights to exercise voice. Yet this machinery does not lead to de facto
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GENDER AND GOVERNANCE IN RURAL SERVICES