January 2014
URBAN PLANNING AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT SPECIAL EDITION: The Quarterly Review
Grand Central: An American Treasure Beijing’s Urban Planning: the three-staged History
VOL 9
Urban Design in the Netherlands
A Global Publication
A Global Publication Urban Planning and Development Through Partnership
In Association with Urban Planning and Economic Development Associates Our Vision is to share a full range of interdisciplinary professional knowledge with community leaders, professional planners, businesses and interested citizens having a commitment to operational excellence in the public and private sectors. Contributions from our constituency will assist in facilitating sound decisions in community and economic development to promote continued commitments in creating quality places to live, work and play. Our goal is to provide educational information and services in urban planning and environmental conservation to an interconnected global community that will both enable individuals and communities to adapt to new holistic techniques and solutions to resolve existing and future urban and environmental issues and foster economic and sustainable development. General Manager/Publisher Pamela Shinn, BS URP European Consultant Andrey Maltsev South American Consultant Tella Guillermo, PhD North American Consultant Amy Blatt, PhD Asian Consultant Yekaterina Dobritskaya PhD Advisory Board: Photo by Andrey Maltsev
Amy Blatt, PhD Tracy Mullins, MS, AICP Scott Ranville Solenne Cucchi Andrey Maltsev We would like to thank all of our writers and photographers for their countless dedication and support in contributing to the publication and helping to make it a success.
We are always looking for contributing writers. If you would like to contribute to our magazine and cause, write to us at: planninganddevelopmentassoc@gmail.com Cover photo courtesy of Andrey Maltsev
Š January 2014 2
“Partnering for a Brighter Tomorrow” Transportation
Feature Articles Grand Central: An American Treasure by Richard W. Luckin
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Beijing’s Urban Planning: the three-staged historyed History by Yekaterina Dobritskaya, PhD
Corporate Sustainable Mobility Plans Initiative:
Private Companies’ possible contribution to Urban Mobility by Solenne Cucchi, Msc
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Two Under-developed Transportation Systems : Water and Rail Transport in the Netherlands by Andrey Maltsev
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The Return of Industry: Are you prepeared Cities? by Alain Jorda’ Urban Design in the Netherlands by Christopher Goldsmith
Redevelopment
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Brownfield Redevelopment in Michigan: The forgotten element of community planning by Flo McCormack
Balcarce 2020 Strategic Plan An Intervention in the Southern Pampas, Argentina by Guillermo Tella, PhD
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Health and Environment Designing for the Future: What Planners Need to Know About Adaptive Management and Health Impact Assessment
The Quarterly Review Economy Tourism Planning Tools for Sustainable Economic Development
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by Amy J. Blatt, PhD, GISP
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Going Green: The Chicago Green Initative by Pamela Shinn, BS URP
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Housing
Photo by Andrey Maltsev
by Tracy Mullins, MS, AICP
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Sustainable City Services: Cycle of Housing Stock and Age of Residents by Scott and Jenny Ranville
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Credits
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Photo Credits
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Grand Central: An American Treasure
Photo courtesy Richard Luckin
by Richard W. Luckin
“This building is an incredible and unique example of the chandeliers, and the stone carvings throughout a perfect amalgam of architecture, art, and the building announce to a visitor, you’ve arrived engineering.” in the greatest train station in the greatest city in the nation. It was the Vanderbilt family who These words are spoken by one of the twenty-five peo- built the terminal and wished to make a statement ple who appear in a new documentary about about their railroad, the New York Central. Grand Central Terminal. It airs for the first time in the Indeed, the magnificence of Grand Central Terminal nation on Colorado Public Television (Channel conveyed that message! 12) on February 1st at 6:00pm. The program is repeated on February 3rd at 7:00pm. In the video another person remarks, “Grand Central Terminal is an engineeringmasterpiece, to begin Grand Central is the world’s largest train terminal, with, and anyone who has studied the growth of engicovering 49 acres in mid-town Manhattan. neering over the years and how it impacted the The terminal hasmore trains and tracks and track development of the United States as a nation goes to platforms than any other terminal in the world. Grand Central. You can learn that all here.” This Beaux Arts building, designed by architects Reed and Stem plus Warren and Wetmore, was the third try for a train station at the same site. The current terminal opened in 1913. In the new video program, an architectural historian states, “Whitney Warren took a piece of Paris and dropped it in at the intersection of Park Avenue and 42nd Street.”
From the early days of the terminal’s opening, famous express trains departed like great ocean liners, packed with celebrities. They included movie stars, politicians and business tycoons who all rode the many New York Central and New Haven Railroad passenger trains. For example, trains like the 20th Century,Merchants Limited and Wolverine all had their own sense of departure and special activities connected with their journey.
Grand Central ismore than just a train terminal. Themetal work, the fourteen-foot Tiffany clock, By the 1950s and ‘60s the crush of rail passengers
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About the Writer Photo courtesy Richard Luckin
Mr. Luckin has been involved in video production for 30 years and for the last ten years, his programs have aired on many PBS stations nationwide. One of those programs has been nominated for a Regional Emmy. Other productions have garnered 44 national and local video awards. Mr. Luckin has worked with Edward Herrmann (History Channel), Michael Gross (Family Ties), and Tia Marlier (Home and Garden Television).
duringWorldWar II had subsided and dark days were ahead for Grand Central. It was filthy. The ceiling was a shadow of its former self. Homeless people made it their shelter and then the Pan Am building came plunk down against the back of Grand Central. Later, there was a move to construct another high-rise building that would have destroyed the facade of the terminal.
In addition to his PBS programs, Mr. Luckin spent six years producing a series of documentaries and short informational programs for the United States Air Force, Air Mobility Command.
Prior to his early retirement from the Coors Brewing Company, Richard Luckin was a producer-director It was the loss of Penn Station in New York City that for the Coors Corporate TelevisionDepartment inturned the tide in saving Grand Central. In the pro- Golden, Colorado. gram for mayor Ed Koch laments, “We still mourn the loss of Penn Station.” The Landmarks Preservation His program, Packard: An American Classic Car Commission was created in NewYork in1965 after the (hosted by actor Edward Herrmann), is currently airdemolition of Penn Station. This commission, along ing on PBS stations nationwide. with the Municipal Art Society of New York, was instrumental in saving Grand Central Terminal. Photo courtesy Richard Luckin
Two hundredmillion dollars plus the dedication of civic groups, concerned citizens andMetro-North Railroad achieved the preservation of one of America’s treasures. Each day 750,000 people visit Grand Central and on weekdays 650 trains arrive and depart. Grand Central is truly New York’s meeting place.
Mr. Luckin recently completed production of two programs. One for Amtrak, Amtrak: The First 40 years - 1971 - 2011, and a a new documentary for The Denver Post.
In the documentary, aMetro-North employee concludes, “I appreciate that people recognized that everything can’t be done on a cost-benefit analysis. Some things are worth saving, even though you can’t assign a direct value to it.”
Photo courtesy Richard Luckin
Currently Mr. Luckin’s newest program, Grand Central: An American Treasure is now in production and is expected to be released later this year. WhileRichard Luckin has a degree in audio-visual technology, his on-the-job experience and talentwithmusic and visuals combine to produce quality,meaningful historical programs. e-mail: rluckin@ mindspring.com
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Beijing’s Urban Planning: The Three-staged History by Yekaterina Dobritskaya, PhD
Traditional Design of Beijing’s Forbidden City
Beijing history about 3 000 years, from 1279 onward the city remained as China principal city. There were only two exceptions as 1368 to 1420 and 1928 to 1949 periods when Beijing functioned not as a capital. Changing its name as Jicheng, Yanjing, Zhongdu, Dadu ect.; Beijing, Beiping and Beijing (Peking) again, the city served Chinese rulers and people among others as the seat of ancient states (Ji and Yan) in preimperial period; as the Guangyang Commandery in Western Han period and then as the capital of the Chinese states or whole China (firstly since 1271), Republic of China (1911) and People’s Republic of China (1949).
“Kao gong ji” from “Rites of Zhou” set an ideal urban planning model for traditional Chinese city. Some principles from the “State Management System” such as “holding the center as superior” and “choosing [it] to build” were reflected in urban planning of Forbidden City. Moreover, since Zhou Dynasty (1046 – 221 BC) the ideology of the unity of Heaven and human being was also actual in Chinese urban planning thoughts. Thus built during Ming Dynasty in 1420 the front entrance to the Imperial City including the Forbidden City within was named as Tiananmen (Geate of Heavenly Peace). Till now Tiananmen Gate and the square under the same name are most significant figures of Beijing and whole China.
Thus, urban planning and urban design of current Beijing are representing three most important stages of the city history and city development. First, Beijing’s Forbidden City represents Chinese traditional walled cities. Ancient Chinese cities was constructed in strong accordance with Rites of Confucianism, geomancy, Feng-Shui and Zhong-Yong Principles. The style was actual in Chinese architecture till 1930s.
Photo by Yekaterina Dobritskaya
Second, a number of Districts in Beijing constructed in 1950s to mid-1980s are giving examples of socialist urban planning. The most significant features of socialist cities are broad central avenues, large squares, Soviet style exhibition halls, work-unit type, urban communes etc. The project of construction subway was also started in Soviet era (1965). Third, Beijing is also a modern global city with significant urban design including buildings and road junctions constructed since mid-90s. The modern infrastructure of Beijing are completed with commercial and industrial zoning regulations, international airport, urban cores, intenationally linked informal network hubs [1].
The use of numbers in Chinese culture is also with significant content. Thus Tiananmen gate holes number is five. This number is representing represents Five Elements: earth, wood, water, gold and fire. The use of odd numbers with the accordance to the “holding the center as superior” principle was
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followed by the fact, that the central gate usually identified with earth and the beginning was used exclusively by emperor.
Socialist Urban Design of Beijing
A researcher of the Institute for History and Theory of Architecture at ETH Zurich Jinxi Chen evidenced, “as the capital of imperial China, the layout of Beijing could be seen as a holistic work. Its urban logic was of a concentric structure formed around a centre that reigned supreme. This schema of an ideal city was described in the traditional engineering book Kaogongji, which dictated that the imperial palace should be placed in this centre, becoming the point of origin from which the space of the city is generated. Beijing was an exemplar in this regard with the Forbidden City bounded by the Imperial City, the Inner City, and the Outer City, each with its own wall one after another” [2].
The plan of new socialist Beijing city center was framed by Liang along with another designer Dr. Cheng Zhangxiang educated at University College London. According to the schedule, the soviet Central Government was placed on the new site west to the old city (figure 1). Both centers – the old and new one – fulfilled their functions as preserve the heritage and perform new functions.
Chinese landscape model with the sea surrounds the mountains represented an ideal living conditions. The model where the plants and the architectures could be found in the mountains were reflected “one pound and three mountains” conception, in accordance to which traditional Chinese gardens were planned and built. The Zhonghai, Nanhai and Beihai Lakes in Beijing are the examples of following “one pound and figure 1 three lakes” principle. Liang ang Chen’s scheme for the location of the Central Government, showing the new government complex to the west of the old imperial centre. Source: ‘Anthology of Sicheng Liang’, published by China Building Industry Press, Beijing, 2001 [2].
The last effort of following classical principles was made by Liang Sicheng, a communist and professor of architecture at Tsinghua University. Appointed by urban planning committee of Mao government as the vice-director of the Beijing plan, Liang Sicheng was warning communists from bombing Beijing during the Civil War, from devastation after 1949 and from destruction of classical forms during the new Beijing urban plan discussion. According to Liang, historic city of Beijing along with walls should be presented as a whole. ‘Its top can be planted with grass, flowers and trees, and be placed with some chairs and seats. Along with the moat, the wall would be a unique three-dimensional park. It would serve the city [with] an outstanding urban space’ [2]. By the walls were considered barriers to future traffic movement and torn down.
However, Moscow advisers insisted on holding the location of Central Government in the old town for several reasons: 1. Use of existing infrastructure of the old city could help save lots of costs in the country devastated by civil war; 2. The transformation of the old feudal city center into the center of new China was destined to symbolize creation of the new China society as far as old city itself should be transformed not preserved; 3. The model of socialistic unicentric capital with the center on Tianmen Square brought in line with Moscow with its radial structure centered on the Red Square.
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To add and what was actual, but not mentioned by Russian communists, the monocentric structure was in strong harmony with Chinese philosophy and mentality based on the cosmologic idea of the unicentric space of Five Elements with the Earth on the center and with the idea of unicentric world centered in China (Middle Kingdom).
We also should remember, that the strong direction of the streets and avenues in classical Chinese cities are from north to south (jie, avenue) and from west o east (lu, street). Such a strong system fixed the “square form” of the old Chinese cities that was broken by socialist constructions. Thus the roads constructed in socialist and post-socialist era far from the city center were concentric and corresponded to radial structure Thus, “since Moscow had its Kremlin next to the when the center remained “square” (figure 2). Cathedral Square, so would Beijing have its Central Government next to Tiananmen Square, available for parades and ceremonies, and accessible to huge numbers of citizens, demonstrating the equality of rights in communist society” [2]. Photo by Yekaterina Dobritskaya
According to Mao’s further instructions the Central Government was placed inside the old city as far as subordinate institutions was placed outside. That’s much possible such an “imperial” arrangement of the institution was really pleased for Mao as the new “ruler of China”. “The Central Government was placed in Zhongnanhai, a royal garden adjacent the Forbidden City. It was followed by administrative, commercial and other functions, along with their buildings and their traffic, and it was this that steadily wiped out the historic fabric of the old city and reinstated the concentric urban structure by default. The traditional small-scale courtyard buildings simply could not cater to the needs of modern institutions, nor could the hutong (alleyways) support automobile traffic. They were replaced, just as Liang and Chen had predicted in 1950”.
Beijing as a Global City After mid. 1980s Beijing started to develop as a modern metropolis. Rapid population growing and rapid rural-to-urban migration were two most significant features defending the situation in Beijing and whole China in this period. From 1953 to 2013 Beijing population had increased near 7 times to 20.6 million.
“The reconstruction of this concentric system took place simultaneously with the demolition of the wall. The Second Ring Road was built largely on the original site of the inner city and outer city wall, with the Third, Fourth, Fifth and even the Sixth Ring Roads (built in 1994, 2001, 2003 and 2009 respectively) intensifying the concentric structure of the city ever since. These ring roads cause terrible congestion in the radial roads of the city, another problem foreseen by Liang and Chen” [2]. figure 2
Beijing map showing the urban expansion from 1951 to 2005. Resourse: Professor Anrong Dang, Tsinghua University, used with permission by Dr. Jinxi Chen in 2012 [2]
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figure 3 Resource: [3] In line with international trends, most city growth over took place outside the core (figure 4). “As Beijing has suburbanized, it has added "ring roads," (beltways figure 5 or loops) which except for the 1st ring road (around Resource: [3] the Forbidden City) are freeways, often with Texasstyle frontage roads... Now there are six ring roads and there has been some discussion of a seventh…” [3].
Beijing map: districts and ring roads
figure 4 Recourse: [7]
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The Inner City
Outside the Inner City
Photo by Yekaterina Dobritskaya
Second Ring Suburbs area is generally locating outside the 5th ring road. It is considerably rural territory with The population of the Inner City (Xicheng and the population density 800 people per square kilomeDongcheng districts largery inside the 2nd ring road) ter. Beijing Capital International Airport with the juhas grown less than 1% for the last period. The ar- risdiction of the Chaoyang is locating in this area. chitecture of the Inner City contained the Forbidden City, the Tiananmen Square, the Drum Tower, the To describe the buildings in the area, we should firstly Bell Tower and the Yonghegong Lama Temple is re- say, as it was mentioned that “…Beijing's expansive rpesenting Beijing as traditional and socialist city. suburbs do not resemble the low-density suburbanization of Phoenix, Portland, Perth or Paris. Much of “At …23,500 people per square kilometer… inner Bei- the development is in high rise condominiums and a jing approaches the population density of Manhattan substantial part is lower quality, lower rise developor the Ville de Paris” [3]. ment that houses Beijing's large and growing migrant population (referred to as the "floating population"), most of whom do not have Beijing resident… status. Even so, there is no shortage of detached luxury housing (called "villas") in western style developments such as "Orange County." More recently there is increasing demand for a more modern version of the "siheyuan" (courtyard) housing makes up the renown "hutong" areas of Beijing and other Chinese cities… A quick review of real estate offerings for the new siheyuans, makes it clear that they are simply unaffordable for a growing middle class that finds it difficult to afford new flats in high rises outside the 4th ring road” [3]. Thus the urban planning of current Beijing ould described as:
Classical urban planning in the Forbidden City Most part of capital residents are living outside the 1. in the center of the capital. Following traditional prinInner City. ciples of Feng-Shui, Zhong-Yong and geomancy alone First Ring Suburbs are locating within the 5th ring with strong streets and gates direction are typical in road. The inner suburban districts include Chaoyang traditional Chinese urban planning district with largest population, at least one-half of 2. The combination of socialist and classical urwhich are migrants without capital resident status. ban planning in the Inner City. The trends towards the On the other hand, Chaoyang is the home to the new radial city structure creation; replaced from the old Beijing "central business district," (CBD) with the town courtyard buildings and combination of tradilargest concentration of high rise towers in the urban tional and socialist architecture alone with new conarea “…includes the controversial architectural icon, structed roads are representing the cityscape of the the CCTV Headquarters... The development of the Inner City. CBD in the inner ring suburbs and other major comGlobal city urban planning generally within mercial development are indicative of a dispersion of 3. employment that, if permitted to continue, could ease new districts and first ring suburbs. Most significant features of this kind of planning are top down prinBeijing's legendary traffic congestion” [3]. ciple; new architecture of the modern office towers, Modern buildings, office towers and multi-level road hotels and other buildings; multi-level road junction; junction imaging high density urban development and modern infrastructure as ring roads and the airand top down approach are designating the “face” of port constructed in the post-soviet and pre-Olympic periods modern Beijing and whole PRC. The population density in the inner suburbs was 7,500 people per square km. in 2010.
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Photo by Yekaterina Dobritskaya
Resources: 1. Hahn Thomas. China Urban Planning materials, 2006: http://hahn.zenfolio.com/china_urban 2. Jinxi Chen. The centre reigns supreme: how a polycentric urban plan for Beijing was lost//the Global Urbanist, 2012 July: http:// globalurbanist.com/2012/07/10/polycentricbeijing?utm_source=The+Global+Urbanist+A ll+Subscribers&utm_campaign=98b414bd8dMailchimp+weekly+RSS+email&utm_ medium=email 3. Cox Wendell. The evolving urban form Beijing, , 2011 August //New Geography: http://www. newgeography.com/content/002406-the-evolving-urban-form-beijing 4. Ji, a Northern City of Military Importance in the Qin Dynasty//Beijing Municipal Administration of Cultural Heritage, 2006 July: http://english.bjww. gov.cn/2006/7-19/181216.shtml
About the Writer
5. Thoughts of urban planning in ancient China//Cultiral China 2007–2013: http://history.culturalchina.com/features/urban_planning/
Dr. Yekaterina Dobritskaya (Moscow, Russia) is a PhD 6. Jonson, Ian. Beijing, Digging Out of a in Chinese Philosophy and interpreter from Chinese Jam, Expands Subway//The Wall street Jornal, of the Tomsk Polytechnic University in 2005-2009. 2009 Januay: http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/ During 2003-2005 lived and studied in China (Jilin University, Changchun city). Is an author of the numSB123119227493555091 ber of articles in Chinese philosophy and culture ar7. Beijing Districts Map: http://www.chinatour- eas. istmaps.com/provinces/beijing.html
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The Return of Industy: Are You Prepared Cities? by Alain Jorda’ (1) How is it that Spain is the OECD country that has best preserved its export quota despite the deep crisis in the country and the growth rates between 15 and 17% (which implies worsening competitiveness)?
The most widely read of all that I have written since the beginning of my blog back in 2005, post was titled "The importance of the industry to the economy," so I guess that I'm starting now may also be of interest to many of you, followers Ciudadinnova. This is a summary of the seminar that gave a few months ago, in Barcelona, the Universidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo under the title of "The Return of Industry. How Prepared Are Cities?"
(2) Grouping Spanish companies by size into 4 groups is found that Spanish empesas large (over 250 employees) are more competitive than the German. It follows a first guide for industrial policy must be driven growth companies.
The seminar, led by Mary Buhigas, architect and director of Urban Regional Strategy in Barcelona, was really interesting. Speakers providing brilliant views from different perspectives: economics, urban planning and legislative.
And one last question: why have most small-to-medium enterprises that have committed to us by the level of income? In panel sizes provided by us appeared a lot of companies around the € 6M turnover. That has a direct relationship to public policies: tax audits for He opened the seminar itself María Buhigas a remark- medium-large companies, rather than the SMEs and able statement saying that planners can no longer de- subsidies are essentially SMEs) are a priority. This sign alone the growth of cities but the new complex- makes many companies grow only up to that amount ity of urban reality and the construction of the city of € 6M and then stop growing. should be the object of the sum of knowledge and contributions of everyone involved. This is especially The recommendations made were: evident in the definition of the spaces for economic activity. An opening statement that he would be well • Promote triple helix. Ie machihembrar the company and the university with the support of the adminisillustrated during the rest of the seminar. We will see. tration Antón Costas, Professor of Economic Policy and World Economic Structure of the University of Bar- • Improve vocational training (16% of young people aged 18 to 23 years) celona presented us an amazing paper that combined the figures and conclusions derived from them with an economy of values. He began with a quasi-philo- • With regard to cities, understood as the space gives the person all you need throughout life, citing a sophical statement: manufacturing is important bereport by the McKinsey Global Institute speaking cause it carries the values of temperance, punctuality of low productivity of European cities for their lack or long-term commitment scarce right now. of size and the difficulty of structuring their metrpolitan areas He stated that at this time it is very important to establish policies to help the industry return as the market alone will not generate this return. Then he focused • He cited the tremendous deficit of rental homes is that young people need to become independent on the reform of the enterprise of which it said is a and develop their innovative projects. This is a serforgotten aspect. And to talk about it, we presented ous problem for the return of the industry two paradoxes.
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In conclusion, he said that “it’s urban subordinate to the types of activities of the local industry and no, dethe criteria of economic development”, and the initial pending on the final products it produces. statement reinicidiendo Mary Buhigas. Mendez presented a battery of proposals for industrial Ricardo Mendez, the Higher Council for Scientific policy in the cities: Research, offered an excellent view of the neo-industrial discourse. It reminded us of where we have been 1. Support for the creation of businesses saying that the concept of Third Industrial Revolution is 20 years old and that his speech proclaiming: 2. Support for the entire lifecycle of business 1. Deregulation of markets
3. Adapting to new demands
2. The demise of Fordist production model for smaller production units
4. Sustainability of urban environments 5. Promoting local innovation
3. A post-industrial era, moving towards a service economy
6. Anchor + business attracting companies
4. The abandonment of industrial policy and planning
7. Joining networks / Insertion in the mega-regional or regional environment
In contrast, suggests the possible emergence of a neo- 8. Reuse of brownfield environments for new ecindustrial discourse. We talked about the factors of nomic uses (economic-social, technological, urban reindustrialiación: cultural, etc) 1. The revaluation of assets for urban innovation
Joaquim Solà, Dep Professor of Economic Theory at the University of Barcelona aportódatos us about the importance of industry in the economy from the “Atlas of Catalonia industrialització -1750/2010”: 75% of Catalan exports and 80% of Catalan GDP, are generated by the industry. Remembering that Catalunya is also the first Spanish tourist destination, the full importance data.
2. Brakes to neoliberal globalization (controls products, working conditions and environmental) 3. Dissemination of neo-industrial / servoindustrial speech 4. Industry recovery in urban policies
Francisco Caballero, DG Enterprise and Industry of the European Commission, began by saying that “it is essential to have an industrial policy” and if you do not have acts default environment (competition, technology, environment, .. ..). The Commission measures to promote industrialization are:
When 80% of the economic activities are services, we need to redefine what we consider industry. He reminded us that the industry generates 24% of Spanish GDP occupying only 14% of workers. Regarding the knowledge economy brings other telling figures. In Spain, 18% of workers falls into that category, but in Barcelona and Madrid, the proportion rises to 25%.
1. Investing in innovation in companies. Especially in industries to explode (electric vehicles, e-books, nanotechnologies, new production processes, new materials for packaging (biotechnology), sustaiable construction, intelligent networks) in order to contribute to a smooth transition destruction of industry.
In the city, the process to an industrial production as well as a tertiary segmentation. Complementary services are increasingly important. Industries increasingly outsource functions (Logistics, Production, Distribution, ......) all of which results in a reduction in the size of industrial plants. Consequently, the local industrial policy should be thought in terms of 2. Improving the regulatory environment to improve business conditions in the markets
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3. Improving access to finance (public aid, € 60,000 m / year EIB credit and new financial regulations (eg, bonds medium enterprises);
Regarding the case of Catalonia, cited three common errors in industrial policies: 1. The “regional balance” in political expression often defend, is impossible. What we must ensure is that anyone or nigún territory is left behind
4. Human capital, training, mobility.
All this is reinforced by the smart specialization strategy RIS3 regions. The new European funds require that 2. SMEs, while giving helpful, are not very productive states and regions implement smart growth strategies and very susceptible to recessions "smart-growth" as a precondition for adjudication. 3. Boosting the “corporate culture” does not work. Jorge Galindo, IL3 professor at the University of Bar- What works is incentives, not culture celona, made some very interesting statements (and, in part, contrary to the usual practice) for industrial Finally, we made proposals to revive industrial policy: policy. • Develop policies supra. He cited as an example the 1. Not good favor SMEs because, as he said in his Mediterranean corridor. Because, according to him, statement Antón Costas, the most competitive industrial policy really is the horizontal (as opposed companies are great. So Galindo proposes that to vertical or sectoral) public policies favoring large companies, which are created and who want to grow • He advocated the creation of special areas of crossinnovation, without favoring sectors 2. It is important to diversify 3. Not rule out the major companies that arise outside the political decisions
Photo by Jesus Bermejo Sánchez- Ramos -flickr.com/photogsus
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Photo by David Williams
This was the summary of these days , as you see, we brought a lot of valuable information and knowledge to guide the planning of cities and the policies of national, regional and local development.
• Proposed pricing of industrial sites based on each industry externalities. • He insisted avoid favoring the SMEs.
• Proposed pricing of industrial sites based on each industry externalities. • He insisted avoid favoring the SMEs. Joan Trullén , Vice President of Strategic Planning of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (AMB ) , spoke to bet on the export of strategic importance of the industry and sought to improve the competitiveness of the business through four channels: 1. The economies of scale or network , recalling that the Barcelona metropolitan area has 5 million inhabitants;
Joan Trullén , Vice President of Strategic Planning of the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (AMB ) , spoke to bet on the export of strategic importance of the indus- 2 . The localization economies through specialization try and sought to improve the competitiveness of the of specific territories ( there matches the RIS3 -Rbusiness through four channels: search and Innovation Strategies for Smart Spcialization - strategy of the European Commi1. The economies of scale or network , recalling that sion ); the Barcelona metropolitan area has 5 million inhabitants; 3 . Economies of scope , based on diversity to attract economic activities; 2 . The localization economies through specialization of specific territories ( there matches the RIS3 -R- 4 . Microeconomics, through clusters that leverage search and Innovation Strategies for Smart Spcomplementary ls local businesses. cialization - strategy of the European Commision ); This was the summary of these days , as you see, we brought a lot of valuable information and knowledge 3 . Economies of scope , based on diversity to attract to guide the planning of cities and the policies of naeconomic activities; tional, regional and local development.
About the Writer
4 . Microeconomics, through clusters that leverage complementary ls local businesses.
Expert in Local Development, Alain Jorda accompanies local governments in the design and implementation of processes for Local Economic Development. Post Ciudadinnova blog since 2005, is the author of Manual Quick Introduction to Local (2012) Economic Development and is certified as an expert in innovation and the knowledge economy by the EU URBACT program.
Photo by David Williams
Telecommunication Engineer by the UPC, and Graduate Program Directors General of EADA, after a career of 20 years in the private sector, he joined as Deputy Mayor to city government, Manresa, a position he was for 10 years. From 2008 to 2011 he chaired the network of European cities, Eurotowns.
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Urban Design in the Netherlands by Christopher Goldsmith "God created the world, but the Dutch created Holland". The Dutch have a good traditions comes to the relationship between civil engineering and urban development. Dutch knowledge of hydrology has helped them successfully to make land out of sea water through the simple technology of polders. The dynamics of the regional water system is important for the process of development of the Dutch polders. Cities in Holland are huge hydrological constructions. In the Netherlands the way cities and landscapes are designed, is different for each age. In the post-war time the landscape and cities are designed with a high degree of rationality. Climate change is currently putting pressure on the hydrological system and technical parts of that system. More severe and frequent rainstorms, high temperatures and drought are very influential on the hydrological system. In Rotterdam a lot of attention is paid to the subject because both threats are present. To be ready for the hydrological changes is necessary to have a clear view on the relation between the civil design and urban engineering.
the lower Delta have had no way of protection from the water. People were living in small groups with little power in changing the natural conditions. Germanic ethnic group native to the coastal parts of the Netherlands were an exception. They were more organized and alter nature for their benefit by creating barrows. Barrow - this first form of building sites preparation began in 900 A.C. The mounds were intended as refuges in times of high tides. Later they became larger and settlements arose.
All townships in the Netherlands started on higher ground, along rivers. Townships are expanded in the eighth and ninth centuries for army and later economic, reasons. Villages were created on economic routes and boundary lines. The physical characteristics of settlements during the time of natural water management have two important characteristics. First the settlement takes into the most geographically convenient place in the region. Secondly this location must be close to water. Around the year 1000 dikes were introduced as means of protection. This new technolRotterdam is an interesting case learns to investigate ogy directly affected the location and establishment of the relation between urban design and the wet condi- settlements. tion of the territory. This is necessary because knowlDam city edge about historical principles makes it possible to draw the line of history into the future. The Dutch heritage and future are based on the relation between Until the eighth century, the Dutch low lands were land and water, nature and culture. This relation is uninhabitable. People learned to live to the wet surshowing the construction of the landscape and cities. roundings. Of course, there were small initiatives to We try analyzes different phases defined for urban de- control the natural landscape by digging drainage velopment’s written above. For each phase there is the ditches to grow crops in the fields. People living in the relation between land and water and how this affected lower Delta have had no way of protection from the water. People were living in small groups with little urban development. power in changing the natural conditions. Germanic ethnic group native to the coastal parts of the Netherlands were an exception. They were more organized NATURAL, DEFENSIVE AND and alter nature for their benefit by creating barrows. Barrow - this first form of building sites preparation OFFENSIVE WATER began in 900 A.C. The mounds were intended as refMANAGEMENT uges in times of high tides. Later they became larger Until the eighth century, the Dutch low lands were and settlements arose. uninhabitable. People learned to live to the wet surroundings. Of course, there were small initiatives to All townships in the Netherlands started on higher control the natural landscape by digging drainage ground, along rivers. Townships are expanded in the eighth and ninth centuries for army and later ecoditches to grow crops in the fields. People living in
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nomic, reasons. Villages were created on economic routes and boundary lines. The physical characteristics of settlements during the time of natural water management have two important characteristics.
outer canal. These canals connected outer canal. These canals connected through the outer area by a sequence of parallel canals. The outer canal was primarily built for drainage, but also had a military or defensive function. The water level of the canal system First the settlement takes into the most geographically was regulated. Excess water discharged with help of convenient place in the region. Secondly this location sluices and windmills. Then, the reclaimed land needmust be close to water. Around the year 1000 dikes ed to be raised to the required protection level and were introduced as means of protection. This new prepared for building. technology affected to the location and establishment of cities. These settlements should be closely together Since the mid-thirteenth century a dike stretched out not only hydrological but also economically and so- along the High Street in Rotterdam. Before the invencially. tion of the windmill, only direct discharge into the   river could keep the water in the polders at the most The principle adaptation in natural and defensive convenient level for growing crops. However, polder water management offers a perspective onto the fu- expansion to be less attractive for business centered ture. Living directly with the nature offers quality and along the Maas. So instead of building into the sinking beauty that is maybe lost in technology era. polder like Amsterdam did, the people of Rotterdam decided to expand the city into the river Maas. The layout of the new part of the city was very simple and Polder city and Waterstad before the sixteenth and seventeenth century there Windmills came into use on a larger scale about 15 was actually no plan. The houses built together folcentury. We can say that come the technological lowing the shape of the river and the harbors. transformation of water management. This time is characterized by a new attitude towards water as peo- The phase of offensive water management is based in ple started to develop technologies to control water the principle of ability to support the growth of many management. This new technology was very simple plants. The Dutch Golden Century produced great but effective for that time. Big volumes of water could prosperity and had a big social value. The power of be moved. Also a new effective technology was de- unity can be viewed in the building of beautiful hyveloped to keep larger areas and the cities dry. The drological cities and balancing nature and culture. power of uniting the mills with new hydrological instruments, such as sluices and dams, changed the approach towards the water from protecting people to EARLY MANIPULATIVE offensive.
WATER MANAGEMENT
The power of city and water systems, the protection of a small piece of dry land grows into the protection of a low land reclaimed from water. The protection of a low land comes into the control of whole rivers. The phase of offensive water management is the phase of the polder city.
The first urban development in the Netherlands was the expansion of Rotterdam. Engineer and city architect Rose designed the plan called Waterproject. The expansion was connected with the new water task of the city. Lots of people died from cholera due dirty water in the city. In the city the river, canal and ground water was used for everything. Rose designed an independent water system for the Rotterdam, independent from the countryside. Rose together with landscape architects Zocher designed the Waterproject as a simple plan combining the new water management system with an integrated urban design. The first purpose was to improve water quality. The second - city was extremely needed expansion.
The expansion of the city needed to be realized cautiously. First, the size of the expansion needed to be complying not only with the requirements of that time, but for centuries to come as well. Secondly, a technical plan was needed to ensure that water could be discharged and controlled. Except this, city canals must maintain a constant water level. In most cases expansion was initiated by building an encircling
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by the engine and electricity, which had a huge effect on the city and the water system. This results in a situation where in technically everything is possible and there is no connection to the “natural� laws of the water system. The infrastructure of the sanitation and drinking water divided between the systems. The larger part of the urban water system disappears underground. Even though the water structure of low land city stays important for drainage, discharge and storage, it was no longer used as element in the urban design of the city.
Photo courtesy Christopher Goldsmith
Rotterdam had a big harbor and many people were attracted to the jobs there.
Photo courtesy Christopher Goldsmith
Blijdorp, an expansion district of Rotterdam, is the perfect illustration of the first urban type, where water structure is used as the urban design of the city. The technological perfection after the Second World War presents the second urban type - modernization. Example of that type is Ommoord - new district of Rotterdam. The third and last type comes about in the Fig.1 WaterProject. 1970s, when designers try to keep some of the original Zochers created the plan with a park for walking for landscape in the urban design. Zevenkamp is used as the poor and living quarters for the rich. This is made case for this urban type the project directly socially profitable. The plan combined the most important urban tasks with the technology available within an urban design for that time. The dike was necessary to build an independent water system. Unfortunately the problems of hygiene were not solved with the Waterproject. Only after the opening of a sewer did the hygiene in the city improve. The Waterproject represents the available technology and the urban planning tasks of the early manipulative water management. Houses in Rotterdam are built on piles above the ground floor. The basement of the building can be used for living, usually as a bedroom. This way of preparing an area for building changed the design and use of the city. Canal of Blijdorp.
This project demonstrates the power of the new urban technology and introduces the principle of systemization in the urban designer. This issue gives a perspective on how the strong needs of dynamic cities, even in the early ages, can be integrated by one urban plan combine the natural, cultural and technical systems.
The Housing Law (1902) made it mandatory for a city larger than 20.000 inhabitants to make expansions plans. The Housing Law provided a boost to the new profession of urban design. Because the new way neighborhoods were built, it was very difficult for the municipality to create a plan and expect all the deMANIPULATIVE WATER velopers to follow by it. In 1906 was created the first expansion plan for Rotterdam - Blijdorp. Eleven years MANAGEMENT after this plan the municipality decided to buy all the At the end of the nineteenth century, grow urbaniza- land and develop the area themselves. Urban designtion and technological put pressure on the polder cit- ers could prepare the whole site at once with the new technology of spouting up a layer of sand. ies. The manipulative age (1890-1990) is developed
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Using this technology the urban designers completely disconnected the new district from the polder pattern, the historical pattern of land, water and culture in that region. From other side, the disconnection of building site preparation from the urban design meant that the characteristics of the territory played no role in the design. This is clearly the case for Blijdorp and it similar to Plan South for Amsterdam. Car infrastructure is the backbone of the plan, and the water and green structure is going to the second plan.
because all conditions became the same. Industrial buildings impact the standardization of the civil infrastructure. Urban design through the production of apartment buildings and houses is denying any local characteristics to the natural environment. In Rotterdam expansions were made on the south bank and east of the city in the dried lake Alexanderpolder. Senior architect Stam-Beese, at the Rotterdam municipality, and Jaap Bakema, urban designer are made plans for Alexanderpolder - the Lage Land. They presented this plan at the CIAM conference in Aix-en-Provence in 1953. They chose this idea because a great task was put The manipulative era means the principle of Man- to design a sub-city in these low-lying polders for the Made, through the accelerating powers of the car growing number of residents of Rotterdam. engine and electricity. Blijdorp, the first urban type it delivers. The result of new methods is building site The implemented design of Lage Land can be repreparation that disconnects nature from culture and viewed in two ways. For building site preparation the urban design from the physical geographical condi- choice was made to lower the groundwater. But when tions. The technology is not perfected at present time the layer of sand was applied and the dimensions of and the water system is still a part of the urban plan. the urban design were related to the dimensions of the This new technology brought a new organization original polder pattern. Stam Beese was recommendof city development and initiated a cultural change ed to design a city that is endless. Main solution for around all country. this purpose is that the polders in the Netherlands due to their rhythm and quantity have same characteristic.
Lage Land and Ommoord
The extension of urban space and the disconnection of urban design from the specific of the land are indicative in the post war time. Water as an urban element becomes not important when situated on top of the layer of sand. This fulfills the man-made culture that relies on technology and systematic approaches. This was applied to all aspects of society: social life, social facilities, and control of the city as well as the water system. During this phase the character of the Netherlands was fully changed. The large projects of urban expansions, recreation, infrastructure and re-allotment of the agricultural pattern leaded to a completely different landscape. After WW flexible city expansions were located and then the soil and the water system were investigated. The civil and technical engineers were decided to improve the soil conditions. Weak soils were strengthened with sand. Calculations for foundation piles are made and measures taken for the discharge and drainage of the built area. The layer up of sand is technology of building site preparation meant that urban designs could be standard on any soil condition around country. There was no motivation to react to specific conditions with the urban design,
After working on the Lage Land, urban designer Stam Beese also made the design for Ommoord positioned in the same dried lake. Lotte Stam tried to establish in Ommoord an urban identity. Another words she tried to connect people by the use of a green natural. By flats - that had a view to the surrounding landscape. These parks were made with an irregular surface to make them appear more natural. This and the view compensated for the lack of private outdoor space. This manipulative era urban type is become very successful on the perfection of technology disconnecting identity of place. The water problem can be solved technically and was completely disconnected from the urban plan.   Lage Land is a plan that refused rules in the post-war tradition. It makes a coalition between keeping nature as it is and modernistic urban vision of technological culture in nature. This coalition can be example for the future.
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ADAPTIVE MANIPULATIVE WATER MANAGEMENT (1990-)
Photo courtesy Christopher Goldsmith
Adaptive water management and manipulative water management may seem opposite terms. These forms of management the last phase as there is no clue about how to make the right adjustments to adapt to climate change. After 1973, the start towards the adaptive manipulative phase of water management was began. It took over twenty years for society to adopt a new attitude towards natural systems as part of policy of society and practice life. Manipulative management is still in progress enforced by the changes in the hydrological system and territorial conditions due to climate change.
Zevenkamp.
The technical decisions of management of the manipulative age led to the current situation in Netherlands. Harder storm events binding to climate change cause flooding in the low land cities. The days when the civil engineers used the pipes and pumps - are gone. Water in the Netherlands needs to be reintroduced directly into the urban design of the cities. In the Netherlands the approach towards urban planning is one of liberal around Europe. But now water is integrated in national planning. In nowadays, increases attention towards history and landscape. Also people change the attitude to water in response to the near disasters in the 1990s.
Zevenkamp Later the post-war era was criticized as a time of technocracy and narrow views on social structures. There was try to persuade society from these conventions and to search into the real identity of the city. A regard for nature became a theme in reaction to technocracy and man-made culture. In the 1970's nature and ecology became more important in planning and the landscape architect came as a new player. The landscape architect reintroduces water as a spatial element in the city. Also the search for urban identity rediscovered the old water towns. The urban designer in Zevenkamp took an original landscape element, the ditch called the Ommoordse Tocht, as the backbone of the plan. The ditch was excavated out of the layer of sand as the central axes of the plan. The new waterway was designed to give identity to the function of the surroundings it flows through. In the center, it is a canal with brick quays giving the area the identity of a dam city representing the social and economic heart of the expansion. This way, even though it hides the hydrological system under a layer of sand, the urban design made a connection to the original landscape and made use of the century old identity of Dutch towns. The urban type of the 1970s is a return to the physical nature in urban construction. It was the first step towards adaptive manipulative water management and new urban types.
Nesselande In Nesselande, water is introduced as the qualitative carrier of the city strategy. The urban designers in the town widely used the ecological material for constructions. City provides a subsidy for sun energy. A naturally cleaning, independent, open water system for drainage and storage guarantees water quality. The inhabitants have to live by five rules to maintain water quality: 1) no washing cars; 2) ecological material in de the gardens; 3) dogs are only allowed in specially drained areas; 4) use of chemicals is prohibited; 5) avoid use of fertilizer.
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REFERENCES:
Photo courtesy Christopher Goldsmith
1. Burke, G.L The Making of Dutch Towns: A Study in Urban Development from the Tenth to the Seventeenth Centuries. London: Clever-Hume. 2. Gemeente Rotterdam (2007), Stadvisie Rotterdam. 3. Climate Change 2010 -Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. UNEP, WMO. 4. Palmboom, F. (1993). 'De planningsgeschiedenis van de Alexanderpolder'.
Moulds in Nesselande.
Photo by Andrey Maltsev
Photo by Andrey Maltsev
One of the districts in Nesselande is called Water City and is designed by landscape architecture Frits Palmboom. The urban designers created a very interesting plan for buildings. The ground floor of the most of buildings is very low -5,00 meters below sea level - for taking a direct relation between the water and the gardens. The roads are situated on dikes witch are 80 centimeters higher than the land. Each house can make use of the height difference to make a varied house. In this way, no restrictive rules are needed and the building site preparation has become an integrated part of the urban design (see Figure 4).
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Balcarce 2020 Strategic Plan An Intervention in the Southern Pampas, Argentina by Guillermo Tella, PhD The following is a summary of general guidelines the “Strategic Urban Development Territorial Plan of the Municipal District of Balcarce, Province of Buenos Aires (Argentina)”. The task was made for Inter-American Development Bank´s (IDB). This task was the formulation of a strategic plan that allows the overall development of the region and improves the living conditions of its inhabitants. It must also provide a set of planning and land management instruments that intend to establish urban and regional policies to develop an active role of the municipal council as promoter of sustainable economic development.
ties, such as agriculture and livestock. The characteristics of the topography define river basins, lagoons and hills, which determine its attractive natural landscape.
Towards a Regional Balance
Photo courtesy Guillermo Tella
The head city of the Municipality of Balcarce, which bears the same name, lies in the centre and is linked to the surrounding area with a route network that allows a quick connection to nearby cities of economic and productive importance, at the regional and provincial scales, such as Tandil, Necochea and Mar del Plata, as well as the metropolitan area of Buenos Aires. At the local scale, the urban population of Balcarce is distributed in six urban settlements, in which the most important city is Balcarce, that concentrates the highest percentage of urban population reaching 35000 people. Then, there are the towns of Napaleofú, Ramos Otero, Bosch, Los Pinos and San Agustín, all of remark-
A panoramic view of the city of Balcarce
ably smaller size.
Balcarce is a district in the southeast of the Province of Buenos Aires (Argentina). It borders the Municipalities of Mar Chiquita to the East, Ayacucho to the North, Tandil to the Northwest, Lobería to the Southwest, and General Alvarado and General Pueyrredón to the Southeast. Balcarce is one of the largest Municipalities of the Province, with a total area of 4.120 km2. It has a population of 42.000 inhabitants, which 83% of them live in urban areas and the remaining 17% is rural population. It is located in an area called "Pampa austral" in a temperate zone. These features, along with the oceanic influence, contribute to its highly fertile soil, appropriate for the development of productive activi
Demographic data shows the primacy of the capital city over the rest of the Municipality. Then, it is worth asking what the reasons for such urban structure are? What is the potential to generate regional balance? And what benefits could it mean for the Municipality? Finally, what are the means to consolidate that particular structure?
How to plan for growth The predominant activity was traditionally agricultural production and now continues to have a great importance, specially on potato, soybean and cereals production. Although less important, livestock
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Photo courtesy Guillermo Tella
takes place mainly in the northwest of the Municipality´s territory. On the other hand, mining includes active and inactive establishments of clay extraction. However, in recent years the local economy is being diversified through industrial development, mainly in the metalworking and textile industries, and through the impulse in the services sector, primarily in tourism. Balcarse’s privileged position between the mountains and the sea, with a very attractive natural environment and the fact that it offers the possibility of developing recreational and outdoor activities, allows tourism to gain potential as increasing activity. The proposed urban development model for Balcarce Regarding the basic urban services, the city of Balcarce has a surface covered by water supply and sanitation systems. Nevertheless, there are also sectors that are not connected, areas not covered or where service is inadequate. As to other equipments, it has health facilities, educational, cultural and recreational services. In summary, Balcarce has many qualitative advantages which are opportunities for local development. Such advantages are: its strategic location as its productive capacity, its primary, secondary and tertiary activities, its natural features and landscape.
Towards Trategic Development
The characteristics of the topography define river basins, lagoons and hills
A first approach to this area allows us to identify challenges to overcome and issues to address as potentially conflicting. Thus, for further development, sustainable over time and capable of improving the living conditions of its population, Balcarce must seize these opportunities and reverse those issues deemed as problematic. Therefore, the formulation of a territorial strategic development for the Munici
But this activity may generate conflict with others, such as primary and secondary ones. As for the equipment, the road network connects the towns of the Municipality and these with nearby cities. On the other hand, the rail service was disabled in the 90's, succeeding the policies and actions implemented in the rest of the province and the country.
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Photo courtesy Guillermo Tella
The consultant team answers questions from citizens
About the Writer
pality of Balcarce appears as the ideal tool to achieve greater local development.
Guillermo Te is an Architect and Philosophy Doctor (PhD) in Urban Planning. In addition, he has developed the Postdoctoral Program in Social Sciences and Humanities. He has been Professor and Researcher in Urban Planning since 1989. Moreover, since 2005 he carries out academic activities in the Institute of the Conurbation in the University of General Sarmiento (Argentina). In his professional experience, he takes part and coordinates the development of strategic plans and of urban ordinance and local development for public as well as for socio-urban and environmental consulting firms. metropolitan trans-formation.
Its aim is to contribute to improving the living conditions of its inhabitants through the implementation of urban and regional policies, within strategies that encourage the preservation of environmental resources, socio-economic development and harmonious coexistence of different activities. The Plan determines the programs, projects and priority actions as support of sustainable development, to optimize opportunities and operate on weaknesses. And this plan shows the commitment of the local government to improve the living quality of the community.
The urban structure of the city of Balcarce
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The Quarterly Review Highlights from our 2012 -2013 issues
Photo by Andrey Maltsev
Corporate Sustainable Mobility Plans Initiative: Private Companies’ possible contribution to Urban Mobility
by Solenne Cucchi, Msc in Urban Planning and Urban and Territorial Strategy In other words, “sustainable mobility” relies on a transportation system that is accessible, affordable, efficient, financially sustainable, environmentally friendly, and safe.
in terms of pollution, congestion, public health, and increased demand for energy. In Bogota,
private transportation CO2 (carbon dioxide) emissions are 63% of the total of mobile emissions (Secretaria Distrital de Ambiente, et al., 2010). The rise in Clearly, responsibility for some of these principles is automobile accidents and the associated costs is also a directly in the hands of public authorities. However, concern. In Bogota, this cost is estimated to be 1.17% companies might have the potential to contribute to of GDP per year, amounting to $681 million (BIDenvironmental preservation and to the accessibility of Uniandes, 2011).
transport in terms of cost and time, at least regarding commuting trips. In Bogota, the contribution that the private sector can
make in order to achieve a more sustainable mobility is apparent when observing the high rate of trips generated by commuting to the city. In 2005, 45% of daily trips in Bogota was comprised of commuting workers, more than all other traffic such as shopping, students traveling to school, etc.
Indeed, commuting trips generate negative externalities on three different actors: on the employee as single individual, on the company as a productive entity, and on society as a whole. First, commuting has a direct effect on the person making the trip, the employee. Especially in congested cities, it generates additional stress and exhaustion that can be attributed to different factors like noise, bad infrastructure, road rage, congestion, etc. With all those elements, commuting also increases the likelihood of injury in an accident. The increased level of stress also creates bad working conditions in terms of productivity. From a medical point of view, commuting trips create health problems, as people get out of the habit of walking and commuting gives them less time to exercise—this, coupled with the increased time one spends in the car, leads to an overall sedentary lifestyle and obesity.
In 2011, the young corporate foundation from the automotive sector for which I currently work, the Chevrolet Foundation, and one of the most prestigious Colombian universities, Universidad de los Andes, began working on a project in Bogota to involve private companies as active contributors to the mobility solution. The Corporate Sustainable Mobility Plan project, el “Plan Empresarial de Movilidad Sostenible”, best known as PEMS initiative, was born. A “PEMS” is a plan involving the company as an active stakeholder in the search for a more sustainable urban mobility, through the implementation of strategies reducing the negative impact of their employees’ commuting On another level, these commutes also have a nega- trips. It was a big challenge, as nothing similar existed tive effect on companies. Aside from the decreased in Colombia, and private companies tended to be igproductivity of their employees, a company has to as- nored when it came to mobility policy development.
sume a certain amount of costs directly associated to employees’ mobility, such as the costs associated with work-related trips and the very high cost (depending on the city and the price of land) of parking lots. For example, an average company in Bogota has to pay about $7,000 per parking spot, or a monthly rent of about $60 for each.
Considering the lack of solid data for corporate mobility statistics, the first step was to create a set of indicators to understand how the employees of a specific company are commuting, to get a general picture of the mobility situation in the company, and then to be able to measure the impact of our project in the future. Given that, as described earlier, mobility has a direct impact on society and the environment, a twofold approach was chosen: to measure the im-
The aggregation of individual commuting trips also has a negative impact on the overall society, 26
Corporate Sustainable Mobility Plans Initiative: Private Companies’ possible contribution to Urban Mobility
by Solenne Cucchi, Msc in Urban Planning and Urban and Territorial Strategy
Source ecoefficiency.bligoo.com
pact of commuting trips on the micro level—their say on the employee, is measured by two other indicators: impact on individual employees; and on the mac- the quality of life footprint, and the equity footprint. ro level—the overall effect on the city itself. From this approach, four main indicators were defined. The quality of life footprint has been, for us, one of the biggest surprises in the programme. It meaThe impact of the company’s commuting trips on the sures the average time that an employee spends city’s environment is measured by the now classical in commuting from his residence to his working carbon footprint and by the energy footprint. Both place and return. If the diagnostic gives us a perindicators consider the aggregated result of all employ- centage of free time used in commuting, considees, depending on the distance from their residence ering an average free time of 6 hours a day, the reto their working place and on the mode of transport sult is more striking when considering the real time used to commute, data collected during the diagnos- spent in transportation, expressed in days by year. tic phase through individual surveys in the company. In Columbia, workers are legally entitled to 15 vacation days per year. According to our current study, an emThe carbon footprint refers to the amount of green ployee in Bogota spends about 18 days (or more) per land necessary to absorb the greenhouse gas (GHG) year, just commuting back and forth to work, regardemissions produced by human activity, in this par- less of the company’s location. Therefore, the average ticular case by commuting trips. Greenhouse gas- worker in Bogota spends more time in traffic comes include carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases muting to work than he or she spends on holiday. And such as methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), sul- rarely are those commutes made by healthy alternafur hexafluoride, hydrofluorocarbons and perfluo- tives such as walking or cycling. Worrying data, isn’t it? rocarbons, which are often referred to as “the six Kyoto gases” and are translated in CO2 equivalent. To be more relevant to company managers, the total of CO2 equivalent emissions can be translated from tons of CO2 equivalent to acres of wood, with about 1.58 tons of CO2 absorbed per hectare of woods, according to the Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (see Holden & Georg Hoyer, 2005). The energy footprint measure refers to the quantity of fuel consumed by the employees just in commuting trips, considering the same information as the carbon footprint and considering the number of passenger for each transport mode. Therefore, a person riding a bus will be consuming much less fuel than someone commuting by car, even if in absolute numbers the bus consumes more fuel per mile than a car, because the fuel consumption has to be divided between all passengers of the bus, who in proportion are much greater than the driver of the car. Smilingly, a carpooler, or driver sharing his car with other colleagues, consumes less fuel proportionally than a single, lone commuter.
The last indicator we used is the equity footprint, which measures the average amount of income dedicated to commuting. The traditional pattern, whichever city you look at, is that the higher the income, the lower the weight of transport cost is in the total income. However, when considering the real cost of transportation, we can also observe that the higher the income, the higher the real cost of commuting is. Bogota is The impact of commuting trips at a social level, this is to not an exception, as seen in the following graphs. 27
Corporate Sustainable Mobility Plans Initiative: Private Companies’ possible contribution to Urban Mobility
by Solenne Cucchi, Msc in Urban Planning and Urban and Territorial Strategy
Graph 1 Percentage of income spent in transport and average cost of transport Source: Built from Observatorio de Movilidad, Cámara de Comercio, 2010
The reason why the cost of daily transport increases with income in Bogota is because richer people (stratum 4, 5 and 6) tend to prefer private vehicles and taxi as a mode of transportation, whereas the poorest citizens (stratum 1, 2 and 3) have no choice but to take the bus, walk or cycle.
for measuring the global impact of the programme, for now on Bogota’s metropolitan region, but later on as well in the country, when implemented in other Colombian cities, or eventually at a regional level.
The diagnostic gives us a panorama of the company’s situation in terms of employees’ mobilIt is important to mention that the four indicators of ity in the first place and helps us identify its weakthe programmes, even if initially measured for each nesses. Starting from there, the project’s working individual company or entity, have a common interest group proposes a mobility plan composed by 28
Corporate Sustainable Mobility Plans Initiative: Private Companies’ possible contribution to Urban Mobility
by Solenne Cucchi, Msc in Urban Planning and Urban and Territorial Strategy companies while having a big impact on mobility, such as education campaigns to prevent road accidents, or ecodriving promotion to provide drivers with tips to achieve more economical and environmentally friendly driving habits. Finally, the relatively recent movement of car sharing—the car as a service and not as a good—also offers a good option for companies to promote a change in their employees’ driving culture.
ing), for example, we intend to make a switch from a “classroom culture” where the number of working hours is the most important criteria of evaluation, to a target culture where employees are assessed according to their performance regarding specific objectives more than on the time they spent on them. The brief description above indicates to us an important aspect and advantage of the PEMS project: it offers an umbrella to fragmented initiatives led by different areas of the company, that sometimes already exist but, without a unique methodology, are not related nor evaluated on the same criteria. The adoption of a plan, with the aim to reduce the indicators in the future all along the different actions implemented, gives the whole company a common direction, and in this sense promote an unusual inter-area collaboration, offers a greater unity, and the reduction of fragmentation between different departments. In this sense, we understand why the initial involvement of all the areas is important and especially human resources, CSR, environmental management, employee benefits, communication, security, and HSE. It is, as well, fundamental to name an internal PEMS leader in the company in charge of coordinating the teamwork and inter area meetings.
This rationalization of private vehicles’ use leads to the promotion of transport alternatives: walking trips in short distances, bicycling when a safe environment allows it, or public transport, sometimes combined with a feeding system (by bus, by bicycle or others) when the stations are not at a walking distance from the company’s offices. In case of insufficient public transport options, the implementation of private routes, either paid by the company or financed by the users, is an interesting option, although quite expensive and logistically more complex. The incentive to use alternative modes of transport encourages examination of the infrastructure needed to support that policy. To maintain a good consistency, a company promoting cycle use will have to make sure that the provision of cycle parking is sufficient, and that the employees will have the commodities to follow that policy; for example, having good shower facilities and lockers to be able to change their clothes. Nevertheless, the infrastructure chapter goes beyond this point and tries to take into consideration the negative externality that the company’s activity and traffic might generate in the roads around the headquarters. The movements implied by the entity should not create traffic jams, for example, or interfere with the public space or neighboring communities in a bad way. It is also important to ensure safe access to the company to all employees, regardless of their mode of transport.
During the first phase of the project, three pilots where implemented. Their selection was the fruit of a careful process. The idea was to show through this implementation that any company is able to participate in the project, wherever its headquarters are in the city, whichever kind of business it is. Therefore, the pilots were distributed as follow: an industrial plant located in the southern part of the city, a service center in the center occidental area, and a third company in the northern part of the city, in which we focused on the administrative employees. A mobility diagnostic was conducted in each pilot, the first step for the company in the project besides a previous strong commitment at corporative level. This diagnostic aimed to characterize the mobility of the company’s employees’ understanding of how they commute and to get a first result regarding our four indicators. Focused only on employees and neither on clients nor suppliers, it was done based on three central elements:
The final set of actions for a company is maybe one of the most interesting and certainly the most modern since directly influenced by the development of new technologies of information communication (NTIC). It touches more deeply on the structure of corporate culture and organization, since we offer to reformulate the very way employees’ work is evaluated. By promoting a home office (telecommut 29
Corporate Sustainable Mobility Plans Initiative: Private Companies’ possible contribution to Urban Mobility
by Solenne Cucchi, Msc in Urban Planning and Urban and Territorial Strategy several alternatives personalized to each specific case, and within the same company, to each headquarter as the different locations usually face different types of mobility issues. We can classify those alternatives into four different intervention fields, described in the following graphic.
Graph 2 Possible field of intervention of a company to improve the mobility of its employees Source: Personal elaboration ity scheme with other modes of transport when possible, and therefore more rationally. In some countries, especially developing countries, the stigma of non-motorized transport and public transport as mode of transport “for the poor”, doubled by the aspirational desire of owning a car, do not help this awareness. Companies can encourage good practices like carpooling (or sharing one’s car) that do not imply a big cost for them but have strong and direct effects on reducing per capita GHG emissions and oil consumption, and also present the advantage of diminishing the parking demand that usually represents a big cost for companies. Other options are available and very inexpensive for
This construction is certainly not exhaustive but yet gives a good idea on the set of actions that a company might work on to improve its employees’ mobility and therefore its indicators. In the first place, we find that cars are often responsible for the main traffic issues faced in dense urban areas. I have to partly disagree with that statement, and rectify it by saying that the car is only a means, an object, so the real problem is the users who choose to use cars over any other mean of transport. One can own a car and only use it to go out on the weekend, for example. Therefore, the first concern should be educating people so they will use their car more efficiently, combining their journey of mobil-
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Corporate Sustainable Mobility Plans Initiative: Private Companies’ possible contribution to Urban Mobility
by Solenne Cucchi, Msc in Urban Planning and Urban and Territorial Strategy
1. A survey directed to all the employees or the one advantages, and to encourage the creation of stronlocated in the headquarters that the company wants to ger public-private partnership in the mobility field. focus on. This survey covers topics like distance residence-work, commuting time, salary and commuting cost, principal mode of transport, disposition to use Bibliography: alternatives such as carpooling, cycling activities…
BID and Universidad de los Andes. (2011). Estrategias de mejoramiento de la seguridad vial en transporte urbano en América Latina. Caso de estudio: Bogotá. Bogotá.
2. A questionnaire for the human resources department, in order to better understand the corporate culture, to keep track of previous mobility initiatives, their results, success and difficulties, to acknowledged current mobility policy or dispositions in the company. These pieces are important to adjust the proposed mobility plan depending on the existing restriction opposed by the company, in terms of working flexibility, hours, and routes…
HOLDEN, E., & GEORG HOYER, K. (2005). The ecological footprints of fuels. Transportation Research Part D 10, pp. 395-403. MCKENZIE, B. and RAPINO, M. (2011). Commuting in the United States: 2009, American Community Survey Reports, ACS-15. U.S. Census Bureau, Washington, DC. WILLIAMS, R., A definition of sustainable mobility, available on http:// www.carbonsmart.com/mobility/2007/03/a_definition_of.html , last update 15th March 2007, accessed 30th June 2012
3. A questionnaire for the security department in charge of the facilities management, to evaluate the existing infrastructure in the company (parking lot for employees, for visitors, for motorcycles, cycle park, accesses…)
Secretaría Distrital de Ambiente, Universidad de los Andes, Universidad de la Salle, Transmilenio S.A. (2010). Plan Decenal de Descontaminación del Aire para Bogotá. Primera edición. Bogotá, Colombia. Secretaría Distrital de Movilidad. (2005). Encuesta de movilidad 2005. Bogotá.
We are currently in the second phase of the project, which specific objectives are the generalization of PEMS adoption in the city of Bogota and beyond, and the creation of a corporate network for exchange of best practices. It is astonishing to see the success the project is having, gathering more than thirty multinational companies in only six months without inverting a dime in publicity but only by word of mouth. And it is only a start. This initial success proves the need and expectations that big companies have in terms of being part of the solution. They are ready. Ready to be involved and ready to invest for achieving together a better mobility. The question now is whether the public authorities will know how to take advantage of this fantastic will and energy to improve urban mobility options working hand in hand with the private sector. We can just hope that our experience, aggregating efforts and results and separate initiatives, will help support the adoption of an official policy to promote the adoption of corporate mobility plans through legal and administrative
About the Writer Solenne Cucchi works as a mobility and environment project coordinator. Solenne Cucchi’s professonal educational background includes Msc Regional and Urban Planning - LSE as well as Master Stratégie Territoriale et Urbaine - Sciences Po Paris. You can contact Ms. Cucchi at http://co.linkedin.com/ in/solennecucchi or Follow her on Twitter: SolenneCucchi
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BROWNFIELD REDEVELOPMENT IN MICHIGAN The Forgotten Element of Community Planning
by Flo McCormack, Director of Special Projects, Michigan Association of Counties
The Forgotten Element of Community Planning
The hardest hit areas in the United States resulting from these changes were clustered in the Midwest and the Northeast. These areas were the heart of the manufacturing industry from the late 1900s through Communities could do a better job of revitalizing the mid 20th century. Ultimately, these areas became if they included brownfield redevelopment in their known as the “rust belt” areas of the country. planning efforts. Master plans are not the only place brownfield redevelopment can appear. It can appear They also became the “hole in the donut” as develin any plan the community puts together. Commu- opment moved further and further into the suburbs, nities need to incorporate brownfield redevelopment rural communities and farmlands. Infrastructure deelements into their various planning activities in a mands increased and community services were taxed meaningful way to help ensure the plans are realistic. to the limit to accommodate this migration of businesses and residents from the urban areas.
Planners and analysts spend a great deal of time and resources on developing a wide range of plans to help shape the characteristics of the areas they cover. The Regulatory Barriers negative legacies left behind from historic uses of properties are powerful influences that also shape Existing regulations were a significant deterrent to rehow and where development occurs. development and did a lot to promote expansion into
rural areas. Business owners who knew or suspected their properties were contaminated were an earlier version of “don’t ask, don’t tell.”
Brownfields
This approach often meant owners maintained the properties under their control, but left them to deteriorate year after year and to become a blight on the community. Because of “joint and severable liability,” where past and present property owners were considered liable and the nightmarish specter of the federal “Superfund” program descending on a business owner for environmental damages that occurred before environmental regulations were created, it was far easier to locate or relocate businesses to what became known as a “greenfield.” A greenfield site is generally thought of as an area of agricultural or forest land, or some other undeveloped site that is earmarked for development – either residential, commercial or for industrial projects. However, because of herbicides and pesticides that might be used in agricultural or commercial forestry, one cannot automatically assume that no contamination exists on the property. Agricultural and forest lands could already be “brownfield” sites due to residues left by application of chemicals commonly used in these types of operations.
Photo by Flo McCormack
Efforts to return underutilized or abandoned buildings and property to productive use is a challenge for any community. These properties are the result of economic, regulatory and environmental issues that changed the way businesses operated. More and more properties sit idle or are abandoned because it wasn’t easy to change how we operated or to address the legacies of past practices.
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BROWNFIELD REDEVELOPMENT IN MICHIGAN The Forgotten Element of Community Planning
by Flo McCormack, Director of Special Projects, Michigan Association of Counties
Recognizing the urgency of turning this tide of abandonment, the U.S. Conference of Mayors worked with Congress and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to craft legislation that would help to revitalize many communities, create jobs, increase tax revenue and improve the environment. On January 11, 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law the Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act and the nation’s brownfield redevelopment program was born.
Photo by Flo McCormack
Changing the Regulatory Regime
“We don’t have any brownfield sites”
The law defined brownfields as “real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant.”i The While the brownfield program has now been around mere possibility that a property might be contaminat- for quite some time, some communities still aren’t sure whether they have properties qualifying as ed was sufficient to often prevent its reuse. brownfield sites. The initial focus of brownfield redeWhile the definition of a brownfield site is pretty clear, velopment programs centered in the Michigan urban most people often assume, incorrectly, that if a prop- areas in Michigan but it quickly became apparent that erty is designated a brownfield site then it must be every community in the state is likely to have a site contaminated. While the perception that a property that would qualify. might be contaminated was often a sufficient barrier to redevelopment, it wasn’t until the new laws were Just a few years ago, I visited a county to promote promulgated that the tools became available to deter- brownfield redevelopment efforts and, because they mine if the perception was justified. Using the envi- were a very rural county with lots of forestlands, they ronmental assessment procedures recognized under believed they didn’t have any brownfield sites. At that state and federal regulations, landowners can prove a point in the conversation, I invited them to walk over property is “clean” with no pollutants or contaminants to the windows in the room where we were meeting so that I could point out several brownfield sites visible that pose environmental or health risks. from where we were standing.
Photo by Flo McCormack
Brownfield sites come in all sizes and shapes, from the corner dry cleaner or gas station to large manufacturing facilities. They even include properties that have been used for the illegal manufacture of drugs (e.g., meth labs) and mine scarred lands. Sometimes it is easy to recognize a property qualifying as a brownfield site, while at other times it’s much more difficult. But in either case, communities must do all they can to identify their brownfield properties and treat them as such in the planning process if they want to facilitate the development and preservation goals of the community. 33
BROWNFIELD REDEVELOPMENT IN MICHIGAN The Forgotten Element of Community Planning
by Flo McCormack, Director of Special Projects, Michigan Association of Counties
Michigan’s Brownfield Redevelopment Program
Photo by Flo McCormack
According to the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality, “Michigan brownfields are considered properties that are contaminated, blighted or functionally obsolete. Brownfield sites can be found in cities with long histories of heavy industry and large-scale manufacturing activity and also in small towns and rural areas in Michigan.”ii
Michigan’s Brownfield Redevelopment Authorities The purpose of a local brownfield redevelopment authority is to review brownfield plans and redevelopment proposals and to help determine what financial incentives are available to assist the redevelopment. Brownfield redevelopment authorities can provide access to financial incentives from multiple taxing jurisdictions that help the community focus development in support of local master and other relevant plans. Smaller communities that do not have the resources or expertise to establish their own brownfield authority can be included under a county or township brownfield authority. They can also join with other jurisdictions to form a brownfield authority that covers several local units of government. Redevelopment authorities can approve a brownfield plan for the purpose of brownfield tax increment financing on an eligible property. An eligible property is defined as a property that was or is used for commercial, industrial, public, or residential purposes. The property is eligible if it is: a “facility” (contaminated site) as defined under Michigan’s law and was or is used for commercial, industrial or residential purposes. If the property is in a Qualified Local Governmental Unit or owned by a land bank authority, an eligible property can also be one that is functionally obsolete, or blighted.iv
In keeping with the efforts at the federal level to address barriers related to redevelopment of brownfield sites, the Michigan Legislature passed the Brownfield Redevelopment Financing Act in September 1996. This statue authorized the creation of local brownfield redevelopment authorities and provided a number of financial incentives in an effort to level the field be- If a county or multi-jurisdictional brownfield authority is considering approval of a brownfield plan that tween a brownfield site and a greenfield site. includes tax capture, the local unit of government imThe Legislature also changed Michigan law to protect pacted by the tax capture must also approve the plan. new property owners from contamination they did not cause. To qualify for this protection, the new own- All incremental property taxes that come from the iner or operator of a contaminated site must complete a creased value of an eligible property, including taxes Baseline Environmental Assessment using the federal levied for school operating purposes can be captured. standards for “All Appropriate Inquiry”iii within the The schools must be notified, but are held harmless through the state education fund. timeframe allowed under the law. Captured taxes can be used to pay for activities related to assessing and mitigating contamination on a property, reasonable costs of environmental insurance and for the costs associated with development of the brownfield and cleanup plans.
Meeting the standards for “All Appropriate Inquiry” is pretty straightforward, easily completed by competent environmental consultants. Often, they consist of the minimum investigation required by lending institutions in the loan approval process 34
BROWNFIELD REDEVELOPMENT IN MICHIGAN The Forgotten Element of Community Planning
by Flo McCormack, Director of Special Projects, Michigan Association of Counties
Comprehensive Community Planning Communities that want to use brownfield tax increment financing should consider whether they want to collect all eligible taxes, or limit tax collection to only local taxes. They should also consider what activities will be reimbursed under the brownfield plan through brownfield tax increment financing.
Communities must include hindsight and foresight in planning efforts. Knowing how a property has been used in the past and how that use might affect its reuse is essential to successful redevelopment. Addressing brownfield issues that seem to be in conflict with community plans will enable a community to identify and establish strategies that resolve the conflicts. Brownfield sites, whether they are contaminated or not, can be considered for all of the uses typically covered by the community planning process.
The decision is an important one because it will determine the number of approvals needed. For example, the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ) must approve plans that include lead or asbestos abatement as part of a necessary response activity. The Michigan Economic Growth Authority iPublic Law 107-118 (H.R. 2869) - "Small Business Liability Remust approve the plan if the property is contaminat- lief and Brownfields Revitalization Act" signed into law January ed, blighted or functionally obsolete and demolition 11, 2002. http://epa.gov/brownfields/overview/glossary.htm is proposed but not necessary for cleanup of contamiiiMichigan Department of Environmental Quality, Land Renation.
development, http://www.michigan.gov/deq/0,1607,7-1353311_4110---,00.html
An authority proposing to approve a brownfield plan and use school taxes to pay for cleanup activities will iiiMichigan Department of Environmental Quality, Part 201 Citalso require MDEQ approval for tax capture. Careful izen’s Guide, Baseline Environmental Assessments, also 40 CRF consideration of eligible activities, tax capture and ap- 312, or the American society for Testing Methods (ASTM) Phase provals needed should begin as early as possible in the I Environmental Assessment process [1527-05]. planning process to guide redevelopment. iv
“Qualified local governmental unit� means either a county or a city, village, or township that contains an eligible distressed areas as defined under the state housing development authority act of 1966, 1966 PA 346, MCL 125.1411.
Properties owned by a land bank authority in Michigan are also eligible for all of the incentives for redevelopment of a brownfield site. Michigan counties and the city of Detroit are authorized to transfer tax reverted properties to their established land bank authority.
About the Writer Flo has been with the Michigan Association of Counties (MAC) since 2005. Prior to that time she was in the private sector as an environmental consultant and MAC was one of her clients. The association asked her to help identify ways in which the association could bring more value to its members. After designing a Grant Services Program, she was asked to join MAC as the program director. Before that, she worked in the public sector as the Environmental Administrator for Wayne County managing several grant and permitting programs. She also worked for the State of Michigan in the Departments of Commerce, Natural Resources, Environmental Quality and as central staff to the Michigan Legislature. She has Bachelor and Masters Degrees from the University of Michigan.
This authority has greater latitude in property disposition and can work closely with a local brownfield redevelopment authority to maximize incentives for redevelopment. The land bank authority, through an approved brownfield redevelopment plan, can also apply brownfield tax increment financing to infrastructure improvements (e.g., sidewalks, streets and roads, parking facilities, bridges, sewers and treatment plants, utilities, demolition, site preparation, and more.)
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Designing for the Future
What Planners Need to Know About Adaptive Management and Health Impact Assessments by Amy J. Blatt, PhD, GISP, TerraFirm International Corp., Inc
Introduction
Medicine asserted that all sectors of our society must assume responsibility for improving the health and conditions of people and where they live and work. In 2011, the National Academy of Sciences published a report entitled “Improving Health in the United States: The Role of Health Impact Assessment,” in which it articulated the need for decision-makers at all levels to be informed of the health-related consequences of their decisions. Clearly, this is a call to planners, developers, and governments to incorporate healthbased design principles into their decision-making and planning processes.
Sound scientific evidence has shown that the unusual and rapid increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases causes significant changes in climate and weather patterns, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Established by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the World Meterological Organization (WMO), the IPCC is comprised of thousands of scientists from all over the world, who review and assess the most recent scientific, technical, and socio-economic research relevant to the understanding of climate change.
Health Risks of Climate Change
IPCC has stated a rise of the mean surface temperature from 1 to 6 degrees Celsius can be felt in North America in the next century. As the consequences of climate change become more clearly understood, it is critical to investigate possible adaptation measures for reducing its adverse human health impacts.
A recent study by scientists at the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies examined the global temperatures from the past six decades and concluded that climate change is the only explanation for the extreme weather events of the recent past, such as droughts, floods, and heat waves. These extreme weather events Adaptive management is a process that considers the not only result in deaths and injuries, but also impact uncertainties of the future and considers a range of the availability of fresh water, food (leading to potenadjustable approaches to reduce adverse health out- tially serious under-nutrition), and the quantity and comes under future scenarios, like climate change. quality of air pollution in a residential area. Health impact assessments (HIAs) – much like EPAmandated environmental impact assessments – provide a structured process to identify the potential health effects of proposed planning projects and develop health-based recommendations in a number of situations, such as urban land-use and transportation planning and permit issuing.
Photogrphy by Simone Samuels
In the United States, there are currently no official federal registries of HIAs and only one state, Washington, has introduced and successfully passed legislation to require them (see http://www.hiaguide.org/legislation). In 2010, the Health Impact Project identified only 65 HIAs (see www.healthimpactproject.org/). In its 2002 report, “The Future of the Public’s Health in the 21st Century,” the United States Institute of
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Designing for the Future
What Planners Need to Know About Adaptive Management and Health Impact Assessments by Amy J. Blatt, PhD, GISP, TerraFirm International Corp., Inc
Source: NOAA; http://www1.ncdc.noaa.gov/pub/data/cmb/images/us/2012/aug/monthlysigeventmap-082012.gif
We have seen harvests of staple food crops — such as rice and corn — decline by as much as 20 percent to 40 percent, as a result of higher temperatures during the growing season. Food supplies are affected not only by higher temperatures, but also by droughts and floods. In addition, extreme weather events account for more than 90 percent of disasters worldwide. In 2007, extreme weather events caused more than 90 percent of disaster-related fatalities in the United
States, accounting for more than $60 billion in economic losses. Heat waves are a leading cause of heat stroke, heat stress and death. Children, seniors, city dwellers, and those on certain medications are at the highest risk during a heat wave. They also worsen the effects of other health conditions, such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease and respiratory diseases. In addition, high levels of air pollution — such as ground-level ozone concentrations resulting from warmer temperatures caused by climate change — can result in decreased lung function, increased incidence of asthma, and even higher mortality rates in certain populations, like the elderly.
Photogrphy by Tanner Humphries
Planning: A Response to Climate Land-use is one of the most common forms of geographic change. Croplands comprise approximately 382 million acres of land in the contiguous United States. However, due to urban sprawl and suburbanization, much of these areas are gradually converted to commercial and residential districts.
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Designing for the Future
What Planners Need to Know About Adaptive Management and Health Impact Assessments by Amy J. Blatt, PhD, GISP, TerraFirm International Corp., Inc
On the other hand, some forested areas have been converted to farmlands and urban centers, to stimulate development. These types of landscape alterations are inevitable as our population and economy continue to change. As urban planners and developers are playing a larger role in the formation of our national landscape, it becomes increasingly important for them to consider the impacts of development and land-use changes, and incorporate health-based design principles into the planning process.
Typically, these solutions, such as obtaining pedestrian and bicycle improvements in low-income urban corridors, locating unused public spaces for a local community garden and farmers market, and minimizing storm water runoff using containment ponds and rain gardens, have been made outside the public health sector.
The steps of an HIA are similar to that of the EPAmandated environmental impact assessment and include: screening (identifying plans and projects Preparing for climate change requires more than a for which an HIA would be useful); scoping (idenbusiness-as-usual response from public planning of- tifying which health effects to consider); assessing ficials. They must work with key public health depart- (identifying which people are affected and how they ments to identify the areas of greatest health risk that are affected); recommending (suggesting changes to are impacted from future climate change. proposals to promote positive health impacts or to reduce adverse health outcomes); reporting (presenting An example of applying adaptive management in the results to decision-makers); and monitoring and planning is to consider the health risks impacting the evaluation (determining the effect of the HIA on the largest number of residents (such as air pollution, ex- decision). treme weather conditions, heat-related mortality, etc.) and assess the vulnerability of these populations to The benefits of an HIA include not only an increased each risk. Then, the stakeholders need to consider a collaboration between public health and planning ofwide range of possible planning solutions and use an ficials, but also an increased awareness of the health HIA to evaluate each of the ability of each of these so- problems that are often missed in the traditional enlutions to ameliorate the risks. vironmental impact assessments. For instance, recent collaborations between Los Angeles public health and A HIA is a structured process used to identify the po- planning advocates in the expansion of Highway 710 tential health impacts (in terms of benefits and risks) resulted in an increased awareness of stakeholders to of a proposed policy or plan and to develop timely the increased incidences of injury, diabetes, and asthhealth-based recommendations that are often over- ma that would result from the highway expansion. looked when implementing the planning solutions.
Source: http://landsat.usgs.gov Example of urban growth: Image and Data per USGS, Dallas/Fort Worth, Texas, USA, Sensor: L1 MSS, L5 TM, L7 ETM+. Acquisition Date: March 12, 1974 and March 22, 1989 and February 01, 2003. The Dallas-Fort Worth area has grown significantly in the past 30 years. These images, acquired on March 12, 1974; March 22, 1989; and February 1, 2003, show the expansion of urban areas into the surrounding countryside. The combined Metroplex has grown substantially, with a population of 2,378,000 in 1970; 3,776,000 in 1988; and 5,568,150 in 2002.
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Designing for the Future
What Planners Need to Know About Adaptive Management and Health Impact Assessments by Amy J. Blatt, PhD, GISP, TerraFirm International Corp., Inc
Public policies and environmental factors play an influential role in human health. HIAs are a great vehicle for planners and public officials to engage public health and medicine in minimizing the adverse health impacts of climate change. By reviewing the proposals stemming from an adaptive management response to climate change, HIAs provide a structured process for assessing the populations and impacts affected by these proposals and making changes to improve human health under uncertain future climatic conditions. The challenge ahead is to increase the demand for the routine use of HIAs, both within and outside the EIA process, and to promote collaborations between planners and health professionals to conduct HIAs. Source: http://www.terraserver.com/ I-210, I-710, and CA 134, Pasadena, CA
Photo by Pamela Shinn
In the context of climate change, examples of HIA recommendations that are potentially beneficial in land-use design and considerations include: improving outdoor air quality by supporting federal environmental regulations to reduce ground-level ozone concentrations; using centralized air filtration systems and solid flooring in new public housing units to minimize allergens and improve indoor air quality; dedicating land to community gardens and farmers markets so residents can have an easier access to fresh local produce; and increasing the presence of riparian buffers along rivers and streams to reduce runoff and the incidence of waterborne pathogens.
Organic Earthscape/Full Circle Farm Co-op, Hesperia, Michigan
About the Writer
Photo by Pamela Shinn
Dr. Amy J. Blatt is a Certified Geographic Information Systems Professional (GISP). She enjoys working in the areas of climate change, its environmental impacts, and public health. Her work is published in many peer-reviewed journals, including Obstetrics and Gynecology and The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, which has been favorably reviewed in a Nature editorial by Dr. Kenneth Burman. She is the editor of a book volume entitled Perspectives in Medical Geography (Routledge, 2012), and a co-author of a chapter on careers in business and industry for geography students in Practicing Geography (Pearson, 2012). Dr. Blatt was a full-time tenure-track faculty at West Chester University of Pennsylvania, and is a past president of the Esri MidAtlantic Users Group.
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Going Green in Chicago
Creating the Essence of “Place” for the Windy City by Pamela Shinn, BS URP
Photo by Pamela Sinn
The city of Chicago is on the move, again, this time, going green with their Green Initiative Programs. A city that has always promoted beautification using a more natural or “green” approach Chicago’s well known for its flowers in the median and along the main walkways, as well as open space and park areas. Now the Windy City is going one step further. It is putting into play a series of green initiatives to combat global warming. Over the past several decades global temperatures have been on the rise. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the 20 warmest years have all occurred since 1981, and the 10 warmest have all occurred in the past 12 years.
environment for its residents and visitors. One of these efforts is called Green Roof Initiative. A growing trend in urban technology, it has been reported in an EPA study, Reducing Urban Heat Islands: Compendium of Strategies, that green roof technology can help to mitigate urban heat islands (UHI). A UHI is generally a metropolitan area significantly warmer than its surroundings, where its heat value is greater than the ambient air. Seasonally, this condition can be found in both summer and winter; however, the main cause of an UHI is some type of modification to the land surface by means of urban development. As a central business district (CBD) grows and expands, so does the heat it generates, causing an increase in the area’s average. In addition to the increase in temperature within the UHIs, air quality also decreases, giving off CO2 and ozone emissions. Water quality can also decrease as warmer runoff puts an additional stress on the ecosystem.
Cause of UHI
Source: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/indicators/
There are two primary reasons for increased temperatures in UHIs. First are changes in the thermal properties of the land surface materials and second is the lack of evapo-transpiration. Evaporation accounts for water transferred to the air from sources such as soil, water body runoff and canopy interception. Transpiration counts for a loss of water from the plant as vapor into the air from its leaves.
Last summer, city temperatures rose as high as 111 degrees, the highest since the 1995, when the heat contributed to the deaths of approximately 700 people. Eighteen Cook County residents succumbed to temperature-related deaths in July. In the face of these events, the city is committed to combating extreme temperatures to provide a healthier living
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Going Green in Chicago
Creating the Essence of “Place” for theWindy City by Pamela Shinn, BS URP In another study done by the EPA, Chicago compared summertime surface temperatures between a green roof and a traditional roof of a neighboring building. On an early afternoon, with temperatures in the 90s, the green roof surface temperature ranged from 91 to 119°F (33 to 48°C), while the dark, con ventional roof of the adjacent building was 169°F (76°C). The near-surface air temperature above the green roof was about 7°F (4°C) cooler than that of the conventional roof. The study also found reduced surface temperatures help buildings stay cooler because less heat flows through the roof sand into buildings. Additionally, lower green roof temperatures result in less heat transfer to the air above the roof, which can help keep urban air temperatures to fall, as well. The simulation showed that, especially with sufficient moisture for evaporative cooling, green roofs could play a role in reducing atmospheric UHIs. In addition, the results of lower building temperatures assisted in the reduction of the amount energy used to cool a building.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evapotranspiration Water cycle of the Earth’s surface, showing the individual components of transpiration and evaporation that make up evapotranspiration. Other closely related processes shown are runoff and groundwater recharge.
In the urban setting, UHIs are primarily due to the use of pavement materials, such as concrete and asphalt, the type of roofing materials used and insufficient vegetation. Generally, these materials used in development have a tendency to absorb and retain heat rather than to reflect it. These materials can cause as much as a nine-degree temperature variance between UHIs and outlaying areas.
What are Green Roofs Green roofs can be installed on a variety of buildings, ranging from industrial facilities to private residences. In general, all green roofs consist of six components;
According to a four-city study done by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Berkley National Laboratory, roof tops comprised from 20 to 25 percent of land cover in the urban setting. Cities are the best candidates for heat island mitigation using green roofs. Plants, Vegetation Extensive Growing Media Root permeable Filter Layer Drainage and Capilary Layer Protection and Storage Layer Roof Deck, Insulation, WeatherproofingMembrane
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Going Green in Chicago
Creating the Essence of “Place” for the Windy City by Pamela Shinn, BS URP The layers used are very thin, ranging from 1 to 4 normally would end in runoff. inches, which is important when considering the coverage of a large area with a variety of plant life. They What Chicago are easy to install and due to the thickness, require no added structural support.
is Doing
Green Roof Improvement Fund T.I.F. Program: In February 1997, Chicago approved and adopted a redevelopment plan and project for the Central Loop Redevelopment Project Area. The City, through its Department of Planning and Development ("DPD"), implemented a one-year pilot redevelopment program , the Green Roof Improvement Fund Program, to provide financing assistance for the installation of green roofs on Central Loop commercial facilities. Program funding was limited to $500,000.
Benefits There are a number of benefits when green roofs are put into play. Some of these benefits include:
• The reduction of air pollution caused from greenhouse gas emissions. Vegetation, such as trees and other forms of vegetation, help to remove pollutants in the air and aid in the reduction of greenhouse gas emission by means of dry deposition and carbon sequestration and storage. It also helps to provide a Under the Tax Increment Funding or T.I.F. program, reduction of energy usage demand when installed by eligible costs related to the installing of a Green Roof lowering the heat buildup and retention to a struc- include, but are not limited to: ture. • Engineering costs for determining structural • Private benefits occur by lowering the use of load capacity and estimation of improvement to proenergy. This also lowers the amount of pollution and vide adequate load requirements. greenhouse gas emission that would then be associated with the production of that energy and energy use • Design costs for green roof plan, system seleccosts. It also reduces the ground-level ozone which tion, plant selection and maintenance schedule develwould normally result from the rise in air tempera- opment. tures and aid in slowing down the release of ozone due to reduced ground temperatures. • Construction costs to modify a roof to provide adequate load requirements and to prepare existing • Another added impact is the overall improve- roofs for installation. ment to human health and overall quality of life by the increase in human comfort through the reduction Actual maintenance costs are not eligible. of heat. It is particularly important to keep buildings at cooler temperatures during heat waves. Funding: Competitive grants only, in the form of reimbursement funding for up to 50 percent of the eligi• Allowing public access to roof top gardens to ble cost of the project, $100,000 maximum assistance residence helps to provide an otherwise absent green per project, per applicant. space. Many roofs can also be used for urban roof General Costs gardening and food production. • Some public benefits of the use of green roofs help to enhance storm water management and water quality, by reducing or slowing storm water runoff. Both the plant and growing media on a roof, as in a natural surface with vegetation, absorb water that
In the United States, green roof costs—including everything from waterproofing to plants—ranges from $18 to $25 per square foot, depending on how intensive the system is and the plant types used.
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Going Green in Chicago
Creating the Essence of “Place” for the Windy City by Pamela Shinn, BS URP The initial capital and continued maintenance costs of Other measures the city is taking are the use of a green roof are offset by long-term utility cost sav- permeable materials at the ground level, making the ings. A vegetated roof, on average, can prolong the life city’s green efforts beyond the green roof concept. of a conventional roof by 20 years or more because One of the alternate program initiatives offered by the vegetation prevents the roof from being exposed to Chicago Department of Transportation is the Chicathe debilitating effects of ultraviolet radiation and go's Green Alley Program. This program includes the cold winds. use of recycled construction material and permeable pavement materials. The program was piloted in 2006 In April 2000, the city began to construct a 20,300 through 2010 and provided more than 100 “Green Alsquare-foot green roof garden on top of Chicago City ley” installation methods. Hall. The City Hall gardens contain approximately 20,000 herbaceous plants with more than 150 varietUsing materials like asphalt, concrete or pavers, many ies including 100 woody shrubs, 40 vines and several opened bottom catch basins to allow storm water to trees. Rainwater is collected, saved and used as a supfilter thru into the ground rather than to collect on the plemental irrigation system during extreme periods surface as runoff into the city sewer systems. Other of drought. features include the use of high-albedo pavement, a lighter-colored surface that reflects sunlight instead of The project was completed in 2001 at an approximate absorbing it. The use of a lighter material aids in the cost of 2.5 million and was funded via a settlement reduction of heat absorbed, reducing the UHI effect. with Commonwealth Edison. It extends one square block and rests 12 stories above street level, was retrofitted and served as a pilot for the city’s green roof project. It has been established the Chicago City Hall green roof saves $5,000 annually on utility bills. This particular project was a winner of the American Society of Landscape Architects 2002 Professional Merit Award.
Photo by Pamela Shinn
This projects funding was a direct result of a suit the city filed against the city’s electric utility, Commonwealth Edison, which had failed to make good on a 1991 franchise agreement. As a result of city legal action, an award of $1.1 billion dollar settlement had been awarded. Mayor Richard Daley put a portion of these funds into play to make help to make Chicago the green city it is today. From those DOE-administered funds, $2.5 million was committed to fund the DOE’s Urban Heat Initiative in 1999.
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Going Green in Chicago
Creating the Essence of “Place” for the Windy City
Photos by Pamela Shinn
by Pamela Shinn, BS URP
The vision of a green and a sustainable Chicago goes from roof top to green homes, from street corners to public parks and plaza’s, to cost savings and environmental sustainability. These efforts have helped Other Green Alley features include using appropri- in creating the essence of “place” for those who live, ate grading and pitch to assist in facilitating proper work and visit Chicago. drainage. The use of recycled materials, such as concrete aggregates, slag, and recycled rubber tires has a solid environmental benefit.
About the Writer
The Streetscape and Sustainable Design Program is also offered by CDOT. This program adheres to the rehabilitation of the city streetscape within neighborhood commercial districts, river walks and biking areas. These projects include green alleys, sustainable streets, rails-to-trails, highway beautification, public plazas, along with various bicycle stations.
Pamela Shinn earned a Bachelor of Science degree in urban and regional planning from Michigan State University. She has studied at the University of Havana, Cuba, in 2004 and is an advocate for global sustainability. She also has had her photographic works Its goal is to create public places while improving the published around the world. Pamela Shinn is curfunctionality of infrastructure, to improve carbon rently manager and publisher for Urban Planning and emissions, reduce the UHI effect, implement storm Economic Development News Magazine. water management best practices, reduce waste, improve human health and wildlife habitat and improve the quality of life for its residents and visitors.
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Sustainable City Services: Cycle of Housing Stock and Age of Residents by Scott and Jenny Ranville
HUMAN LIFE PROJECT Creating Enlivened, Strong, Sustainable Communities for All Ages
When looking at city services, do the needs fluctuate from decade to decade or half century to half century? For example, robust school enrollment followed by declining enrollment and then a rise in enrollment again. With the approaching "grey tsunami," the need for senior services will greatly increase. However, in roughly 40 years when the Boomer generation is mostly gone the need for the senior services will be reduced.
the city. The challenges that Littleton faces is becoming more widespread among cities.
This lack of housing appealing to older adults appears to be a major reason for school enrollment fluctuation. The cycle of young families moving into newly constructed neighborhoods is reflected in school enrollment increasing. As the families age, the kids graduate and move out of the house, but the parents Littleton, located near Denver, has done a good job in cannot downsize, which keeps the family house unmaking the city an enjoyable place to live. Many resi- der occupied for 10, 20, 30 plus years. Can schools dents want to stay in the city as they age. However, a weather the long cycles of housing turnover to young number of residents have expressed a desire to down- families? size their larger houses as they become empty nesters. The problem is limited housing options within city As a case example, the graph below shows the fluclimits, much less within the family neighborhoods tuation of Littleton Public Schools enrollment.1 In the that they have grown to love. Thus, to downsize, they last few years, Littleton did close 2 schools due to fallwould have to move to a new neighborhood or out of ing enrollment.
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Sustainable City Services: Cycle of Housing Stock and Age of Residents by Scott and Jenny Ranville
A Potential Solutions for Existing Neighborhoods:
The second graph shows the cycle in average household size, assuming a built-out community where people do not want to move out as they age. Analogous graphs would be needed for non-land locked Modifying existing neighborhoods is one of the hardcommunities still expanding in housing stock and er challenges for improving the city's housing stock. The following ideas are small scale and should allow population. existing neighborhoods to evolve over time. For all of In this graph, the yellow bars represent time periods these options, there can be too much of a good thing. in which the city needs to provide more services and The recommendation is to limit the density of each infrastructure for families with kids, such as schools housing type. and kid oriented events. The grey bars represent time Group housing typically looks like a singleperiods in which the city needs to provide additional 1. services for older residents such as shuttle service to family residence from the outside and located within single-family neighborhoods. Inside, each resident grocery stores. has a private bedroom and possibly a private bathSome research indicates that in locations not hav- room. The rest of the house is common space shared ing enough families in the neighborhood has some by all residents. A certified nurse or care giver may undesired consequences such as bus routes reduced reside on site or visit regularly. Not all zoning codes when too high a percentage of passengers qualify for allow group housing, but allowing group housing will reduced senior rates and grocery stores relocate. Fluc- provide more options for older adults. tuation in needed services is expensive for cities. Accessory dwelling units (ADU) allows a 2nd A more constant average household size makes pro- 2. viding services easier. The following are housing con- unit to be built on a lot with an existing house. The siderations to help provide an environment for a more ADU may house a recent college graduate looking for a job or an elderly parent. ADUs can also stable average household size.
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Sustainable City Services: Cycle of Housing Stock and Age of Residents by Scott and Jenny Ranville
Conclusion:
be rented to non-family members. Again, not all zoning allows ADUs. However, including ADUs in the housing mix can increase options for families as well as provide additional rental options.
One of the goals is to support people living and aging in their city. Thus, aging in neighborhood is balanced by optimizing community resources in that larger houses are primarily occupied by larger households. When downsizing, hopefully the person or couple is literally only moving a few feet to a familiar house, thereby minimizing the stress associated with moving. A new young family now has the opportunity to move into the city and live in the larger house.
3. ADUs can be taken to the next level by allowing the ADU to be sold independent of the main house. This can provide additional flexibility for the homeowner. To encourage more accessible housing, zoning could allow the minimum lot size to be ½ the current size provided that a “universal design” house built on each ½ lot. This would allow a homeowner in an existing single-family neighborhood to scrap the house, replace with 2 universal design houses, and potentially live in one of the houses while selling the other house to pay off the construction loan.
1:http://www.boarddocs.com/co/lpsco/Board.nsf/ files/8YXKEM518456/$file/LPS%20Demographic%20Study%20Presentation.pdf
HLP - Consulting/Think Tank/Architecture firm specializing in Creating Enlivened, Strong, Sustainable Communities for All Ages.
New/Infill Projects:
About the Writers
For new or lager infill projects, cities could require variety in the housing sizes to help achieve a more constant average household size over time. These new projects present opportunities to make a significant impact on the future direction of the city.
Scott and Jenny Ranville run a consulting/think tank/ architecture/software development company, Human Life Project®. Our mission is to promote sustainable patterns, helping cities design for all ages. Our interpretation of the triple bottom line for urban planning encompasses: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, and human sustainability. Human sustainability is the most important component for HLP. Jenny has a Masters in Architecture from the University of Michigan. She is an architect, LEED AP, and planning commissioner. Jenny presents at conferences to help encourage cities to become more sustainable and family friendly. Scott has a Masters from the University in Michigan in Electrical Engineering. Today, Scott combines the analytical thinking, research, and software skills to find innovative, data driven, cross-disciplinary solutions to help make cities better places to live. Web Page: www.humanlifeproject.com Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/pages/HumanLife-Project/373809785911
1. For a mixed generational neighborhood, every 3rd or 4th unit should be a different size. For example, if the development is primarily a family neighborhood with 3+ bedroom houses, the "other" houses would be smaller such as patio homes for older adults. The housing mix should attract singles, couples, families with children, and empty nesters. 2. For multi-family units, require a mix of 1, 2, and 3+ bedrooms to accommodate all family sizes. All too often, multi-family is not family-friendly. This needs to change to allow for more affordable family size housing options. Accessibility is big for older adults, so ensuring an adequate mix of accessible units is also very important.
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Tourism Planning Tools for Sustainable Economic Development By Tracy Mullins, MS, AICP
Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world. While it is partially addressed in regional land use plans, transportation plans, comprehensive plans, recreation plans, and economic development plans, comprehensive tourism planning is rarely found at the local level. Sustainable economic development for tourism requires the utilization of mechanisms to envision and plan for the future across economic, environmental, social, and political dimensions.
methodologies for framing the process of sustainable tourism development is the OODA Loop. A quick search of the Internet using ‘OODA loop’ as a keyword will yield hundreds of articles on the subject. A full explanation of the OODA loop can be found in Robert Coram’s book, Boyd: The Fighter Pilot Who Changed the Art of War. Coram’s book is the biography of John Boyd, creator of the OODA loop.
Sustainable tourism requires establishing a critical mass of tourism attractions, goods and services that create a sense of place - a destination. One must plan for a quadruple bottom-line (economic, environmental, social, and political) that meets the needs of both the visitor and the local community. This requires coordinating a diverse group of stakeholders to address disparate issues such as multimodal transportation infrastructure, preservation of ecological diversity, designing energy efficient buildings, and controlling waste streams. Sustainable tourism development must meet the need of today’s tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. Successful tourism plans reflect the values and interests of the local community, frame an action strategy, and result in activities that are actually implemented.
Photo by Pamela Gail Shinn
Tourism is dependent upon a sense of place, either natural or created. Without a sense of place, the attraction, tourists and tourism dollars will not be sustainable. In his book The Geography of Nowhere, James Howard Kunstler explains that people will not be attracted to a location if “there is no there, there.” Additionally, attractions that merely capture passthrough traffic will not generate consistent revenue for all community stakeholders. An example of this is the highway strip mall. Franchised operations in homogeneous strip malls rarely create a sense of place; rather, they simply provide opportunities for retail sales and marketing that are the hallmark of strip mall developments.
THE OODA LOOP There are four steps in the OODA loop: Observation, Orientation, Decision and Action. OODA requires that you plan through a number of iterative planning cycles, not just one linear pass. The first step of the OODA loop, observation, involves observing and inventorying tourism assets, collecting data, and analyzing the data. The tourism environment (economic, environmental, social and political) is described in maps, spreadsheets and reports.
Sustainable tourism planning is not an end in itself, but an ongoing practice that requires an iterative The second step, orientation, is where the information monitoring and improvement process. One of many created from data is presented to stakeholders, 48
Tourism Planning Tools for Sustainable Economic Development by Tracy Mullins, MS, AICP first as educational material and then as the subject of analysis and discussion. Program and policy development may require a long negotiation process, but this provides the basis for creating strong, binding agreements on agreed-upon goals and actions.
A vast number of physical inventories and data-rich documents are available on the Internet, such as State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans, regional transportation plans, and special district plans (e.g. soil, water, economic). Also look for other data sources such as regulatory compliance reports and studies, permitting records (e.g. wetland, endangered species), and Memoranda of Understanding. Don’t forget nonprofit data sources, such as conservation easement databases and native plant societies.
The third step, decision, codifies the knowledge from negotiations and agreements into policy, regulations and implementable business plans. Planning efforts address both big scale spatial planning and small scale place-making.
Also required during observation is an inventory of the natural, cultural, historic and heritage attractions and recreational activities in the study area and adjacent region. Inventory and evaluation sheets can be found on the Internet or in publications like Linking Communities, Tourism & Conservation by Conservation International.
In the final step, action, plans are implemented and the results are monitored for change. The wisdom gained from this monitoring are fed back into the observation stage to iterate the OODA loop, resulting in continual improvement and effectively eliminates the inertia that kills many planning efforts. At any point in the looping process, you may decide to drop back to an earlier step and begin that step again. Fluidity, agility and speed are key factors in this planning methodology. The planning and looping never end, but they provide opportunity for responding to market events as they unfold. Your plans should be a living document, with revisions based on continuous monitoring and looping so they never gather dust on a shelf.
It bears mentioning that localism should be avoided during the observation phase. The Internet offers resources and information from all over the world; considering this information will give you a competitive edge over other project groups that have limited their observations to local, regional or state data. Another essential piece of observation is the Tourism Market Demand Analysis. This is a situational analysis which describes the tourist, the competition and each competitor’s advantage. Historic marketing data can be obtained through Chambers of Commerce, Visitor and Convention Bureaus, Economic Development Agencies and local businesses. Market segmentation software such as ESRI’s Tapestry or Claritas’ Prism can focus your search further, as can government tourism agencies and trade associations. Compiling data on the competition may require on-site investigation to survey your competitors’ properties. Compare and contrast local labor and training needs with services offered by the competition, which will help direct development of a local capacity building plan to create a superior service offering.
Let’s take a closer look at each step in the OODA Loop and tools that can maximize the effectiveness of sustainable tourism-based economic development planning.
OBSERVATION Observation requires assembling a tourism re-
source inventory. This should include existing tourism resource assets (activities, facilities and services), potential tourism resource assets, and the infrastructure required to sustainably support tourism use within a defined geographic area. This inventory can be kept as digital files and maps with easy Internet access for stakeholders. Start with an inventory of infrastructure and public services essential to tourism found in your county and municipal comprehensive plans.
Maps are indispensable for tourism planning, as they are an effective way to inventory information. Computerized mapping known as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) allows you to capture, manage, analyze and display all forms of geographically 49
Tourism Planning Tools for Sustainable Economic Development by Tracy Mullins, MS, AICP referenced information as files and data layers. GIS helps you view, understand, question, interpret and visualize data to reveal relationships, patterns and trends, and then express this information as maps, reports and charts that are quickly understood and easily shared. You can also use GIS to determine location and condition of tourism assets, track tourism trends, and measure tourism impacts and changes. GIS analytical tools used in the observation phase allow you to follow the flows and impacts of tourist activities and resource usage so you can model what if scenarios for decision support. GIS mapping layers should include topographic information, land use and land cover, water resources, traffic and transportation, tourism infrastructure, and administration and statistical data. Most of this data are available for free over the Internet through organizations like the Geo Community (www.geocomm.com), or you can ask a professional geographer or certified GIS professional to work with you as a means of saving time, money and effort.
ORIENTATION The sustainable tourism destination needs a critical mass of engaged stakeholders. Stakeholders identified in the PIP should be invited to join planning committees. Engage the full diversity of the community’s residents, businesses, and other legitimate interests in Community Advisory Committees (CAC), but recognize that not everyone has sufficient background to make expert decisions. To avoid alienating professionals, experts and local government officials, create a Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) whose activities will parallel but not duplicate those of the CACs. Bring the committees together early and often. All committees should address policy coordination, setting and maintaining performance standards, promoting equitable sharing of tourism benefits, and generating economic support for conservation of natural areas. Paper-based maps can be used to record committee recommendations such as setting buffers around special areas (e.g. residential areas or environmentally sensitive areas), identifying buildable land, and determining the best place for infrastructure improvement and tourism zoning. This information is then recorded in your GIS software.
Your project will also require a database of tourism stakeholders, tourism operators, and their products. This can be recorded in electronic spreadsheets or in customer relationship management (CRM) software. A Public Involvement Program (PIP) is essential to identify stakeholders, build community vision and encourage the buy-in necessary to implement planning. Work sessions, focus groups and public presentations can be used to gather information, educate the stakeholder and build coalitions. These “communities of purpose� can build local capacity for tourism. The results of observation should include a userfriendly database, map series and public involvement effort. Together these can create a common operating picture of the tourism environment for stakeholders to understand and discuss during the orientation phase.
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) provides a mechanism for screening tourism planning efforts for potentially negative impacts. Environmental impacts often address use/overuse of land and ecological resources, waste management issues and the physical impacts of travel. The World Bank and other large funding agencies have guidelines on how to undergo EIA; these guidelines can be used directly or adapted to fit your needs. Measurable socio-cultural impacts include the influx of tourists and their impact on the local communities and their cultural values.
GIS 50
Tourism Planning Tools for Sustainable Economic Development by Tracy Mullins, MS, AICP Carrying Capacity describes the maximum number of people that might visit a destination simultaneously. Carrying capacity tools describe current and projected impacts by the number of visitors a site can hold, the point at which environmental degradation is irreversible, the point which tourists feel an unacceptable decrease in the quality of experience, and the level at which local inhabitants feel their life is disrupted by tourism. Although carrying capacity is a tool under development, several planning frameworks have been established and tested in a variety of situations. These include Limits of Acceptable Change, Visitor Impact Management, Visitor Experience and Resource Protection, Visitor Activity Management Planning, and Tourism Optimization Management Model. These all have their strengths and weaknesses; more information on each can be found online.
taxes, bed taxes, and micro-lending programs. A final piece of the orientation phase is educating the community about the activities of the TAC/CAC groups. This can be achieved through education, interpretation and training programs that build the community’s capacity for implementing tourism plans.
After reaching consensus on Carrying Capacity limitations, a sustainable product offering can be developed. One helpful tool is the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS), a U.S. Bureau of Land Management framework to inventory, plan and manage recreation opportunities. This tool divides land use into six classes ranging from natural, low use areas to highly developed, intensively used areas and identifies appropriate programming and development for each of the six classes. When using ROS with planning committees, it is important they understand that facilities will differ based on the recreation/tourism experience and equipment. One-size-fits-all design solutions typically fail because they don’t take local variables into account.
Although decision-making requires that the observation and orientation work is as complete as possible, holding back on making decisions until all possible data is collected can kill an otherwise well-planned project. Your TAC/CAC groups must be willing to move forward once they have sufficient data to do so. Committees need to seek convergence on agreed intentions, document them and build from there; it is important to keep the decision phase focused so committees don’t keep revisiting issues that have already been addressed.
At the end of the orientation step you have created a database of documents, maps, analyses, and scenarios that have been thoroughly discussed and vetted by the public involvement process. These materials support the decision phase of the OODA loop.
DECISION
Decisions made during this phase might include policy coordination, setting performance standards, promoting equitable sharing of benefits/profits, generating economic support for the conservation of natural areas, and fostering the socioeconomic advancement of local communities. TAC/CAC groups will need to write business plans, master plans, marketing plans, and implementation plans based on their agreedupon policy documents and codification. The master plan might include multimodal transportation corridors, linkage of parks and open spaces, and grey field redevelopment. Experts in the TAC group might even create defensible/sustainable business plans, user pay strategies, investment strategies, or other decisionbased strategies that help to complete the picture.
Tourism Zoning codifies decisions to regulate activities and identify where those activities are permitted. Other management tools include use limitations, user fees, design standards and guidelines, certification programs and regulation. Tourism regulation can be delivered through standards, licensing and inspection of facilities and activities.
After determining what can be done and how, one must determine if it is financially sustainable. Financial tools such as a Cost-Benefit Analysis should be used to examine the qualitative and quantitative benefits and costs of the project. Additional financial The results of the decision phase must be based on planning can include tax incentives, airport departure 51
Tourism Planning Tools for Sustainable Economic Development by Tracy Mullins, MS, AICP
Photo by Ron Hanson
solid data and analysis, not the gut feelings of a few decision-makers. Tourism planning that is centered on creating a sense of place may help reconcile topics such as housing, jobs, infrastructure, and open space. Your plans need to have both political legitimacy and technical capacity in economic development, transportation, and land use. Your results can manifest as business plans, sustainable tourism master plans, land use change, zoning ordinances, overlay districts, etc. At the conclusion of the decision stage, you should have solution differentiation and risk resolution that is based in community consensus and ready for action.
ACTION Action and implementation require sufficient investment capital to make the project happen, political resources (both top down and bottom up) to maintain community involvement and support, elements of design and nature to create a sense of place, focused marketing campaigns to attract and retain tourists, and careful maintenance that sustains and renews the attraction itself. It is not uncommon for a tourism project to fail after initial interest wanes or short-term expectations are unmet. Planning through several OODA loops allows the process itself to evolve, keeps stakeholders engaged, and builds on lessons learned along the way. Experience can shape how scarce resources are allocated in the future, what kind of information is really needed, how communication should be designed, and which stakeholders need to be added to the process.
About the Writer Tracy Mullins, MS, AICP attended Lakehead University where he completed simultaneous degrees in Outdoor Recreation, Geography and Tourism Management. After a short time with the Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Mullins started his career in consulting. Working from Ontario, he provided economic development capacity building services to entrepreneurs and nonprofit organizations in both Canada and the United States. Notable projects included the fields of tourism, recreation, telecommunications, historic preservation and small business start-up. After being awarded a full scholarship from Eastern Michigan University, Tracy graduated with a Master of Science in Geography, major in Urban Planning. While writing his Master’s thesis, he was retained as a Professor of Geography at the University of Michigan. Mullins subsequently received professional certification from the American Institute of Certified Planners and moved to Florida where he consults in Urban Planning/Design and Sustainable Economic Development. Expertise includes community redevelopment, urban design, tribal planning, tourism development, and professional services business planning.
At the end of the day, the real product of the planning process is the development of agreed intentions which will be carried out – not a report that gathers dust on a shelf. The OODA methodology can assist urban planners and economic development professionals to better integrate their activities with those of the tourism sector. Sustainable tourism development is dependent upon the creation of a sense of place using cross disciplinary tools and technology to envision and plan for the future across economic, environmental, social, and political dimensions. 52
Two Under-developed Transportation Systems Water and rail transport in the Netherlands by Andrey Maltsev Just as it is worldwide, useful transportation system is critical and necessary condition for economic growth in the Netherlands. Most cities rely on public transport to keep citizens moving and economies working while, at the same time, working to reduce the negative environmental impacts of too many automobiles.
Netherlands ferries are confronting a number of challenges and problems. A major one to consider is the current state of public transportation funding in the region. Both ferry systems between islands and internal city water traveling have a history of inconsistent support. Rising costs against a relatively flat budget threaten the viability of current operations. One problem they have seems to be a lack of political clout. All too often, ferry services, because they serve smaller populations than larger volume mass transit systems, find themselves
Future public transport demands will be increasingly diverse. Although automobile travel in any country will not disappear, many populations are showing a decided preference for walking, cycling, and public transport, provided those options are convenient, comfortable and affordable.
Photo by Andrey Maltsev
Water transport makes an important social contribution to the Netherlands because it connects the country’s islands and mainland. They include ferries operating between the island of Texel and the mainland; service to Ameland and Schiermonnikoog; fast and regular ferry service to Vlieland, the car-free island, and Terschelling; and ferries between the Waddeneilanden: from Texel to Vlieland, from Vlieland to Terschelling, from Terschelling to Ameland and from Ameland to Schiermonnikoog. Free of charge ferry from Amsterdam to IJplein.
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Ferry-ways around Netherlands.
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Two Under-developed Transportation Systems Water and rail transport in the Netherlands by Andrey Maltsev much lower on the funding priority list. Historically, water taxi and ferry initiatives have experienced only limited financial success, with many evolving into excursion-focused enterprises, operated as a public service.
Considering current way in the water transportaion point for country or just for sea-based regions inside country we see that much greater research and development activity will also be needed to extendid develop and deploy this issue. Government and private companies need to extend of the human capacities and financial resources to impove investment and modernization of the water transport sector. Government and private investment in fuel saving technologies will be more effective in nowadays when fuel price is comparatively high; it is only one way from many to make ferry system more attractive for bus lines. City administrations and local governments have an especially important role to promoting ferry transport at the local level. Increases of investment in water transport infrastructure and services are urgently needed, in particular, in the cities of countries lie on the sea line and having big river or channel systems.
These challenges can be overcome through careful planning and design. Additionally, governments can aid the cause by seeking out private enterprise partners.
Photo by Andrey Maltsev
At least two private companies are doing well in this sector. Both work, not only like travel boats between towns in the Netherlands, but also resolve transportation shortfalls between hard-to-reach cities on the islands.
Rail transport is an environmentally friendly alternative to the use of the auto or the plane for a broad range of occupancy rates and Teso technologies used (Button and Teso is a long-time private operator of fer- Rietveld, 1999). In terms of speed, the averries between the islands of Texel and Den Hel- age car and train are about equal, and in parder working for a long. The boat sails every hour ticular cases—congestion in metropolitan areas and crosses the Marsdiep in about 20 minutes. and high-speed rail—the train is clearly faster.
Photo by Andrey Maltsev
The modern ferry port in Horntje has only been in place since the 1960s. Before that, the ferries came out of the harbor of Oudeschild, which caused much longer crossing times. The crossing and waiting times threatened the region’s burgeoning tourist trade, which forced the change in harbors. Even with the harbor change, long waiting times still remained, especially in the 1970s Another small company—Wagenborg—is a part of Koninklijke. Located in Delfzijl, the company employs 90 people and provides ferry services from Holwerd to Ameland and from Lauwersoog to Schiermonnikoog.
Netherlands train
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Two Under-developed Transportation Systems Water and rail transport in the Netherlands by Andrey Maltsev Yet the share of the train in passenger transport is modest in most countries. For a balanced development of public transport systems, it is necessary that investments in higher speed rail lines be compared to investments in the local road network and environmental costs around auto networks.
The Netherlands has a very broad rail network with a very high occupancy. The rail network of the Netherlands has a density of 41.5km of line per square kilometre with an extremely high occupancy of 4,801 passenger-km/km of line, compared with European average of 1,773.
Holland has one of the most extensive and modern public transportations systems in the world. Visi- Some statistics from Dutch railways: tors can get to almost any part of the country within a matter of hours traveling only by train and/or bus. • 6,830 km trail, managed by NS The NS (Nederlandse Spoorwegen – Dutch, Neth- • erlands Railway - English) covers most of the country, with almost all small and big towns connected in one network, most of them have a service frequency of two trains an hour or even more (and at least • 4 trains each hour between the biggest five cities: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Eindhoven as well as some larger cities: Amersfoort, • Arnhem, Hertogenbosch, Dordrecht and Leiden).
The Green Harttunnel (HSL) is the longest railway tunnel in The Netherlands (7.1 kilometers)
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62% of Dutch people traveling once a year or more by train
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13% of Dutch people do this at least once a month
75% of the Dutch population lives within 5 kilometers of a station 1,157,260 people in The Netherlands take a daily train (Annual Report 2010)
The high occupancy of the Dutch network indicates the need for increasing the network’s capacity. However, because the country is small and densely populated, the space available for expanding the network is scarce and expensive. Dutch authorities responsible for the management of the network do their best. Over the past decades, as the economy continued to grow, readiness to invest in the expansion of the transport infrastructure evaporated. It became a popular belief that as more infrastructure capacity merely generated new demand, why was there a need to build more infrastructures? The budget spent on increasing the capacity of rail and road infrastructure has been around 0.8 percent of GDP and was well below the European average.
Map of the rail network in The Netherlands
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Two Under-developed Transportation Systems Water and rail transport in the Netherlands
Photo by Andrey Maltsev
by Andrey Maltsev Investments need to be supported at a high level, providing a stable of long-term commitment to building a public and modern transport system. A short-term commitment of funds will not work here. Critical point in the investments is that investments need to be undertaken intelligently. It is mean that they need to build public transport systems that work well, provide easy-to-use alternatives to automobile or plane travel. Intercity rail needs to be connected with urban transit systems
Photo by Andrey Maltsev
Amsterdam train station
Soon, the Dutch government will decide on a major infrastructure project involving the construction of a new rail link between Amsterdam/Schiphol airport and the City of Groningen in the North of the country. Amsterdam is part of the Randstad region, the economic core of the Netherlands. Government has New train from NS been provided a several descriptions of the possible rail connections between Schiphol and Groningen because so many passengers do not end up traveling across the Afsluitdijk. They should decide and choose from one city to another only to be off at their deswhich type of transport techniques may be used: tination. High-speed rail can play an important role 1. intercity railroad (IC) - variants are relatively and often displacing short distance air travel. But slow (a maximum of 160 km/h) but will high-speed lines need to be a consentaneous together use existing tracks with conventional rail lines. Within cities, different bus and rail lines also need to be well-coordinated 2. high-speed railroad (HS) and Maglev system with each other. This includes a high degree of frequency and reliability of service, and well-designed, (ML)- variants are faster (about 300 km/h) easy-to-understand passenger information systems. but need modifications of existing tracks to reach higher speeds
About the Writer
Advantage of the last two systems is high speed, but there is main disadvantage - they need relatively long distances to reach their maximum speed and to slow down again.
Andre Maltsev works in IT Technology and is a freelance photographer/journalist from Almere, Netherlands. Born in Russia, Andrea’s career has taken him from Russia, to working in Her Majesty’s service for In all of the countries the creation of a strong rail in- the British Embassy, to Italy to where he is located dustry has depended from large and steady invest- today in the Netherlands. You can view many of Andre Maltsev’s works at http://www.flickr.photos/ryments in rail and public transport. zhik/ 56
Photography Credits Jesús Sánchez-Bermejo Ramos PhotoGSuS
David Williams Photos provided by professional photographer David Williams, London, England. You can view many of Williams’s works at : http://www.flickr.com/photos/96948767@N08/
"I am a simple man who loves making photographs. Born in 1979 in Madrid (Spain) but with “La Mancha”, the land of Don Quixote, and Peruvian roots... which is quite possibly the cause to my passion for traveling and try to reach the most remote places. My focus has always been the wide open spaces, something directly related to my great love for climbing and the animal world . My other great love, music, makes me go to all the music events I that can to feed my senses and inspiration. These two passions make the camera my ideal team mate for the last 15 years.
Andrey Maltsev Photos provided by professional photographer Andrey Maltsev from Almere Netherlands. You can view many of Maltsef ’s works at : http://www.flickr.photos/ryzhik/
During this long period in constant movement! I wan some national photography competitions, participated as official photographer at music festivals and concerts, collaborations in different magazines, websites and exhibitions internationally, and of course, the big community of flickr and Panoramio where I count nearly 5 million views on my photos. You are invited to visit my flickr! You can find me: flicker.com/photogsus facebook.com/photogsus photogsus@gmail.com +34 606 242 081
Pamela Shinn Photos provided by professional photographer Pamela Shinn form Denver, Colorado. You can view many of Shinn’s works at : h t t p : / / w w w. f l i c k r. c o m / p h o tos/28770937@N06/ email: pgs3532004@gmail.com
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