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Vol 68 No 1 • Spring 2021
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INTERVIEW FIONA FOX ON PRESS COVERAGE OF COVID-19 PLUS THE BEST BIOLOGY PODCASTS
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2020 was a difficult year for everyone, but at BES we did everything we could to keep serving our 7,000 strong global community of ecologists. During lockdown thousands took part in Ecology Live, our series of online talks featuring the latest in ecology. Our Festival of Ecology in December attracted over 1,500 online delegates from China to California for 5 days of ground-breaking research. So, why not partner with Europe’s largest and the world’s oldest community of ecologists this year?
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CONNECT WITH US
VOLUME 68 NO 1 Spring 2021
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THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF BIOLOGY 1 Naoroji Street, London WC1X 0GB Tel: 020 3925 3440 info@rsb.org.uk; www.rsb.org.uk
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EDITORIAL STAFF Editor Tom Ireland MRSB, @Tom_J_Ireland tom.ireland@rsb.org.uk Editorial assistant Emma Wrake AMRSB
MICROBIOLOGY REVIVING 100 MILLION YEAR OLD CELLS
tom.ireland@rsb.org.uk
INTERVIEW FIONA FOX ON PRESS COVERAGE OF COVID-19 PLUS THE BEST BIOLOGY PODCASTS
Listening in Eavesdropping animals and bacteria’s dying messages
ON THE COVER
facebook.com/ RoyalSocBio
16 Spies like us Tales of interspecies eavesdropping in the animal kingdom
thebiologist.rsb.org.uk @RoyalSocBio www.youtube.com/ royalsocbio
Chair of the Editorial Board Professor Dan Davis FRSB, The University of Manchester SUBS ART
Editorial Board Professor Matthew Cobb FRSB, The University of Manchester Dr Anthony Flemming FRSB, Syngenta Professor Adam Hart FRSB, University of Gloucestershire Dr Sarah Maddocks CBiol MRSB, Cardiff Met University Dr Esther Odenkule MRSB, GSK Professor Shaun D Pattinson FRSB, Durham University Dr James Poulter MRSB, University of Leeds Professor Diane Purchase FRSB, Middlesex University Dr Natasha de Vere, National Botanical Garden of Wales
Contents
UP FRONT
04 Society News The latest on the RSB’s work 07 Opinion Let’s not underestimate the threat of plant pandemics 08 Policy news and analysis Focusing on a busy year for climate and biodiversity talks
Membership enquiries Tel: 01233 555665; membership@rsb.org.uk PRODUCTION
Subscription enquiries Tel: 020 3925 3464; info@rsb.org.uk
FEATURES
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The Biologist is produced on behalf of the Royal Society of Biology by Think Publishing Ltd, Capital House, 25 Chapel Street, London NW1 5DH www.thinkpublishing.co.uk; 020 3771 7200
12 Search and destroy Exploiting the viruses that infect cancerous cells 16 Animal espionage How information parasitism gives animals the edge
Printed by Full Spectrum, Basildon Senior designer Juanita Adu Production editor Sian Campbell Sub editor Kirsty Fortune Group account director John Innes john.innes@thinkpublishing.co.uk ISSN 0006-3347 Advertising in The Biologist represents an unparalleled opportunity to reach a large community of professional biologists. For advertising information contact tom.ireland@rsb.org.uk; 020 3925 3464 Views expressed in this magazine are not necessarily those of the Editorial Board or the Royal Society of Biology.
20 Ultimate sacrifice Understanding bacterial ‘altruism’ to defeat AMR 24 Living fossils Reviving bacteria locked in sediment for 100 million years 28 Interview Fiona Fox on the media’s coverage of pandemic science
12 New weapon in cancer treatment How oncologists hope to harness viruses that lyse malignant cells
© 2021 Royal Society of Biology (Registered charity no. 277981) The Society permits single copying of individual articles for private study or research, irrespective of where the copying is done. Multiple copying of individual articles for teaching purposes is also permitted without specific permission. For copying or reproduction for any other purpose, written permission must be sought from the Society. Exceptions to the above are those institutions and non-publishing organisations that have an agreement or licence with the UK Copyright Licensing Agency or the US Copyright Clearance Center. Access to the magazine is available online; please see the Society’s website for further details. This magazine is sent in biodegradable wrap that can be composted or placed with food waste. Cover: New Holland honeyeater. Photograph by William Robinson/Alamy
32 We’re all ears The best science podcasts
REGULARS
20 Raising the alarm Understanding ‘necrosignalling’ to fight drug-resistant infections
28 Interview: Fiona Fox The director of the Science Media Centre on tackling misreporting
34 Members Meet RSB members studying, teaching and volunteering for bioscience 38 Book reviews 42 Branches 47 Crossword 48 Museum piece Lister’s antiseptic spray, Surgeons’ Hall Museums, Edinburgh
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COVID-19
Hidden heroes
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e are learning to deal with COVID-19 personally and globally, and as we do so, biology has never felt more important. As this vital science progresses there are countless people who won’t ever be widely known or famous for their heroic efforts. Let me share one example from my own research team: Kevin. One evening at around 23:20, at home with his wife watching The Fall on Netflix, Kevin received a text message that our -80°C freezer was heating up. All sorts of vital things are kept in it: proteins, genetic material, different kinds of cells and a lot of work in progress. Some things in our freezer have taken months to produce. Kevin’s first thought was that someone must have left the door ajar. And it would probably be OK if he left it until the morning. But he logged into the online monitoring system and saw that the temperature was increasing rapidly. He decided to drive in. (Earlier that evening, he had thought about having a cocktail. Thankfully he had decided not to.) He arrived at around 23:40, the building deserted. He wheeled a
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Dan Davis FRSB Chair, Editorial Board of The Biologist backup freezer from the ground floor into a lift, up to the second floor, and started shifting our precious samples into it. Then there was a bang. Smoke flooded out from the bottom of the broken freezer, and water and ice was slopping about on the floor. He switched everything off and kept shifting stuff between the freezers. Saturday changed to Sunday, and at around 1:30 he emailed me a few lines about what had happened and to say everything was fine. Kevin is special, but that’s not to say there aren’t many other people like him working in science. Hidden heroes, because they don’t always get named in the publications and we rarely hear their stories. This is what biology is: a community of heroes, known and unknown, whose work we discuss and celebrate in every edition of this magazine. This is my first issue as chair of the Editorial Board. I thank my predecessor, Professor Alison Woollard FRSB, for her wonderful work over the last five years. And my aim is for this magazine to continue to celebrate this vast and vital human endeavour – the people and their journeys as well as the knowledge itself.
Editorial and BioPics, 1
BioPic DIGIZYME CELLULAR LANDSCAPE By Evan Ingersoll and Gaël McGill This 3D rendering of a eukaryotic cell is modelled using datasets from x-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance and cryoelectron microscopy, and features cellular components involved with signal transduction, protein synthesis, endocytosis, vesicular transport, cell-cell adhesion and apoptosis. The image is an attempt to visualise the “great complexity and beauty of the cell’s molecular choreography”. See www.digizyme.com
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UPFRONT
Society news, policy updates, opinion and analysis
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My Micro Microscopes by Iris Turner
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COMPETITIONS
Art and science collide in RSB comp
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he Society’s annual BioArtAttack competition received a record 362 entries this year, including digital art, models and paintings depicting a huge variety of topics from across the biosciences. Manon Formaggia, aged 16, won the individual category of the competition with her study of variation in bird and insect wings made from recycled fabrics and ink. A group of 47 students from St Mary’s School, Colchester, won the group category with a 1.7m-tall, finger-knitted wall hanging entitled ‘Human Female Karyotype’. Other notable entries included a polystyrene and cardboard model of the human eye, a neuron with glowing blue fairy lights representing electrical signals, a light-up digestive system, an intricate model of COVID-19 infecting a cell, an embroidered cross-section of a heart and a felt patchwork depicting specialised cells.
Manon Formaggia’s winning wings
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Find more pictures and information on the winners at www.rsb.org.uk/news
Rhian Chohan’s annotated polystyrene model
Upfront News, 1 EVENTS
EVENTS
Society virtual AGM to be held in May
RSB events inspire scientists to engage with Parliament In January more than 150 RSB members joined Katherine Fletcher MP, a member of the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee, to discuss how scientists can engage with parliament and policymaking. The event was the first in a series of virtual meetings encouraging RSB members to find out more about the role of science in parliament. Fletcher, MP for South Ribble in Lancashire, studied biology at the University of Nottingham and said she wanted to use her background to help inform policymaking. She commented on the public understanding of science, issues around consensus in science and how much influence scientists’ expertise really has on decision-making. Regarding how much the Science and Technology Select Committee had influenced policy, she said: “I would give it a B, B-plus. For COVID-19 we had a private
The Society’s AGM will take place online on Wednesday 19th May 2021. The virtual meeting will include a presentation of the Trustees’ Report and Accounts, followed by a Charter Lecture delivered by RSB trustee Professor Stefan Przyborski FRSB. The RSB president-elect will also be announced and two new trustees will be elected to Council. Katherine Fletcher, MP for South Ribble
select committee meeting and some of the material presented there definitely did influence policy – but let’s not pretend we are in charge. It is advisory.” Mark Logan MP, a member of the committee, will be talking to members as part of a similar free online event on 24th February at 18:15. Visit www.youtube.com/royalsocbio to watch the event again or www.rsb.org. uk/events to register for the next one
EVENTS
Policy Lates to tackle climate change, student support and food production The Society’s Policy Lates series of free online discussions will tackle a range of new topics in 2021, including vaccine development and adjustment, interdisciplinary and cross-sector research, student support, food production and ocean biodiversity. The events enable RSB members to question expert speakers on topics where research and policy intersect. The first virtual Policy Lates explored the vital role of the biosciences in mitigating the effects of global warming. With the UN Climate Change Conference (also known as COP26) due to take place in a year’s time, more than 100 participants joined an online event
to hear a panel of experts representing land, sea and policy discuss how biology can contribute to tackling the current state of emergency. Watch videos from this and previous Policy Lates events on healthy ageing, discovery research and antimicrobial resistance at www. youtube.com/ royalsocbio To find out more about the next Policy Lates event see www.rsb.org.uk/events
For more information please visit www.rsb.org.uk/events RESEARCH
RSB supports UK Reproducibility Network The Society has joined the UK Reproducibility Network’s (UKRN) external stakeholder engagement group. The UKRN is a national consortium investigating the factors that contribute to robust research and promoting best practice. The RSB will provide input alongside other learned societies and funders. COURSES
Free online training for primary teachers The RSB is offering 40 state-funded UK primary schools free access for four teachers to the Society’s Gopher Science Lab online training course, which supports the transition from primary to secondary school science. Email amanda.hardy@rsb.org.uk to apply. Places are available on a first come, first served basis Vol 68 No 1 / THE BIOLOGIST / 5
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Extra Biologist content online
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As The Biologist moves to quarterly print issues, extra content is now available at biologist.rsb.org.uk The website will be updated regularly with interviews from our ongoing series of ‘COVID Q&As’, new behind-the-scenes profiles of UK bioscience laboratories and research groups, and other online-first features. One of the first online-only features of the year looked at how structural biologists are reacting to the news that Google-backed AI platform AlphaFold has predicted 3D protein structures with such accuracy that some regard protein-folding research as ‘solved’ (bit.ly/AlphafoldBiologist). The articles are free to read and share. RSB members can log in to access exclusive content including our searchable digital archive of The Biologist issues going back to 2012. EVENTS
Inaugural plant health summit The Society is organising its first Plant Health Summit for Future Leaders, taking place over Zoom from 2nd to 4th March 2021. The summit is a culmination of a ‘virtual conversation’ that has been running since October 2020 as part of last year’s International Year of Plant Health. Over 150 early career professionals have formed a network that has been discussing challenges and priorities for plant health in the run-up to the event. Participants can claim 20 CPD credits for joining the conversation and the summit. To register your interest and for more information contact plantsci@rsb.org.uk For more on the importance of plant health see Opinion, p7 6 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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In case you missed it...
The editor’s pick of stories being shared online
The unexpected ecology of a pandemic The sudden drop in human activity associated with COVID-19, known by some as the ‘anthropause’, is generally seen as a positive for wildlife and ecosystems. However, researchers in Sweden report an interesting case where a drop in tourism has caused an ecological domino effect that has wreaked havoc on a colony of seabirds. The lack of people visiting the Swedish nature reserve of Stora Karlsö led the island’s few white-tailed eagles to grow in number. Their increased hunting activity in turn led to constant panic among the island’s colony of 60,000 common murres, who were seen kicking their eggs off cliffs during frantic leaps from their nests. Researchers found a 26% decline in newborn birds at the colony in 2020. NEW YORK TIMES/BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION nyti.ms/3aJxddn
Researchers call for clarity over names of COVID-19 variants The World Health Organization is discussing a formula for differentiating COVID-19 variants after researchers
raised concerns over confusing or misleading names. As new variants of SARS-CoV-2 emerge around the world they have been named differently by research teams and in the popular press. Virologists are calling for variants not to be named after the region in which they were first identified, which can give a misleading idea of their origin. There are also concerns that names focused on one particular mutation overlook other changes in that lineage. “The nomenclature is a bloody mess at the moment,” South African bioinformatician Tulio de Oliveira told the New York Times. One idea is to name variants after the ‘constellations’ of mutations they carry, so variants carrying similar sets of important mutations would earn similar names. NATURE go.nature.com/3aKgjeJ
‘Autoantibodies’ cause long-term tissue damage in COVID-19 Evidence is growing that self-attacking ‘autoantibodies’ could be exacerbating disease in the most severe cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection even after the viral infection has cleared. It has long been known that dangerous autoimmune responses, such as cytokine storms, were causing severe illness in some COVID-19 patients. However, research suggests that rogue ‘autoantibodies’ could be behind the long-term damage to specific tissues that persists long after the body has cleared the infection. Research is now focused on whether some people are genetically susceptible to overproducing autoantibodies or if the infection itself stimulates their production. NATURE NEWS go.nature.com/3p8doBW
Dr Kate M Creasey Krainer is the president and founder of Grow More Foundation, a non-profit organisation
Failure of cassava crops can tip regions struggling with hunger into famine
The threat of a plant disease epidemic
Preparation for future pandemics must also consider viruses that infect the crops that millions of people rely on
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Hunger and disease are inextricably linked. Not only does poor nutrition cause disease, but outbreaks of disease affect food security and nutrition. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that between 90 and 140 million people will be pushed into undernourishment as a result of the economic and social disruption caused by COVID-19, which has added to the already pressing problem of global food insecurity. More than 800 million people are now at risk of hunger worldwide and up to nine million people are thought to have died from malnutritionrelated diseases in 20201. Epidemics of plant diseases also pose a significant threat to local and global food security, exacerbating the
problem of malnutrition2. Yield losses caused by plant viruses are thought to cost global agriculture approximately $30bn (£22bn) a year, and when plant pests and other plant pathogens are included that figure rises to $220bn (£161bn) a year3.
CROP FAILURES AND FAMINES
When plant virus epidemics occur in a staple crop the results can be devastating. Outbreaks of cassava mosaic begomoviruses, for example, are estimated to cause an annual loss of 25 million tons of cassava in Africa, Sri Lanka and India, and where it is a staple crop this has directly led to famines3. Unlike bacterial or fungal plant diseases, viral plant diseases cannot be cured or controlled with chemical
REFERENCES 1) FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2020: Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. 2020, Rome, FAO. 2) He, S. & Creasey Krainer, K. M. Pandemics of people and plants: Which is the greater threat to food security? Mol. Plant 13 (7), 933–934 (2020). 3) Nicaise, V. Crop immunity against viruses: Outcomes and future challenges. Front. Plant Sci. 5(660) (2014). 4) Rubio, L. et al. Detection of plant viruses and disease management: Relevance of genetic diversity and evolution. Front. Plant Sci. (July 2020). 5) Trebicki, P. Climate change and plant virus epidemiology. Virus Res. 286(198059) (2020).
spraying, so preventive measures usually involve the destruction of plants and the use of pesticides to control vector organisms. Like COVID-19, the highest impact occurs with emerging diseases, defined by a rapid increase in disease incidence, geographical range and pathogenicity4. Climate change is also likely to affect the distribution and survival of plant viruses and their vectors, and potentially their virulence and pathogenicity, expanding the frequency and scale of outbreaks5. Pathogen-related crop loss will continue to disproportionately affect food-insecure populations in developing countries, while rich countries with greater diversity of crops and imports are likely to be less severely affected. As funding for COVID-19 research has ballooned, it is important that funding for combating plant viruses does not simultaneously decline, as that would negatively impact plant disease resistance research and the biosecurity measures that prevent plant diseases from spreading. Researchers have made substantial advances in understanding plantvirus interactions over the past two decades. More recently studies of plant immunity, plant antiviral systems and the use of gene-editing technologies offer new strategies for limiting the effects of viral plant diseases. However, the development of crops with efficient and broad resistance to viral diseases is still a challenge for agronomy, as is the widespread use of disease monitoring, rapid molecular diagnostics and international ‘phytosanitary’ processes to improve biosecurity. The current pandemic has emphasised the need to plan and prepare for future outbreaks of viral disease, not just to prevent deaths but to stop the catastrophic economic and societal disruption from widespread infection. We should not forget the deadly impact non-human viruses can have on the health of the hundreds of millions of people facing hunger too. Vol 68 No 1 / THE BIOLOGIST / 7
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OPINION
Matthew Venezia is Grow More Foundation’s lead intern and an undergraduate at Stony Brook University, New York, US
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Joe Biden appoints biologist to key role
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US President Joe Biden has chosen a geneticist and bioethicist/sociologist to lead his administration’s scientific advice and science policy efforts. Geneticist Eric Lander is presidential science adviser and director of the Office for Science and Technology Policy, elevated to a Cabinet-level post for the first time. Lander’s deputy will be Alondra Nelson, a renowned researcher who has studied the societal impacts of emerging technology and racism in science.
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Society debates Natural Capital research priorities
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Review proposes broad reform of the economy
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he Government has published its long-awaited report on the economics of biodiversity, which calls for nature to be embedded into economic strategy and new ways of measuring economic success.
The review, led by economist Professor Sir Partha Dasgupta, says that prosperity has caused devastating damage to the natural world, and that continued failure to acknowledge our reliance on nature now threatens the prosperity of current and future generations. The report sets out three broad areas of action, including: ensuring society’s demands on nature do not exceed what it can supply; changing measures of growth and development to account for natural assets; and transforming institutions and systems to ensure transformative change over successive generations. It details new ideas to consider wellbeing in economic growth and suggests scrapping Gross 8 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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Domestic Product as the main metric of an economy’s success. The report contains examples of successful natural capital projects and infographics on options for nature-based decision making, plus reactions to the proposals from business and industry. To discuss the report, the Natural Capital Initiative – a collaboration between the RSB and other organisations – organised a Q&A in February with Dr Ruth Waters from the Independent Dasgupta Review Team, which is on the RSB’s YouTube channel: youtube.com/royalsocbio
The Government’s full report is available at bit.ly/DasguptaReport
The Natural Capital Initiative (NCI), a collaboration between the RSB and three other science organisations, recently held a panel discussion to explore priorities for coping with societal and economic change connected to environmental pressures. Zoologist and environmental scientist Professor Sir Ian Boyd from the University of St Andrews and Ben Combes from PwC shared their proposals for the natural capital research, policy and practice required to underpin a green recovery. The discussion will act as a springboard for the NCI’s future dialogue and collaboration. See www.naturalcapitalinitiative.org.uk/ ncidialogue for video of the talk LEGISLATION
Environment bill hit by further delays The Government has again delayed its long-awaited environment bill, this time due to the COVID-19 crisis. The bill contains ambitious proposals to protect and improve the
Policy news and analysis, 1
POLICY NEWS
UK’s natural environments and establish an Office for Environmental Protection. Ministers said COVID-19 had reduced the time spent debating the bill and continuing with the original timetable would risk it failing. Campaigners say the bill is preventing the action required to tackle issues such as air pollution and biodiversity loss. CONSULTATIONS
What’s in the Society’s policy inbox this month • The Society is currently
responding to a DEFRA consultation on the regulation of genetic technologies. DEFRA is gathering views on the wider regulatory framework governing genetically modified organisms. The RSB is also responding to a consultation on proposals for new science qualifications in Wales. Contact consultations@rsb.org.uk by 17th March if you would like to provide input to the Society’s response.
• The Society has recently
responded to consultations on an All-Party Parliamentary Group inquiry into equity in the UK STEM workforce; the UK Government’s ‘Research & Development Roadmap 2020’ and the Comprehensive Spending Review 2020; the House of Commons inquiry into a new UK research funding agency; and Ofqual’s proposals for GCSE and A level exams and assessment in 2021. To find a full archive of the RSB’s consultation responses visit the new policy resources portal at www.rsb. org.uk/policylibrary
Laura Marshall: “Our work in the end is all about people”
POLICY PROFILE
Dr Laura Marshall MRSB The RSB’s head of science policy looks ahead to a busy year Can you explain what you do at RSB? I’m responsible for strategy, implementation and delivery of science policy activities. That includes managing our team of science policy officers, supporting our education and policy committee, and advancing the Society’s portfolio of policy work. Mostly I see my role as an idea and link-maker! I make links across teams, disciplines and beyond to support the RSB’s science policy work. What did you do before working here? I was a veterinary surgeon, then I did a master’s in veterinary epidemiology, before working in academic research and as a veterinary adviser for the Animal and Plant Health Agency. Why is the Society’s science policy work important? We tend to put science policy in two categories: policy for science and science for policy. For example, how the Government’s immigration strategy supports the movement of scientists is the first type, whereas how scientific research informs the regulation of genetic technology or forestry management is an example of the second. In the end I think science policy is really about people, their needs and the communication of those needs, whether those people are scientists, civil servants or other citizens, and whether they are acting on behalf of themselves or our environment. At the crux of science policy is knowledge exchange: enabling different people to understand others’ needs so that groups of
people across society can collaborate to work on the opportunities and challenges we face as a society. Pretty important stuff. What issues do you find particularly interesting right now? I’m plagued by finding everything interesting. Food, land and water use policy – how we manage our activities in these environments in an environmentally sustainable and equitable manner while enabling natural ecosystems to grow and thrive – really, really interests me. There is some fantastic thinking, research and policymaking going on in these areas to combat the problems we currently face as a society on these fronts. What are some of the challenges for those working in science policy at the moment? One of the things we talked about in a recent team meeting was the constant barrage of negative news we sift through as part of our roles. We talked about how that doesn’t contribute to a positive mindset, or the will to keep going and face our challenges, which is how change happens. There is a difficult balance between this negativity and toxic positivity (where big promises are made and not fulfilled), and how we can safeguard our own wellbeing through this maelstrom while trying to find balance in our communications to our community. The best thing is to talk and listen openly about it. Our work in the end is all about people – it’s about supporting, understanding, resourcefulness, flexibility and cooperation, which are more important now than ever.
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Rebecca J Robertson, University of Leeds and member of the RSB’s Education and Science Policy Committee
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The right tree in the right place Formal targets and frameworks to tackle biological diversity and climate change must be better integrated – or initiatives to tackle one problem could make the other worse
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The 15th meeting of parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) meets this May in Kunming, China. The most recent iteration of the CBD, the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, was agreed in 2010 with five strategic goals and 20 targets known as the ‘Aichi Targets’. Progress has been made towards around six of the 20 targets, but for others there has been no progress at all and for some there has even been a deterioration1. At the national level countries are on track to achieve around a third of their own targets, and some may be exceeded, but these national-level goals are often not well aligned with those at the international level, leaving important elements unaddressed1.
Nature-based climate solutions may have unintended consequences for biodiversity, and vice versa
FINDING A BALANCE
During this year’s meeting (COP15) countries will negotiate biodiversity goals and targets for beyond 2020, and the UK is doing this independently of the EU for the first time. However, a recent review found a number of the proposed post-2020 targets already “risk being severely compromised due to climate change”2. Alarmingly, many existing international biodiversity targets overlook the impact of climate change and some climate change mitigation measures may themselves harm biodiversity3. There is increasing consensus among scientists that conservation and climate change need to be addressed together, particularly through developing intergovernmental agreements and targets3. It is worth noting that most signatories to the Paris Agreement have also committed to protecting and restoring ecosystems through the CBD. To meet the climate change mitigation and adaptation goals of 10 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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the Paris Agreement, plants, soils and oceans must be protected and restored in order to capture and store carbon, and to protect communities from impacts such as rises in sea level or storms. Many countries, including the UK, are integrating what are known as ‘nature-based solutions’ into their contributions towards the Paris Agreement. As countries negotiate rules for a global carbon market at the UN Climate Conference (COP26) in Glasgow in November, naturebased solutions, including forest expansion or restoration, will play a key role. There is an assumption that nature-based climate solutions will benefit biodiversity, but there can be trade-offs2,3,4. For example,
REFERENCES 1) Global Biodiversity Outlook 5: Convention on Biological Diversity. www.cbd.int/gbo5 2) Arneth, A. et al. Post-2020 biodiversity targets need to embrace climate change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 117, 30882–30891 (2020). 3) Wentworth, J. & Dance, M. POSTnote 617, Climate change–biodiversity interactions (2021). 4) Seddon, N. et al. Understanding the value and limits of nature-based solutions to climate change and other global challenges. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 375, 20190120 (2020). 5) Smith, P. et al. Biophysical and economic limits to negative CO2 emissions. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 42–50 (2016). 6) Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, IPBES. Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services.
afforestation for carbon capture and storage often involves planting a single non-native species, or monoculture, based on its growth rate or carbon-capture potential. Monocultures have low biodiversity value and potentially reduce the biological resilience found across multi-functional landscapes4.
LAND-USE CHANGES
In the opposite case, afforestation at higher latitudes could contribute to further warming as forests absorb more of the sun’s energy than the previous land cover of reflective snow, potentially offsetting the benefits of planting5. To achieve ambitious Paris climate targets, nature-based solutions and land-use change will be required on
a large, landscape scale, which is also likely to negatively impact biodiversity, food production and water demand in those areas6. More work is needed to understand how and where to apply nature-based solutions – the potential interactions and trade-offs of these solutions, the scale required for them to work, their resilience to climate changes and their cost-effectiveness4. When implemented correctly nature-based solutions can bring about multiple benefits for biodiversity, climate, sustainability and community. A good example of this is restoring natural forests in upper catchments, which can help to protect communities downstream from flooding, increase carbon sequestration and protect biodiversity4.
CONSERVATION
Images of primates used out of context harm conservation
Don’t take selfies with primates, researchers warn The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has called for all celebrities and even conservationists and primatologists to avoid taking pictures of themselves or other humans with primates. The IUCN says that even when images of primates are posted online with a specific conservation message the context is soon lost as the image is reused, which can then drive demand for endangered primates as pets or props for more social media posts. The organisation has issued guidance on how to avoid undermining conservation efforts in this way.
Primatologist Jane Goodall and her institution have stopped using images of researchers interacting with primates after an image of a young chimpanzee scrolling on a mobile phone went viral on social media.
SOLUTIONS FOR THE UK
In the UK there are many opportunities for nature-based solutions to promote both biodiversity and climate change benefits6. Considering both issues together might, for example, involve protecting and restoring native woodlands, but avoiding planting on peatlands or productive farmlands. In UK marine ecosystems, kelp and seagrass offer potential for both carbon capture and increased biodiversity. Currently not enough progress has been made towards halting either global biodiversity loss or climate change. This year, 2021, offers an opportunity to reinforce global frameworks in a way that maximises benefits and minimises trade-offs to help us live sustainably, in harmony with nature. It is an exciting opportunity to coordinate actions to protect our planet and, ultimately, ourselves.
AGRICULTURE
Ban on pesticide lifted for sugar beet virus A ban on the neonicotinoid pesticide thiamethoxam has been temporarily lifted by DEFRA to help sugar beet growers tackle virus yellows disease. The pesticide has been banned in the UK and Europe since 2018 because it is believed to be harmful to bees and other pollinators. After lobbying by farmers’ unions and sugar producers, DEFRA said the ban would be lifted for this year only and use would be tightly controlled.
A similar appeal for emergency use in 2018 was rejected on the grounds of its ‘unacceptable effects’ to pollinators and aquatic insects. Ten other EU countries with significant sugar beet crops, including Belgium, Denmark and Spain, have granted similar emergency authorisations to lift the ban. Campaigners say the move is ‘environmentally regressive’ and lacks measures to minimise leaching into rivers.
Environmental groups oppose lifting the ban to save sugar beet crops, pictured
A fuller list of references, resources and ways to contribute to the ongoing discussions around COP26 are available on the online version of this article, at thebiologist.rsb.org.uk
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Viruses that kill cancer
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Researchers are getting closer to producing oncolytic viruses that can selectively and safely infect and kill malignant cells, as Belen Vilanova explains
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For many years the word virus has been associated with infections, disease and death. However, there are numerous viruses that either exhibit a natural preference for destroying cancer cells or can be genetically modified to target cancer cells selectively. These are known as oncolytic viruses (OVs). At the beginning of the 20th century it was observed that some patients with cancer who then had a viral infection showed a decrease in their tumour size¹. This led to the development of a range of theories and ideas exploring the relationship between viruses and cancer. By the 1950s, in a series of experiments, patients with cancer were given infectious body fluids or infected tissue harvested from other patients with ongoing viral infections. The viruses used included hepatitis, influenza and picornavirus. Tumour remission was observed, yet it would only last one to two months, and often the accompanying illness and morbidity as a result of the infection of normal tissues was unacceptable2. From 1950 to 1980 no positive 12 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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clinical outcomes were achieved as scientists struggled to control the virulence3,4. Interest faded and researchers largely abandoned the idea. However, new genetic engineering technologies in the 1990s rekindled interest in OVs. These new technologies enable scientists to alter viruses, inserting or deleting genetic material to make them more specific to tumour cells and less dangerous to healthy cells.
TARGETING ABNORMAL CELLS
Both natural and engineered oncolytic viruses take advantage of the many genetic differences between cancer cells and normal cells. Some, for example, infect cancerous cells more readily simply because the cells’ viral defences are defective. The overexpression of certain surface receptors may further help OVs to bind to and infect malignant cells. The abnormal activation of genes involved in cell growth and proliferation, inactivation of genes involved in apoptosis and DNA repair, abnormal growth signals and the hypoxic environment found in
Oncolytic viruses, 1 Left: A representation of a virus entering a cell Below: TEM image of particles (blue) of a reovirus within a dividing host cell. Nuclear chromatin is purple
Shutterstock; Steve Gschmeissner / Science Photo Library
Some oncolytic viruses infect cancerous cells more readily simply because their viral defences are defective tumours can also help these viruses replicate aggressively in cancer cells3. For example, the human reovirus is a naturally occurring OV that targets cancer cells that have an activated Ras pathway. Ras-regulated signal pathways control cell proliferation, cell adhesion, cell migration and apoptosis, and tend to be deregulated in cancer cells. Studies have shown that Ras-defective cells have compromised antiviral activity compared with untransformed cells to the extent that reovirus can infect them6. Similarly, a modified adenovirus, Onyx-015, is able to replicate only in cells lacking a tumour-suppressing protein known as p53. The unmodified virus normally replicates in human cells thanks to a gene within its genome that inactivates p53;
when this gene is removed from the virus it can then only replicate in cells where the p53 gene is defective – i.e. cancer cells. Once OVs have infected and multiplied within a malignant cell the cell bursts (cell lysis). The release of the cell’s contents – including viral particles and tumour antigens – into the Vol 68 No 1 / THE BIOLOGIST / 13
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3D illustration of oncolytic adenoviruses (light blue) destroying tumour cells
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surrounding tissue then triggers waves of local immune system activity (see Figure 1). Not only are the cancer cells being infected and killed, but the resulting stimulation of the immune response gives rise to an augmentation of the body’s anti-tumour immunity. Immune cells such as T-cells and macrophages start clearing the tumour cells, as well as the OV itself, which can lead to systemic and sustained anti-tumour immunity. Intravenous injection of OVs, in high enough doses that the body’s immune system cannot quickly clear them all, could help eliminate secondary tumours and metastatic cancer cells that have travelled throughout the body5, one of the great remaining challenges of cancer therapy.
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BINDING TO TUMOURS
Recent advances in molecular biology enable researchers to create viruses that bind to entry receptors highly expressed on tumours, and for safety can only replicate in cancer cells. They can also insert genes that will induce the infected cell to produce therapeutic or immune-stimulating compounds. For example, OVs can also be used as vectors to deliver ‘suicide genes’, also known as prodrug transforming genes. These encode proteins that help 14 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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Viruses can be used as radiosensitisers, making tumour cells much more sensitive to radiation to metabolise a separately administered non-toxic and inactive drug into a cytotoxin (active drug), in effect making a compound toxic only to those cells infected with the virus4. Another example of combined therapy combines OVs with ionising radiation. The viruses can be used as radiosensitisers, making tumour cells much more sensitive to radiation than healthy cells. OVs have also been engineered to encode transmembrane proteins responsible for the uptake of iodide. This way, radioactive iodine can be actively transported into the infected cancer cells, helping both localised radiotherapy as well as tumour imaging5,6,7. As with any cancer therapy, there are downsides to an OV approach. The immune system becomes activated soon after the virus infects cells and can be cleared from the bloodstream quickly before the effects are realised. Another problem is pre-existing immunity2. Most of the
Oncolytic viruses, 2
FIGURE 1: HOW ONCOLYTIC VIRUSES WORK
The ideal oncovirus readily infects and destroys cells with specific markers of disease, but cannot replicate in healthy cells. The virus can also be engineered to induce the synthesis of other useful chemicals, such as compounds that help image the tumour or that are toxic only to those cells infected with the virus. Healthy cell
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Inflammation and release of tumour antigens drives further immune response against tumour
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population get vaccinated against viruses or encounter them in the course of their life, resulting in an immunological memory. The immune system may quickly recognise a virus a person has been exposed to or has been vaccinated against, even if it has been modified. Therefore the host’s immune system might neutralise the virus before it can have any effect.
COMBINATION THERAPIES
It is believed that the most effective use of OVs will be when they are co-administered with other therapies. To obtain strong, long-lasting results and complete tumour disappearance, OVs could be combined with other immunotherapies such as checkpoint inhibitor drugs or with radiotherapy. In addition, a better understanding of the real-time progression of the virus in the body is vital to the timing of administration of other therapies in combination with the OV or right after viral clearance3,8. Currently, at least 50 trials of oncolytic viruses are being conducted at research institutions around the world. So far, adenoviruses, herpes viruses, measles viruses, coxsackie viruses, polioviruses, reoviruses, poxviruses, Newcastle disease viruses and others have been explored in pre-clinical or clinical trials for
Viral replication
REFERENCES 1) Dock, G. The influence of complicating diseases upon leukaemia. Am. J. Med. Sci. 127(4), 563 (1904). 2) Kelly, E. & Russell, S. J. History of oncolytic viruses: genesis to genetic engineering. Mol. Ther. 15(4), 651–659 (2007). 3) Howells, A. et al. Oncolytic viruses – interaction of virus and tumor cells in the battle to eliminate cancer. Front. Oncol. 7, 195 (2017). 4) Zarogoulidis, P. et al. Suicide gene therapy for cancer – current strategies. J. Genet. Syndr. Gene Ther. 4 (2013). 5) Advani, S. J. et al. Increased oncolytic efficacy for high-grade gliomas by optimal integration of ionizing radiation into the replicative cycle of HSV-1. Gene Ther. 18(11), 1098–1102 (2011). 6) Martin, N. T. & Bell, J. C. Oncolytic virus combination therapy: killing one bird with two stones. Mol. Ther. 26(6), 1414– 1422 (2018). 7) Huber, S. M. et al. Ionizing radiation, ion transports, and radioresistance of cancer cells. Front. Physiol. 4 (2013). 8) Zhang, Q. & Liu, F. Advances and potential pitfalls of oncolytic viruses expressing immunomodulatory transgene therapy for malignant gliomas. Cell Death Dis. 11(6), 485 (2020).
Tumour cell lysis
Release of virus progeny drives further infection and destruction of other tumour cells and metastases
cancer therapy. To date, only one OV has been approved, by the Food and Drug Administration in the US: T-VEC, a modified herpes simplex virus approved for patients with melanoma in 20158. The virus is injected directly into melanoma lesions, and in addition to directly killing cells, the virus also appears to trigger a heightened immune response to the tumour through the release of antigens shed from the infected cells and the release of the immunestimulatory protein GM-CSF. Scientific and technological advances, together with the knowledge development on genetic engineering and immunotherapy, have made it possible to improve new techniques for modifying viruses. However, further research should focus on combining the OVs with other immunotherapies as well as avoiding antibodies from pre-existing immunity in a patient. This could help to achieve the desired goal: to destroy tumour cells, causing the least damage to the healthy cells and tissues.
Belen Vilanova AMRSB is a master’s student at the University of Glasgow studying precision cancer medicine following a degree in biomedical science at Edinburgh Napier University
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A flock of birds taking flight, such as these red-billed queleas (Quelea quelea), can be a sign of danger to others
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Humans have always used espionage and intercepted information to get ahead of rivals. The natural world is rife with animal eavesdroppers too, writes Richard Pallardy
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Your favourite fictional character is alone in the woods. Something, or someone, is after them. What tells them that danger is imminent, that they should bolt? In many a film or TV series the moment is cued by a flock of birds launching from the canopy. If the birds are afraid, you should be too. In our highly urbanised modern era we still recognise that the flight of other animals signifies danger. We maintain the ability to eavesdrop on their behaviour: their squawks of panic, their frantic flight. Conversely, another film trope sees the animals go eerily silent, desperate to evade detection by whatever threat is slouching towards them – and indicating that their human observers ought to do the same. These are not signals intended for us. The birds don’t care whether we’re devoured by the creature approaching through the trees. We can rely on their calls or their silence as indications of approaching problems and act accordingly. This ‘eavesdropping’ on other species’ communication is an ancient survival technique, one that is found throughout the animal kingdom – even in bacteria and 16 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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plants. It’s an efficiency in an evolutionary sense: sending signals is expensive; intercepting the signals of other, unrelated species is less so. We certainly do plenty of it within our own species. Eavesdropping is central to criminal justice and national security. Etymologically speaking, the word eavesdropping refers to someone snooping beneath the eaves of a house, listening in on the occupants and suffering the rain sluicing off the roof as a consequence. The Swedish word perhaps better captures this activity as it applies to all species – ‘tjuvvlyssnar’ translates as ‘listen thief’. Theft is rife in the animal kingdom and information is not immune. A 2015 study found that 74 species of animal had been documented as responding to playback of alarm calls issued by another species. In most cases the eavesdropper benefits while the calling animal gains nothing. Eavesdropping is also known as information parasitism. For the most part animals don’t have time to eliminate the snoops in their lives. They’re busy dealing with more material thefts and assaults. Eavesdropping does not bear the same
consequences as it does in humans and may even be mutualistically beneficial. Take birds that travel in mixed-species flocks. These gatherings are in many ways enormous eavesdropping networks – and are among the best-studied instances of information parasitism. The calls of feeding birds of one species may attract additional species that feed on similar foods. Some species of tropical antbird (Thamnophilidae) listen for the feeding calls of other species that they can bully out of the way. When larger species signal their discovery of an ant swarm the antbirds ignore them, knowing that they will be the ones that will be deterred by their competitors. Small heron species such as the little blue heron (Egretta caerulea) preferentially congregate around groups of snowy egrets, which flush fish out of the shallows. However, it is not worth following the feeding behaviour of the larger great egret (Ardea alba), which is less likely to flush fish and more likely to attack other birds that get too close. The greater racket-tailed drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus) is a masterful information thief.
Birds that travel in mixed-species flocks are in many ways enormous eavesdropping networks
Eavesdropping, 1 Image Source
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Top right: The little blue heron (Egretta caerulea) likes to hang out with snowy egrets, which flush fish out of the shallows Far right: Black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) eavesdrop on red-billed oxpeckers (Buphagus erythrorhynchus)
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Below: The calls of the paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone mutata) help alert zonosaurs to danger
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It both mimics the calls of other birds, which then move in its direction and flush out insects, and follows the calls of these other birds for the same reason. While this is sometimes met with conflict – flameback woodpeckers (Dinopium) will try to chase them off – it is usually tolerated. The drongo’s skill at detecting predators and raucous announcement of their presence is a worthwhile trade-off.
SOLITARY SPIES
In mixed-species flocks, solitary species benefit from the communicative nature of their social counterparts. Different birds use different levels of the canopy, giving them unique vantages from which to spot approaching danger. A loner groundfeeding bird might eavesdrop on the alarm calls of a social bird that feeds near the treetops and thus dodge a potential descending hawk. Some 30% of American woodland birds use the alarm calls of chickadees, tits and their relatives (Poecile) as reliable indicators of danger. These little birds may seem like unlikely bellwethers, but their social nature and complex communication abilities are invaluable to solitary species and to those that feed at different levels in the canopy. In Africa solitary scimitarbills (Rhinopomastus) flock with southern pied babblers (Turdoides bicolor), which are 18 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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social and noisy. When scimitarbills flock with babblers they reduce their vigilance by up to 60%. By relying on another species to alert them to danger they are able to devote more time to foraging. Birds’ acute eyesight, aerial observations, and clamorous communications are incredibly useful to a wide array of other species. For Günther’s dik-dik (Madoqua guentheri), a species of tiny antelope, the calls of the white-bellied go-away-bird (Corythaixoides leucogaster) are key to its survival. Unable to peer above the thickets it prefers, it relies on the bird’s alarm calls as an indication that it is time to flee. Several species of small lizard in Madagascar known as zonosaurs similarly rely on the calls of the paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone mutata) to send them scurrying to safety. Koch’s giant day gecko (Phelsuma kochi) shifts its colouration in response to the calls of the same bird. Even black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) read cues from red-billed oxpeckers (Buphagus erythrorynchus), perhaps explaining their tolerance of these birds. Animals that eavesdrop are selective about who they listen to to avoid false alarms. Zebras are attentive to the changes in posture of giraffes when they see an approaching lion. They are less likely to pay attention to the alarms of impala (Aepyceros melampus), which are preyed
on by lions but also by smaller predators that pose no threat to zebras. Similarly, two tiny Australian birds, superb fairy-wrens (Malurus cyaneus) and white-browed scrubwrens (Sericornis frontalis), flee when they hear the alarm calls of the larger New Holland honeyeaters (Phylidonyris novaehollandiae), but the honeyeaters are less likely to react to the calls of the smaller species, which often shriek at the sight of creatures that pose no threat to them. Some animals respond not to alarm calls, but to silence. Male túngara frogs (Engystomops pustulosus) will stop calling when a quorum of other males, even those of other species, stop calling, usually in response to a predatory bat overhead. This is not much different to a hush falling over a crowded room – most of the people there aren’t reacting directly to the distraction itself, but to the change in activity of those around them. The silence is an indicator that something important is happening.
WHISPERS, SECRETS AND LIES
In human spycraft misdirection is a key strategy. We put out faulty information in the hopes of sending the enemy off on a wild goose chase or perhaps catching them in the act. Animals, too, know they are being spied upon and will work this to their advantage.
Shutterstock; Jouan & Rius/naturepl.com; Mitsuaki Iwago/Minden/naturepl.com
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By relying on another species to alert them to danger they are able to devote more time to foraging
Shutterstock; Jouan & Rius/naturepl.com; Mitsuaki Iwago/Minden/naturepl.com
Eavesdropping, 2 SOURCES/FURTHER READING 1) Goodale, E. et al. MixedSpecies Groups of Animals Behavior, Community Structure, and Conservation 107–114 (Elsevier Science, 2017). 2) Haff, T. M. & Magrath, R. D. Learning to listen? Nestling response to heterospecific alarm calls. An. Behav. 84(6), 1401–1410 (2012). 3) Koob, G. (ed.) et al. Encyclopedia of Behavioral Neuroscience, 274 (Elsevier Science, 2010). 4) Magrath, R. D. et al. Eavesdropping on heterospecific alarm calls: from mechanisms to consequences. Biol. Rev. 90, 560–586 (2015). 5) Magrath, R. D. et al. Wild birds learn to eavesdrop on heterospecific alarm calls. Curr. Bio. 25(15), 2047–2050 (2015). 6) Ridley, A. R. et al. The ecological benefits of interceptive eavesdropping. Funct. Ecol. 28(1), 197–205 (2014). 7) Schmitt, M. H. et al. Zebra reduce predation risk in mixedspecies herds by eavesdropping on cues from giraffe. Behav. Ecol. 27(4), 1073–1077 (2016). 8) Stevens, M. Sensory Ecology, Behaviour, and Evolution (OUP Oxford, 2013).
The birds that serve as sentinels in mixed-species flocks exploit the panicked responses to their alarm calls. While in many cases these calls are genuine signifiers of an approaching predator, birds such as fork-tailed drongos (Dicrurus adsimilis) and bluish-slate antshrikes (Thamnomanes schistogynus) will also issue false alarms that allow them to snap up food that has been abandoned by their panicked freeloading followers. The effects of eavesdropping have entirely altered the habits of some animals. In forests frequented by bats, katydids issue shorter mating calls, believed to be an adaptation to the bats’ use of these calls to locate and devour them. Some species of katydid and cricket have actually shifted their calls from strings to percussion. Instead of stridulating, males thump the substrate – producing vibrations more targeted to female katydids and less easily detected by bats. The arms race analogy is perhaps overused in discussing evolution, but it is
Some birds will issue false alarms that allow them to snap up abandoned food
particularly appropriate to the neotropical brown stink bug. Both males and females of the species drum their songs into the trees they inhabit in the hopes of keeping their trysts discreet. But parasitoid wasps have managed to tap into these tap-dancing duets. The females inadvertently signal the location of their eggs, which are injected with the wasp’s own progeny. Somewhat more successfully, many species of bird modulate their mating and conflict calls to avoid attracting both predators and potential rivals. Birds such as the common blackbird (Turdus merula) and European robin (Erithacus rubecula) reduce their calls to much softer twittering when in close proximity to a mate or a territorial invader. These shorter songs are less likely to attract further rivals or predators that may see two posturing males as an easy meal.
INNATE OR LEARNED?
Whether eavesdropping behaviour is innate or learned appears to depend on the species. There seems to be something tonally fundamental to these frightened cries and Australian birds have been observed reacting with urgency to the calls of North American species that they have never encountered. In some cases, though, it does seem to be learned through experience – for example,
in animals that only respond to the alarm calls of others where their ranges overlap. Such is the case with bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) and two species of langur (Trachypithecus johnii and Semnopithecus entellus) that in some places share territory. And some species of antbirds that respond to one another’s calls on the mainland fail to do so on outlying islands where one or the other species is absent. This aptitude for learning in birds has been demonstrated even more clearly with a simple experiment. Researchers found that superb fairy wrens learned to associate a novel alarm call with a fake hawk gliding overhead in just two days. The attentiveness of our animal cousins testifies eloquently to the sophistication of their communication networks. The twittering of the birds or the calling of the crickets in the evening may seem like simple, unidirectional messages. But the fact that these messages are intercepted is exactly due to their complexity. They signify danger or safety, availability or territoriality. Deep in our brains we know this already. We still know that when danger is imminent, the birds take flight.
Richard Pallardy is a writer, researcher and editor with a particular interest in zoology, botany, evolution and conservation
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Souvik Bhattacharyya and Rasika M Harshey explain how dying bacterial cells can signal to others to avoid the same fate – a process known as ‘necrosignalling’
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In the animal world direct inter-species competition often involves aggression and the death of competitors. This is also true for microorganisms, which can produce antibiotic compounds and carry many arrows – both chemical and physical – in their defensive quiver. The structure and mechanism of action of antibiotics, both natural and synthetic, are varied. Bacterial defence mechanisms to counteract the antibiotic are equally varied, and can include chemical inactivation, processes to pump the antibiotic out of the cell or the formation of biofilms to further inhibit the action of antibiotics. Bacteria can even enter a dormant state that deprives the antibiotic of active metabolic processes to ambush. Swarming is an uncommon example of collective migration seen in bacteria, where cells band together to navigate solid surfaces using appendages called flagella1. Swarming populations have been shown 20 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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to exhibit temporary resistance to a broad class of antibiotics, known as swarm-specific resistance (SR). This adaptive resistance only occurs when the bacteria are in a swarm and dissipates when the bacteria are dispersed in liquid. Unlike biofilm formation or dormant states that resist antibiotic action by low metabolic activity, swarming is an energy-intensive process. In a study published in 20102, our laboratory designed a simple assay to measure SR and found approximately a third of the swarm population was being killed by antibiotic. This raised several questions. Was this amount of death simply collateral damage or did it have any bearing on the mechanism of SR? Were the dead cells providing a physical barrier against antibiotic penetration or had they helped the remaining bacteria evade the antibiotic in some other way? A follow-up study published in 20203 exploited the assay design of the 2010 study to show that the dead cells were not simply
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Necrosignalling in a population of bacteria swarming on a surface. When the swarm cells enter a zone containing antibiotics some cells die and release necrosignals that enhance resistance in other cells
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pump from the outside, helping cells to pump the antibiotic out before it caused damage. We called this phenomenon ‘necrosignalling’ (see Figure 1, above). In the four bacterial species tested we found necrosignalling to be conspecific. A curious aspect of necrosignalling is that it is only manifested in the swarm, which by definition is a collective group. That a subset of the group is alarm-calling the larger group by ‘sacrificing’ itself could be seen as akin to conventional altruism in evolutionary biology, where an organism is said to behave altruistically when its behaviour benefits other organisms at a cost to itself. Altruistic behaviour is particularly common in species with complex social structures. The conspecificity of necrosignalling we have observed strengthens the case that this kind of alarm-calling is related to altruism. If necrosignalling is a feature of a bacterial societal organisation, other social phenomena such as biofilms might also harbour similar signalling mechanisms.
GENETIC RESISTANCE
Antibiotics are a double-edged sword: while we need them to eliminate bacterial infections their use helps select for strains with bacterial resistance. The longer bacteria can tolerate an antibiotic while swarming, or while hunkering down as attached biofilms, the more time that population of cells has to acquire genetic resistance.
Shutterstock; Claus Lunau/Science Photo Library
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collateral damage, nor were they providing a physical barrier, but were instead contributing actively to SR by a previously undescribed mechanism. A key finding of the 2020 study was that a sub-population of cells in an Escherichia coli swarm is more susceptible to very low doses of antibiotic. When a swarm moves into antibiotic territory this population is the first to die, spilling its internal contents into the swarm milieu. We could reproduce the SR phenomenon by simply adding the cellular contents of killed cells to the swarm without the presence of the antibiotic, so we surmised that some component of the spilled cell contents must be responsible for bestowing SR to the live swarm. Using this observation, and the assay developed in the 2010 study, we purified the active SR ingredient and identified it as a protein called AcrA. We were astonished to find that this protein is an internal part of a specific efflux pump, AcrAB-TolC. E. coli encodes multiple such pumps, which normally open for business when antibiotics enter the cell and interact with the cytoplasmic side of the pump. Even more surprising was that AcrA, when released from dead cells, binds to the external component found in many efflux pumps, activating them to start pumping out the antibiotic. In other words AcrA was mimicking the cellular response seen when antibiotics enter live cells – except it was cranking the
Necrosignalling, 2
Shutterstock; Claus Lunau/Science Photo Library
Can our knowledge of the necrosignal and other social signalling in microbes help us combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR)? We imagine two areas of antibiotic research that our study may inform. The first is in the design of new antibiotics: here, one might consider developing a suite of necrosignal inhibitors to be given in combination with antibiotics. The second is in design of treatment regimens. As well as sensitivity tests to determine the choice of antibiotic, tests should run in parallel to determine the bacterial load, therefore swarming characteristics, of the infection. High bacterial loads would be particularly fertile grounds for generating necrosignals. Formulating and administering a lethal antibiotic dose that considers potential necrosignalling might help lower the risk of AMR during the antibiotic treatment.
Above: New classes of antibacterial compounds prevent the formation of cell walls, causing bacterial cells to rupture during division
That a subset of the group is alarm-calling the larger group by ‘sacrificing’ itself could be seen as akin to conventional altruism Finding new antibiotics to kill pathogenic bacteria is a Sisyphean task. Scientists are throwing a wide net, exploring new niches for new organisms and new bacterial poisons only to find that the magic in the ‘magic pill’ is ephemeral. Although there have been some successes in recent years in the discovery of new classes of antibiotics – for example, teixobactin isolated from the soils of Maine
in 20154 has a new lipid target, and lugdunin isolated from commensals in the human nose in 20165 is a non-ribosomally made peptide that apparently inhibits translation – there is no reason to doubt that within just a few years of introducing the new antibiotics the evolutionary arms race will reassert itself. While we await the next big discovery in eliminating bacterial pathogens, necrosignalling could be exploited as an extra tool in our strategy – a face mask to tide us over until we have an effective cure.
Souvik Bhattacharyya is a post-doctoral Fellow in the Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin Rasika M Harshey is a professor in the Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of Texas at Austin
REFERENCES 1) Harshey, R. M. Bacterial motility on a surface: many ways to a common goal. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 57, 249–273 (2003). 2) Butler, M. T. et al. Cell density and mobility protect swarming bacteria against antibiotics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107(8), 3776–3781 (2010). 3) Bhattacharyya, S. et al. Dead cells release a ‘necrosignal’ that activates antibiotic survival pathways in bacterial swarms. Nat. Commun. 11(1), 4157 (2020). 4) Ling, L. L. et al. A new antibiotic kills pathogens without detectable resistance. Nature 517(7535), 455–459 (2015). 5) Zipperer, A. et al. Human commensals producing a novel antibiotic impair pathogen colonization. Nature, 535(7613), 511–516 (2016).
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Yuki Morono working on subsampling core samples on the catwalk of the research vessel JOIDES Resolution
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Yuki Morono explains why the discovery of living bacteria in 100 million year old sediment may force us to rethink the minimum levels of energy and nutrients required to power life
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Casual, intermittent fasting has become a popular health trend in recent times, but imagine being stuck in your wardrobe without enough food for millions of years. A recent study by myself and colleagues at earth science and oceanography institutes in Japan and the US1 showed that microbes deep beneath the ocean floor, trapped without ready access to nutrients for more than 100 million years, could be revived and multiplied in the laboratory. The deep subseafloor appears barren and desolate, but may hold between 10% and 30% of all microbial biomass on Earth. Marine snow – a steady shower of organic detritus falling from the photosynthetic sea surface – is the main source of nutrients for these microbes living in the sediment at the bottom of the ocean. However, the subseafloor of the South Pacific Gyre (SPG) is different. The SPG is far from any continents or productive areas of ocean, kept isolated from the rest of the world by continuous circular currents and winds, and is regarded as Earth’s largest ocean desert. It has the lowest productivity of any ocean region on Earth and nutrients on the subfloor are extremely limited. Aiming to explore the question of whether life could exist in such a nutrient-limited environment,
the drilling expedition of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) was initiated in 2010. Aboard research drillship JOIDES Resolution we obtained numerous sediment cores from 100 metres below the seafloor of the SPG, nearly 6,000 metres below the ocean’s surface. The accumulation of marine snow and particles carried by the wind and ocean currents over huge
Membrane-trapped fluorescence microscopy image of the sediment samples before the cell purification process
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periods of time are the main constituents of subseafloor sediment. The deeper you drill, the older the sediment is. This slow but constant accumulation of sediment makes it possible to obtain subseafloor sediment formed as long as 100 million years ago. The sediments we obtained were composed of very fine (~1 micrometre) clay particles. The calculated space between particles was also very fine – narrower than the size of the microbes we discovered. Therefore these microbes, once settled in the sediment, should in theory have been trapped and unable to move from their original position since burial. We also found that oxygen was present in all of the cores, suggesting that if sediment accumulates slowly on the seafloor, at a rate of no more than a metre or two every million years, oxygen can continue to penetrate from the seafloor down to the thick layer of igneous rock below the sediments. Such conditions appear to make it possible for aerobic microorganisms to survive for geological timescales of millions of years.
CONTAMINATION AND TEMPERATURE
There were two critical things we were careful about in our experiments. First, we had to avoid contamination with microbes from the surface world in our samples. We carefully checked for sampling-derived contamination (i.e. during drilling) by using a sensitive chemical tracer that detects any intrusion of the fluid used for drilling. In the lab all the sample handling was done using sterilised tools. Later, DNA-based microbial taxonomy analyses helped verify the microbial samples were not known strains of bacteria from the surface. The other key element was the sample-handling temperature. At the seafloor the water temperature is around 1°C, with the temperature rising with increasing sediment depth up to around 6°C at the deepest part. After many millions of years at this temperature our ambient temperatures would not be a comfortable environment for any microbes found in the samples. For this reason I spent many hours in the cold room at the bottom of the ship preparing the incubation experiment for resuscitating the microbes in the sediment. After being in this cold and contained space for up to 10 hours a day I started to understand how it must have felt to live in the subseafloor environment. Based on the nutrient-limited nature of sediments, we assumed any microbes present would be in a state of near-dormancy and not easily revived. However, the microbes started to incorporate nutrients within 21 days 26 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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From left: Microbiologists Yasuhiko Yamaguchi, Yuki Morono, Laurent Toffin and Steven D’Hondt examine the core
of the start of incubation, including in the sediment samples deposited 100 million years ago. These samples were found within tens of centimetres above the basement rock, which was aged at 103 million years. Within 68 days the cells had increased by up to 10,000 times their original concentration, with an average doubling time of approximately five days. This was an average of 34 times faster than the subseafloor microbes found in anoxic sediments off Japan, which had previously been investigated in the same way. Here, there is an abundance of organic matter in the subseafloor, so it was thought that the microbes might be found with higher activities than in the SPG subseafloor. We were initially taken aback by the results, even skeptical. But, after careful examination of each step of the experiments, we found that up to 99.1% of the microbes in sediment deposited 101.5 million years ago were still alive – and they were ready for a well-deserved meal. How is this quasi-suspended animation possible? In 2000 a similar debate was sparked by the apparent revival of bacteria from 250-million-year-old salt crystals2. In this case scientists were even more skeptical as it should be theoretically impossible for a microbial cell to stay alive in complete isolation inside a salt crystal. All living organisms require a certain amount of energy to maintain their body and its constituents. For
100m year old bacteria, 2
We found that up to 99.1% of the microbes in sediment deposited 101.5 million years ago were still alive – and ready for a meal
example, DNA and protein are relatively unstable molecules in cells and will degrade with time if not repaired – organisms cannot simply maintain their living form in total isolation. In SPG sediments, although the microbes are trapped for a huge period of geological time, the sediment still has narrow channels that allow diffusion of water-soluble molecules such as oxygen, so the sediment is not shut off from the world. Also, there is a very low but detectable level of organic matter, a source of energy for aerobic respiration. Collectively, the microbes revived from SPG sediment had been starved, but not completely. The availability of energy, however, is extremely scarce: previous calculations3 estimate that the power available in the SPG subseafloor environment is at least two orders of magnitude lower than the lowest power known to sustain life in the literature. The results call into question the power limit of life and more recent work4 suggested that, globally, subseafloor microbes must subsist under lower levels of energy availability than previously thought.
flurry of discoveries expanded our recognition of deep subseafloor biosphere down to 2.5km from the seafloor6, and more recently to a sediment age of 100 million years. For deep biosphere research 2020 was a big year. Alongside our work, Japanese research also isolated the primordial life form Asgard archaea from deep sea sediments7, an organism at the prokaryote–eukaryote interface that could help to explain the rise of complex life. Further research has been published on the agglomeration of microbes in the crack of deep subseafloor rocks8. Two important new papers suggest life in the subseafloor is far more diverse9 and can be found at far hotter deep locations10 than previously thought. Now researchers are discussing a framework for scientific ocean drilling towards 2050. One of the strategic objectives is ‘habitability and life on Earth’, and the long-term transdisciplinary research target is ‘exploring life and its origins’. The story of life in the subseafloor environment is to be continued. A behind-the-scenes video on this JAMSTEC research can be found at bit.ly/deepseamicrobes Yuki Morono is a microbiologist with the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology
REFERENCES 1) Morono, Y. et al. Aerobic microbial life persists in oxic marine sediment as old as 101.5 million years. Nat. Commun. 11, 3626 (2020). 2) Vreeland, R. H. et al. Isolation of a 250 million-year-old halotolerant bacterium from a primary salt crystal. Nature 407(6806), 897–900 (2000). 3) LaRowe, D. E. & Amend, J. P. Power limits for microbial life. Front. Microbiol. 6, 718 (2015). 4) Bradley, J. A. et al. Widespread energy limitation to life in global subseafloor sediments. Sci. Adv. 6(32) (2020). 5) Morita, R. Y. & ZoBell, C. E. Occurrence of bacteria in pelagic sediments collected during the Mid-Pacific Expedition. Deep Sea Res. 3(1), 66–73 (1955). 6) Inagaki, F. et al. Exploring deep microbial life in coal-bearing sediment down to ~2.5km below the ocean floor. Science 349(6246), 420–424, (2015). 7) Imachi, H. et al. Isolation of an archaeon at the prokaryote– eukaryote interface. Nature 577, 519–525 (2020). 8) Suzuki, Y. et al. Deep microbial proliferation at the basalt interface in 33.5–104-million-yearold oceanic crust. Commun. Biol. 3, 136 (2020). 9) Hoshino, T. et al. Global diversity of microbial communities in marine sediment. PNAS 117(44), 27587–27597 (2020). 10) Heuer, V. B. Temperature limits to deep subseafloor life in the Nankai Trough subduction zone. Science 370 (6521), 12301234 (2020).
IODP JRSO; JAMSTEC
DRILLING DOWN DEEPER
The nutrition environment of the microbes in SPG sediment is far below the level that would allow individuals to ‘grow’ or replicate. However, it is not certain that the individual cells in our sample were 100 million years old: it may have been possible for them to divide when they are at a few tens of centimetres below the seafloor. Then, extreme nutrient limitation further down in the sediment would restrict their metabolism and bring them to a state that could just about maintain their structure. In this case it enabled them to survive until a drill bored through the Earth and took them to our lab and a world of abundant nutrients. In 1955 Earth’s known biosphere went down only seven metres from the seafloor5. From the late 1980s a
Membrane-trapped fluorescence microscopy image of the samples after cell separation and cell sorting
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COVID-19 and the Government’s handling of the situation have dominated newspaper headlines in the past year
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Fiona Fox tells Tom Ireland how the Science Media Centre is helping to improve press reporting on important or controversial issues in science u Fiona Fox is the director of the Science Media Centre (SMC). It was formed in 2002 after a Select Committee report found confidence and public trust in science was being eroded by sensationalised and inaccurate press coverage. The centre helps journalists access leading experts and encourages scientists to engage with the media. In 2020 it had its busiest year ever, organising hundreds of briefings and round-ups of expert opinion on COVID-19. 28 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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Tom Ireland: You are writing a book in which each chapter tackles a big, controversial scientific issue that was covered badly by the media. If the COVID-19 pandemic also becomes a chapter, how does the media coverage compare to those other big topics?
Fiona Fox: It can be hard to sum up how ‘the media’ has performed because each newspaper and media outlet does things differently. However, when you pose the question like that suddenly I do feel quite strongly that this would be a good news
chapter when many of the other chapters are not happy stories. Obviously the coverage of the MMR vaccine and genetically modified (GM) organisms was partly why the SMC was set up; there was a lot of poor coverage and that has had consequences. The animal research story turned out well in the end, but that was a miserable story at the beginning. With COVID-19 there isn’t any mainstream journalism out there scaring the public needlessly and the media are generally avoiding mavericks. They are
Paul Ellis/AFP via Getty Images
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‘I’m ridiculously positive about the media’s coverage of COVID-19’
Paul Ellis/AFP via Getty Images
Fiona Fox interview, 1
I’ve been critical of the ‘gotcha’ journalism from the political reporters, especially with regards to the numbers of tests and vaccines
using some of the best scientists in the country, many of whom are now household names. When the Great Barrington Declaration emerged we worried that the media would love the row so much that they would emphasise this view of a small number of people. I don’t think they did. These were good scientists so it was right for the media to report on it. However, journalists were also conscious of making sure that it didn’t look like that view was mainstream. I’ve heard nice accounts from science journalists about suddenly being the most important person in the newsroom. Some have gone from writing maybe one major article a week to writing half the newspaper. That suggests the relative weight of the science and health correspondents’ view has changed a bit, and I think if editors had deferred more to them in the past there would have been less sensational coverage. Whether that’s some kind of concerted collective agreement that they’ll do better on this, or whether they just sense how important this is, I don’t know.
You’ve not been so positive about how political reporters cover the pandemic.
I’ve been critical of the ‘gotcha’ journalism from the political reporters, especially with regards to the numbers of tests and vaccines. It’s this game where they make the Government give us a number, and then if they don’t deliver on that number that’s the story. There were so many interesting challenges with testing – which tests work best, how quickly you need to get results – but at every Downing Street press conference you’d get the same questions: why haven’t you reached this number yet, you said you would, how can we trust you? I just scream at the TV at that point. But overall I’m ridiculously positive about the media’s coverage of COVID-19.
Fiona Fox, director of the Science Media Centre
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There are some very difficult questions where you need really specific expertise to answer it
Chris Whitty and Patrick Vallance with the prime minister at a COVID-19 news conference
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Overall it is a massive tick. A lot of people who haven’t done a lot of media before, including members of SAGE, have really thrown themselves into it. The issue you raise is one where I suppose the appetite for access to scientists is so huge and interviewers will often ask questions that don’t fall into their lane. They agree to do an interview on vaccines and the next thing they’re being asked if Boris should cancel Christmas. They have to be very clear in saying ‘I’m not going to answer that, I’m an epidemiologist’. There are also some very difficult questions, especially around the genetics and immunology of the virus, where it really helps to have solid expertise to answer. We have seen space scientists dabbling in modelling and behavioural scientists answering technical questions on airborne particles. My hero on this is the statistician Professor David Spiegelhalter who is now famous for resisting Nick Robinson’s attempts on the Today programme to drag him into commenting on issues outside his expertise. What’s even better is that I’m sure Nick and the audience trust David all the more for saying ‘I don’t know’.
A feature of this pandemic has been the extraordinary amount of data and studies put out very quickly. Much of this has been disseminated on preprint servers, or sometimes even as raw data, 30 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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without peer-review. What are your views on how those kind of sources should be shared and reported?
This has been one of the most challenging things for us. Before COVID-19 my colleague Tom Sheldon spent about a year working on this with journal and university press officers. Press officers are important as they often determine when new scientific findings get put into the public domain and how. We published a set of guidelines saying that we love preprint, but urging press officers not to publicise them. The system where science is peer-reviewed and then published under embargo to allow journalists to properly read it is the best way to get science to the public. Then COVID-19 came and all of that fell apart. All of these preprints were coming through and it seemed wrong to refuse to engage with all this data that was desperately needed. One time we discussed a terrifying preprint we saw just before we left the office, and I remember saying: “Well, hopefully the journalists won’t pick up on it.” Of course, by the time I was home a journalist had found it. In the end we suspended our guidance, but urged press officers to discourage scientists from publicising preprints if they were very provisional, very small or if they were done by scientists who’ve never done modelling before. There was also a learning curve for scientists who put preliminary numbers up, simply hoping for their colleagues and peers to work through them, and the next thing the world’s media was on them. It really mattered in the early days because there were lots of predictions about case numbers. Sometimes we do ask people to hold on for journal publication. The Lancet or the
BMJ can fast-track it, and we can do a press release, in around 10 days. Then that will be the reliable finding that everybody discusses and the Government will look at. The other big question is what does this look like post COVID? When we’re going back to doing studies on e-cigarettes, statins, antidepressants, I think our previous advice stands. Why rush these findings out?
The SMC has made a strategic decision to focus on improving news coverage in a traditional sense – i.e. TV, radio and newspapers. But many age groups get most of their news from social media – isn’t scientific misinformation on these platforms the bigger problem now?
Not everyone agrees with our narrow focus on news and other science media centres around the world do things differently. However, we’re a small team and I think we should put resources where we can make a difference. The news media is not disappearing. In fact, the opposite is the case – the move from print to online means newspapers have constant editions, live updates and unlimited word counts. Correcting misinformation found on social media is a very different skill and is something other organisations like Full Fact have emerged to tackle, and some of the medical charities are doing it well too. I’m also adamant that most stuff that makes its way on to social media comes from traditional news anyway. Early reporting on COVID-19 caused a flood of people back from social media to traditional sources – journalists say their explainer pieces are getting millions and millions of hits.
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The other side of the coin is how scientists have been doing. You’ve mentioned the many scientists who have given up lots of their time to speak to media – but I’ve also seen you criticise scientists for ‘straying outside their lane’.
Fiona Fox interview, 2
Vaccines have a bad history in terms of press coverage and misinformation. What are the challenges surrounding the communication of the enormous COVID-19 vaccination programme – and how do you think it’s going so far?
When we started in 2002, the Daily Mail was an anti-MMR newspaper and Private Eye was known as being an anti-MMR magazine. Rod Liddle was editor of the Today programme and had reportedly told all the editorial staff he believed the MMR causes autism. We are now in a different world. We don’t have newspapers that are anti-vax: we actually have newspapers that are anti-anti-vax. So that’s a good starting point. Again, a lot of very good scientists are making themselves available to deal with journalists’ questions, and journalists are putting good questions to them on behalf of the public. When someone drops dead three hours after getting their vaccine – which will happen when you’re
vaccinating millions of 80- and 90-yearolds – and a journalist decides to make a story of that, I have a list of people who will drop everything to comment. Vaccine comms cannot only be about telling everyone that vaccines are safe. There has to be full openness and communication that is not just one way. For example, the MHRA and JCVI are doing amazing work, but they don’t allow their experts to speak freely to journalists or simply answer their questions. It’s all very tightly managed by Department of Health and Number 10 communications teams. As a result they were often not answering questions about the regulatory process when journalists desperately needed to understand what was happening with the approval of different vaccines.
One of the criticisms in the past of the SMC is that it is effectively putting a positive spin on science, ensuring people have a particular view of work that some
I think it’s incredibly dangerous for the SMC to start deciding which quotes or which scientists we favour
people believe is harmful. Are you particularly sensitive to that criticism with these vaccines?
We don’t put a positive spin on anything; we don’t have a position on anything. What we do is facilitate scientists to speak out on these issues. If a scientist from a respected institution who has published in peer-reviewed journals wants to comment, then they can send us the quotes they want and we will send them out. I think it’s incredibly dangerous for the SMC to start deciding which quotes or which scientists we favour. However, one of the biggest reasons for the controversies over MMR and GM was that the scare stories were originating from scientists. So in those cases – and it is still happening with COVID-19 where scientists have views outside the mainstream – we let journalists know where the weight of scientific opinion lies. So I don’t think we are particularly sensitive. We are convinced that the way to win public support is not to gloss over problems. When you hear people at our briefings talking about the unknowns, the challenges and the potential risks, you trust them even more.
The SMC was set up for a variety of reasons, but one was to counter a ‘crisis of confidence’ in society’s views of science and a collapse in respect for authority and expertise. Do you think COVID-19 has gone some way to restoring that confidence and respect in expert views and scientific research?
Fiona Fox at a briefing with the chief scientific officer and the chief medical officer for England
I’m never really sure whether I believe reports that the public are losing trust in science. However, it’s hard to see how science will emerge from this anything but enhanced, whether that be the medical researchers finding treatments and vaccines, or the virologists and immunologists helping us to better understand the virus quickly. The public has also learned about the limitations of science and that scientists often disagree – that there is no such thing as ‘the science’. This has been communicated so openly I think it means public trust in science is even more solid and not something that will disappear even if there are problems with vaccination. Vol 68 No 1 / THE BIOLOGIST / 31
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The best podcasts for 2021
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We pick a range of audio shows for RSB members to tune into this year – from giant global hits to brand new and niche
News and current affairs
HOW TO VACCINATE THE WORLD
This new series from BBC Radio 4 launched at the end of 2020 to explore the myriad logistical and scientific questions set to arise as an unprecedented global vaccination programme against COVID-19 begins.
Specialist
RISKY TALK
Renowned Cambridge University statistician David Spiegelhalter explores the evidence on pressing issues of the day, from genetics and nutrition to climate change and immigration, focusing on how best to understand and communicate risk.
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CHEMISTRY WORLD
INSIDE SCIENCE
Presenters including BBC science stalwart Dr Adam Rutherford talk to expert guests about the latest ideas and discoveries in science. See also: Scientific American’s 60-Second Science; the popular Science Friday by New York Public Radio; and Babbage, a weekly science and tech podcast from The Economist.
Life science features in a good chunk of the content in Chemistry World’s suite of podcasts. The programmes come in several flavours, from a regular book club to interviews with big-name scientists, as well as ‘Elements’, a series on the periodic table.
Best biology podcasts, 1
NATURE PODCAST The latest research from the famous journal, as well as investigating more general topical issues in science, tech and academia. It’s aimed at scientists, but still a relatively easy listen.
THE INFINITE MONKEY CAGE
Now in its 22nd series, this witty discussion show featuring comedian Robin Ince and physicist Professor Brian Cox is still tackling the big questions. Recent episodes include: ‘What is Life?’ and ‘Does Time Exist?’ Week in Microbiology for virology, parasitology, neuroscience, evolution and immunology. Featuring expert guests discussing conferences, papers and life as a researcher. See also: Unearthed from Kew Gardens with botanist James Wong.
FUTUREMAKERS
From ancient Athens to Ebola – but notably not COVID-19 – 10 episodes look at disease outbreaks through history and aim to “reflect the global collaboration that underpins the heart of scientific endeavour”.
Comedy and fun
aiming to provide clarity on the fads, trends, viral news and conspiracy theories that percolate and pervade our online worlds, tackling them with a scientific approach.
TWEET OF THE DAY
Six days a week, just before 6am, Radio 4 broadcasts a burst of birdsong followed by a short ornithological explanation or story. Over 700 episodes are now available.
Popular science
OLOGIES
Actor, writer and science communicator Alie Ward talks to people in subdisciplines, from big self-explanatory fields like oceanology to more niche areas such as fulminology (the study of lightning).
RADIOLAB
The original smash hit science podcast. Its blend of storytelling and deep-dive reporting results in gripping stories that lean towards scientific or evidencebased inquiry.
THE LIFE SCIENTIFIC Jim Al-Khalili’s warm conversations with scientists about their lives and careers, broadcast weekly on Radio 4, is rapidly becoming science’s equivalent of Desert Island Discs. Over 200 episodes are available as podcasts via the BBC. See also: Science(ish) with New Scientist editor-at-large Dr Michael Brooks; Bill Nye’s Science Rules! and The Naked Scientists, the longrunning podcast broadcast weekly by BBC Radio 5 Live.
John Gaffen / Alamy Stock Photo; BBC Pictures
BAD SCIENCE
MICROBE.TV PODCASTS
Aimed at academics in certain fields, this suite includes variations of This
Comedians and scientists pair up to discuss the scientific elements of films and TV shows – for example, renowned tornado expert Harry Brooks helped review the cult classic Twister. Things get really silly when the show tackles the ‘science’ of films in genres such as horror, sci-fi or fantasy.
THE STUBBORN LIGHT OF THINGS Nature writer Melissa Harrison documents the wonder and richness of UK wildlife as she rambles through the Suffolk countryside.
SCIENCE VS Science Vs has recently emerged as a new giant in science podcasting,
All podcasts listed can be found on popular podcast streaming services – i.e. Apple, Google, Spotify – or via the BBC Sounds App.
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A snapshot of our members at work and leisure
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RIGHT NOW I AM…
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A day in the life
Stefanie Bonat MRSB on studying ‘mass-mortality events’ in the Australian wilderness MY WORK INVOLVES…
Research on carcasses – my PhD topic is ‘animal mass mortalities and their effects on scavenging food web dynamics’. I am currently setting up a field experiment that compares what happens to carcasses in different mass-mortality event scenarios – for example, when there are no vertebrate scavengers to consume carcasses or when invertebrate numbers are low. I will be looking at this from a food web perspective, assessing the flow-on effects these events can have on the environment.
ON A TYPICAL DAY...
I divide my time between fieldwork and my office or lab. I am based at the University of Sydney, but my field sites are in Kosciuszko National Park, a five-hour drive from campus. The raw data – such as invertebrate samples and camera trap images – is collected in the field, which needs to be processed in a lab afterwards. 34 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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In the field, setting up sites for my experiment. I am building cages to exclude vertebrate scavengers from some plots, and to reduce the numbers of invertebrates on carcasses. I am also surveying vegetation and collecting soil samples before putting carcasses out. We are sourcing deer carcasses from local land management programmes, as deer are considered as feral pests in Australia, but carcasses are often just left to rot on paddocks.
I WORK WITH…
Two laboratories, the Global Ecology Lab headed by Dr Thomas Newsome and the Ecosystem Dynamics Lab led by Dr Aaron Greenville, both at the University of Sydney. I collaborate closely with New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service and local landowners, who provide a lot of support for my project.
I ALSO…
Undertake some contract work for National Parks and I look after RSB Australasia’s social media, creating and posting content that is relevant to our region. I am working with our committee to improve our reach in the region and to create more engagement for our followers.
AFTER WORK…
I like working out at the gym, and when I’m in the field I like to put up my hammock and spend time observing the wildlife around me. I also like watching television, from science-fiction and fantasy series to action movies.
Members and members listing, 1
The career ladder
Laura Hibberts MRSB on her journey from medical research to teaching A PIVOTAL POINT IN MY CAREER…
I FIRST DISCOVERED BIOLOGY…
Through my grandmother. Although I do not remember her, I did inherit her 1929 history of medicine called Devils, Drugs and Doctors, from which I caught a lifelong interest in infectious disease. A year out, before university, working in the hospital operating theatre as an auxiliary nurse (even though I was squeamish to begin with) gave me first-hand experience of infection control procedures, and I took a degree in biochemistry and microbiology at the University of Leeds, where I fell in love with molecular biology.
I THEN STUDIED…
For a PhD, examining the bacteria responsible for antibiotic-resistant infections on a hospital ward. I spent a summer determining the nucleotide sequences of beta-lactamase enzymes produced by these bacteria (before automatic sequencing). I’ll never forget the excitement of watching my x-ray film autoradiographs develop in the dark room and seeing the barcode-like DNA bands emerge. It was such a thrill to read these sequences (by hand), especially when I found a previously undiscovered enzyme!
During my PhD I taught undergraduates and found this highly enjoyable. I began teaching for the Open University and stayed with them for 11 years. My PhD was followed by a postdoc on ulcerative colitis at Leeds, which I combined with lecturing in microbiology and molecular biology at Bradford University.
Was when I started a family and moved to Stoke-on-Trent. I took part-time work, which acted as my intellectual lifeline, working in smoking cessation for the NHS and teaching Access to HE courses at Stoke-on-Trent College. Here I gained my PGCE, which enabled me to get my next position as a sixth-form biology teacher at a private school. As the sixth form folded, my younger son’s complex care needs increased and for a year I could only work as a private tutor. My big break came when I landed a teaching fellow job at Keele University’s School of Medicine, and from there was able to get a lectureship on Keele’s foundation year. I now lead all the life sciences modules for the foundation year, including one that has a strong emphasis on microbiology. I love sharing my enthusiasms with my students and I think I have the best job in the world.
MY ADVICE IS…
Never give up on your career; focus on what you can do and not on what you can’t; and remember that no experience, however humble, is ever truly wasted.
My Society and me
Professor Nigel Brown CBiol FRSB on representing the Society’s branches
As a member of RSB Council and chair of the College of Individual Members I have oversight of the 19 RSB branches and represent them and their members to Council. I am now in ‘active retirement’ after a lifetime in academic research and have been a Fellow of the RSB and its predecessors since 1989. The Society provided a local network and helped
with wider contacts, including industry funders. My early activities in learned societies were in my specialism, but I was keen to take a wider role and election to the RSB Council provided that. It enabled me to give back to a system that has supported me. Council members are trustees and we ensure that the RSB continues to operate in support of its charitable
objectives. We are supported by an excellent staff. I have just been elected to a second term on Council and I will continue to support the branches. It has been a pleasure to attend some of their meetings and see the excellent work being done by volunteers. As well as a variety of lectures, quizzes and ‘meet the committee’ events, this year I have also been able to
attend every branch AGM – by Zoom – including those of the Hong Kong and Australasia branches. Virtual meetings may well be here to stay!
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Opportunities, awards and events REPRO OP
A round-up of upcoming RSB activities for members
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Members from all grades are encouraged to attend the RSB’s AGM, which will be held online on 21st May from 11:00 to 13:00. The Trustees’ report and accounts will be presented, the new RSB president-elect announced, and Stefan Przyborski FRSB, professor of cell technology at Durham University, will deliver a Charter Lecture. Advance registration is essential via www.rsb.org.uk/events or events@rsb.org.uk RSB members have another opportunity to engage with the House of Commons Science and Technology Committee in February. Mark Logan, MP for
Bolton North East, will be talking to members as part of a free online event on 24th February at 18:15. Visit www. rsb.org.uk/events to register. Help shape future policies at the Plant Health Summit for Future Leaders on 2nd-4th March. Visit planthealth.rsb. org.uk to find out more. Heads of University Bioscience (HUBS) Annual Meeting 2021 will focus on research, policy, inclusivity, and awarding gaps. It will be held online on 12th-13th April. HUBS is also running an online workshop on learning and teaching during the pandemic on 21st April. It is
free for staff at institutions with HUBS membership and advance registration is required. See www.rsb.org.uk/events The RSB’s Outreach and Engagement Award 2021 will be open for nominations in March. This award rewards outreach work by scientists and established researchers to inform, enthuse and engage the public. The Society’s Nancy Rothwell Award for Specimen Drawing will also open for entries in March. See www.rsb.org.uk/awards. The Society is offering 40 state-funded primary schools in the UK free access for four of their teachers to the Gopher
A winning entry from Hazel Nah in the 2020 Nancy Rothwell Awards
Science Lab online training course. Contact amanda. hardy@rsb.org.uk for more information or to apply. Resources from the RSB’s new online science festival Science at Home are free to access. Visit www.rsb.org.uk/ science-at-home
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Education and training The Society’s programme of online courses
ANIMALS USED FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES Available online This interactive electronic module is aimed at veterinarians and other academics who wish to perform in vivo studies in the UK. It provides information on the UK legislative framework required for working with lab animals and the ethical issues to be considered. FROM £48 + VAT CORE BUSINESS SKILLS FOR BIOLOGISTS Available online This 10-module course provides those with a life sciences background with core business skills they can apply to real-world environments. This course contributes to the RSB’s Industry Skills Certificate. FROM £112 + VAT
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT MANAGEMENT Available online This course is for those involved in or responsible for project management. Participants will learn the skills and planning tools they need to complete a project, and how to anticipate and resolve the issues they are likely to encounter as a project manager. The course contributes to the RSB’s Industry Skills Certificate and Technical Skills Certificate. FROM £48 + VAT WRITING FOR NONSPECIALIST AUDIENCES Available online Suitable for anyone wishing to communicate science to a wider audience, this course will explore how to write in a clear and engaging way while remaining
scientifically accurate. Presented by The Biologist editor Tom Ireland, it covers basic principles that apply whether you are writing a tabloid news story or medical advice for patients, and includes tips on presenting complex information. FROM £48 + VAT GOPHER SCIENCE LAB Available online Online training for primary teachers to engage and inspire primary-aged pupils to explore how everyday things work and ease their transition from primary to secondary education. FROM £14.40 + VAT UNCONSCIOUS BIAS Available online This awareness-building course looks at the idea of unconscious
bias, and how it can impact on the workplace. It contributes to the RSB’s Industry Skills Certificate and Technical Skills Certificate. FROM £12 + VAT PERSUASIVE SCIENTIFIC WRITING Available online This course aims to provide a sound understanding of good persuasive scientific writing: how to develop and reinforce sound arguments, and approach issues. It also explores simple devices to give your writing more impact. FROM £48 + VAT Completion of online training courses contributes to your continuing professional development record. See learn.www.rsb.org.uk for details of all our courses.
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AFFILIATE Jody Affleck, Sairah Ahsan, Sophie Akers, Aneela Akram, Shiela Akrasi, Shanaz Allsop, Natasha Ashen, Thomas Bailey, Louise Bayes, Digna Beeldsnijder, Hasina Begum, Thomas Bennett, Muhammad Bin Amil, Peter Brain, Eve Brannan, Reiss Browning, Chris Brownlow, Emily Broyd, Kathryn Bullough, Jamie Burgess, Callum Burrows, Sean Butler, Diane Button, Jessica Cadwallader, Edward Carter, Lucrezia Cattaneo Rossi, Martin Cervenka, Jenni Chambers, Georgina Chapman, Josie Cheng, Melisa Chong, Fiona Clarke, Brónagh Cobain, Natasha Connor, Nicola Cook, Charlotte Crawford, V Cressy, Abigail Criddle, Inna Danyschenko, Bradley Davey, Elyse Davey, Olivia Davies, Sarah Davies, Emily Davis, Cicely Day, Marc Devanny, Anna Dimitroula, Charlotte Dines, Paris Donnelly, Katie Doran, Christopher Doyle, Emilia Earnshaw, Emily Eastley-Jones, Hawazen Eshahawi, Kimberley Evans, Madison Farmer, Hannah Feasby, Jake Ford, Imogen Forster, Sebastian Frasle, Phoebe Freeston, Alexandra Glover, Ryan Goddard, Caitlin Doreen Gould, Maxamillian Grant, Paul Griffith, Lisa Groom, Caitlin Hackett, Richard Hall, Szaye Hall, Joseph Hamilton-Black, Abigail Hampson, Anjum Haque, Ellie Hawcutt, Katie Herron, Benjamin Hodgson, Tom Honour, Matthew Hopes, Andrew Hui, Chrisa Humphreys, Isabelle Hurdle, Alexander Huynh, Daniel Hyde, Iona Ingle, Jeyran Isgandarova, Huseyin Isik, Anastasia Ivanova, Luke Jarvis, Esther Jayson, Alix Jennings, Chloe Jewers, Sion Jones, Hayley Kane, Frieda Keegan, Shania Keh, Fiona Kemm, Emma Kenyon, Fiona Kingsley-Monks, Sarah Lake, Karima Lallmahamode, Hollie Lane, Mikey Lawrence, Maana Layeghi, John Leslie, Yushi Li, Catherine Liguz, Reece Lilley, Max Linford, Orla Logue, Harrison Longley, Michael Loveday, Marie Lush, Hannah Martin, Samuel Martin, Cerys Maryan, Rachel McCarley, Polly McCarthy-Williams, Olivia McConkey, Andrew McCran, Ruari McDonald, Wayne McFarland, Jayme Meadows, Erin Miller, Toby Mills, Daniel Molland, Miguel Montano Reynoso, Thomas Moore, Nicola
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Gregory Jordan, Kelly Jowett, Katie Kenney, Rhiannon Kirton, Felaniaina Lantovololona, Jessica Laurent, Larry Yung-Tim Leung, Ho Yu Liu, Dilhara Mampitiya de Silva, Tomas Martak, Megan Mayhew, Michael McCaskill, Lynsey McDowell, Chala McGowan, Shannon Millard, David Mold, Daniel Morrison, Nina O’Toole, Chloe Parkes, Mahima Patel, Alice Phillips, Ludovico Pipito, Jonathan Reardon, Lana Richards, Susanna Rillie, Jeanette Ross, Jamie Rowe, Clara Sanasi, Bishr Shibani, Tanis Slattery-Penfold, Mah Soomro, Ameena Sullivan, Satisvar Sundera Murthe, Collette Tait, Moaz Talat, Kathryn Tebbs, Ella Walker, Eloise Walker, Charlotte Ward, Lul Warsame, Hannah Westbury, Bethany White, Matthew Whitehead, David Wilson, Eleanor Wilson, Kelvin Wong, Hannah Wright. MEMBER (MRSB) Richard Ackon-Eghan, Ian Adamson, Kemi Akinola, Shaik Liakhat Ali, Rana Al-jaibachi, Ngozi Amaeze, Mohammad Ansari, Nigel August, Justin Barclay, Ruth Brown-Shepherd, Filomena Calixto, Cristina Cañivano Vallejo, Tom Charlton, Aparna Chivukula, Russell Cooper, Peter Craggs, Harriet Crawley-Snowdon, Kwasi Dankwa, Syed Dastager, Jennifer Dawson, Ammerins de Haan, Simon de Pinna, Fiona Diamond, Melanie Egli, Clifford Enyita, Elaine Forster, Simon Gardiner, Ciara Gorst, Iain Grant, Paul Gregory, Himanshu Gupta, Ana Gurkan, Alex Hallam, Susan Hammond, Blake Hopley, Julie Jamieson, Faez Firdaus Jesse, Margrethe Johansen, Donna Johnson, Christopher Kariuki, Hannah Kent, Aksana Khan, Cemal Çağıl Koçana, Sanjeev Kumar, Daniel Larcombe, Katherine Law, Ykk Shan Leung, Walter Lucchesi, Nicholas Lynch, David Macknay, Anna Mantzouratou, Kathryn McGregor, Toni Miller, Santosh Mohanty, Christopher Mulligan, Mas Muttalib, Kei Shing Ng, Sabine Nouvet, Lauretta Nwaka, Cory Ocasio, Esther Odekunle, Karsten Øvretveit, Ramendra Pandey, Lewis Penny, Eleni Petsalaki, Jordan Price, Alex Radu, Nirmal Kumar Ramasamy, Victoria Ratcliffe, Mel Reid, Alice Robotham, Steven Ross, Paul Rowland, Pranamee Sarma, Alfie Scott, Anup Shah,
Muhammad Siddique, Sayantan Sinha, David Small, Sivasankara Narayani Somasundaram, Perumalla Srikanth, Joshua Stafford, Jonathan Swan JP, Mansoor Syed, Harry Tjondro, Thomas Travers, Nikolaos Tzenios, Sirisha Vavilala, Nagajothi Velram Balaji, Mark Wilson, Robert Wilson, Abubakar Yaro, Val Yianni. FELLOW (FRSB) Thapasimuthu Anilkumar, Phillip Bennett, Roger Bloxham, John Bolodeoku, Martin Cann, Edmund Crampin, Rohan de Silva, Sankar Deka, Rajiv Dutta, Sheila Francis, Gilles Guillemin, Khalid Hakeem, Prakash Halami, Peter Hastie, David Husey, Subhash Parija, Suhel Parvez, Simon Phillips, Sanjeev Singh, Lonneke Vervelde, Simon Waddell, M Wahajuddin, Chunming Wang, Andrew Welchman, Nigel Whittle. PROFESSIONAL REGISTERS Registered Science Technician (RSciTech) RSciTech Affiliate Fiona Clarke, Harry Nugent. RSciTech AMRSB Daisy Pinn Registered Scientist (RSci) RSci Affiliate Reiss Browning, Nicola Cook, Virginia Silio. RSci AMRSB Phebe Ekregbesi, Hannah Sims. RSci MRSB Rebeca Diaz, Rebecca Cuckoo, Miguel Hermida Ayala. Chartered Biologist (CBiol) CBiol MRSB Kimberley Cooper, Jennifer Drew, Yan-Yee Lau, Andrea Molyneaux, Ben Rush, Carlanne Stone, Nirusha Weerasinghe, Laura White. CBiol FRSB Alexander Hunt, Richard Pitman, Marc Yeste. Chartered Scientist (CSci) CSci MRSB James Turrington, Val Yiann. CSci FRSB Wing Kei Ricky Wu Chartered Science Teacher (CSciTeach) CSciTeach MRSB Sian Chalkley, Samantha Richards. Plant Health Professionals (PHP) PHP Affiliate Jenny Legg, Katie Parker.
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Books for biologists, nature lovers and their families
Tom Oliver
WEIDENFELD & NICOLSON, £20.00 SUBS ART PRODUCTION CLIENT
In our age of individualism it’s good to stop and think about the endless connections between people and the world around us. Humans are made of cells that have circulated in the universe for millennia. More than half of our body mass is non-human, including bacteria, viruses and fungi that influence our moods and behaviour. Matter and ideas flow continuously between us and the living world. Who knows, maybe something you said ended up in this book… In The Self Delusion Tom Oliver, a prominent systems thinker and professor of ecology at the University of Reading, looks into what makes me ‘me’. Am I my body, with all changing cells and the good and bad bacteria and viruses? Or am I my mind, despite crowd-sourcing my thinking from countless people in the past and present? In a call for action Oliver urges people to let go of the illusion of individualism – our self delusion – and open our eyes to the multiple connections around us. This is also key to solving global societal and environmental problems. The Self Delusion is one of those wonderful popular scientific books that wraps fascinating facts in interesting stories. It lets the thinking flow from the pages of the book to the mind of the reader. Oliver’s breadth of knowledge and creativity of thinking are impressive, and his book makes you want to continue the conversation with him and the world. We are all connected and it matters. Minna Hartikainen
More than half our body mass is non-human, with more bacterial cells in our gut than people on Earth
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OTTER
Daniel Allen REAKTION BOOKS, £9.99
During Daniel Allen’s lifelong obsession with otters he has completed a PhD on otter hunting, volunteered with the UK Wild Otter Trust and published papers and articles on otter hunting, wildlife crime and animal welfare. This passion is communicated very strongly in Otter. The book begins with a chapter on the otter species, their distribution and their conservation status – all 13 species feature on the IUCN Red List, 12 of which have a decreasing population. The second chapter covers the role of otters in folklore and traditions, while chapters three and four discuss otter hunting plus the animal welfare campaigns that followed. Chapter five looks at otters in literature, including The Wind in the Willows and Tarka the Otter. Chapter six discusses otters on screen, including the film adaptations of Tarka the Otter and Ring of Bright Water. Finally, chapter seven examines the measures already taken to protect otters through breeding programmes and legislation. The book concludes with an appendix of species information, a timeline of otter history and useful web links. Otter covers a thorough yet concise history of otters and their persecution. It is a fantastic resource for anyone interested in otters, regardless of age or educational level. Alexander Nunns MRSB
OUTBREAKS AND EPIDEMICS: BATTLING INFECTION FROM MEASLES TO CORONAVIRUS
Meera Senthilingam ICON BOOKS, £8.99
Meera Senthilingam’s book is a well-timed introduction to the study of infectious diseases and an account of humanity’s attempts to come to terms with them. Published just as COVID-19 was emerging, the current preoccupation with SARS-CoV-2 gets only passing mentions, and mainly in connection with previous outbreaks of coronaviruses. The book surveys a range of diseases, and a common theme is the social and political dimensions that are apparent in disease
distribution, attempts to prevent transmission and in treating the illnesses associated with the microbes discussed. A prescient chapter is that on ‘Disease and politics’, with its consideration of the anti-vaccination movement. It discusses the tensions between individual autonomy and community health, and presents arguments on persuasion versus compulsion. Senthilingam points out that while there have been success stories in terms of disease eradication (smallpox) and elimination in many countries (polio), vigilance is still essential for many other infectious diseases. The book is well written and serves as a useful reminder that, while the world’s gaze is directed at COVID-19, infectious diseases are here to stay. As the title of the penultimate chapter puts it, ‘I’m not going anywhere’. Conor McCrory MRSB
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THE SELF DELUSION: THE SURPRISING SCIENCE OF HOW WE ARE CONNECTED AND WHY THAT MATTERS
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Reviews, 1 Despite successful reintroduction projects around the world, all 13 species of otter are on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
COVID-19: WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT THE CORONAVIRUS AND THE RACE FOR THE VACCINE
Michael Mosley SHORT BOOKS, £6.99
Science journalist and TV presenter Dr Michael Mosley provides a brief and accessible introduction to what is currently known about COVID-19. Starting with a brief summary of the emergence of coronavirus and some introductory virology, Mosley describes some key events in the first 100 days since the WHO was notified in late December 2019 about patients in China with a ‘pneumonia of unknown cause’. There is a chapter on common questions that non-specialists may find useful, and Mosley outlines some factors that affect Vol 68 No 1 / THE BIOLOGIST / 39
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immunity, such as diet, sleep, stress and physical activity. As the emerging knowledge about coronavirus itself is developing quickly, some speculative parts of the book may require revision. For example, the conjecture that “it now appears that cases of ‘reinfection’ were actually because of faulty testing” already looks less than secure in light of reports of reinfection, but such is the provisional nature of science subject to revision when new evidence comes to light. There is not much new here for specialists, but it is a useful book for lay readers, and those with a solid baseline in infectious disease will find its chronology of the first 100 days of COVID-19 a handy reference. The book ends on a positive note, considering that moving forward we might evaluate many of our social behaviours, including travel, working practice, hygiene and climate change, and we may emerge with an increasing respect for the work of those in health and social care settings. Conor McCrory MRSB
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FIELD GUIDE TO SHARKS, RAYS AND CHIMAERAS OF EUROPE AND THE MEDITERRANEAN
David A Ebert and Marc Dando
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PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS, £28.00
This is an impressively detailed and easy-to-use field guide that will be invaluable to anyone who needs to identify any of the 146 European sharks, rays or chimaeras. It begins by giving general information on European biodiversity of the class, plus a summary of available marine habitats, followed by an overview of the conservation and management measures taken over the last 25 years, including a summary of the IUCN Red List status of the fish in this group. Dichotomous keys are used throughout, often accompanied by high-quality photographs or drawings. There are also labelled topography diagrams for each subclass illustrating the terminology used. The section on dentition in the cartilaginous fishes is particularly well explained. Each species is given a page and species-specific information is provided on key identification features, together with information on sizes, habitat, biology and Red List status, with European distribution shown on a coloured map. 40 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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Flies have large, spherical compound eyes that give them an almost 360° view of the world Below: The blue shark (Prionace glauca) is listed as Near Threatened in the Mediterranean
Reviews, 2
KINDRED: NEANDERTHAL LIFE, LOVE, DEATH AND ART Rebecca Wragg Sykes BLOOMSBURY SIGMA, £18.00 (HARDBACK)
To keep the size of the book manageable for field use yet still packed with relevant information, much of the species-specific data is shown using icons rather than text. This book is an important aid to identification of cartilaginous fish. Even without actually seeing a fish from this group the reader is left with a knowledge and appreciation of these animals. Dr Alan Woollhead THE INSIDE OUT OF FLIES Erica McAlister NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, LONDON, £14.99
On the last page of her wonderful book The Inside Out of Flies Erica McAlister wonders if she might ever produce a popular science book that does justice to the insects that she unashamedly loves. Suffice to say that she has and that she
has this reviewer ordering her earlier book, The Secret Life of Flies, for its likely entertainment value. I am among the many readers who will never look at a fly in quite the same way again. So much information and so much wit. Aside from the text, the scanning electron microscope photographs are so good that it almost becomes a coffee table book. However, it is the writing (and the flies) that deserves the champagne. After a chapter on larval stages, the chapters describe fly features, from the head, thorax and abdomen, to the genitalia, antennae, mouthparts, wings and legs. These 288 pages of sheer delight should be read by anyone interested in natural history. It throws down the gauntlet to other scientists working on other groups of animals to come up with anything as diverse, bizarre or downright interesting as flies. J D Charlwood
Since the first identification of Neanderthal remains discovered in the Neander Valley of Germany in 1856, studies of this hominid species have proved to be exciting, enigmatic and enlightening. Neanderthals, the descendants of Homo erectus immigrants from Africa into Europe, have until recently been considered uninventive, socially limited due to language constraints and lacking artistic talent. New fossil finds, improved age-estimation techniques and palaeoenvironmental investigations have altered this picture considerably. Moreover, the development of DNA analysis of fossil remains has had profound implications for understanding hominid characteristics and inter-species relationships, not least for Neanderthals. Indeed, a substantial proportion of the world population of non-African origin carries a percentage (1–2%) of Neanderthal genes. Drawing on a wide range of evidence derived from Neanderthal archaeological sites from Wales throughout Europe and into Siberia, Kindred presents a comprehensive view of Neanderthal life, material wealth and death. It examines Neanderthal uses of stone, bone, shell and wood, and draws attention to the use of red ochre for art works. The book emphasises survival and lifestyle – Neanderthals were communal and cooperative as well as nomadic. To live their lives and obtain food they adjusted to local flora and fauna; such biota changed with climatic characteristics in space and time (e.g. ice ages and interglacials), but Neanderthals coped and survived. In relation to death and burial, there is much discussion around specific practices, but most burials, either single or multiple body, reflect thought and organisation. There is also much debate about language and communication. Ideas and theories are highlighted, illustrated and debated throughout the book, using examples from established Neanderthal remains and sites. Certainties and possibilities are posed and discussed. And at £18 for the hardback, Kindred is eminently accessible. A M Mannion Vol 68 No 1 / THE BIOLOGIST / 41
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EAST MIDLANDS
Event calendar March 2021 onwards
COLIN LEAKEY MEMORIAL LECTURE ON ANTLERS AND BONE GROWTH 10 November 2020
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MammalWeb encourages citizen scientists to monitor species such as badgers NORTHERN
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WILDLIFE MONITORING WITH THE MAMMALWEB CITIZEN SCIENCE PROJECT
Thursday 4 March
MammalWeb works with citizen scientists to deploy motion-sensing camera traps to capture wildlife images. This has created a valuable dataset from which experts can better understand the diversity and distribution of wildlife. An online talk by Dr Pen-Yuan Hsing (University of Bath), co-founder of MammalWeb, will look at the development of the tool and its scientific implications. This event is free and open to all, although advance registration is essential. Online
GROWTH STRATEGIES IN PLANTS
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Thursday 6 May
An online talk by Professor Keith Lindsey FRSB from Durham University on the basic principles of plant development and the kinds of experimental approaches that help us understand growth mechanisms. This event is free and open to all, although advance registration is essential. Online
NORTH WESTERN
WYRE ESTUARY BIOBLITZ 2021
Friday 11 June–Saturday 12 June
A 24-hour race against the clock to identify as many species as possible in this habitat-rich area, following the 2015 and 2018 BioBlitzes, which recorded 346 and 705 species respectively in 24 hours. This event is free to attend and no advance booking is required. Country Park, River Road, Stanah, Thornton, Lancashire FY5 5LR SCOTLAND
ROYAL SOCIETY OF BIOLOGY ANNUAL TEACHERS’ MEETING
With the formalities of the AGM completed and a bevy of enthusiastic helpers co-opted onto the committee, Professor Joanna Price, vice-chancellor of the Royal Agricultural University since 2016, began her lecture titled ‘The myth behind the alpha male and other reflections of a career with animals’. After a veterinary degree at Bristol, Professor Price entered equine practice under Peter Scott Dunn, vet to the Queen. Dealing with exercise-related musculoskeletal injuries in horses sparked her interest in bone development and repair, and she went on to study bone formation for her PhD. Using deer antlers as an in vivo model, her research investigated the interplay between the various cells, hormones and growth factors that affect the rapid growth of these extraordinary bones. No other mammal can naturally regenerate a lost organ and the loss of antlers each spring is triggered by a fall in circulating testosterone levels. If a deer is castrated the antlers keep growing. However, at a cellular level oestrogen receptors (ERs) are the main target as testosterone is converted to oestrogen. Blocking ERs extends the length of the growth cycle – that is, it has a similar effect to castration. As a postdoctoral researcher Price returned to the question of how exercise influences bone structure and function. ERs were found to play a key role in bones’
Thursday 27 May
A one-day conference for biology teachers across Scotland, with inspirational talks by leading biology professionals, teaching materials and resources, and networking. This event is free and online registration is essential via www.sserc.org.uk. Registration is on a first come, first served basis and places will be limited. Moredun Research Institute, Pentland Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik EH26 0PZ More branch events are now open for registration at rsb.org.uk/events Professor Joanna Price, an expert on bones
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Branches, 1 The Scotland branch explored the biology of music and dance
adaptive response to loading. Lower levels affected the complex cellular responses to mechanical strain and knocking out ERs in transgenic mice reduced bone formation on loading. Even in men the ER has a profound effect on bone growth and metabolism. Clearly oestrogen and oestrogen receptors play a pivotal role in regulating the way bones grow, regenerate and adapt in both sexes and in different species. Antlers are unique models for investigations into repair and regeneration, but many questions remain unanswered – for example, where do the stem cells in the antler blastema originate from and what controls them? Price managed to combine a thrilling escape into the world of her research, intertwined with humour and anecdotes. The East Midlands branch thank her for her time and our members for their attendance. Rosemary Hall MRSB KENT, SURREY AND SUSSEX
THE HUMAN EXPOSOME AND BRANCH AGM 23 September 2020
Our 2020 AGM was conducted via Zoom and was followed by a talk by Dr Toby Athersuch from Imperial College London titled ‘Making sense of the metabolic milieu: methods for characterising the human exposome’. The concept of a human exposome (the environmental counterpart of the
human genome) has been developed over recent years to help scientists move away from studying candidate and model chemicals, and instead explore the complexity of authentic human exposures and their responses. Dr Athersuch outlined how research institutions are aligning specialists from across the biological and chemical sciences to help characterise environmental determinants of chronic diseases. This represents a shift in the prevailing environmental health research paradigm, from traditional ‘bottom-up’ approaches focused on a small number of environmental exposures towards ‘top-down’ systems approaches powered by rich phenotypic and genotypic characterisation of individuals. The small molecule metabolites that make up the human ‘metabolome’ are at the interface between cells’ internal chemical milieu and the external environment. Characterising the human metabolome is therefore critical to the conduct of effective exposome studies. Dr Athersuch discussed the main analytical tools used, before providing some exemplars of how these have been used in the first wave of largescale exposome studies. Importantly, these studies use biobanked resources from critical periods of life, when environmental exposures may have particularly significant effects – including mother-child cohorts, adolescents and the elderly. Dr Toby Athersuch MRSB and Dafydd Lewis CBiol FRSB
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BIOLOGY OF MUSIC AND DANCE SYMPOSIUM AND AGM 24 October 2020
First there was Snowdrop, a musical cockatoo, moving to the beat; a group of children, dancing to a beat too, but each adopting an individual style; then Indian dance, ballet, and a health-enhancing song and movement routine for our guests to take part in. Just some of the highlights that enlivened an exploration of the biological roots of our compulsions to make music and to dance. Professor Tecumseh Fitch (Vienna University and formerly St Andrews) opened with the case for social bonding as an overarching driver of the evolution of music and dance – unifying theories based on adaptations such as mate selection, parental care and group cohesion. Dr Katie Overy from Edinburgh University took us into the brain, with an explanation of the structural changes induced by musical experience, followed by insights into music’s therapeutic, educational and social applications. Dr Corrine Jola from Abertay University, with expertise as both choreographer and neuroscientist, then introduced her concept of the embodied neuroscience of dance – an approach that integrates aesthetic judgements and scientific analysis with an overall aim to advance our understanding of how people interact and communicate. Vol 68 No 1 / THE BIOLOGIST / 43
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Sophie Boyd from Glasgow University, who leads a community singing group for people living with long-term respiratory conditions, talked about her ‘real world’ research, which demonstrates how singing and movement help manage breathlessness and improve health. All the speakers emphasised the value of these creative arts in promoting a sense of wellbeing. The branch would like to thank all the speakers and those who attended the online symposium. Dr Russ Clare MRSB THAMES VALLEY
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LECTURE BY KERI LANGRIDGE ON ‘SCOTTISH WILDCATS’ HYBRIDISATION’ 9 November 2020
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This was our first joint meeting with the Oxfordshire Mammal Group. Keri Langridge from the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland discussed the history and decline of Scottish wildcats. She described the appearance and distinguishing features of the cats and hybrids, such as the dorsal line on the back and distinctive tail markings, and talked about the reasons for their decline, such as habitat loss and broader predator declines. She also discussed the recent interbreeding with domestic cats. The second part of her talk focused on the drivers of hybridisation and whether it was a cause or effect of population decline – it is not known whether this is the cause of extinction or a consequence of it. She went through some other international case studies – for example, low hybridisation in a region of Germany is thought to be because humans do not live near the forest. In Spain, however, there is higher hybridisation because of wider movement range and because their habitat is used for hunting. Langridge ended her talk by outlining the future strategies for conservation and stated they must address the underlying causes of hybridisation. Wildcats like large areas of continuous deciduous habitats, with no disturbance, and habitat management can play a role in reducing or preventing hybridisation, as well as management of the domestic cat population. We found the talk highly valuable and informative, and we hope that the joint links with the Oxfordshire Mammal Group will continue. Kerry Broom CBiol FRSB 44 / THE BIOLOGIST / Vol 68 No 1
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AGM AND LECTURE: ‘FROM ZOMBIE COCKROACHES TO BEES SCARING ELEPHANTS’
Male moths’ antennae have evolved into sievelike forms to pick up female hormones
3 December 2020
An attention-grabbing title featuring a popular area of biology meant that this online event attracted a large audience. Evolutionary biologist and award-winning author Dr Tristram Wyatt began by arguing that smell is a key to behaviour across the animal kingdom. He introduced us to bioassays used in early experiments on pheromones. We saw images of the extravagant antennae of male moths, which evolved to resemble molecular sieves to pick up the hormones of potential mates. He next considered how the study of animal behaviour has changed over the centuries, starting with the earliest images of cave paintings. He discussed the dangers of the anthropomorphism seen in much writing through the centuries, and the fact that Darwin was the exception to this. The many laboratory-based experiments carried out by comparative physiologists such as Skinner are problematic – despite rigorous experimental design the behaviours seen were entirely divorced from natural behaviours in the wild. The survival value of a specific behaviour in the wild is critical to modern understanding. Ornithologist Nikolaas Tinbergen noted that black-headed gulls always remove eggshell from their nests as the bright white interior acts as a beacon to predators. Recent studies into the evolution of new behaviours have found that a cricket population in Hawaii no longer sing because a parasitic fly is attracted by their song – eventually only the mutant non-singing individuals survived. The ‘zombie’ cockroach behaves in its crazed way because the parasitoid jewel wasp injects a combination of neurotoxins into precise locations in the brain. Studying animal behaviour can lead to positive change. Marian Dawkins’ investigations of animal behaviour under different welfare conditions led to legislative changes in the way in which caged hens could be kept. And conflict between farmers and roving elephants has been reduced by exploiting the elephants’ natural fear of bees, with farmers helped to erect beehives on their land rather than fences. This fascinating account was followed by
many thought-provoking questions from the audience. The event can be viewed on the Society’s YouTube channel.
Dr Hilary Otter FRSB
YORKSHIRE
AUTUMN SYMPOSIUM ON REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES 14 November 2020
When Dr Emma Jones first suggested this theme we envisaged that the event would be held in a lecture theatre at the University of Sheffield. Unfortunately, COVID-19 intervened and we found ourselves planning our first-ever virtual symposium. Thanks to Dr Jones’s careful organisation and expert assistance from the RSB the meeting was a great success, with more than 70 people registering. We had two excellent presentations from experts in their fields. ‘Can we support wildlife genetic diversity using reproductive technology? What about species that are already extinct’, asked Professor Bill Holt, visiting professor at the Academic Unit of Reproductive and Developmental Medicine, University of Sheffield, and honorary research associate at the Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Washington DC. Professor Holt
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Scottish wildcats are under threat from hybridisation with domestic cats
gave a fascinating account of the current uses of reproductive science to support the survival of wild and captive species. We learned about the non-invasive technique of faecal sampling, which allows monitoring of fertility cycles, sex ratios and pregnancies by measuring hormone levels. This approach has been successful in helping the conservation of Mohor gazelles in captivity in Spain, while in Canada it has even been combined with DNA analysis to monitor individual caribou in wild populations. Professor Holt also spoke about the more familiar technique of artificial insemination, which has been used to improve the genetic diversity and survival of the black-footed ferret, a species brought back from the edge of extinction in the US. We learned that natural mating may give the best results for the giant panda, provided that detailed studies on endocrinology, social behaviour and mate choice have been undertaken. After hearing about widespread attempts to conserve amphibians under threat from the fungal infection chytrid, Holt turned our attention to the more controversial area of ‘de-extinction’. In theory, using the latest reproductive techniques (e.g. cloning), extinct species such as woolly mammoths or the Tasmanian wolf might be brought back
to life. Of course, this raises a large number of important ethical and biological issues. Professor Allan Pacey, professor of andrology at the University of Sheffield, then gave an entertaining presentation on ‘Male infertility: do we have a sperm crisis?’ Although human sperm were first visualised using a primitive microscope in 1678 by Anton von Leeunwenhoek, it appears that studies on male fertility have been very much neglected since. Pacey suggested six convincing arguments for increased research into male fertility: a gradual decline in men’s sperm count in recent years (at least in the West), the rising age of paternity, the increased incidence of sexually transmitted diseases, increased rates of testicular cancer, poorer general health in men with known fertility problems and the findings from surveys that suggest young men are having less sex than in previous generations. In addition, in 30 to 50% of cases where couples have difficulty conceiving, the problem can be attributed to deficiencies in sperm production. After describing sperm physiology and development Pacey addressed treatments for male fertility that include artificial insemination, in vitro fertilisation, intracytoplasmic sperm injection and the use of donor sperm. Finally, although there are few obvious lifestyle factors that affect sperm number/health, he presented data from a very recent publication by his group that indicates that looser underwear and lycopene (found in cooked tomatoes) can be beneficial. Both talks led to interesting questions, indicating good audience participation, although we missed being able to give the speakers the applause they deserved. Dr Lynda Partridge FRSB
Contacts BEDS, ESSEX AND HERTS Dr Jacqui Piner • bedsessexherts@rsb.org.uk DEVON AND CORNWALL Christine Fry • devoncornwall@rsb.org.uk EAST ANGLIA Natalie Lamb • eastanglia@rsb.org.uk EAST MIDLANDS Rosemary Hall • eastmidlands@rsb.org.uk KENT, SURREY AND SUSSEX Dafydd Lewis • kentsurreysussex@rsb.org.uk LONDON Professor Patrizia Ferretti • london@rsb.org.uk NORTH WALES Peter Thompson • northwales@rsb.org.uk NORTH WESTERN Dr David Wareing • northwest@rsb.org.uk NORTHERN Dr Cathleen Thomas • northern@rsb.org.uk NORTHERN IRELAND Jonathan Shields • ni@rsb.org.uk SCOTLAND Dr Andrew Spiers • scotland@rsb.org.uk SOUTH WALES Dr Rowena Jenkins • southwales@rsb.org.uk THAMES VALLEY Dr Ray Gibson • thamesvalley@rsb.org.uk WESSEX Dr Hilary Otter • wessex@rsb.org.uk WEST MIDLANDS Lesley Payne • westmidlands@rsb.org.uk YORKSHIRE Dr Lynda Partridge • yorkshire@rsb.org.uk HONG KONG Dr Gert Grobler • hongkong@rsb.org.uk AUSTRALASIA Professor Lloyd Reeve-Johnson • australasia@rsb.org.uk
Our branches need you!
Artificial insemination has rescued the blackfooted ferret from extinction in the US
Joining a committee is your opportunity to organise and support the sort of events and activities you would like to see in your region. Contact regions@rsb.org.uk for more information. Vol 68 No 1 / THE BIOLOGIST / 45
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BSPP advert + Crossword, 1
CROSSWORD The biology brainteaser
Your chance to win a £25 book token Across
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1 Unsteady, so limit speed I go (15) 9 Undergoes 30 if 23 (5)
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This issue’s format
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Across entries are all from the world of biology clued only by a subsidiary indication. Down clues are traditional cryptic combinations.
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13 Within regular variability (5)
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How to enter Send us your completed puzzles by Wednesday 31st March. Please include your name, address, email and membership number. Post your entries to: Crossword, The Biologist, Royal Society of Biology, 1 Naoroji Street, Islington, London, WC1X 0GB
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Well done to Dr Clive Halliday CBiol MRSB and Brian Price CBiol MRSB. Book tokens are on their way to you.
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Down 1 Infuriate by getting genera wrong (6) 2 Hormone in us and in large bats (7)
Last issue’s solution Vol 67 No 6
7 Where you might put boot right in to agitate (7)
21 Naughty lie broadcast – these things roam the deep (7)
8 Observe irregular gaps around bottom of valve. Liquid escapes (8)
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23 Sort out confusion with in or out? Not in. (4,3) 24 Organise pupils to get stuff over the internet (6) 26 Warms up for early races (5) 29 Follow instructions to go beyond what’s restricted (4)
Could you recommend a member? The Royal Society of Biology represents, supports and engages with anyone who has an interest in the life sciences, and offers membership grades to suit all levels of expertise Existing members are uniquely placed to help grow our membership – and to increase the influence we are able to exert. A significant number of new members join as a direct result of a recommendation from someone they know and trust. If you have a colleague, friend or family member who would benefit from Society membership, please email their details to us – and let us know if you’d like us to mention your nomination. email: membership@rsb.org.uk
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Vol 68 No 1 / THE BIOLOGIST / 47
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#47 Lister’s antiseptic spray Surgeons’ Hall Museums, Edinburgh
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The award-winning Surgeons’ Hall Museums is one of the oldest museums in Scotland and houses the largest and most historic collection of surgical pathology in the world. Originally developed as a teaching museum for students of medicine, the Surgeons’ Hall Museums consists of the Wohl Pathology Museum, the History of Surgery Museum and the Dental Collection. Its 500-year-old history and fascinating collections are
used to share the journey of surgical advancement over time with the public. Displays highlight the innovative but at times disturbing surgical techniques used down the centuries, including the many amputations performed prior to the development of anaesthetic in the 1840s. One particularly topical exhibit in the History of Surgery Museum is an antiseptic spray from the 1870s of a type designed by Joseph Lister.
A surgeon and medical scientist who pioneered the use of antiseptic techniques to prevent infection in wounds, Lister published his ground-breaking paper ‘On the Antiseptic Principle in the Practice of Surgery’ in 1867 while working at Glasgow Royal Infirmary. He initially used bandages soaked in a weak carbolic acid solution to dress wounds, particularly compound fractures that carried a very high risk of infection. Lister later designed sprays such as this glass receptacle, which were filled with a 5% solution of carbolic acid. When heated the canister released a fine mist over the wound and operating area, including the surgeon’s hands and instruments. Lister’s ideas were met with a fair amount of resistance – some surgeons still didn’t accept that germs caused infections while others simply said antiseptics slowed procedures – but his work paved the way for the widespread introduction of sterilised instruments, the use of surgical gloves and masks, and ultimately the aseptic surgery that we now take for granted.
Words by Emma Wrake
Illustration of Joseph Lister’s antiseptic spray in use during a surgical procedure
Dependent on Scotland’s current COVID-19 restriction level, the museum is open seven days a week from 10am-5pm (last entry is 4.30pm), but reservations should be made in advance.
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Gifts in in Wills Wills could couldbe bethe thekey keyto toprotecting protecting Gifts the future future of of human humanhealth health the
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Our experience of COVID-19 shows how suddenly a global health challenge can appear. As a member of our scientific community, you will understand that while nobody can predict what we will face next, we can be certain that the future will bring many more threats to human health.
who will make the fight against antimicrobial resistance her life’s work.
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Without support at the crucial early stages, researchers like Dr Kaforou can be forced to abandon their passion and leave science altogether, with an immeasurable loss to future human health. Gifts in Wills provide the long term funding and security that allows the Foundation to invest in projects like Dr Kaforou’s and lay the foundations for quality research in years to come.
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As Chair of the Medical Research Foundation – the charitable arm of the Medical Research Council – I have seen the incredible impact that individuals who remember the Foundation in their Wills can have on the future of our health and wellbeing here in the UK. These gifts fund research and researchers which can have far-reaching implications for human health.
“As scientists, our duty is to secure the future of research for the generations that follow.”
With a gift in your Will you can play a key role in providing the science that will protect the health of future generations. Right now, the Foundation is funding research to tackle antimicrobial resistance, and investing in researchers like Dr Myrsini Kaforou –
Professor Fiona Watt, President of the Medical Research Foundation and Executive Chair of the Medical Research Council.
Your Will can fund the rational response to health challenges that medical science provides. While we don’t know what the future holds for human
“The funding I received through the Medical Research Foundation will be transformative for my research.” Dr Myrsini Kaforou
health in the UK, we do know that research, and the brilliant scientists driving that research forward, are the key to meeting those challenges for years to come. But many of these scientists rely on the generosity and foresight of fellow members of the scientific community – people like you, who are willing to leave a gift to medical research in their Wills. At the Medical Research Foundation, over 90% of our voluntary income comes from individuals who choose to include a gift in their Will – they are crucial in the Foundation’s ability to fund research that will enable the next generation of scientists
to make real world discoveries in the future. I firmly believe that a gift in your Will to the Medical Research Foundation is an excellent investment and will have a lasting impact on science and on the future of human health in the UK. Please consider this very special gift today.
Professor Nick Lemoine MD PhD FMedSci Chair of the Medical Research Foundation
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To request your free guide to gifts in Wills fill in this form and return to Freepost, MEDICAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION. You don’t need a stamp OR visit medicalresearchfoundation.org.uk/support-us/wills Name Address Postcode Email address We would like to contact you from time to time with our latest news. Please tick here if you are happy for us to contact you via email. The Medical Research Foundation does not share your personal information. You can unsubscribe at any time. For further information on how we collect, store and process your personal data, please read our Privacy Notice medicalresearchfoundation.org.uk/privacy Medical Research Foundation is a charity registered in England and Wales (Reg. Charity No. 1138223). Please follow Government isolation and distancing guidelines if posting.
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AN IMPORTANT MESSAGE FROM PROFESSOR NICK LEMOINE MD PHD FMEDSCI, CHAIR OF THE MEDICAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION AN IMPORTANT MESSAGE FROM PROFESSOR NICK LEMOINE MD PHD FMEDSCI, CHAIR OF THE MEDICAL RESEARCH FOUNDATION
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