Super Space: Resource Book by Teacher Superstore

Super Space r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S

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by Jane Bourke

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Library Activity Package: Super Space Upper Primary Resource Book

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Author: Jane Bourke Design & Typesetting: Shay Howard

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Acknowledgements: i. Clip art has been obtained from Microsoft Design Gallery Live and is used under the terms of the End User License Agreement for Microsoft Word 2000. Please refer to www.microsoft.com/permission. ii. Wikimedia Commons. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License” iii. IMSI’s Masterclips/MasterPhotos collection, 1895 Francisco Blvd, East San Rafael, CA 94901-5506 USA, website: www.imsisoft.com iv. Corel Corporation, 1600 Carling Ave, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1Z 8R7. v. © NASA, Great Images in NASA (GRIN) Sourced from: http://grin.hq.nasa.gov/ Photos from individuals and other sources are credited where applicable. Published by: Ready-Ed Publications PO Box 276 Greenwood WA 6023 www.readyed.com.au info@readyed.com.au

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Reproduction and Communication for educational purposes

The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act.

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For details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact: Copyright Agency Limited Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street Sydney NSW 2000 Telephone: (02) 9394 7600 Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601 E-mail: info@copyright.com.au

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Contents

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Ancient Astronomy....................................................................................4 New Technology, New Discoveries............................................................5 Star Astronomers......................................................................................6 The Universe..............................................................................................7 Across the Milky Way.................................................................................8 The Solar System.......................................................................................9 A Star is Born............................................................................................10 It’s in the Stars...........................................................................................11 Is Anybody Out There?.............................................................................12 The Eight Planets.......................................................................................13 Planet Earth...............................................................................................14 Mars: The Red Planet.................................................................................15 Planet Profiles...........................................................................................16 Mercury ...........................................................................................16 Venus................................................................................................16 Earth.................................................................................................16 Mars..................................................................................................16 Jupiter..............................................................................................16 Saturn...............................................................................................17 Uranus..............................................................................................17 Neptune...........................................................................................17 The Moon - Earth’s Satellite.......................................................................18 One Small Step.........................................................................................19 Curious Comets.........................................................................................20 Astounding Asteroids...............................................................................21 Marvellous Meteors...................................................................................22 The Sun - Our Shining Star.........................................................................23 Exciting Eclipses........................................................................................24 Eye on the Skies........................................................................................25 The International Space Station.................................................................26 Sky High Science Labs...............................................................................27 Surviving in Space.....................................................................................28 Space Exploration Timeline.......................................................................29 Super Space Websites...............................................................................30 Index.........................................................................................................31-32

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Library Activity Package: Space

Ancient Astronomy The night skies have intrigued people since time began and astronomy is one of the oldest fields of study. Skywatching began in ancient times when early astonomers noticed that celestial bodies go through regular cycles of motion. By studying these cycles, people were able to devise practical methods of keeping time, observe the start and end of seasons and navigate accurately, both on land and at sea.

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Since the dawn of time, people have looked to the skies for answers to the universe. Early astronomy came about as ancient farmers worked out ways of determining when the seasons started. People also noticed that the length of days and nights varied at different times.

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Constructions such as Stonehenge in England and the pyramids in Egypt, are two examples of ancient architecture that were based on astronomy. It is believed that the great rocks of Stonehenge may have been used to predict the positions of the Sun and Moon. Meanwhile, it is believed that the pyramids of Egypt are lined up in such a way as to reflect the position of the stars in the Orion constellation. Other early cultures, such as the Native Americans, are thought to have tracked the Sun through a series of ancient stone piles that measured the longest and shortest days of the year.

Great Astronomical Discoveries

Ancient Cultures

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Many cultures are rich in mythology that discusses the constellations and movements of the stars and planets. The Chinese were one the earliest cultures to look for answers in the stars. As long ago as the early 1300s BC, they mapped out the positions of the stars and recorded the times of special events, such as eclipses of the Sun and Moon.

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From these recordings, early civilisations such as the Babylonians, were able to predict when planets would appear closer to the Sun. Around the time of 700 BC, they were able to understand the concept of the annual events and seasons. Ancient Egyptians used bright stars, such as Sirius, as markers for the start of the seasons. Each of these cultures left detailed records of their astonomical discoveries, yet the solar system was indeed still a mystery to all. No-one knew why the stars and planets moved and no-one knew if the planets were moving around Earth or whether they were moving around the Sun or the Moon. Modern astronomers have been able to work out what some of the ancient cultures believed, by studying the architecture and artforms of the time. 4

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Stonehenge, Wikimedia.

1300s BC: Chinese astronomers charted the positions of the stars and recorded eclipses of the Sun and the Moon. 700 BC: Babylonians predicted when planets would appear closest to, and farthest from the Sun. 1543 AD: Nicolas Copernicus, a Polish astronomer, suggested that the Sun is the centre of the universe and that Earth and the other planets travel around it. Up until this point, astronomers had accepted two Greek astronomers' theories, Aristotle and Ptolemy, that the Moon, Sun, planets and stars move around Earth at various rates of speed. Early 1600s: Italian astronomer Galileo, became the first to use a telescope to study the sky. Galileo’s observations helped confirm the idea that planets revolve around the Sun and not around the Earth. 1781: British astronomer William Herschel discovered Uranus. 1930: American astronomer Clyde Tombaugh discovered the planet Pluto.

Library Activity Package: Space

New Technology, New Discoveries Look Up....

scale paved the way for the system that is used to classify stars today.

The Sun

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In the 200s BC, Aristarchus of Samos proposed that all the planets, including Earth, actually revolved around the Sun. This theory was not proved and for many hundreds of years, people still believed that Earth was the centre of the solar system. For nearly 1500 years people believed in the geocentric theory that was later developed in more detail by Greek philosopher, Aristotle.

Read about some of the astronomical theories of these early philosophers and astronomers:

♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦

Eudoxus of Cnidus Heraclides of Pontus Aristotle Hipparchus Aristarchus Nicolaus Copernicus Ptolemy Johanes Kepler Isaac Newton Galileo Galilei

in 1543, Nicolas Copernicus suggested that the Sun was the centre of the universe (heliocentric theory). This was in complete contrast to the geocentric theory.

The Invention of the Telescope

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Around 600 BC, ancient Greek philosophers and scientists started to develop important astronomical ideas. An early mathematician, Pythagoras, had come to the conclusion that the planet Earth was round and part of a bigger system. Shortly after, it was discovered that the planets actually moved and for a time, it was believed that the Sun, Moon and stars all revolved around Earth. This was known as the geocentric theory.

In 1609, Italian astronomer Galileo experimented with primitive lenses and became the first person to use a telescope to study the sky. His invention led to major discoveries about astronomy. With his telescope, Galileo was able to confirm the heliocentric system that Copernicus outlined. He also discovered that several moons revolved around the planet Jupiter.

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These discoveries were not well received by the Roman catholic church and in 1633, Galileo was forced to withdraw his support of Copernicus' findings.

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About 125 BC, another significant process took place. Greek astronomer Hipparchus, classified all the stars in the night sky according to their brightness. His classification scale has been adapted and modified since then, however, the

In 1668, English astronomer, Sir Isaac Newton, built a telescope that used a mirror. He became the most important scientist of the time, discovering the laws of gravity, the motions of the planets and the relationships between objects.

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Find out exactly how a telescope works - from its humble beginnings to the latest in telescope technology: www.yesmag.bc.ca/how_work/telescope.html Check out some online sky watching: www.skyandtelescope.com Check out the Hubble Space Telescope: hubblesite.org/

Hubble Space Telescope © NASA.

Library Activity Package: Space

Star Astronomers We owe much of what we know about space, the solar system and the universe to many great thinkers in the past. Their combined theories have enabled modern scientists to make sense of the world and how it came to be.

You’re studying space to learn about microwaves? Wouldn’t it be easier to just look in your kitchen?

Sir Isaac Newton r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S

Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642)

Background: Raised in Pisa, Italy. Galileo studied medicine and philosophy at the University of Pisa, however he had a talent for mathematics.

(1642 -1727)

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What’s that?

Background: Raised in Lincolnshire in England. Newton was very mechanically minded while growing up. He made many inventions in his youth and was sent to Cambridge University in 1661, and become a member of Parliament in 1689.

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In 1609 Galileo built a telescope and was the first to use such an instrument to study the sky. The telescope enabled him to find proof that:

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The Moon was not smooth, instead it was rocky and contained craters;

Significant Achievements in Astronomy: Newton proposed that the universe was held together by gravity and put forward his theory of gravitation.

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The planets revolved around the Sun.

In 1610 he used the telescope to prove that:

Newton did not accept criticism very well and he only reluctantly put forth his ideas and theories as he knew they would be opposed by other scientists. He is often referred to as the “Father of Physics”.

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Significant Achievements in Astronomy: Became convinced that all the planets revolved around the Sun and not Earth. Polish astronomer Copernicus had first suggested this theory in 1543 and Galileo was eager to prove it.

Jupiter had four moons (which Galileo called the Medicean Planets);

Venus progressed through different phases, much like the Moon;

The Sun contained sunspots;

Objects fall at the same speed regardless of their weight.

In 1665, Newton suggested that every pair of bodies in the universe is attracted to each other, which explains why the Moon orbits Earth and Earth orbits the Sun. For twenty years, Newton’s ideas about gravity went unnoticed. However, in 1684, Newton’s earlier findings were published in Principia. This work is thought to be one of the most important scientific contributions in history. In 1704, Newton discovered that sunlight is a mixture of all colours. This discovery led to Newton inventing a different type of telescope which contained reflecting mirrors instead of lenses.

Library Activity Package: Space

The Universe The Big Bang Theory r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S

This popular theory attempts to explain the beginnings of the universe. According to this theory, a huge explosion occurred at least ten billion years ago which sent matter flying in all directions. This theory was first put forward in 1927 by Belgian priest, Georges Lemaître. Then in 1929, American astronomer, Edwin Hubble found evidence to support this idea through his study of the movement of the galaxies.

Supernova Explosion © NASA.

The universe includes everything; all the matter, light, energy, space and time that exists. It includes our solar system and the galaxy in which it is contained. The solar system is only a small part of the universe. There are probably other solar systems just like ours with planets that revolve around a Sun. The stars we see in the night sky are distant Suns from other galaxies inside the universe. No-one knows for sure exactly how big the universe is. Scientists have been able to see objects that are at least 12 billion lightyears from Earth. One light-year is equal to 9,460,550,000,000 kilometres, so 12 billion light-years is a long way! For thousands of years, people thought that the solar system and the universe were the same thing. They thought that stars were just tiny glowing space bodies. It was not until the time of Nicolas Copernicus’ theories that people understood that the tiny stars were probably as large as our Sun but just millions of light years away. The Sun is just a typical star.

The Red Shift

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have devoted their whole lives to finding out. New technology, such as improved telescopes and spectroscopes (instruments which examine light and radiation), have led to amazing and significant discoveries about the universe.

The "red shift" is an observable change in the light released by an object - the light appears redder when an object is moving away. By observing the amount of red shift, astronomers can work out the speed at which objects are moving away. The measurement of the red shift has provided evidence that the universe is expanding. Hubble suggested that the red shift could be used to estimate the distance of the galaxies from Earth. Hubble’s discovery has led astronomers to believe that galaxies are rapidly moving away from one another as in an explosion. These findings have led many modern scientists and astronomers to the conclusion that the universe is increasing in size.

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o c . che e r o t r s super How Did the Universe Begin? No-one is certain how the universe came to be, however, several astronomers and scientists

Cat’s Eye Nebula © NASA.

Become a Star Child:

Want to know all about astrophysics? Explore the fascinating links at the website below: starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/StarChild.html

Library Activity Package: Space

Across the Milky Way Astronomers estimate that there are about 100 billion galaxies in the universe and that they are grouped in clusters. The Milky Way is a spiral-shaped galaxy that our solar system exists in. This galaxy is only one of billions of galaxies in the universe.

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On a clear night, you can see the Milky Way with the naked eye. It appears as a milky-looking strip of stars that stretch right across the sky. In patches it appears to be dark and this is where huge clouds of dust and gas have blocked out the stars behind them. Every 250 million years our Sun completes an orbit of the centre of the galaxy. It is similar to the way in which Earth orbits the Sun once a year. Most of the other stars in the Milky Way move in this direction.

Space Words: black hole:

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The Sun is one of more than 100 billlion stars that exist in the Milky Way galaxy. This makes our solar system sound pretty small doesn’t it!

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Did You K

A light-yea r is the distance li ght can tra vel in a year. T his is abou t 9.5 trillion kilo The Milky W metres. ay measure s 100, 000 light-years across. It is impos sible to pre dict wheth technology er will ever all o w this kind travel in a of spacecraft .

A region of space with a gravitational force so strong that nothing can escape from it, not even light.

cosmos:

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A Greek term for the universe and everything in it.

A system of planets, stars, dust, and gases held together by gravity.

gravity:

A grazing encounter between two spiral galaxies. © NASA.

The natural force of attraction by an object such as Earth, that draws other objects to its centre.

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Astronomers and scientists have found that the centre of the Milky Way gives off a huge amount of energy. It is thought that the centre of the galaxy contains a black hole and that the pull of gravity in the centre is so great that no light can escape from it. This image above shows two distant galaxies on the verge of colliding.

Galaxies Galore:

Billions of years in the making, ten minutes on the WWW! http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/

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nebula:

A cloud of dust particles and gases in space. Astronomers believe that the solar system was developed from an exploding solar nebula.

orbit:

The path of a celestial body as it revolves around another body. For example, the Moon orbits Earth, Earth orbits the Sun.

planet: A solid circular body that orbits the Sun or another star. Planets are lit up by stars and are bigger than asteroids and comets.

star: A huge ball of glowing gas.

Library Activity Package: Space

The Solar System The central feature of the solar system is of course the Sun. All of the other objects that make up the solar system, such as the planets, the satellites (Moons), asteroids, comets and meteoroids, revolve around the Sun. The solar system is only a tiny part of a galaxy known as the Milky Way.

In 1846, German astronomer Johann G. Galle discovered Neptune. Earlier astronomers had predicted that such a planet existed but it was Galle that actually discovered the planet.

Further Insights

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r o e t s B r e oo Where Did the Solar System p u k Come From? S

Pluto was discovered after a long search. It was not until 1930 that astronomers were able to offer proof of its existence. Again, like Neptune, the planet Pluto was causing changes in the orbit paths of Neptune and Uranus. However in 2006, Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet in the solar system, meaning that only eight planets in the solar system exist today.

Astronomy is one of the most exciting sciences. Major advances in technology have allowed scientists to make accurate obser vations. Telescopes can now see billions of kilometres into space, while space programs, such as the Global Surveyor mission to Mars, and the Hubble Space Telescope have provided a wealth of information.

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In the 1700s, much thought was given to the origins of the solar system. Some astronomers thought that the Sun was formed in the same way as the planets, others believed that the Sun and planets were formed from a spinning cloud of gas called a nebula. The nebula theory is the one that most astronomers agree on today. It is believed that the nebula condensed and formed the Sun and formed several much smaller bodies (called planetismals). Over a period of many millions of years, these planetismals eventually combined to form what are now known as the eight planets in our solar system.

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The Planets

The solar system is divided into the INNER solar system and the OUTER solar system. The inner solar system is home to the Sun, Mercury, Earth, Venus and Mars. The outer solar system includes: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Visit the Solar System Live:

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Up until the 1700s, astronomers were only aware of six planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Uranus was discovered in 1781 by British astronomer, William Herschel. Up until this time, Uranus had always been mistaken for a star as no-one had noticed its motion.

The Uranus discovery led to the discovery of the planet Neptune when scientists studying Uranus, noticed that its path of orbit was unusual and looked as if it was affected by another planet.

The Hubble Space Telescope was launched in 1990 by NASA. It orbits Earth at a distance of 600 kilometres and is controlled by radio commands at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Centre.

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Solar system montage of Voyager images. © NASA.

www.fourmilab.ch/solar/solar.html

Library Activity Package: Space

A Star is Born The stars are there all the time, however the sunlight prevents us from seeing them during the day.

Stars are huge. It is hard to even envisage just how big they are.

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Alpha Centauri, the nearest star to our solar system, is more than 40 million kilometres away. Using today’s technology, it would take about a million years to fly to it!

The Glowing Eye - otherwise known as planetary nebula NGC-6751. © NASA.

Main sequence stars - The Sun

Like the Sun, stars are made up of helium and hydrogen gases. Only the brightest stars in the universe can be seen from Earth. Scientists estimate that about 6000 stars are visible from Earth without a telescope. Large telescopes are able to view 600 000 stars.

Red giant stars are very large. They are stars approaching the end of their life span. They are between 10 and 100 times bigger than the Sun. In five billion years, our Sun will become a red giant.

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White dwarf stars are relatively small stars. The smallest white dwarfs have a diameter about the same length as the distance across Asia.

After billions of years as a white dwarf, a star will have used up all its energy and lost all its heat. Such a star is then called a black dwarf.

is a main sequence star. These types of stars make up 90% of the stars that can be seen from Earth. The other stars are known as massive or giant stars. These massive stars go on to become supergiant stars and then supernovas.

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Stars start their life in a nebula when huge clouds of dust and gas collapse under gravitational force. These young stars are called protostars.

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Giant and supergiant

stars have burnt all the hydrogen in their core. The star Betelguese is a red supergiant.

Types of stars

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When we look at the Sun, it really only appears to be the size of a ball as it is so far away. There are over ten billion trillion stars in the universe and some of them are so huge that they would take up the whole distance between the Earth and the Sun. These massive stars look like tiny pinpricks in the sky because they are so far away. Even the Sun, which is 100 times bigger than Earth, appears to be the size of a basket ball because of its distance from us.

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Supernova - At the end of a massive star’s life, it explodes and becomes very bright at its centre. This massive explosion is known as a supernova.

Neutron stars have a

Black hole - This

Visit the Astronomy Glossary

diameter of about 20 kilometres. They are considered tiny.

occurs when a collapsed star has gravitation so strong that no light can esacape.

www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/glossary/ 10

Library Activity Package: Space

It’s in the Stars Astrology

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Some people believe that the Sun, Moon, planets and stars have a significant influence on life and events on Earth. Studying the patterns of celestial bodies is known as astrology and some believe these patterns hold the key to their futures. The Zodiac is a band of stars that surround Earth. This band has been divided into 12 parts (star signs) which represent parts of the year. Each star sign represents certain characteristics and it is thought that these influence a person’s character depending on what time of the year they are born.

constellations can only be seen during certain seasons based on Earth’s position in its orbit. Constellations were named by early Greek and Roman civilisations. They were usually named after animals and mythological characters. Later discoveries occurred between 1400 and 1700 when explorers travelled to the Southern Hemisphere and saw new constellations for the first time. These southern constellations were sometimes named after scientific equipment.

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Signs of the Zodiac

           

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Astronomers have divided the night sky into 88 constellations. The constellations are groups of stars. Not all of the constellations are visible at the same time and some parts of Earth never get to see some of the constellations. The famous Southern Cross constellation is only visible to viewers in the Southern Hemisphere. Some

Aries Taurus Gemini Cancer Leo Virgo Libra Scorpio Sagittarius Capricorn Aquarius Pisces

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It is believed that the Zodiac was first used by ancient Egyptians and Babylonians around the time of 1000 AD. They were able to recognise that certain constellations were more clear at certain times of the year, which is how they developed the concept of seasons. When it would rain heavily, the Sun was in a certain constellation. This constellation was named Aquarius.

The part of the sky visible at night at a particular place gradually changes as Earth moves around the Sun.

What Can You See? If you stand at the South Pole you will only ever see the constellations in the Southern Hemisphere. If you stand at the North Pole, you will only ever see the constellations of the Northern Hemisphere. However, if you stand right on the equator you will see all the constellations as they appear throughout the year. Click here for more:

 www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/

Library Activity Package: Space

Is Anybody Out There? In April 2001, the Mars Global Surveyor was sent on an extended mission to find further proof of the the so-called Face On Mars. With new technology they took high resolution pictures which revealed the true nature of the landform. The images showed that the “face” was merely a mesa; a broad flat tableland with steep edges. The latest photos do not contain the shadow that the original 1976 pictures showed and the face was not clear.

There are literally hundreds of websites which report alien abductions and UFO crashes. Yet, there is no firm proof that life exists on any of the planets within the solar system. To date, Mars looks to be the only planet in this solar system that could sustain a life form similar to human beings, although scientists are more open to the idea that if extraterrestrial life exists, it is in a distant galaxy.

To read more about the Face on Mars, visit: www.msss.com/education/facepage/face. html

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The Face on Mars

SETI

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Much has been written about the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. You may have seen movies on this fascinating topic -- ET, Star Wars, Independence Day and so on. However, what are the chances of there being life outside of the solar system? Surely if there is a solar system similar to ours somewhere else in the Milky Way or somewhere else in the cosmos, then the conditions would be right for some kind of life form on one of the planets.

The SETI Institute (www.seti-inst.edu) is devoted to finding proof of life on other planets. SETI researchers believe that the best way of finding other life forms is to look for technology that they may have developed. Complex communication systems have been designed to track radio and microwave signals near specific stars that are similar to our Sun. They figure that there may be a planet similar to Earth orbiting one of these stars. So far no signals have been detected.

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Li f e o n Mars

It is known that water once flowed on Mars and scientists have always wondered about the possibility of life existing on the Red Planet. Strong evidence exists that proves that there may have been a primitive life form on Mars billions of years ago. Want to know more? Zoom off to this Martian website:

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Viking Orbiter image 1976, Cydonia. © NASA.

Interference from the radio waves of exploding stars, and space satellites and transmitters has made the search difficult.

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In 1976, the Viking orbiter spacecraft was sent to Mars to take pictures of the planet’s surface. It captured an image in a region known as Cydonia, that appeared to be a giant face of at least three kilometres in length. This feature was one of a number of mesas and ridges that covered Mars' surface, with the distinct form of a human face. This oddity soon became known as the Face On Mars phenomenon, creating a huge sensation, and giving a lot of weight to the idea that Mars may have once been home to an ancient civilisation.

Global Surveyor mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/sitemap/ sitemap.html

Library Activity Package: Space

The Eight Planets The eight planets of the solar system are completely unique. They vary greatly in size, diameter, mass, distance from the Sun and the time they take to orbit the Sun. Within the solar system, distances are measured in astronomical units (AU). The distance between Earth and the Sun is equal to one AU. An AU is approximately 150 million kilometres.

r o e t s Bo r e Did You Know? p ok u S

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Planets do not produce their own energy or light, yet they reflect heat and light from the Sun. Jupiter and Saturn send out radio radiation which is picked up by radio telescopes on Earth.

♦ Mars is the only planet

with a surface that can be seen from Earth.

♦ Mercury is the closest

planet to the Sun.

♦ Venus is the brightest planet.

♦ Pluto is smaller than the Earth’s Moon.

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the King of the Roman gods.

Jupiter, © NASA.

♦ Uranus was discovered by accident.

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♦ Earth passes through the plane of Saturn’s rings every few years.

♦ Mercury is too close

to the Sun for it to be studied by the Hubble Space Telescope.

visited Venus for the first time in 1962. land on Mars was the Viking Lander in 1976.

What Are Planets Made Of?

Mercury, Venus, Mars and Earth are termed terrestrial planets. This means they are Earth-like in that they are made up of minerals such as iron and rock.

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♦ The Mariner spacecraft

♦ The first spacecraft to

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♦ Jupiter is named after

The four largest planets are referred to as giant planets and are made from gases such as hydrogen, helium, ammonia and methane. They are very different to the terrestrial planets and are sometimes termed jovian planets which means they resemble the gaseous planet Jupiter. All planets are surrounded by an atmosphere with a number of gases.

Satellites

Many planets have their own satellites. The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite, while Jupiter has at least 61 satellites including four large moons. There are two that are larger than Mercury.

Elliptical Orbits

Each planet orbits the Sun following an elliptical (oval-shaped) path, however, Mercury follows a more circular path. Earth takes one year (365 days) to orbit the Sun, while Mercury takes only 88 days.

Library Activity Package: Space

Planet Earth Earth is the only planet in the solar system that is able to sustain life forms of any kind. Other planets may have been home to life forms in the past but all evidence suggests that there is no life on any other planet in our solar system. Earth, like the other planets, travels through space around the Sun. It is only a tiny part of the universe and it is highly likely that other planets similar to Earth, exist outside of our solar system.

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As we know, Earth has an abundance of wildlife and intelligent life forms. Animals and plants live almost everywhere on Earth: on polar ice caps, in harsh deserts, in deep seas, tropical rainforests and on snowy mountain ranges. Scientists believe that Earth is the perfect distance away from the Sun to sustain life. All life on Earth relies on the Sun’s warmth, light and energy for survival. If Earth was closer to the Sun, it would be too hot for most living things and if it were any further away it would be too cold. Approximately 71% of Earth’s surface is covered in water. Like the Sun, water is a necessity for life.

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Earth from space © NASA.

Earth Fact File

©R eaof? dyEdPubl i cAgeat i ons of Earth: 4.3 billion years What is Earth Made

Comparable size: 5th largest planet •f orr evi ew pur pose sonl y• Diameter: 13,000 kilometres

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Earth’s Orbit

Distance from the Sun: •150 million kilometres •4th planet from the Sun

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Earth is a huge ball of rock and soil, which is covered mostly in water and has a layer of air (the atmosphere) completely surrounding it. However, compared to Jupiter, Earth is one of the smaller planets. Around Earth’s surface lies a thick layer of rock which is known as the crust. Underneath the crust is hot rock which continues deep down into Earth’s metal core. Life on Earth can only exist on Earth’s crust which ranges from 12-40 kilometres in depth.

Average temperature (day): 14 degrees Celsius Thickness of crust: Up to 40 kilometres

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Earth travels around the Sun in what is known as the orbital plane. The planet takes exactly 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes and 9.54 seconds to complete one orbit, travelling at a speed of 107, 200 kilometres per hour. Earth is tilted about 23.5° from the vertical position. This tilt and Earth’s orbit around the Sun are the reasons why Earth experiences the change of seasons.

Why is the Sky Blue?

Length of orbit (around Sun): 149 600 000 kilometres Duration of orbit: Approximately 365 days

Interesting Fact: Earth is the only planet not named after a Greek or Roman God.

It seems like such a simple question but the answer is quite complicated. Click here to find out: www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Skyblue. shtml 14

Library Activity Package: Space

Mars: The Red Planet While Mars is not our closest neighbour, (Venus often comes closer), it is the planet deemed most likely to be able to sustain life of some description. There is even talk that Mars would one day be able to sustain human life. Much time and money has been spent on studying Mars. Several spacecrafts have been sent there to gather information. The big question of course is, “Did life ever exist on Mars?”

r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S A Close Encounter!

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Extensive studies and proposals are in progress to decide on the best way for a human exploration mission to occur. Several factors have to be considered, especially since the time involved with such a mission could reach over 900 days. Most of the time would be spent travelling and astronauts would be spending nearly all this time in zero-gravity, which has some serious effects on the human body.

On August 27, 2003, Mars came closer to Earth than it has done in the last 60,000 years. This caused much excitement around the world, with many stores selling out of telescopes so that people could view the amazing red planet. Mars will not venture that close again until at least 2287.

Mars Fact . tFile:

Seasons: Mars has seasons like Earth. It also has polar caps which shrink and grow depending on the season. Orbit: Mars takes almost twice as long as Earth to complete an orbit around the Sun. Satellites: Mars has two moons: Phobos and Deimos. Mass: About 80% of Earth’s mass.

Atmosphere: Thinner than Earth’s atmosphere. Contains mainly carbon dioxide with small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and other gases.

Who Has Been to Mars?

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Temperature: Around 0 degrees Celsius. Sky: Red with pink/blue clouds.

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From a telescope, astronomers can tell that there are no oceans on Mars, just several craters. A volcano range lies near the equator as well as a huge canyon line. Scientists have found evidence to support the theory that water once flowed abundantly on the surface. Mars has a distinctly red surface due to high levels of a mineral called limonite.

So far there have been a number of spacecraft sent to Mars. Check out the work of these missions:

Fly-By Missions • Mariner 3-4, Mariner 6-7 (1964-1967) Orbiters • Viking 1 and 2 (1975) • Mars Observer (1992) • Mars Global Surveyor (1997) • 2001 Mars Odyssey (2001) • Mars Express (2003)

Landers and Rovers Pathfinder (1997) Mars Polar Lander (1999) Mars Exploration Rovers (2003) Visit the website below for more!

http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/

Library Activity Package: Space

Planet Profiles

The eight planets of the solar system display a remarkable variation in their features and orbits. They also share some similarities. The planets below are shown in order of their distance from the Sun.

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• Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun and is about two-fifths of the size of Earth. It takes 88 days to orbit the Sun. The Sun appears to be 2.5 times larger in Mercury’s sky than it does on Earth. • Mercury never comes any closer to Earth than 97 million kilometres. • A day on Mercury last 176 Earth days - that is from one sunrise to the next. Mercury rotates once every 59 days and is the second slowest planet. A day on Mercury is two-thirds less than a whole year on Earth! •Mercury’s surface appears to be very similar to the Moon’s surface. It is dry, extremely hot, and almost airless.

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• Venus is the slowest rotating planet in the solar system. It takes 243 Earth days for Venus to spin around once. Venus also spins around in the opposite direction to which it moves in its orbit around the Sun. • At its closest point, Venus is 41.4 million kilometres from Earth. This is the closest any planet reaches to the Earth. • Also known as the Evening Star, Venus is brighter than any other planet or star in our night sky. • Venus is almost the same size as Earth and is often referred to as Earth’s twin.

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• Earth is the densest object in the solar system. It is the only terrestrial planet that has a crust divided into plates that float over a hot mantle. There are eight major plates that move and occasionally collide causing earthquakes, faults and creating mountain ranges over time. This is known as plate tectonics. • The interaction between the Earth and the Moon slows the Earth’s rotation by about two milliseconds per century. This amount may seem quite insignificant, but scientists have calculated that about 900 million years ago, there were 18 hours in one day and 481 days in a year.

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• The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that Earth experiences because certain gases in the atmosphere (such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane) trap energy from the Sun. Without these gases, heat would escape back into space and Earth’s average temperature would be about 30 degrees Celsius colder. • Earth’s core is mostly made of iron. The core is thought to reach temperatures 7,000 degrees Celsius hotter than the surface of the Sun.

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• Mars travels around the Sun once every 687 days. • Even though Mars is much smaller than Earth, it has a similar surface area when compared to the land surface area of Earth. • Like Earth, the surface is varied and shows regions of mountains, craters and canyons. There is no evidence that Mars has tectonic plates making up an outer crust. There is however, evidence that water once flowed on Mars. • Like Earth, Mars has a tilted axis which causes seasonal changes. Seasons on Mars last about twice as long as those on Earth because Mars takes almost twice as long as Earth to complete one orbit around the Sun. 16

Library Activity Package: Space

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• • • •

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• Saturn is the second largest planet and is characterised by its remarkable rings. These rings were thought to be unique in the solar system until 1977, when faint rings were discovered around Uranus and shortly after, they were also identified around Jupiter and Neptune. The rings are made of billions of chunks of ice. Originally the rings were thought to be one solid ring. • Galileo, the Italian astronomer was the first to view Saturn with a telescope. Saturn is rather flat in shape and is not a perfect sphere. Its diameter through the equator is 10% longer than its diameter though the poles. • It takes 29.5 Earth years for Saturn to make one revolution around the Sun and Saturn spins around on its axis once evey 10 hours and 39 minutes.

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Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system and is the fifth planet from the Sun. It has a diameter 11 times larger than Earth. Jupiter spins faster than any other planet, rotating once every 9 hours and 55 minutes. This means a day consists of about 10 hours on Jupiter. The surface of Jupiter is covered by thick clouds and astronomers believe Jupiter is made of gases (90% hydrogen, 10% helium) and liquid, rather than solid rock.

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• Uranus was the first planet to be discovered in modern times. It is the most distant planet that can be seen without a telescope. • Uranus is the third largest planet in diameter, however Neptune is larger in mass. This planet is basically a large sphere of gas and liquids. • It takes 84 years for Uranus to orbit the Sun. Unlike other planets, Uranus is tilted on its axis at 98º. This means that it lies almost flat in its plane or orbit.

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• Like Pluto, Neptune cannot be seen without a telescope. Studies have shown that Neptune is made up mainly of hydrogen, helium, water, and silicates. Although silicates are the minerals that make up most of Earth’s rocky crust, Neptune does not have a solid surface like Earth. The planet is covered with thick clouds. • Neptune orbits the Sun once every 167 years. It spins around on its axis (tilted at 30º) once every 16 hours and 7 minutes.

Library Activity Package: Space

The Moon - Earth’s Satellite The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite and its nearest neighbour in the universe. It orbits the earth once every 28 days and although the Moon is the brightest object in the night sky, it gives off no light of its own. In fact the sky is always black on the Moon - even during the day!

r o e t s Bo r e ok The Surface of u thep Moon S There is no life form of any kind on the Moon and little evidence of any previous life form.

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The Moon is well known for its craters. There are billions of them, with diameters ranging from 30 centimetres to 1,000 kilometres. Some of the larger craters have hilly floors and rocky peaks in the centre. The craters are formed from the impact of flying space objects such as meteroroids which are solid objects travelling through space. Because the Moon has no atmosphere, these objects crash right on the surface. Even small meteoroids leave a crater. As there is hardly any erosion on the Moon’s surface, some of these craters have remained intact for millions of years!

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Italian astronomer, Galileo, was the first scientist to view the Moon through a telescope. He thought that the Moon’s surface was covered with seas and gave them the name maria. More recent discoveries have told us that these “seas” are in fact lowland areas of rock and soil. The lighter parts of the Moon are mountain regions. Many of the mountainous regions are as tall as the ranges of the Himalayas.

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Unlike Earth, there is no layer of gases that protect the Moon from stray meteoroids. The Moon has little gravity and so any atmospheric gases probably disappeared into space.

Diameter: 3,476 kilometres

Return trip to the Moon: Takes six days

Number of Moon craters bigger than 30 centimetres: 30, 000, 000, 000, 000

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This means that there is no wind, no clouds and no rain on the Moon and no water on any surface. There is also a lack of air which means that communication on the Moon has to occur via radio, as there is no air to carry the sound waves.

Gravity on the Moon

The force of gravity is six times weaker on the Moon than it is on Earth. If you weighed 30 kilograms on Earth, you would weigh five on the Moon! The Moon’s mass is about 81 times less than Earth’s mass. However, scientists have discovered that the force of gravity varies on different parts of the Moon’s surface. 18

Distance from Earth: 384,400 kilometres

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Lacking in Atmosphere?

Age of the Moon: 4.2 billion years

Number of crewed lunar landings: Six

Largest crater diameter: 1,100 kilomretres

Highest point: 7,920 metres (Leibnitz Mountains) Daytime Moon temperature: 127 degrees Celsius Orbit Speed: 3,700 kilometres per hour Check out this interactive map of the Moon:

www.penpal.ru/astro/ Find out what the Moon looks like at any given time:

tycho.usno.navy.mil/ vphase.html

Library Activity Package: Space

One Small Step...

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The Apollo program was not the first to explore the Moon. As early as 1959, the Russians had been sending their Luna orbiters to fly by the Moon. The Luna Program was responsible for landing the first spacecraft (unmanned) on the Moon on September 13, 1959.

Moon Stations

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In July, 1969, the glass. Nothing is able Moon became the to live in this soil and first celestial body to there is no evidence be visited by humans. of fossilised animal or The United States of plant materials. America sent three Moon rocks are made astronauts to the of a variety of minerals Moon onboard the including iron, Apollo 11. A total of aluminium, calcium, five manned lunar magnesium and landings occurred as oxygen. A number of part of NASA’s Apollo gases such as helium Program which lasted and hydrogen, form for three and a half pockets in the rock. years. A total of 12 The r ock samples men set foot on the Tranquillity Base on the Moon (Apollo 11) © NASA. collected so far prove Moon during this that at one stage the program. No-one, Moon was very hot, and may have experienced however, has touched down on the Moon a volcanic process. since 1972.

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The numerous lunar landings and probes have provided scientists with over 90,000 photographs of the Moon. They have been able to gather information for almost all of the Moon’s surface.

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Due to the lunar landings, scientists have been able to collect actual samples of the rocks and soil from the Moon’s surface. The samples contain dark grey soil with bits of rock and

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Moon Studies

There are no firm plans to build any scientific bases on the Moon but someday it will become a reality. Scientists believe that building bases underground would protect human workers from powerful radiation and intense temperature extremes. The Moon’s temperature can range from 127 degrees Celsius (daytime) to minus 173 degrees Celsius (nighttime). The other factor is that the Moon is not protected from meteoroids like Earth, so there is a huge risk that any surface base could be demolished.

Peace on the Moon

In 1967, over 90 countries signed a space exploration treaty declaring that the Moon cannot be used for any military purposes.

o c . c e r ...One Giant Leaph for Humankind er o t s super The Apollo Program

On July 20, 1969, three American astronauts landed on the Moon, an event which plunged the world into a state of wonder. Commander Neil Armstrong made the first giant leap on to the lunar surface, followed by Edwin (Buzz) Aldrin.

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However, did you know that the last man to set foot on the Moon was Eugene Cernan, Commander of Apollo 17. This occurred on December 14, 1972. Lunar Exploration Timeline: nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/

Other Moon Missions: Luna (1959- 76), Hiten (1990), Clementine (1994), Lunar Prospector (1998).

Library Activity Package: Space

Curious Comets A comet is an icy body that consists of a solid nucleus in the centre, a cloudy atmosphere called a coma, and one or two tails. Most comets can only be seen with a telescope, however, some are visible to the naked eye for a short time as they pass close to the Sun. The dust in their tails reflects sunlight at this time, making them appear quite bright. The best time to view a comet is at sunset or sunrise.

Most comets are thought to be debris left over from the solar nebula when the solar system was first formed. Scientists believe that they broke away from a huge cloud called the Oort Cloud, which surrounds the entire solar system and reaches towards the nearest star past the solar system.

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Comets have highly elliptical orbits that, at times, bring them very close to the Sun and then send them deep into space.

Perihelion is the term used to describe the point in an object’s orbit at which it is closest to the Sun. The Chinese first recorded comet sightings as early as 1059 BC.

When comets approach the Sun, the volatile particles burn up and evaporate. Eventually the comet becomes just another rocky mass in the solar system. Comets are said to be short-lived, when compared to the ages of other celestial bodies.

Halley’s Comet

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As a comet approaches the Sun, its tail becomes luminous and extends for millions of kilometres away from the head (nucleus) of the comet. When a comet is away from the Sun, the material in its tail becomes cold and frozen. At this time, comets are sometimes referred to as dirty icebergs or snowballs.

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Origins of Comets

This is probably the most well-known comet of all time. It caused a glowing sensation in 1986 when it came swinging by Earth on its way around the Sun. The last perihelion occurred in 1910.

Comets are na med after the Latin word cometa which mea ns “long-haired”. Astronomer , Edmund Halley predicted that a bright comet th at had been sigh ted in 1531, 1607 an d 1682 would reappear in 175 8. He was corr ect, however, he sadl y died in 1742. That comet is now kn own as Halley’s Comet and will re appear in 206 1.

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Comet Collision!

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Between 1984 and 1985 five spacecraft (from Japan, Russia and Europe) visited the comet. The nucleus of Comet Halley measures 16 x 8 x 8 kilometres. Comet Halley has an orbit that lasts approximately 76 years so if you’re lucky, you may just see this comet the next time it passes close to Earth around 2061.

Look Up!

Check out these famous comets on the Internet:

Halley Hale-Bopp Kahoutek Hyakutake Mueller Linear Shoemaker-Levy

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In July 1994, the comet Shoemaker-Levy certainly put on a show for astronomers around the world. This comet travelled far too close to the planet Jupiter and was swallowed up! Unlike Earth, Jupiter is made up mainly of gases and so the surface is not solid. With a solid surface, a comet would crash leaving a crater. Instead, the Shoemaker-Levy comet encountered Jupiter’s atmosphere of gases and was engulfed, creating dark marks until it eventually faded into Jupiter’s clouds. The high temperatures caused the comet fragments to melt. See the footage: seds.lpl.arizona.edu/sl9/sl9.html 20

Library Activity Package: Space

Astounding Asteroids Deep Impact! r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S

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An asteroid is basically a small planetary body The asteroids that orbit in the inner solar that revolves around the Sun. Sometimes system are termed “near Earth” asteroids. asteroids are called planetoids or minor Could an Asteroid Crash into Earth? planets. They are made up of metal and rock Well, we’ve seen the movies, but what are the with most of them being located chances of an asteroid collision? in the Asteroid Belt between the As recently as July 2002, an orbits of Mars and Jupiter. These aster oid appear ed to be Some asteroid planet-like objects are thought s have heading for a collision with actually hit th to be left over debris from the e earth’s Earth. This asteroid was over su rface. It is belie formation of the solar system. ved by two kilometres in diameter and some that an Some astronomers believe that asteroid was named 2002 NT7. Some was responsibl they are the remains of a planet e for wiping astronomers calculated that ou t the dinosaur that exploded between Mars s that it would hit Earth on February roamed the ea and Jupiter, while others think rth 65 1, 2019. The Jet Propulsion million years ag that whilst there was enough o. Laboratory in the United States material to form a planet, the has since ruled out a collision at rocky objects failed to join up this time, but is yet to completely and created a belt of asteroids rule out a collision that could instead. occur with this asteroid in 2060. Many asteroids have been An asteroid this size could easily sighted and named by wipe out a quarter of the world’s astronomers. Ceres, with a population. The asteroid 2002 diameter of 1,000 kilometres, NT7 is now 100 million kilometres was the first asteroid to be away and orbits the Sun every 2.3 named. It was discovered on years. January 1, 1801 by an Italian A further discovery in September 2003 astronomer named Guiseppe Piazzi. To date, plotted the asteroid 2003 QQ47 on a collision Ceres is the largest known recorded asteroid. course with Earth. They speculated that the 1.2 Some asteroids are no bigger than marbles. kilometre wide asteroid could hit Earth on March Astronomers have named and counted at 21, 2014, however the chance of a direct hit is least 16 asteroids that have a diameter of 240 one in a million. Scientists are still researching kilometres or more. Some of these are found the path of this asteroid. inside Earth’s orbit, however most of them are found in the main asteroid belt.

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. te Bad Astronomy o Famous Craters c . che e r o t r s super There are some great movies about asteroids crashing into Earth, however, much of the astronomy isn’t entirely accurate. Learn more by visiting this site and clicking on the movie section. Armageddon and Deep Impact are two movies that feature asteroids. www.badastronomy.com

Many asteroids have already crashed into Earth and there are craters to prove it. The Chicxulub crater in Mexico is the largest crater ever measured. The crater was created around 65 million years ago and is 180 kilometres in diameter. Other massive craters include: Crater

Location

Diameter

Estimated Age

Manicouagan Canada

100 km

214 million years

Gosses Bluff

Australia (NT)

24 km

142 million years

Tookanooka

Australia (Qld)

55 km

128 million years

Popigai

Russia

100 km

35 million years

Woodleigh

Australia (WA)

120 km

180-130 million years

Library Activity Package: Space

Marvellous Meteors Meteor Types:

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When a meteor enters Earth's atmosphere it turns into a meteorite. Meteorites that hit Earth's surface are termed meteroids. Meteors are classified into three different types:

Stony: These meteroites consist mainly of silicon and oxygen. They also have traces of iron, magnesium and other minerals. Some stony meteorites are known as chondrites and have the same composition as the material that planets were formed from. Achondrites are meteorites that originally belonged to another larger body such as an asteroid. They have an iron core and a stony crust.

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r o e t s Bo r e p ok u S © NASA.

Meteors are often called shooting stars and can be clearly seen in the night sky without a telescope. The meteor phenomenon occurs when a meteoroid burns up as it enters Earth’s atmosphere. The air causes it to glow, creating a shining trail of gases and melted particles.

Stony-iron: These sorts of meteorites have equal amounts of an iron-nickel metal and silicon-based stone.

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Meteor Showers

At the same time each year, Earth runs into swarms of tiny meteoroids which burn up and create a spectacular shower of sparks. The biggest meteor shower to date, occurred in November 1833 when a set of meteoroids that seemed to come from the constellation Leo lit up the sky. This shower was known as a Leonid shower. Leonid showers appear around November each year with a huge display occurring every 33 years.

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The largest meteorite... So far the largest meteorite to hit Earth weighed about 60 tonnes. It fell on a farm in Namibia, Africa.

Scientists have found hundreds of craters that have been caused by meteorites. The most well-known crater is the Meteor Crater in Arizona (US). It measures 1.3 kilometres across and 174 metres deep. 22

Like comets and asteroids, meteoroids orbit the Sun. They can move at speeds of up to 40 kilometres per second.

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Iron: This type of meteorite is made up of iron and nickel.

Most meteoroids burn up or disintegate before hitting Earth. There are millions of them entering Earth’s atmosphere every day, however, these fascinating celestial bodies become visible when they are between 60 and 120 kilometres away. Many of them disintegrate when they are around 60-90 kilometres away.

There are several sites on the Internet that are devoted to providing world wide information about meteor impacts and meteor showers: International Meteor Organisationwww.imo.net/

American Meteor Societywww.amsmeteors.org/

Meteor Crater in Arizonawww.meteorcrater.com

MetEor Strike!

Check out this interactive demonstration which shows how a meteor can hit Earth’s surface.

www.questacon.edu.au/html/meteor_strike.html

Library Activity Package: Space

The Sun - Our Shining Star About three quarters of the Sun’s mass comes from the gas hydrogen. The other quarter is made up of helium gas. At least 70 other chemical elements that are found on Earth, have been discovered on the Sun.

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Sun and the eight planets © NASA.

What Would We Do Without the Sun? There would be no solar system for a start. The Sun, a huge glowing ball of gases, is indeed the centre of our solar system and one of at least 400 billion stars in our galaxy. In our solar system the Sun means everything, but in the galaxy, it is just like any other star.

When we look up in the sky, the Sun looks about the same size as the Moon. However, the Sun is a massive celestial body with a diameter 400 times the size of our humble Moon! The Moon is a mere 384,000 kilometres away, while the Sun is almost 400 times as far away. However, even though the Sun is at least ten times the size of Jupiter, it is considered a fairly average sized star in the galaxy.

Sun Facts

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Interestingly, Earth receives only one two-billionth of the Sun’s light and energy. The rest of it is lost in space!

The Sun gets pimples too!

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• Light from the Sun takes eight minutes to reach Earth. • It would take approximately five months for a spacecraft to fly to the Sun at a speed of 40,200 kilometres per hour. However, the spacecraft would burn up very soon into the journey.

• Sunlight contains of all the colours of the rainbow.

o c . che e r o t r sDwarf supYellow er

Dark spots can be seen on the Sun’s surface, measuring around 32,000 kilometres in diameter. These sunspots occur in cooler regions on the Sun’s surface. When the temperature decreases, the gas doesn’t shine as brightly. However, at the surface, sunspots are still VERY hot - about 4,000 degrees Celsius! The sunspot cycle is thought to last about 11 years. Sizzle over to this website to learn more: www.exploratorium.edu/sunspots/

• Earth orbits the Sun following an elliptical path and therefore at times Earth travels closer to the Sun. If Earth was any closer to the Sun, no life forms would be able to survive.

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The Sun is about 109 times the size of Earth and provides heat and energy for all of the planets in the solar system. Without the Sun, no life forms would be able to exist on our Earth.

• Astronomers estimate that the Sun is about 15 million degrees Celsius at the core. • The Sun makes up 99.8% of the solar system.

Astronomers refer to the Sun as a yellow dwarf star. There are stars that are much smaller than our Sun and there are massive stars that are approximately 1,000 times the size of the Sun. Scientist believe that the Sun is about 4.6 billion years old and is expected to keep shining for at least another five billion years.

Library Activity Package: Space

Exciting Eclipses An eclipse is the result of a huge cosmic coincidence. This spectacular event is quite rare and Earth is the only planet in the solar system that witnesses solar eclipses. There are usually between two to five eclipses each year, however, they are not visible from everywhere on the planet.

corona:

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Why Are Eclipses Only Seen On Earth?

The normally invisible outer atmosphere of the Sun.

umbra:

The shadow cast by the Moon onto Earth during a solar eclipse. It often resembles a black cone. This term comes from the word umbrella.

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From Earth, the Moon and Sun appear to be almost the same size. In reality, the Sun is about 400 times bigger, but because it is millions of kilometres further away, it appears quite small. On the planets that form the inner solar system, the Sun appears larger than it does from Earth and so their © Frank Espenak. Moons would appear to be much smaller than the Sun. On the planets of the outer solar system, the Sun appears much smaller than it does from Earth and the several Moons that orbit these planets may appear much larger. Because of the similarity in size, when the Moon and Sun coincide in the sky, the Moon exactly covers the Sun and completely blocks it out, making the sky dark. During this time, the sky is dark and all that can be seen is the corona, the Sun’s normally invisible atmosphere. When the Moon completely covers the Sun, it is known as a total solar eclipse. If the Sun is not completely covered, the event is known as a partial solar eclipse. When the Moon is further away than average, it does not completely cover the Sun and so an annulus forms. This is known as an annular eclipse.

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Eclipse Words:

penumbra:

The part of the Moon’s shadow from which a partial eclipse can be seen.

annular eclipse:

An eclipse occurs when the shadow of one object in space falls on another object, or when one object moves in front of another to block its light. Earth and the Moon Eclipse View from the The International Space always cast shadows Station (ISS) © NASA. into space and the Moon orbits Earth about once every month. However, because the Moon’s orbit is tilted about five degrees to Earth’s orbit around the Sun, the Moon’s shadow generally misses Earth and an eclipse does not occur. A solar or lunar eclipse can only occur if the Earth, the Sun and the Moon are in a straight line. An eclipse is only visible to a small part of the world as the Moon’s shadow is quite small when it falls onto Earth. There is a “band of totality” from which people can view a total solar eclipse and this band is never larger than 272 kilometres wide. Depending on the positions in orbit, the duration of an eclipse may be between a few seconds and up to seven minutes. 24

the silhouetted Moon. The corona is visible at this time.

total solar eclipse:

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How Does an Eclipse Occur?

A partial solar eclipse.

Occurs when the Sun appears to become dark as the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth.

lunar eclipse:

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Occurs when the Moon darkens as it passes through Earth’s shadow.

Click here for more: www.MrEclipse.com/ MrEclipse.html

Library Activity Package: Space

Eye on the Skies The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a reflecting telescope built as an orbiting observatory. It is controlled by radio commands from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Centre, which is located in Maryland in the United States. During its lifetime, this telescope has become one of the most important science projects ever.

The Specs

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April 24, 1990, by NASA’s space shuttle Discovery (STS-31).

Repaired:

In 1993 when it was discovered that there were errors in the telescope’s original optics.

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Launched:

Orbit:

Orbits Earth at a distance of 610 kilometres above the surface, escaping the effects of Earth’s atmosphere.

Orbit shape:

Circular.

Orbit distance:

593 kilometres.

Orbital time:

Approximately 96 minutes.

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Mission schedule: The mission is expected to end in 2010.

you needed to know about thea Hubble Space Telescope ©Everything Rea dever yEd P u b l i c t i o n s www.hubblesite.org/ •f orr e i e w pu r pbeo se l y• Forv the best Hubble images, sure tos visito thisn website: www.seds.org/hst/hst.html

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The HST has delivered many amazing images to astronomers and scientists since it was first sent into space. It has paved the way for certain ideas and theories about astronomy and space exploration.

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Some significant discoveries:

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 Finding evidence for massive black holes: The discovery was based on observations of Galaxy M87, which is about 50 million light years away from Earth. A light year is the distance that light travels in a year which is about 9.46 trillion kilometres.  Astronomers have collected images of Pluto, and of a satellite of Pluto called Charon.  HST provided evidence that at least half the young stars in the Great Nebula are surrounded by disks of dust and gas that may one day form planets. The Great Nebula is a cloud of dust particles and gas in the Orion constellation.  The expansion of the universe has been measured.  HST found proof that gamma-ray bursts occur in galaxies. These spectacular but powerful explosions are equal to all of the Sun’s energy generated over its ten-billion-year lifetime! and now....astronomers are currently searching for stars like our Sun, that have planets revolving around them.

Who was Edwin Hubble?

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Hubble Discoveries

Edwin P. Hubble (1889 - 1953) was an American astronomer and was the first person to explain that the universe contains star systems other than our galaxy, the Milky Way. He identified certain stars in the Andromeda Nebula as being of the same type as some stars in the Milky Way. However, he proved that the stars in Andromeda were not in the range of our galaxy and that Andromeda must be a separate galaxy. He also discovered that the universe is expanding. 25

Library Activity Package: Space

The International Space Station Can you believe that the the most complex engineering and construction project in the world is actually taking place in space? A total of 16 countries and over 100,000 people are contributing to the setting up and running of the International Space Station (ISS). This program is the result of years of study and tests. Several earlier programs laid the ground work - or should that be called “space work” - for the research station in space.

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The idea of having science labs in the sky is not new. Space stations have been operating in some form or another since the early 1960s. In 1984, the idea of an international space station was being developed and discussions about budgets, programmes, politics and the involvement of other countries were well under way.

Who’s On Board?

The ISS program is led by the United States, however the technological and scientific studies are carried out by a number of countries including Japan, Canada, Russia, Brazil and 11 nations of the European Space Agency.

The Specs © ReadyEdPubl i cat i ons Orbital assembly of the ISS started in 1997 and ended in 2004. The finished station will be more than four times larger than the Russian station Mir, and will weigh approximately 470 tonnes.

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Length: 90 metres Width: 110 metres Solar panel area: 4050 m2 Number of Labs: 6 Orbit Altitude: 402 kilometres above Earth Inclination: 51.6 degrees

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• 850 hours of spacewalks by astronauts were required to help construct the ISS. • At least 45 assembly missions occured to build the ISS. • The ISS has observation views of 85% of planet Earth.

Father of Space Flight

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ISS Facts:

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Hermann Oberth (18941989) coined the term Space Station way back in 1923. Oberth had the idea that the space stations would be a window for travel to Mars and the Moon. Oberth predicted interplanetary travel at a time when no-one even believed it would be possible to send a rocket into space.

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Scientists from around the world are working together aboard the ISS. The overall aim of the research is to prepare for future human space exploration, as well as make discoveries in the fields of medicine, biology and physical science. The impact of microgravity is a major focus for many research programs and scientists are curious to find out how gravity affects every aspect of life — from bacteria to plants to humans. The website below contains detailed information about all aspects of the reseach currently being carried out high in the sky.

Check Out:

www.kiosek.com/oberth/ Find out about the ISS at this NASA site:

http://spaceresearch.nasa.gov/

spaceflight.nasa.gov/ station/

Library Activity Package: Space

Sky High Science Labs Crash Landing!

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Skylab (1973-74)

This American space station was launched in 1973, setting in motion a long study on the impact of microgravity on the human body.

The Soviet space station Mir (“peace” in Russian) was launched on February 20, 1986 and was the original “international” space station. Mir had separate docking ports designed for the attachment of lab modules. Soon after its launch, three modules were sent by Russia into orbit. Cosmonauts (Russian astronauts) would spend up to a year at a time working on Mir. There was only a brief period in Mir’s history when it was unoccupied.

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After the third and final crew departed Skylab for Earth, NASA intended to boost Skylab further into space into a higher orbit. However, unexpected solar activity caused Skylab to fall from orbit and re-enter Earth’s atmosphere in 1979. Parts of Skylab landed in Western Australia and the Indian Ocean.

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The astronauts carried out a range of experiments and studied the effect of microgravity on both liquid and solid materials. These space workers were also able to carry out extensive observations of Earth and other solar system bodies. The overall aim of Skylab was to prove that humans could exist in space for periods of lengthy duration.

The Mir space research program ended due to a lack of financial assistance and aging technology and equipment on board. Scientists decided to abort the program and to de-orbit Mir. Entry back into the Earth’s atmosphere was symbolically timed to coincide with the Mir’s 15 year anniversary. During Mir’s orbit, 105 people visited the station and much important research was conducted.

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Skylab was lauched from a Saturn V rocket which was similar to the rockets that landed astronauts on the moon. Part of the rocket was designed to serve as an orbital workshop and as a living area for crews of up to three astronauts at a time. Astronauts were transported to and from the station using Apollo spacecraft that was originally designed for missions to the Moon. Three crews lived and worked on Skylab during the program. The third crew stayed in space for 84 days.

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Skylab was not without its dramas. The first crew were required to perform an emergency spacewalk to free a solar array which was jammed during the launching process.

For highlights of Mir’s spectacular 15 years in space, visit this website: www.russianspaceweb.com/mir_chronology.html

Library Activity Package: Space

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Effects on the Human Body

The effects of long term exposure to microgravity is a major focus of scientific research. The human body suffers several side effects which need to be monitored. Space adaptation syndrome is the phrase used to describe the body’s immediate reaction to microgravity. It is similar to seasickness and over 50% of all astronauts suffer from this condition. Symptoms include nausea and often vomiting.

What is Microgravity?

Microgravity (sometimes referred to as zero-gravity) occurs when objects reach a state considered to be “free falling”. It’s quite a complicated concept and many people think that there is no gravity at all in space which simply isn’t true. The continuous falling makes objects appear weightless, however there are still gravitational forces in place. You may even have temporarily experienced microgravity yourself while on a ride such as a rollercoaster at an amusement park.

Other significant effects include: •

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Changes in how the circulatory system works: the blood vessels and heart get very lazy, leaving the astronaut with little energy. It is very important that astronauts exercise strenuously to overcome the effect of muscle “deconditioning”. The loss of bone density - this can occur during extended space stays (for periods of up to several months). Changes to the vestibular system (organs in the inner ear) which affects the way humans balance.

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Astronaut candidates participate in a one year training course at the Johnson Space Centre in the United States. The training covers flight training, sur vival training, mission training and special training for emergencies. Scientists who take part in experiments on the space stations must have this training before embarking on a mission. Part of the training involves hours of floating around in weightlessness compartments that act to replicate the zerogravity environment in space.

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Surviving in Space

Microgravity has major effects on the body and on equipment. Effects on equipment: Fuel can’t drain away and has to be squeezed out by high pressure gas; Hot air doesn’t rise;

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Dust and water particles float around; Liquids form globules, and float out of containers, so everything must be tightly sealed; remember there are no toilets so the bags with human waste need to be VERY carefully stored!

Library Activity Package: Space

Space Exploration Timeline Launch Date

Country

1957

Soviet Union (Russia)

1958

United States

Explorer 1, an Earth Orbiter, was launched on February 1.

1959

Soviet Union

Luna 1, launched on January 2, was the first spacecraft launched towards the Moon. It ended up becoming the first humanmade object to orbit the Sun.

Soviet Union

Luna 3 was the third Soviet attempt to photograph the Moon's surface. It was launched in October

1959

Significant Events in Space Exploration

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1962

United States

Mariner 2 was the first spacecraft to successfully encounter another planet, in this case, Venus. It gathered information about Venus' rotation direction as well as exploring some of the features of the atmosphere.

United States

The Mariner 4 probe flew past Mars on July 14 and 15, 1965. It took 22 pictures covering about 1% of the Martian surface, revealing a barren landscape with craters. Scientists later discovered that there were more spectacular geological features on other parts of the surface.

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Soviet Union

1969

1970

Apollo 11, which is often described as the most significant event in space travel so far, began its historic voyage on July 16 taking off on board a Saturn 5 booster rocket. During this mission, humans successfully landed on the Moon.

United States

Apollo 13 was intended to be the third manned mission to the Moon. Serious problems soon followed when an explosion on board caused the mission to be aborted. The main focus shifted to returning the astronauts to safety. After a dramatic return to Earth, this mission was dubbed a "successful failure".

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United States

Apollo 8 was launched on top of a massive Saturn 5 booster rocket on December 21. It was the first manned craft to orbit the Moon. This mission resulted in many detailed photographs of the Moon. It gathered useful scientific data, and mapped the proposed landing sites for future Apollo missions.

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1968

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1961

On April 12, the Soviets launched Vostok 1 which orbited Earth. Yuri Gagarin became the first human being to be sent into space. The rocket spent an hour and 48 minutes in space, orbiting Earth once. The spacecraft reached a height of 320 kilometres above sea level and achieved an orbital speed of 27,000 kilometres per hour.

1965

Sputnik 1 was the first satellite to orbit Earth. It was launched on October 4, stunning the Americans. Sputnik 2 followed shortly after in November.

1977

United States

The twin spacecrafts Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were designed to conduct closeup studies of Jupiter and Saturn. Although Voyager 1 was launched sixteen days after Voyager 2, its route was more direct, and it arrived at Jupiter about four months sooner than Voyager 2. Voyager 2 also flew past Uranus and Neptune.

1981

United States

The first Space Shuttle flight, STS-1 Columbia was launched in April 1981. This was the first time a reusable craft was used. The shuttle fleet included Atlantis, Challenger, Discovery, and Endeavour.

1986

United States The Space Shuttle Challenger exploded on take-off, killing seven astronauts.

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1995

Various

2002

United States

2003

European Space Agency

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The International Space Station was set up.

On February 1, the Columbia Space Shuttle exploded after a puncture caused hot air to enter the craft. Seven astronauts were killed in the tragedy. The launch of Mars Express was carefully timed. In Augusy 2003, the planet Mars passed closer to Earth than at any time in the past 60,000 years. But even travelling at 10,000 kilometres per hour relative to Earth, the small craft still took six months to reach the Red Planet.

Library Activity Package: Space

Super Space Websites

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 www.badastronomy.com/ - Bad Astronomy  www-cgi.cnn.com/TECH/9608/mars.life.special/ - Life On Mars - CNN  amazing-space.stsci.edu/ - Amazing Space  www.nasa.gov/audience/forkids/home/index.html - NASA Kids Site  www.space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/outer_planets_991014.html - The Search for a Tenth Planet  www.exploratorium.edu/sunspots/ - Sunspots  www.adlerplanetarium.org/ - Adler Planetarium Did You Know?  www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/ The Sun rotates in the - Stars and Constellations same direction that Earth  www.fourmilab.ch/solar/solar.html rotates, but the Sun takes - Solar System Live about a month to rotate  www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/ whereas Earth takes 24 hours. The Sun revolves - Enchanted Learning Astronomy around the centre of the  www.nasa.gov/multimedia/highlights/index.html Milky Way galaxy. While - NASA Multimedia Highlights the Earth takes a year to  www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/ revolve around the Sun, the Sun takes about 200 - Exploring the Moon million years to revolve  nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunartimeline.html around the centre of the - Lunar Exploration Timeline galaxy!  www.questacon.edu.au/html/star_lab.html - Questacon Star Lab  www.solarviews.com/eng/terms.htm - Glossary of Space Terms  www.solarviews.com/eng/ - Views of the Solar System  nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo_11_30th.html - 30th Anniversary of Lunar Landing  umbra.nascom.nasa.gov/eclipse/images/eclipse_images.html - Eclipse Images  www.shuttlepresskit.com/ISS_OVR/ - International Space Station Additional References: World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia, (1996). World Book Inc., Chicago, USA.

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Library Activity Package: Space

Index Eclipse........................................................ 24 annular.................................................. 24 lunar...................................................... 24 solar....................................................... 24 Earth.................................................... 13, 16 age........................................................ 14 asteroids................................................ 21 composition........................................... 14 life......................................................... 14 orbit....................................................... 14 Ellipse........................................................... 5 Elliptical orbit.............................................. 13 European Space Agency.............................. 26 Explorations.................................................. 9 Lunar..................................................... 19 space missions....................................... 29 Extra Terrestrials......................................... 12 Face on Mars.............................................. 12 Galaxy...................................................... 7, 8 Galle, Johann G............................................ 9 Galileo, Galilei.......................................... 4, 6 Geocentric theory......................................... 4 Global Surveyor............................................ 9 Glowing eye................................................ 10 Goddard Space Flight Centre...................... 25 Gravity.......................................................... 5 Great Nebula.............................................. 25 Halley, Edmund........................................... 20 Halley’s Comet........................................... 20 Hershel, William........................................ 4, 9 Heliocentric theory........................................ 5 Hipparchus................................................... 5 Hubble, Edwin........................................ 7, 25 Hubble Space Telescope...................... 5, 9, 25 Human body............................................... 28 microgravity........................................... 28 Inner solar system....................................... 24 International Meteor Organisation.............. 22 International Space Station................... 26, 29 orbital assembly..................................... 26 research................................................. 26 Jet Propulsion Laboratory............................ 21 Jupiter............................................ 13, 17, 20 Leo constellation......................................... 22 Light year..................................................... 8 Landers and Rovers (Mars).......................... 15 Luna Orbiters.............................................. 19 Luna Program (Russia).......................... 19, 29 Lunar Exploration........................................ 19 Mercury................................................ 13, 16 Mars................................................. 9, 13, 16 Global Surveyor.................................. 9, 12 Face on Mars......................................... 12 life................................................... 12, 15 Mars Express.......................................... 29 missions................................................. 15

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Aliens......................................................... 12 Alpha Centauri............................................ 11 Ancient Astronomy........................................ 4 Ancient Egyptians................................... 4, 11 Great Pyramids........................................ 4 Ancient Cultures........................................... 4 Andomeda.................................................. 25 Annular eclipse........................................... 24 Annulus...................................................... 24 Apollo Program..................................... 19, 25 Aquarius..................................................... 11 Aristarchus.................................................... 5 Aristotle..................................................... 4,5 Asteroids..................................................... 21 Ceres..................................................... 21 collision.................................................. 21 craters................................................... 21 Astronauts............................................ 19, 27 effects of space travel............................. 28 training.................................................. 28 Astronomical Discoveries............................... 4 Astrology.................................................... 11 Astronomy.................................................... 4 ancient astronomy . ................................. 4 astronomers............................................. 6 NASA......................................................... telescopes................................................ 5 Astronomical Unit (AU)............................... 13 Astrophysics.................................................. 7 Atlantis Space Shuttle................................. 27 Atmosphere................................................ 13 Jovian.................................................... 13 Moon..................................................... 18 Bad Astronomy........................................... 21 Band of totality........................................... 24 Black hole......................................... 8, 10, 25 Black dwarf................................................. 10 Ceres.......................................................... 21 Challenger Space Shuttle............................ 29 Chicxulub crater.......................................... 21 Columbia Space Shuttle.............................. 29 Comets....................................................... 20 Comet Halley.............................................. 20 Comet Shoemaker-Levy............................... 20 Constellations............................................. 11 Orion....................................................... 4 Leonid.................................................... 22 Southern Cross....................................... 11 Copernicus, Nicolas................................... 4, 5 Cosmos......................................................... 8 Cosmonauts................................................ 27 Corona....................................................... 24 Craters........................................................ 21 asteroid.................................................. 21 Chicxulub............................................... 21 Moon..................................................... 18

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Library Activity Package: Space

Space rocks................................................ 21 SETI............................................................ 12 Shoemaker-Levy.......................................... 20 Sirius............................................................ 4 Skywatching.................................................. 4 Skylan......................................................... 27 Solar eclipse................................................ 24 Solar System....................................... 7, 9, 12 Southern Cross............................................ 11 Soviet Union (Russia).................................. 19 Space missions............................................ 27 Space research............................... 26, 27, 28 Space stations................................. 26, 27, 28 Spectroscopes............................................... 7 Sputnik....................................................... 29 Star.............................................................. 8 Alpha Centauri....................................... 10 constellations......................................... 11 life stages............................................... 10 Orion constellation................................... 4 supernova.............................................. 10 Southern Cross....................................... 11 Stonehenge................................................... 4 Sun................................................... 4, 13, 23 composition........................................... 23 size........................................................ 23 solar eclipse........................................... 24 sunspots................................................. 23 sunlight.................................................... 6 Sunspots......................................................... Technology................................................ 5, 9 Telescope.................................................. 5, 6 Tombaugh, Clyde.......................................... 4 Total solar eclipse........................................ 24 Universe................................................. 7, 25 Age.......................................................... 7 Big Bang Theory....................................... 7 Origin.................................................. 4, 7 Size.......................................................... 7 Umbra........................................................ 24 UFOs.......................................................... 12 Uranus.......................................... 4, 9, 13, 17 Venus.................................................... 13, 16 Viking Orbiter............................................. 12 Voyager missions......................................... 29 Weightlessness............................................ 27 Wavelength................................................... 7 White dwarf................................................ 10 Yellow dwarf............................................... 23 Zero-gravity.......................................... 15, 27 Zodiac........................................................ 11

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Mars............................................................... orbit....................................................... 16 satellites................................................. 15 Mariner missions......................................... 29 Meteors...................................................... 22 Leonid showers....................................... 22 meteorites.............................................. 22 meteor showers...................................... 22 Milky Way Galaxy............................... 8, 25 Microgravity................................................ 28 Mir............................................................. 27 Missions...................................................... 29 Moon...................................................... 4, 18 atmosphere............................................ 18 gravity.................................................... 18 landing................................................... 19 lunar eclipse........................................... 24 orbit....................................................... 24 research................................................. 19 surface................................................... 18 Tranquillity Base..................................... 19 treaty..................................................... 19 Nebula................................................... 8, 10 Great Nebula......................................... 25 Neptune........................................... 9, 13, 17 Neutron...................................................... 10 Newton, Sir Isaac...................................... 4, 6 Native Americans.......................................... 4 NASA......................................................... 27 Oberth, Hermann....................................... 26 Oort Cloud.................................................. 20 Orbit................................................. 8, 13, 24 Orbital workshop......................................... 27 Penumbra................................................... 24 Perihelion.................................................... 20 Piazzi, Guiseppe.......................................... 21 Planets............................................... 8, 9, 12 planetismals............................................. 9 planetoids.............................................. 21 Planet X...................................................... 13 Pluto................................... 4, 6, 9, 13, 17, 25 Principia....................................................... 6 Ptolemy........................................................ 4 Pyramids....................................................... 4 Pythagoras.................................................... 5 Research............................................... 19, 28 Moon..................................................... 19 International Space Station.................... 26 Red Giant................................................... 10 Red Shift....................................................... 7 Satellites................................................. 9, 13 Sputnik.................................................. 29 Saturn........................................................ 17 rings................................................ 13, 17 Saturn 5..................................................... 29 Seasons........................................................ 4

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