using photography for investigations This manual has been written for journalists, NGO workers and other concerned individuals for whom photography could be useful to support their work. It is not a guide to taking better pictures, but how to use the camera for evidence gathering. It gives an overview of how photography can be used as part of an investigation or to support a story. Photographs can add weight to your story by supporting other material such as showing a glitzy lifestyle, who people associate with, providing evidence of wrong-doing such as child labour, or capturing information by photographing written documents. Remember that the point of your image is the documenting of information and many of the techniques outlined below have been borrowed from crime scene photography.
picture!
by CJ Clarke and Juliet Ferguson
about the author CJ Clarke is a photographer and filmmaker based in the UK‌
about the cij The centre for investigative journalism (cij) came into being in 2003 to address a deepening crisis in investigative reporting. The cij provides high-level training, resources and research to journalists, researchers, nongovernmental organisations, academics, graduate students and others interested in public integrity and the defence of the public interest. The cij is a non-profit organisation and runs international summer schools, training programmes in basic and advanced investigative techniques and organises public meetings – all designed to raise and sustain the standards of investigative reporting. Our handbooks, archive material, web and audio resources have helped bring additional investigative tools to journalists and the community unable to attend cij workshops and training programmes. The cij offers particular assistance to those working in difficult environments where freedom of the press in under threat and where reporting can be a dangerous occupation.
contents photography essentials
4
equipment
5
scale
6
jargon
6
undercover photography
7
composition
8
portraits light
9-10 11-12
photographing documents
13
photographing events
14
storing your images
14
digital workflow
15-16
protecting yourself
17-18
photography essentials When taking pictures it is important to keep everything as simple as possible. Keep the subject of your photograph as the main focus and don’t confuse the image with unnecessary clutter. When you look at a good picture the subject should be clear, which, in turn, should ensure that what that picture is trying to communicate is obvious. Identify your objective by asking: •
What am I trying to show or document?
•
Does the picture tell a story?
•
Do I need the picture to support other evidence?
equipment You may not always have a choice about the camera you use and will have to make do with what is available, but if you do have the opportunity to plan, you should consider what would best suit the situation you are photographing. For example, if you are visiting somewhere that is popular with tourists, having a conspicuous camera may help you blend in, whereas a camera phone is more discreet and would be better for those snatched shots (but lacks image quality). If you are working somewhere that photography is forbidden or in a dangerous environment, you might want to consider using a hidden camera. Here is a summary of the types of cameras available and their advantages/ disadvantages.
single lens reflex (SLR) – the camera used by the professionals. Digital SLRS are quite large and the way the camera works – using a mirror system – makes them noisy. Film SLRs are smaller. An SLR is not a discrete camera but offers excellent control and quality.
rangefinders – an alternative professional camera. The focusing is done through a window rather than through the lens which means they are much quieter. Digital rangefinders are very expensive but old film rangefinders can be bought relatively cheaply.
camera phones – a mobile phone that can capture either still images or video. Most are simpler than digital cameras but despite technical challenges such as limited functionality and control, it is possible to produce good pictures with camera phones as long as you’re aware of, and work within its limitations.
other equipment Whatever your choice of camera, always ensure you have enough film, memory cards, batteries and any props. Here’s a list of things you may need:
compact cameras – the easiest and most popular camera designed for simple operation, it is also know as a point and shoot camera. Most compact cameras use autofocus and automatic systems for setting the exposure. They are quiet and discrete and offer good results without the need for technical expertise.
• charger and adapter plug • spare batteries • compact flash (CF) or secure digital (SD) memory cards • computer • USB lead or computer with internal slot for CF/SD cards • external hard disk to create a backup of your files • film • detachable flash if using and SLR camera
scale If you want to show the size of an object, photograph it next another object whose dimensions are known, to give an idea of scale. Ideally this should be a ruler so that the actual dimensions of the object can be determined. If you do not have a ruler, use an object such as a pencil whose size is universally known, failing that, your hand will do.
jargon aperture or f-stop: a circular opening within the lens, usually variable in diameter and calibrated in fnumbers. A high f-stop (f22) gives a great depth of field whereas a low f-stop (f2.8) gives the shallowest depth of field.
depth of field: the proportion of the picture that is in focus. Almost every object in the frame can be sharp (high depth of field / f22) or only a specific subject (low depth of field / f2.8).
shutter speed: how fast the shutter closes and controls whether a subject is sharp (fast shutter speed) or blurred (slow shutter speed).
ISO: how sensitive the camera or film is to light. The higher the ISO number, the more sensitive the camera or film is to light but the grainier the image will be.
undercover photography Given the nature of investigative journalism, it’s likely that whatever the subject, if the true purpose of your photography were known, it would not be welcome. Ideally you’ll look for a way to blend in, for example if you are evidence gathering in a place popular with tourists, and big, noisy SLR may well help. A compact camera is ideal for situations that need more discretion, but you also need to consider how you present yourself – the aim is to make yourself invisible so think about the situation and what you can best do to blend in. using a camera phone If you are in a situation where you don’t have a camera or need to be very discrete, a camera phone could be the solution. Although the quality is improving, and more expensive models have up to 12 mega pixels and flash, you will never get the same quality or control as with a standard camera.
using a hidden camera Sometimes the only way of getting the images you want is through the use of a concealed camera, but this should only be as a last resort. You could use a standard camera or camera phone, but conceal it in clothes or in a bag. Or you could use a subminiature ‘spy’ camera that can be concealed more easily.
Be clear about what your subject is and what you are trying to communicate. The quality of the images sensor and lens is often poor so good light is essential, as is a steady hand. Perhaps the greatest challenge posed by camera phones is exposure. Their automatic sensors will often expose to the brightest element within a frame often at the expense of an essential detail in the shadows.
Some of the compact digital cameras on the market today are so small that in previous years would have been classed as a ‘spy’ camera. But the best known brand for small cameras is Minox: www.minox.com
Each camera phone will have different limitations (such as how close you can focus on your subject) and it is important to experiment in a non-pressurised situation to discover these limitations. If you are going to a place where openly taking photographs is not possible, a hidden camera may be your only option.
The process for taking images with a ‘spy’ camera is the same as for normal photography, but as the camera is concealed, it is a good idea to set it to the most likely focus the situation will call for and either auto exposure or judge the exposure beforehand. You’ll also need some means of pressing the shutter, which can be done using a cable release or remotely, depending on the camera.
composition Composition is the means by which you organise your photographic frame and document a scene, good composition will draw the viewers’ attention to a particular subject. It is important that you know what you are taking a picture of, why and, what, if any, which part of the subject you are attempting to emphasise. Where possible, don’t rely on your zoom lens but ensure that you fill the frame not leaving any unnecessary space. Keep the composition as simple as possible so that the elements of the picture you want to draw attention to are clear.
A good device for organising the frame is called the rule of thirds: Imagine two horizontal and two vertical lines running through the frame, splitting it into three horizontal and vertical sections. Placing the element you want to emphasise on one of the lines often results in a more interesting composition than placing that element in the centre of the frame:
In this image, the subject has been placed in the left-hand third of the frame and shows the subject in relation to their environment and with no clutter.
This image, a detail shot shows how you can draw attention to a particular object, this shot also shows the scale of the objects photographed. To produce a detail shot, get as close as you can to your subject and if required, use your zoom lens to get even closer. Do not over use the zoom lens as, in poor light this can often result in blurred or un-sharp images.
portraits Good, strong portraits that identify the individuals at the heart of a story can help forge an emotional connection with an audience. It can also be useful to interview the subject of a portrait to get their story as the combination of text and the portrait are often extremely powerful. There are two main types of portraits: close portraits and environmental portraits. close portraits When taking a close portrait, ensure the background is as neutral as possible, try to find a wall, a large piece of cardboard or anything that can block out the visual detritus that may lurk in the background to a portrait and distract the viewer.
If you are unable to find an uncluttered background, get close to the subject to eradicate as much of the background as possible.
In this picture, the use of a white wall as a background focuses the viewers’ attention on the face. This is preferable to an image taken in the street where there may be signs and cars distracting the viewers’ gaze.
In these images, windows act as a natural light diffuser. Posing subjects next to windows it a useful technique for obtaining high quality portraits on location.
Another good technique is to use your zoom lens at maximum and reposition yourself in relation to your subject and ensure you are focused on them.
environmental portraits To produce good environmental portraits it is important that your subject and their environment are well lit and well composed. Avoid placing your subject so that they are looking directly into the sun or that any part of the surrounding environment is brightly lit and therefore distracting. This simple environmental portrait, places the subject in a definite location.
red-eye in portraits when using flash Red-eye occurs because the pupil of the eye is not fast enough to react to the light produced by the flash from a camera. Where possible avoid pointing the flash directly into the eyes of the subject. Where possible turn up the ambient lights as high as possible when using flash as this will reduce the difference in brightness between the flash and the room. smiling It is a common human reaction to smile as soon as a camera is held in front of us. However, in documentary and photojournalistic work a smiling subject can often run contrary to the nature of the story and make a picture look like a holiday snap. People will often try and smile even in the most devastating situations. Unless your subject has an incredibly natural smile it is best to ask them to relax and look at you with a neutral expression. This child始s natural smile fits perfectly in the context of an NGO story.
light At the simplest level the light in your photographs should be even throughout. No area of your composition should be too dark or too light so as to render particular details indistinguishable.
lighting for detail shots
Do not take pictures in direct sunlight. The light is too bright and the photo will appear bleached out and many details will be lost. Where possible move your subject or yourself to ensure the light is hitting the subject from the side.
working in low light
The best results can be achieved either early in the morning or in the evening when the sun is low in the sky and consequently, hitting the subject at an angle.
Often you will want to isolate and photograph small articles as evidence. To do so you will require good even light. Consider moving your object to another location free from other clutter. A quick way of doing this is to find a blank sheet of paper or similar and place your object on this.
In low-light situations, many people automatically switch on their flash. However, this can be extremely problematic as the use of flash often produces garish pictures that bleach out the details. You will also draw attention to yourself through the use of flash which may be something you want to avoid. It is best to try and use whatever ambient light is available before turning to your camera's flash. In some cases this may result in soft, slightly blurred images but in most cases such pictures will be preferably to a heavy-handed use of flash. If possible, identify and make use of any potential light source such as a window, an over head light or a lamp if you are indoors or a street lamp of the light from a shop if you are outside. If the ambient light is not good enough, you will need to use your camera’s flash or find a movable light source that you can shine onto your object at a 45 degree angle. To soften the harshness of the flash or artificial light, hold a piece of paper or some other light permeable substance close to the front of the lens; for instance, masking tape across the flash or light can works well.
ISO
flash
Most compact and semi professional camera will have a range from: ISO 100 – ISO 800. The lower the number the less sensitive the camera or film will be to light; the higher the number the more sensitive to light.
There are times when flash can be useful – when photographing in bright sunshine a flash will balance the light and fill in the dark areas. This is known as fill-in flash and it stops essential details from becoming lost in the shadows.
Using a higher ISO rating is an alternative way of compensating for low-light situations. This is much easier when using digital as you can adjust for specific images, whereas with film, you’re committed to using a particular setting for the entire roll. If you only have a low ISO rating film available, you can push the film by setting it at a faster speed, but remember to push process when developing. However, as you increase your ISO the greater the image will be affected by 'noise' which detracts from the quality of the image. The decision to use flash or higher ISO will be decided by the requirements of for you image and the situation in which you take the photograph.
As reproduced on: http://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/closeup.html
photographing documents When taking pictures of documents, the most important thing is that the words are readable and as clear as possible. Ideally you’d need a camera that you can shoot with in RAW or use film. The most important element is the lighting, especially if you are photographing non-flat surfaces such as a documents held together or book pages. Photograph in as close as you can get to natural lighting and avoid anything – flash, fluorescent light – that will cause glare and prevent the writing being legible.
photograph of a document?
If you are able to remove documents to photograph them, then use a tripod, balancing it so that the camera is looking directly down on the document without the legs getting in the way. You can do this by pushing back two of the legs while extending the third and finding something to balance it on. If you are taking multiple, single, documents, focus the camera for one, and mark on the table where the edges come, so you can simply replace with the next document to photograph without the need for refocusing. If the papers are held together or in a book, you this won’t work and you will have to focus separately, but can still use the marks as a guide as to where to put the documents. If you have to use a more basic camera or can’t remove the documents to photograph them using a tripod, consider taking shots of part of the page then putting them together afterwards. Shoot in colour, even if your camera offers an option for black and white, as the results will be much clearer.
photograph of a document?
photographing events Photographing events such as demonstrations can, despite the apparent abundance of action, prove to be extremely difficult. Indeed, this abundance can often make it difficult to find pictures that clearly depict the situation. Think about the essentials of the demonstration such as volume of people, police presence etc. and work to produce clear illustrations of each. To get good pictures that show the number of people at a demonstration, try and find a vantage point that lets you look down on the action.
storing your images It is vitally important that you keep a back-up copy of all your images and protect yourself in the case of a hard disk failure. Most photographers keep a second back-up hard disk of their work and store it off site. Some even keep a third and fourth hard disk or DVD back-up. If you are using a digital camera to take you images, make sure you always keep a copy of the RAW or jpg file and make as few as changes as possible to your image and any changes should be solely to improve picture quality. If using film, keep the negative stored safely in case you need to make additional prints.
digital workflow The following is an outline of a digital workflow and best practice. Some variations will occur depending on your equipment and choice of software. file formats Most digital cameras use a variety of file formats. The most common is JPG/JPEG format. Some cameras use a format called RAW. If your camera gives you the option, always select RAW for shooting images this is the highest quality for images (but also largest file size). Because of the nature of RAW files you can open them and make changes as many times as you want and they will never deteriorate – hence their advantage for recording evidence. The downside is that you will need to convert them into a format that can be universally read – a TIFF or JPG – before you can use them and so will need photo editing software. It is possible, on the more expensive cameras, to shoot RAW and JPGs at
the same time, so if you need to send an image – either for a deadline or for security reasons, then do this. For cheaper cameras and camera phones, JPGs are the only option, so always ensure you keep the original and work from a copy. The more times you open and work on a jpg the greater the deterioration. To view, edit, email and print your photos you will need to transfer them from the camera to your computer. This should be done regularly so you don’t lose the images. For more sensitive images or if there is a chance that they will be confiscated, download them at the first possible opportunity. software The software that your camera or camera phone comes with should be
sufficient for downloading and saving the images into a universally readable format (such as a tif or a jpg). If you want to edit your image (but keep this to a minimum and always keep the RAW or original jpg file) add metadata, or you software can’t convert the format, you might want to consider one of the following photo editing software programs: • Adobe Photoshop (Elements or Lite should meet your needs)
• Apple Aperture • Adobe Lightroom There are free software programs available such as:
• Picnik – edit your images online: www.picnik.com • Picasa – free download for photo editing: http://picasa.google.com
enhancing images Keep all image enhancements to a minimum and only when it’s necessary for the clarity of the image, for example if there is shadow cast across a key area of the image that needs lightening to show a crucial piece of information. Make notes of the enhancements and why they were done and always have the original file to refer back to should you need it.
drive or CD; retaining the original file format; making digital files as readonly; and renaming enhanced digital files. To ensure you accurately archive and can keep track of your files it is important you use consistent file names that let you the key information you need to find and identify and image and link it back, if necessary, to the original. A good system for naming your files will include the:
an unenhanced image and its enhanced counterpart?
• • • •
date project name original file reference sequence number
captions and keywords
file naming To ensure your pictures can stand as evidence, it is a good idea to develop a standard workflow by saving original digital images to the hard
Most editing software will give you the option of attaching additional information to your image. Even if you don’t have this software, it’s worth keeping a written list of information alongside your image reference number. Information you should consider recording include the following:
• • • • •
caption date time location names of any people in image
In Adobe Photoshop metadata can be added to an image in the 'file info' option. There are also fields for additional information such as your name, contact details and copyright status of the image, which you may, or may not wish to add depending on your circumstances. Ensure that all of your images have corresponding captions, which should follow the same format, for example: 1 January 2009 John Smith takes his dog K9 for a walk along the main street of Basildon, Essex, UK.” In the first sentence of a caption it is important to include all the essential information. In additional sentences you may wish to add further context and other important information relevant to your story.
protecting yourself How you protect yourself and your images depends on the situation you find yourself in and you should always find out before an assignment the risks of what you propose to do so you can prepare yourself, as much as possible, for all eventualities.
Note: it is harder to restore images that you have erased by formatting the disc, rather than deleting the images. If you want to restore images on a formatted disc you’ll need a more powerful version of the software.
keeping your images safe
recovering lost information
Encryption reduces the risk of keeping confidential data, but does not eliminate it. In some countries, the act of encryption itself is illegal and the use of encryption software could give the authorities enough of a pretext to investigate your or your organisation. If you do decide to use encryption to protect your work, consider using: TrueCrypt: www.truecrypt.org which works by creating a ‘hidden volume’ inside your already encrypted volume.
Unless they have been over-written or wiped completely clean from the memory card, images can be retried. So if you are forced to delete your images from you memory card, or do so for security reasons, they can still be retrieved providing you don’t continue to use the card. You will need software in order to retrieve the images, try: DataRescue’s PhotoRescue: www.datarescue.com/photorescue/download.htm DataRecoveryWizard: www.easeus.com/download.htm SanDisk’s RescuePro: www.lc-tech.com/software/rprodetail.html
Both of the above are relatively low-cost or offer free versions, and will restore images and data to your computer ’s memory to avoid further risk to your disc.
getting your images out Ideally, you’ll want to get any images you’ve taken to your newsdesk or organisation as quickly as possible. If your images are low-resolution jpegs, you can simply email them. For RAW images and larger files that are too big to email, try an online file sharing service like: You Send It: www.yousendit.com As ever, you should consider the security of your situation and ensure you keep yourself and your images safe. Your decision to encrypt files before sending, or even risk sending them at all depends on the environment you are working. If it is too dangerous to send files online, consider ways of keeping safe the memory card or film. wiping securely As seen in the previous section, when you erase images from a memory card, they aren’t really gone and even formatting a card doesn’t guarantee their complete removal.
Generally this is a good thing as you can often get back lost images. However, there are times when you may want images completely removed from a card. The simplest way to do this is to format the card and then fill the card with new shots this will overwrite any remnants of images and remove all traces of what was previously there. There is software available – SanDisk for example – that will completely and permanently remove data from memory cards. Wiping cards is a complex process and can take a long time, also, once wiped or overwritten, there is no way of recovering the data, so be absolutely sure this is what you want to do. The same applies to data that you’ve downloaded onto a computer hard drive, if you want to ensure it has been permanently removed, free software is available that will let you do this: Eraser: http://eraser.heidi.ie/
Centre for Investigative Journalism is a registered charity (1118602).
This handbook was made possible by a grant from the Open Society Institute www.soros.org We would really value your thoughts and feedback on this handbook. Please write to us at info@tcij.org If you would like to suggest a new topic for a handbook, or know journalists/authors who could help write one, drop us a line at the above address. For more in the handbook series, please visit our website www.tcij.org
City University London, Journalism & Publishing, Northampton Square, London EC1V 0HB
info@tcij.org | +44 (0) 207 040 8220 | www.tcij.org