Middle East and North Africa focus group report by SciDev.Net

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Dina Najjar (PhD) and Yulye Jessica Romo Ramos (Monitoring and evaluation coordinator at SciDev.Net)

SciDev.Net Learning Series

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About SciDev.Net SciDev.Net is committed to bringing science and global development together through news and analysis. Our mission is to help individuals and organisations apply evidence and innovations from science and technology to decision making in order to have a positive impact on equitable and sustainable development and poverty reduction. The SciDev.Net website [www.scidev.net] is the world’s leading source of reliable and authoritative news, views and analysis on information about science and technology for global development. Our main office is based in London but we have 6 regional news desks based in Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Latin America & the Caribbean, South-East Asia & Pacific, Middle-East & North Africa and West Africa. Between us we manage a worldwide network of registered users, advisors, consultants and freelance journalists, who drive our activities and vision. For more information please consult our website: www.scidev.net For free email updates visit: www.scidev.net/sign-up

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First published by SciDev.Net in the UK in 2014 Copyright © SciDev.Net SciDev.Net material is available to republish on condition that the original author and SciDev.Net are credited. ISBN 978-1-909528-06-2 Printed and bound by Trident Printers, UK Cover design by www.chichestergraphicarts.com Photo Credit: istock / vgajic

Bringing science and global development together through news and analysis

SciDev.Net Learning Series

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Dr. Dina Najjar (PhD) and Yulye Jessica Romo Ramos (Monitoring and evaluation coordinator at SciDev.Net)

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

A special thanks to all those who attended the focus group discussions in Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia â&#x20AC;&#x201D; your insights are invaluable. SciDev.Net's regional coordinator and user engagement staff to the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) played a key role in helping the monitoring and evaluation coordinator to manage this research project. Finally, a thank you to the assistants hired in each of the countries who helped with organisation and documentation.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Table of Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. 2 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 5

Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................iii

Chapter 1: Methodology .................................................................................................................... 10

Summary ............................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2: Issues affecting science and technology for development ...................................... 12

Chapter 1: Methodology....................................................................................................... 6 1) Defining and building a culture of science ....................................................................... 12 a)

Role of the public sector .......................................................................................... 13

Policies and investment .......................................................................................... Chapter 2: Issues affecting science and technology for development...........................13 8 ............................................................................................................. 1) DefiningCoordination and building a culture of science..............................................................14 8 Commitment and implementation ....................................................................... 15

a) Role of the public sector........................................................................................ 9

Participation .............................................................................................................. 16

Policies and investment......................................................................................... 9

Role of the academic and research sector ........................................................... 16

Role of the media sector ......................................................................................... 17

Role of the non-governmental and private sectors ............................................ 18

Coordination......................................................................................................... 10

Commitment and implementation................................................................... 11

Participation.......................................................................................................... 2) Gender relations ....................................................................................................................12 18 Role of academic research sector........................................................ 12 3) b) Impact of the the Arab Springand .................................................................................................... 20 c) Role of the media sector...................................................................................... 13 Chapter Priorities science and technology development ..............................................14 21 d) 3: Role of theinnon-governmental and for private sectors......................................... National S&T priorities ..................................................................................................................14 21 2) Gender relations........................................................................................................ 1)

Health ........................................................................................................................ 21

Agriculture ................................................................................................................ 22

Education................................................................................................................... 22

Infrastructure and industry .................................................................................... 23

3) Impact of the Arab Spring........................................................................................ 16

Chapter 3: Priorities in science and technology for development................................. 17

National priorities................................................................................................... 5) S&T Energy ........................................................................................................................17 23 1) Health........................................................................................................................ 6) Internet and media ..................................................................................................17 24 2) Agriculture. ............................................................................................................... 7) Environment .............................................................................................................18 25 Priorities for policymakers............................................................................................................18 29 3) Education.................................................................................................................. Priorities for academic and researchers .....................................................................................19 29 4) Infrastructure and industry. ................................................................................... Priorities for the media ................................................................................................................. 30

5) Energy........................................................................................................................ 19 6) Internet and media.................................................................................................. 20 7) Environment............................................................................................................. 21

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Chapter 4: Channels used to find and disseminate information, and capacity needs, per sector .................................................................................................................................................... 31

Priorities for policymakers............................................................................................. 25

Sources to find and disseminate S&T information by sector ................................................. 31

Priorities for academic and researchers....................................................................... 25

Capacity building needs by sector ............................................................................................... 34

Priorities for the media................................................................................................... 26

Global versus local reflections by sector .................................................................................... 35

Chapter Channels used ............................................................................................................. to find and disseminate information, Annex 1: 4: List of Participants 36 and capacity needs, per sector......................................................................................... 27 Algeria .............................................................................................................................................. 36

Sources to find and disseminate S&T information by sector.................................... 27

Egypt................................................................................................................................................. 38

Capacity building needs by sector................................................................................. 30 Tunisia ............................................................................................................................................. 40 Global versus local reflections by sector....................................................................... 31 References ........................................................................................................................................... 41

Annex 1: List of Participants................................................................................................ 32 Algeria............................................................................................................................... 32 Egypt.................................................................................................................................. 34 Tunisia............................................................................................................................... 36

Table 1: Priority S&T topics in the three countries .......................................................................37 26 References............................................................................................................................ Table 2: Sources of S&T information by sector ............................................................................. 32 Table 3: Influential dissemination outlets by sector .................................................................... 33

Figure 1: Building a culture of science â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a multi-stakeholder approach ................................... 12

Figures and tables

Table 1: Priority S&T topics in the three countries......................................................... 22 Table 2: Sources of S&T information by sector................................................................ 28 Table 3: Influential dissemination outlets by sector....................................................... 29

Figure 1: Building a culture of science â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a multi-stakeholder approach........................ 8

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report



Algeria, in North Africa, has a stable political situation compared with the revolutions in the other two countries, but is relatively closed to the international community Egypt, bridging the Middle East and North Africa, is one of the more influential countries in the region in terms of culture and politics, and is the location of our regional office. Egypt also has the largest number of researchers in the Arab countries according to UNESCO’s Science Report 2010. Tunisia, also in North Africa, is open to foreigners, mainly due to its tourism industry, and is where the Arab Spring started.

In each country, two sets of all-day focus groups comprising senior professionals from the following sectors were organised:     

Public sector (e.g. policymakers) Non-profit, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) Media Private sector Academia and research.

Methodology details are presented in the first chapter of this document. What follows is a summary of the report, which indicates priority areas for action and recommendations for evidence-based policy and development models.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Issues affecting science and technology for development (chapter 2) There are different interpretations of S&T for development. For example, some participants mentioned that policymakers tend to focus on health and environmental issues instead of a wider range of S&T topics. But for development itself, it became clear that participants understand it to be a model that delivers benefits in social, environmental and economic areas. Therefore it is not surprising that such a holistic approach to development requires multi-stakeholder cooperation, particularly when it comes to using evidence for policy and development — what we call building a culture of science. This is the first cross-cutting theme identified in our report. We identified the priorities for participants in each sector in enabling evidence-based development: 1) Role of public sector:  The existence of policies for S&T is essential — particularly those that aim to link research with national development and its practical application for innovation. Such policies help give clarity and direction to otherwise uncoordinated efforts and diverse views within a country. Finance, developing priorities for policies and consultation methods were also seen as key.  Coordination: development through evidence-based decision-making requires policymakers to assume a prominent role in coordinating efforts between groups, because policymakers have the most influence. This includes coordination between government bodies and promoting regional and international cooperation. Bureaucracy and technical language are seen as particular challenges for cooperation.  Lack of follow-up, commitment and implementation often leads to a failure to complete projects based on good policies. Bureaucracy and projects that are tied to the interests of individuals should be avoided. There is also a need for monitoring systems to evaluate implementation and for learning.  Participation: the need for participatory governance mechanisms are important for responding to a society’s needs and for the successful implementation of policies. It could also contribute to solving the lack of enforcement of development policies, a problem identified in all three countries. Access to knowledge is a barrier here. 2) Role of academic and research sector:  Participants would like to see research linked to development. To this end, researchers should work more closely with partners in society to conduct research that is relevant for development. Even when ideas and technologies are imported, the academic and research sector are still needed to localise the technologies.  Researchers should also support policymakers to make informed decisions (providing advice when needed, for example)  Applying science and linking research with industry is another key element of S&T for development, in the view of participants. Much more could be done by academic and research organisations in developing strategic partnerships with the private sector for education and research.

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report 3) Role of media sector: a key role is communicating science to inform the public about the importance of S&T for development and to campaign for action. Slots for science-related content in traditional media channels should increase, with interesting and convincing programmes. 4) The private sector could play a stronger role when it comes to education and research. It could work more closely with academic institutions to help develop professionals with the skills that the labour market demands. It can be a funder or a partner in research and, most importantly, help with applications and rollout in society. 5) The NGO sector is composed of civil society organisations, most of which form close

links with local groups and can be key to helping link research to the ground and to implementing policies at lower levels. In many cases, NGOs also represent local people, such as at international events hosted by the UN on gender and indigenous issues. We recommend that more strategic engagement with NGOs is explored. The second theme, gender relations, concerns limitations imposed by social, cultural and religious norms, all of which influence greatly womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s choice in areas of study and their ability to pursue science and establish successful careers. So the main gender issue in the region is the difference in responsibilities (due to reproductive and social roles) and a lack of an inclusive labour market that allows women to pursue a professional career. Allowing flexible working hours would be one way of addressing this concern. In all countries, participants felt that women in rural areas are more restricted in their mobility and life choice. It is no surprise that in Algeria and Egypt, improving literacy rates and addressing social and cultural taboos were identified as important to empowering rural women. It was good to hear how the internet and telephone have allowed some women to pursue training and work even in isolated areas. In Algeria, some female participants stressed that gender equality is not only about women becoming increasingly involved in male-related roles, but also about men adopting femalerelated roles. In Egypt, there was some discussion about positive discrimination, a delicate subject that we feel should be more widely discussed in consultation with women. What this demonstrates is there are development needs that are gender-specific. Clearly S&T has brought about opportunities for development but more strategic efforts are needed if social and reproductive roles are to adapt to allow women to participate more. We also covered the revolutions experienced in two of the three countries we visited during our research (Egypt and Tunisia), which have had profound impacts on development, in particular for science communication. Not only did the media gain increased freedom in addressing development issues, so did society in general. For example, two of the NGOs in the workshops were formed after the revolution in Tunisia. Another positive effect is the feeling that policymakers are now better listeners and are more likely to consult with and accept scientistsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; opinions and recommendations. On the other hand, the revolutions, many pointed, have also resulted in chaos and an almost exclusive focus on political upheaval â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to the point where political coverage dominates all other topics, particularly those relating to S&T. Development, many said, has also been hindered by frequent changes in government officials.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Priorities in science and technology for development (chapter 3) The priority S&T topics that emerged during the focus groups relate to seven areas: health, agriculture, education, the internet and other media, energy, infrastructure/industry and the environment. In all cases, access and quality are important, in particular for equalising the differences between rural and urban populations. Key points include: 



 



For health: most participants felt that without good health and wellbeing, innovation and the use of S&T for development would be difficult to attain. Issues include prevention, and access to and quality of health services, particularly for women and rural populations. The focus in agriculture was on achieving food security, including less dependence on expensive food imports and a focus on local resources and increasing agricultural production. For education the priority was on improving access to better quality education, creating a culture of constructive criticism and inquisitive behaviour, and increasing interest in science and technical training in key S&T areas. Accountability and incentives based on performance are also needed. In terms of infrastructure, rural isolation and lack of access to services seem to be a common issue in all countries. Infrastructure should be built to last and able to meet long-term development needs. Much of the focus on energy was on renewable sources and on access or coverage. In all countries, many participants stressed the importance of access to and quality of internet services, and increasing its use for development (e.g. e-commerce, accessing health information), rather it being used mainly for entertainment. For the most part, environmental concerns in all three countries are on recycling of domestic and industrial waste and on reducing pollution. Other priorities are conservation and the need for more regional cooperation, given the common climatic and socioeconomic settings.

Differences per sector can be linked to the nature of roles played by each group. For example, in agriculture researchers are more involved in developing new crops, whereas governments are interested in land access and usage. Similarly, in health, scientists might be more focused on latest clinical research whereas governments are more concerned with the availability of modern equipment and trained staff. These differences are important yet they do not amount to be a barrier for cooperation if all groups are engaged in a holistic and strategic manner, acknowledging the same aims but their different responsibilities.

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Channels used to find and disseminate information, and capacity needs, per sector (chapter 4) Sources for S&T information are mainly the internet, audiovisual outlets and face-to-face meetings. In many cases the words ‘reliable’ or ‘reputable’ were used when referring to a type of source participants would preferably consult when searching for S&T information. This is important for organisations or individuals aiming to promote information for policy and development. When we analysed sources used to disseminate S&T information, we found that in all sectors face-to-face meetings too also figure, while academics and researchers tend also to publish reports in specialised journals, and media and policy sector stakeholders use TV, radio and print materials – and so are more likely to reach the wider public. Capacity building needs for policymakers are for governance, knowledge management and technical skills related to S&T. For academics and researchers, needs include business administration and funding, networking and communicating with non-specialist audiences. The media needs to build more capacity for science journalism and the use of modern technologies. On the global front, many felt that while priorities and focus were broadly the same, for example in matters related to health and climate change, there are differences in levels of governance, capabilities and funding.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

SciDev.Net’s focus groups in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) are part of a global programme that aims to understand regional needs and contexts for science and technology (S&T) in development. The programme started in 2012 in South East Asia and the Pacific, and reports are available online at http://www.scidev.net/global/content/learning-series.html The monitoring and evaluation coordinator at SciDev.Net (this author) designed the focus group programme using a participatory approach for research agenda building. The following were identified as research goals for the project: 1. Identify the science and technology (S&T) topics most relevant for development purposes 2. Analyse regional gender-relevant topics in S&T for development 3. Identify emerging areas of research 4. Identify emerging science communication trends 5. Identify emerging science policy trends 6. Study the appropriateness of formats used for coverage according to the different audience needs 7. Compare the value of regional, global and specific topic coverage 8. Analyse preferred formats and technology platforms for consuming S&T information 9. Study capacity building and science communication training for all groups 10. Analyse the most effective methods for training

We use different methodologies and group dynamics to maximise participation as well as in-depth analysis and discussion. For example there is a plenary session at the beginning, followed by smaller working groups applying the world café approach as well as other interactive activities. Generally the M&E Coordinator facilitates the focus group discussions, with the help of assistants in each country who help coordinate the logistics and administrative tasks. However in this case an Arabic facilitator was hired - Dr. Najjar. The countries were selected in consultation with our MENA regional coordinator and SciDev.Net senior management, and have these characteristics: 



Algeria, in North Africa, has had a stable political situation compared with the revolutions in the other two countries, but is relatively closed to the international community Egypt, bridging the Middle East and North Africa, is one of the more influential countries in the region in terms of culture and politics, and the location of our regional office. Egypt also has the largest number of researchers in the Arab countries, according to UNESCO’s Science Report 2010

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report 

Tunisia, also in North Africa, is open to foreigners, mainly due to its tourism industry, and is where the Arab Spring started.

In our regional studies we aim to set up groups in each country that represent all the main sectors and a wide range of organisations, only allowing one representative per institution. This is a key component of the methodology as it provides a wide range of experiences and opinions about science outside the academic world, and has resulted in a more holistic, multi-stakeholder view of how science can be better used for policy and development. In the MENA study, we had about 12 participants per day (two full-day events per country), with about four participants for each of these sectors:    

Policy stakeholders (civil servants, policy advisors, policymakers, policy administrators at local and national levels) The academic and research community (scientists and researchers, teachers) Science communicators (science journalists, press officers working for science or research organisations) Civil society (development practitioners working for non-profit organisations).

We also favour senior roles as a way to tap into more knowledge and experience. As key stakeholders within a given country, we value their views on how to improve the delivery and application of S&T for development. As expected, a secondary result was to provide networking opportunities within the country and across sectors and organisations, increasing the potential for partnerships in S&T for development. See Annex 1 for a list of participants.

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Building a culture of science is necessary if S&T information is to be used for policy and development. In this context, we asked for views from participants in five key sectors, as detailed below, concerning their roles in enabling evidence-based development. This is the first theme explored in this chapter. The second issue is gender and limitations imposed by social, cultural and religious norms — all of which influence greatly women’s choice in areas of study and their ability to pursue science and establish successful careers. The main concerns are the difference in women’s responsibilities and a lack of an inclusive labour market that caters for their needs. Lastly, we look at the revolutions that have occurred in two of the three countries we visited during our research (Egypt and Tunisia), which have had profound impacts on development, in particular on science communication.

What became clear is that participants understand development as a model that delivers benefits in social, environmental and economic areas. So it is not surprising that such a broad view requires multi-stakeholder cooperation, particularly when it comes to using evidence for policy and development — what we will call ‘building a culture of science’. Figure 1: Building a culture of science – a multi-stakeholder approach

Public sector

Private sector

NGOs

Goal To have a positive impact on development for all

Academic and research sector

Media

When building a culture of science, the importance of collaboration was a theme in almost all of the focus group discussions. Some participants stressed that the cooperation fostered

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report during the focus groups is required on a larger scale, both national and regional. Many value what they learn from stakeholders in other sectors about common interests, problems and plans. Collaboration is not only required to better meet similar organisational goals, but also to meet social need. In Algeria, participants defined the ‘knowledge society’ as a model for development, with three main pillars: media (which distributes knowledge), policymakers (who make knowledge production and dissemination possible), and academics and researchers (who produce and/or have the knowledge). Interactions among these groups are deemed crucial for effective use of S&T in achieving development. Emphasis was placed on the importance of creating institutional mechanisms that foster dialogue and collaboration between groups. The following sections describe the roles for each of the key sectors in detail in evidencebased development.

Four dimensions of governance were raised by participants as influential factors for S&T for development: policies and investment, coordination, commitment and implementation, and participation.

Policies for S&T are essential. They help give clarity and direction to uncoordinated efforts and diverse views within a country. Finance, priorities for developing policies and consultation methods were also seen as key. Unfortunately the policy sector’s focus tends to be short-term and does not overlap well with that of the development or research communities, which tend to have a longer-term focus (beyond ten years). This means that sometimes the much needed strategic, sustainable and long-term policies for S&T for development are too much of a challenge. Some participants felt that economic development and investments should be based on research evidence; others stressed the importance of linking policies with the reality of development needs — for example, taking socio-environmental concerns more seriously — instead of continuing to focus solely on profit-making. In Egypt, while some felt that research should be economically relevant, others felt that any kind of sound research will automatically increase the country's economic wellbeing, which is an interesting idea but seems incomplete as a solution to development on its own. In such scenarios one can see why it would be desirable to have a public sector that develops S&T policies that aim to link research with national development, also facilitating its application for innovation. In Algeria, some felt this could be achieved with the help of mandatory assessment of research against social, environmental and economic concerns. Some policies are enabling innovation and use of S&T for development, such as in Algeria where the government encourages research — and a study conducted by found that Algerians were satisfied with their country's innovation and research status (General

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Electric, 2012). In Egypt it was noted that there has been a boost for S&T in the 2012 constitutional reform. But in Tunisia there is a lack of encouragement by the government for scientific research. Tunisians seem to be the least content with the policy context and had several policy recommendations – see below are examples. They lamented that the Arab world in general is “in the shadows” rather than in the spotlight of producing knowledge and innovation, and much needs to be done to encourage scientific research and innovation. For the most part, Arabs are consumers of science and technology rather than producers. In Egypt some attributed the limited focus on innovation to a lack of clear and enforceable policies for patent rights and procedures. Those in Algeria and Tunisia stressed the need for adapting imported technologies to suit local opportunities and limitations. Some in Egypt felt that there is a strong need for innovative policies because they feel conventional polices are not working well to solve problems related to the health or energy sectors, for example. It is urgent for policymakers to be less risk averse and more innovative, particularly in the light of current economic problems, especially fuel shortages. Participants in Egypt also said that research is not treated by the state as a priority but as a luxury owing to its high cost and that often, the state does not adequately publicise available funding to scientists and so it is not allocated. The brain drain is related to the political context and funding. Most participants stressed the need for policies aimed at preventing the young and talented from leaving for countries where it is believed that job conditions and impacts are far better. Youth unemployment in the MENA region is one of the highest in the world and one of the main drivers of the Arab Spring (Hoffman and Amaney, 2012). Most participants stressed that more resources should be used to invest in youth and job creation. In addition many felt that researchers’ pay should be increased — for example, in Egypt researchers feel underpaid and unappreciated, which contributes to the brain drain. On the positive side, some praised the Egyptian government’s efforts to reward young researchers through contests such as the ‘Nobel Prize simulation’ (see www.nobel-egypt.com). Tunisians said that entrepreneurs and other funding agencies do not support local innovations or talents, which could be attributed to low expectations from, and lack of trust in, the talents of the developing world. This leads to lack of funding and support to young people and scientists, and consequently to brain drain. Some scientists are left to rely on their own resources and personal networks to conduct research.

In Algeria, participants felt that development through evidence-based decision-making requires policymakers to assume a prominent role in coordinating efforts between groups, since policymakers have the most influence. The example of Singapore was raised by participants — they admire a government which has implemented a ‘smart city’ approach with ICT, and which now competes with Finland in the knowledge economy.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Lack of coordination between government bodies is a particular problem in Tunisia. An example is where a government department built a train track but then had to remove it because it conflicted with another project planned by a different department. Some policymakers pointed out that bureaucracy makes it very difficult to collaborate with other government departments. Many complained that email is not considered a formal means for communicating with government offices and instead tedious paperwork is often required. A lack of skills exchange between departments is also a result of limited coordination between government offices, and there so there are opportunities to increase effectiveness. In addition, some in Tunisia stressed the importance of coordination and collaboration between regional countries on cross-border issues such as climate change. Participants felt that departments do not collaborate due to a lack of a common plan or vision for achieving development goals â&#x20AC;&#x201D; which is linked to the point raised in the previous section on policies for clarity and national direction.

Lack of follow-up, commitment and implementation were said by participants in all three countries to be problematic for development, and in particular for S&T, and often lead to failure to complete projects and develop ideas, and lack of implementation of otherwise good policies. Further, local development problems (e.g. access to medicine and food, energy, security) and their solutions are all well known by officials. The problem is the commitment of officials to overcome these problems, and again bureaucracy was mentioned as a barrier. Perhaps more worrying is that, as some participants expressed particularly in Tunisia, that politics and development are hard to align. They explained that politicians could have personal interests in hiding certain development problems, such as the presence of harmful bacteria in drinking water. Some participants believe there is a fear that scientists may find inconvenient truths, which results in a lack of support for science. In the cases where participants said, such as in Egypt, that enabling policies are present, the concern was about the lack of enforcement or implementation â&#x20AC;&#x201D; which some attributed to a lack of commitment by officials. In Algeria, many felt that projects are tied to individuals and that when they leave, the projects die out. Along these lines, in Tunisia participants said that projects often have short lifecycles owing to lack of commitment on the part of officials. Lack of adequate commitment to rural development in Tunisia was especially stressed â&#x20AC;&#x201D; cities in the south are less developed than villages in the north. An issue not widely discussed during this research project is the importance of monitoring systems to evaluate implementation, success and promote learning.

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Many in Tunisia felt that their voices were not heard on issues related to development. The need for participatory governance mechanisms are important for responding to society’s needs and for the successful implementation of policies. When groups are involved in drafting policies, they are more likely to cooperate in their implementation (see for example Becrhi and Naccache, 2006). Increased participation of stakeholders could contribute to solving the lack of enforcement of development policies, a problem identified in all three countries. In Tunisia, participants said that civil society has a role to play in development and should have access to knowledge to be informed and empowered, but such access is at present restricted to scientists. Many participants said there is a need to consolidate efforts and strengthen the participation of civil organisations in development. In Tunisia also, participants said that scientists should have communication strategies to disseminate knowledge to the public. Communicating with the public is important to encourage and make better use of local scientific resources. In Egypt some felt that it is of utmost importance to overcome centralised decision-making as many scientists feel that their voices are unheard. Bottom-up approaches to decisionmaking would strengthen the position of research and improve the economy. Having said that, some participants acknowledge there has been recent progress in this front, with more participation opportunities since the 2012 constitutional reform. The dimensions of governance are not mutually exclusive. The lack of involvement in decision-making, some participants in Egypt said, is at least partially due to the government’s lack of commitment to transparent decision-making. According to participants, the governance gaps presented in this section have contributed to the import of innovation, rather than fostering local innovation in all three countries. Nonetheless, some local innovations have prevailed, especially in Algeria — in agriculture, energy and fisheries. In Tunisia, some highlighted the production of a coffee substitute from date seeds.

Clearly, academics and researchers are important contributors to knowledge, particularly scientific knowledge. However, participants in Algeria believed that scientists have the least power to influence development. Most discussion focused on the role this sector should play in education and research. In chapter 3 we present participant's concerns and suggestions for improvement regarding educational reform — mainly about developing critical and innovative skills and increasing quality of and engagement with science subjects. For research, participants would ideally like to see it linked to development, and felt that researchers should work more closely with partners in society to conduct research that is relevant for development. In other words, the public needs to be involved in all stages of scientific research from the inception of research ideas to the testing and up-scaling stages. Even when ideas and technologies are imported, the academic and research sector are still needed to localise technologies.

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Some participants believe that scientists are more often focused on achieving higher professional credentials (tenure, professorships, published in journals etc.) instead of using research to benefit people and contribute to development. Therefore, there is a need for academic and research institutions to create strategies that steer professionals towards development goals. Provided that the right type of research is developed, researchers should also guide policymakers to make informed decisions. This is not an easy task, and it touches on capacity building in science communication and engaging with non-specialists such as media stakeholders. Applying science and linking research with industry is another key element of S&T for development, in the view of participants. Much more could be done by academic and research organisations in developing strategic partnerships with the private sector for education and research.

Science communication enables access to reliable and accurate evidence for policy and development. In that context, the role of media in Tunisia, it was suggested, should be to communicate to the public the importance of S&T for development â&#x20AC;&#x201D; currently, the media is seen as just for entertainment and politics. In Tunisia, participants also feel that the media is crucial for democracy as it can bring to light key issues and push for action in areas that politicians might otherwise refrain from. In Algeria, some said that the role of the media is to connect groups and to distribute knowledge, ultimately informing policymakers of the latest research findings. There is a risk, some in Tunisia mentioned, that the media will exaggerate scientific findings and could unduly spread fear among citizens. In Egypt, the importance of the media in dealing with the hepatitis C endemic was highlighted, as this is seen as a behavioural problem. The media can promote awareness and so play a part in prevention efforts. In Tunisia, the media sector could also carry educational programming to introduce new technologies to people, for example. Participants in all three countries felt that the media should not just publicise science, but foster links between civil society and research in a way that is sensitive to economic implications and society's needs in various contexts. As raised in chapter 3, more slots should be allocated for science-related content in traditional media channels, presenting information in an interesting and convincing way.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

The private sector could play a stronger role when it comes to education and research. It could work more closely with academic institutions to help professionals develop the skills that the labour market demands. It can be a funder or a partner in research, but most importantly it can help with development and rollout of technologies. The non-governmental sector is composed of civil society organisations, which have close links with local people and can be key in helping to link research to the grassroots and implementing policies at lower levels – and in many cases they represent locals and their concerns, for example at international events such as those hosted by the UN on gender and indigenous groups. These two stakeholders are also important when building a culture of science.

Gender relations is the second theme we have identified as affecting S&T for development in MENA, particularly given the way that the issue was approached by the groups. Initially, participants were asked about gender implications of S&T, but they did not identify with the term ‘gender’, and it was consequently replaced with ‘differences and similarities between the two sexes’. But there was discomfort when asking participants about gender issues (when pressed on homosexuality as part of gender dynamics, people preferred not to discuss this). The mentality of equality is relatively new to Algeria, some pointed out. In general, most participants in all countries felt that there are no inequalities between men and women. Yet media reports reveal that gender inequalities in the Middle East are alarmingly high, such as for job access and conditions (BBC, 2013a,b). Many stated that advancement in technology and more income has helped reduced women’s labour, allowing them to gain knowledge and participate in the workforce. Most attributed this perceived equality to the fact that there are women in the workforce who contribute to and are pioneers in research, medicine and law. In addition, in all three countries, participants stressed that women constitute the majority of university students. In Tunisian schools there are more girls than boys and in Egypt and Algeria the majority of postgraduate students are women — which some participants felt is related to a perceived need by women to prove themselves to the community. In Egypt, some also felt that women do not have to take jobs and so are able to attend graduate schools more freely than men. We heard in Tunisia that some medical subjects were less attractive for women, particularly those related to sexuality (such as gynaecology) as some feel embarrassed — and that women are more interested in paediatrics, cosmetic surgery, obstetrics and nutrition. In Algeria, participants felt that the government does not discriminate between men and women, and even encourages women’s involvement. Yet local communities look down on women who are unmarried yet successful in their jobs. So women, unlike men, have to make compromises between their social roles and careers. In addition to social pressures,

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report when women have a family they have a reproductive role to fulfil in addition to their work. Participants in all countries pointed out that compared with men, women’s traditional roles (such as housework and attending to children’s schooling) limit their abilities to focus on research, to make business trips or to work outside formal working hours. So most felt that women have less time to focus on their careers due to competing demands. In Tunisia, some felt that women often have to choose to prioritise their husbands over their careers and that men are chosen for elite positions. Moreover, in all countries, participants felt that women in rural areas are more restricted in their mobility and life choice. Similar concerns are reported by Abdelali-Martini (2011) — women in rural areas have much less education than women in urban areas of the Middle East. It is no surprise that in Algeria and Egypt, improving literacy rates and addressing social and cultural taboos are said to be important to empowering rural women. Therefore it was promising to hear that in Algeria many felt that the internet and telephone have allowed women to pursue postgraduate training and work, even in isolated areas. Given the above, it is not surprising that society at large believes that men are better qualified than women (due to their ability to study, work and travel) and therefore are more trusted. Despite these challenges, many women are able to multitask and prove their skilfulness in research. In both Algeria and Tunisia participants felt that women have proven themselves and are even more accomplished than their male peers in many research areas. In Algeria, women who are able to travel and dedicate energy to their careers are those with understanding husbands. This highlights the importance of targeting men to achieve women’s empowerment outcomes (Parpart et al., 2000). In Egypt, participants said that there are informal ways to meet the needs of women who have family responsibilities and competing demands on their time, for example by offering flexible working to women employees. Clearly, more encouragement is required for men to assist their wives in raising children too. In Algeria, some female participants stressed that gender equality is not only about women becoming increasingly involved in male-related roles but also about men adopting femalerelated roles. Healthcare was given as an example where occupations carried out exclusively by women should attract more men. In Egypt, some stressed the need for policies that protect women in certain working conditions. For example, during pregnancy women should not be work in areas where there are radiation — but this was branded by some as ‘positive discrimination’. This type of discrimination is a delicate subject that the authors feel should be more widely discussed in consultation with women. It is important to note that there are development needs that are gender-specific. Clearly, S&T has brought about opportunities for development but more effort is needed if social and reproductive roles are to adapt to allow women to participate more.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Participants in Egypt and Tunisia said the recent revolutions have had a big impact on S&T, in particular for governance and sustainability, research and science journalism. Participants in Tunisia commented that before the revolution there were serious efforts to hide inconvenient truths on issues such as pollution and diseases — and these surfaced only after revolution. This is a positive impact — the media is now able to uncover previously hidden issues such as disease outbreaks, among other important topics. Not only has the media gained increased freedom in addressing development issues, but so has civil society in general. For example, two of the participating NGOs in the workshops were formed after Tunisia’s revolution. Another positive effect, in both Egypt and Tunisia, is the feeling that policymakers are better listeners and are more likely to consult with and accept scientists’ opinions and recommendations. In Tunisia, participants mentioned that due to the revolution, there is more budget to meet development goals. On the other hand, the revolutions, many pointed, have also resulted in chaos and a focus on political upheaval. Unionised garbage removal workers being constantly on strike was mentioned in Tunisia. Journalists in Tunisia said that they would more often cover a protest than a concurrent scientific event. Development, many felt, was also hindered by frequent changes in government officials. The most recent government in Tunisia (led by the Ennahda party), for example, resigned amid widespread protests. The Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt lost its ruling status in July 2013 and the country’s research and development (R&D) committee is currently hampered by the lack of stable political leadership to listen to and implement its recommendations, which are revised every three years.

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

The first part of this chapter focuses on the common S&T topics that emerged during the focus groups, which relate to seven areas: health, agriculture, education, the internet and other media, energy, infrastructure/industry and the environment. The priorities for groups and countries are similar, and it is a lack of coordination and convergence between sectors that impedes development. For example in agriculture, for example, researchers are more involved in developing new crops, but governments are interested in land access and usage. In health, scientists are more focused on finding cures for diseases whereas government is more concerned with the availability of modern equipment and trained staff. These differences are important but need not be barriers if all groups are engaged in a holistic and strategic manner, acknowledging the same aims and their different responsibilities. Some subtopics that are country-specific include fisheries research in Algeria and pollution by foreign enterprises in Tunisia. The table on page 25 provides a list of subtopics identified for each of the main topics in Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia. In all countries, across all topics, access, quality and rural/urban equality are important. For regional cooperation, it is important to note that given the similarities in areas of focus and contexts, these countries could engage more in projects that facilitate exchange of knowledge and lessons learned at the policy and research levels.

Most participants, particularly in Egypt and Tunisia, felt that without good health and wellbeing, innovation and S&T for development are difficult to attain. Issues range from health promotion to access to and quality of health services, particularly for women and rural populations. Participants in Tunisia felt that the public health sector is burdened with inadequate training of staff and improper use of modern equipment. Sanitation was also raised as an important issue. Participants in Algeria were far more satisfied with their health sector and related research â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the country currently benefits from 16 innovation programmes in healthcare. In Egypt, participants said there should be more effort to deal with the hepatitis C endemic (30% of the population is infected) as affected people can find it hard to work. Some said that hepatitis C is primarily a behavioural problem and needs a sustained focus on prevention, particularly through education. A focus on the health sector in Egypt would lead to a better economy, participants said.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report 2) Food security was the main focus, not only as a strategic interest in itself but also as a way to decrease dependence on expensive food imports. The MENA region is the largest importer of wheat, with Egypt the country with the biggest quota ; wheat constitutes more than 40% of diets (Pedric, 2012). Market fluctuations and climate change are important contributors to the region’s vulnerability. In Egypt, participants felt that food security could be achieved with a focus on local resources and on increasing agricultural production with more efficient use of resources via innovations (e.g. improved varieties, more efficient use of water). Some in Egypt also felt that developing the agricultural sector would boost the manufacturing industry. Water was deemed by some in Egypt as the most important factor for agricultural development; participants stressed the importance of water conservation for the sustainable production of food. Participants in Tunisia felt that foreign investment in agriculture that focuses on non-food crops does not support the national priority of achieving food security. Participatory research was mentioned as a desirable practice and more efforts aimed at transferring knowledge from research laboratories to farmer's fields.

Educational reform was emphasised in all three countries, to increase access to and quality of education and interest in science. In Egypt, participants also felt that educational reform will bring benefits to the economy. India was mentioned as a model for educational reform. In Egypt, some voiced concerns that undergraduate enrolment is predominantly in the social sciences and that the country will pay a high price for the lack of focus on the physical sciences. Participants in the country described education in general as “disastrous” and there is a need to focus on producing future generations of researchers. The 2012-13 Global Competitiveness Report, published by the World Economic Forum (see Schwab, 2012), ranks Egypt last out of 148 countries surveyed for the quality of its primary education — behind many Arab, African, Asian and Western nations, including Algeria (ranked 131). In Tunisia, participants felt that poor educational resources have contributed to the low quality of education in public schools, quoting language and content errors in books. Some mentioned that part of the solution is to train teachers on an ongoing basis in the most recent advancements in their fields, but others said that would be too costly. In addition, participants in Tunisia were concerned that poor public school education fuels private tutoring, which costs many Tunisians as much as 60% of their incomes. Some suggested that teachers encourage private tutoring by doing little during school hours, so generating personal opportunities for money. There is a case for accountability and incentives based on performance. The teaching approach was also criticised in Egypt and Tunisia. Participants feel there is top-down approach to teaching in schools that largely limits the abilities of students and

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report future scientists to innovate. Teachers, they complain, feel that their role is to transmit information rather than also allow students to ask questions and think for themselves. A culture of constructive criticism and inquisitive behaviour should be fostered, they said. In Algeria and Tunisia, participants stressed the need for technical training in S&T. In Algeria, some noted that technicians are recruited from abroad, which is costly, and in Tunisia it was noted that very few technicians know how to fix equipment, such as in hospitals, which leads to delays in treating patients. Training in scientific journalism was also a concern for Tunisian participants. Algeria has started a scientific journalism programme and has seen its first generation of graduates, which is something to celebrate. Finally, access to knowledge was raised. In Tunisia, it was felt that scientists are almost the only group with access to scientific knowledge. This lack of access, some said, could be attributed to underestimating people’s abilities to grasp complex information.

Rural isolation and lack of access to services seem to be a common issue in all countries, although in Algeria, there are programmes to build new trams and trains, and connect rural populations to the internet. Those in Egypt voiced concerns about improving rural people’s access to basic services. In Tunisia, many complained about the short lifecycle of basic infrastructure (roads, canals etc.) and said that for achieving sustainable development, infrastructure in the country should be built to last. Some complained that areas in southern Tunisia are still lacking basis services, such as paved roads, electricity and school buildings. Many also emphasised that more adoption of new technologies, particularly for manufacturing industry, should be a priority.

Much of the focus here was on renewable sources and on access or coverage. Links with other technologies were also emphasised, such as where there is no access to electricity there will also be a challenge to deploy the internet. Dependence on non-renewable energy sources is a problem in Egypt and Tunisia. (See also Jamal, 2013 – Egypt’s national plan of achieving 20% of electricity from renewable energy resources by 2020 is currently only at 1%.) Some in Egypt complained that “we are regressing to the increased use of coal” and carbon emissions from coal are quite high. In Egypt, some stressed the importance of investigating renewable energy given that non-renewable resources could be depleted in the near future, and participants in the country also felt that access to fuel and electricity are the most pressing issues for development. They complained that so far no solutions have been found to this problem and that serious efforts are needed to address current shortages in fuel and electricity outages.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report In Tunisia, some complained that although alternative energy is an important topic for development research in the country, there is minimal public funding for solar energy research, for example, although some researchers are funding their own research. Some commented that locally assembled solar panels are exported rather than also being used locally to decrease dependence on non-renewable energy sources. Algeria seems to have no problems with renewable energy research and its applications; this could be attributed to strong national policies and research funding. There is a national plan for achieving 40% of energy from solar power by 2030. Some commented that solar power is viable all year in Algeria, and its use is currently under investigation for applications in irrigation, powering cities and water desalinisation. Algeria, then has a strong focus on renewable energy sources.

In all countries many participants stressed the importance of access to and quality of internet services, and some in Egypt and Tunisia highlighted that use of the internet should ideally be for achieving development (e.g. e-commerce, accessing health information), rather than the current almost sole focus on entertainment. Participants in Algeria were particularly concerned with the slow pace of promised developments in internet speed and coverage â&#x20AC;&#x201D; the government has a long delayed plan to introduce 3G mobile technology. Similar concerns were voiced in Tunisia, where there is also a lack of trust in the internet (partially due to the low pace of introduction), which may also have led to limited success of e-commerce. Participants said policymakers have a responsibility to provide better communications for the young generation by, for example, connecting each house to the internet. Some in Algeria felt that the media should have a bigger role in tourism. The country has 48 provinces with diverse climates and yet a modest tourism industry. Tunisia does promote a flourishing tourism industry, although it is a smaller country. All stressed the importance of media coverage of S&T topics; it is limited or non-existent â&#x20AC;&#x201D; at best only 1% of television programmes and newspaper articles. With coverage that does exist, in Tunisia participants felt that the media should present information in an interesting and convincing way, rather than the current dry and nonattractive approach. Participants in Egypt and Tunisia praised Western cartoons on S&T topics that are fun and informative and suggested similar approaches could increase childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interest in sciences. Another common criticism was that media coverage is restricted to nutrition topics during seasonal events, such as fasting during Ramadan.

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

For the most part, environmental concerns in all three countries are about recycling of domestic and industrial waste and lowering levels of pollution. Other priorities are conservation and the need for more regional cooperation, given the common climatic and socio-economic settings. For example, North African countries are involved in a desalinisation project, in partnership with European countries. In Tunisia, recycling and timely garbage removal are deemed particularly important to sustaining and enhancing the tourism industry. In Egypt, environmental issues were emphasised as having a strong impact on health. For example, air pollution contributes to respiratory health problems. Note that climate change was not discussed as much as in focus groups in the Pacific countries and islands (Romo, 2012a). Table 1 gives a country comparison of topics and concerns related to the role of S&T in development in Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia. Topics are not mutually exclusive; many felt the hepatitis C epidemic in Egypt, for example, could be best resolved through educational programmes.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Table 1: Priority S&T topics in the three countries S&T theme

Algeria

Egypt

Tunisia

Health

 Increasing the use of technology in health services  Increasing innovations in health research

 Prevention and treatment of hepatitis C  Enhancing quality of health care services  Increasing access for the poor

 Improving the quality of prevention campaigns to increase effectiveness (e.g. vaccination)  Improving public hospital conditions (e.g. sanitary, inadequate staff training)  Addressing medical errors  Technologically advanced machinery: importing spare parts, erroneous use and dependence  Decreasing transmission of blood borne diseases; treatments for cancer

Agriculture

 Achieving food security  Increasing areas for agriculture (land reclamation from deserts)  Increasing technological innovations and use in production (e.g. linking robotics research to modern irrigation)  Genetic improvement of date crops

 Achieving food security: focusing on sustainability  Implementing participatory agricultural research  Conservation of water and sustainable access to water  Curbing the use of polluted water in food production Strengthening the agricultural industry to increase production

 Achieving food security  Focusing on crop research*  Irrigation research  Increasing knowledge transfer from research labs to farmers’ fields  Concerns about foreign investment in agricultural crops that are polluting and do not contribute to food security

* Date crops are important to the Algerian and Tunisian economies. Both countries are two of the largest producers and importers of date fruits, particularly the daglat nour type.

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

S&T Theme

Algeria

Egypt

Tunisia

Education

 Long-standing support for free education (schools and universities); improving literacy, especially in rural areas  Importance of technical training  Developing three expert networks in physics  First graduates in science journalism

 Encouraging children's interest in science, overcoming the current crisis in poor quality education  Changing the topdown approach to teaching  Importance of technical training  Developing the communication skills of researchers

 Educational reform and increasing interest in science  Changing the topdown approach to teaching  Changing the current almost exclusive access to knowledge by scientists  Need for constant training of teachers  Developing knowledge cities similar to those in London, New York, Tokyo with the help of Duet Private Equity

Infrastructure and industry

 Improving transport, linking rural areas with urban areas (e.g. with trams)  Enhancing telecommunications infrastructure  Increasing use of modern technologies in manufacturing  Increased focus on the tourism industry using technology

 Enhance services in rural areas  Increasing research related to the manufacturing sector

 Building of bridges, irrigation systems and drainage canals  Providing potable water to remote populations, cleaning waterways  Increasing infrastructure lifecycle for long-term use  Concern about technologies that are costly and difficult to repair

Energy

 Strong focus on increasing dependency on renewable energy. E.g. shale gas; smart cities that use renewable energy sources and nuclear power  Introducing international auditing standards  Increasing coverage of smart electricity networks

 Modest focus on increasing dependency on renewable energy (e.g. solar research and increasing applications of clean energy  Addressing the lack of reliable and sufficient access to fuel, gas and electricity  National Federation of Aviation’s 2030 goal of 20% use of organic fuel in planes

 Modest focus on increasing dependency on renewable energy. E.g. solar research: solarpowered car research and innovations; selffunded research and changing the export of locally assembled solar panels towards more local use

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

S&T Theme

Algeria

Egypt

Tunisia

Internet and media

 Increasing internet speed and bandwidth to support commerce, tourism, education and civic services  Developing the applications of communication media  First science journalism graduates

 Increasing the number of science programmes (especially for children)

 Increasing internet coverage and speed; online public services and economy more generally  Enhancing the role of media in dissemination of knowledge about S&T (e.g. increasing number of programmes that are appealing and strengthening links among the media and universities  Updating obsolete data and programs on websites and other media outlets

Environment

 Technological innovations in fishing  Research on desalinisation of sea water  Reducing pollution  Increasing efforts towards environmental conservation and protection. E.g. dilemma about building dams, which have environmental and social impacts  Recycling

 Reducing food pollution

 Addressing sea, land, and air pollution especially in the south and taking into account the current sanitation workers crisis.  Desire to recycle more, particularly industrial and food waste, and more materials in addition to metals and plastics  Interests in remote sensing, astronomy and climate change research and its impacts on people and animals  Desire to collaborate more among regional universities and research institutes with common climatic and socioeconomic themes (e.g. Mediterranean climate, religion, high rates of youth unemployment)

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report The following sections summarise priorities per sector as a way of demonstrating how whilst interests and areas of work are the same across sectors and countries, differences can be linked to the nature of roles played by each.

Most policymaker’s areas of focus match those identified in the first part of this chapter — such as health promotion, quality, modernisation, infrastructure, educational reform and others. However, this sector has the added challenge of addressing governance issues, which include:       

Decentralisation Adequate funding and disbursement National policies and legislation — ensuring their implementation and adequate monitoring. Intellectual property rights and linking science with development needs and industry — encouraging innovation and applied science Combating corruption, crime and drug-related issues Managing immigration and attracting talent Enabling knowledge transfer and good knowledge management.

See chapter two for other insights that policy stakeholders ought to address concerning governance, such as coordination between government departments and facilitating wide participation.

While academic and researchers acknowledge that S&T priority areas for development include infrastructure, educational reform, internet coverage and media, they were not identified as being as prominent as the following: 



 



Health — in Tunisia there is a strong focus on cancer research, genetic engineering and remote surgery. In Algeria and Egypt the focus is on prevention and on diseases caused by pollution (food contamination, respiratory diseases, water contamination, etc.) Agriculture — sustainable methods, research and technology development. A particular focus on produce such as wheat, barley, milk and meat and on desert agriculture. Irrigation was also mentioned Energy — renewable sources in all countries such as solar energy. Shale gas and nuclear energy for peaceful uses was also mentioned in Algeria Environmental issues — climate change and recycling methods seems to be a strong area of focus for this sector. One can also include work on water projects such as desalinisation Astronomy — this was mentioned in Tunisia, and as cosmology in Algeria. There is an interest in developing fibre-optic technology.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report In Tunisia commerce and social sciences were also mention as areas of work. In Egypt nanotechnology and biotechnology were of particular interest.

The media covers almost all S&T priority topics identified earlier in this chapter, but its focus is more geared towards aspects that have great impact on people’s lives, such as:       

Health: nutrition, prevention of diseases as well as chronic and infectious diseases. Agriculture: food security. Fish farming is included Infrastructure: housing (construction and access to housing) Environmental issues: climate change, garbage, water and pollution Energy: renewable energies Internet: science journalism, internet speeds and new ICTs Education: educational reform, focusing on modern teaching techniques.

The media, in Algeria particularly, tend to cover recent discoveries in S&T, especially new applications and international innovations. They also cover scientific events, such as their country’s participation in international S&T expos or conferences, and scientists’ accomplishments, innovations and honouring ceremonies. In Egypt journalists mentioned that there is a particular interest in stories that report on the government’s efforts and accomplishments in S&T.

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

This chapter looks at the preferred sources of information used to access evidence and the preferred channels for dissemination of evidence by sector. Subsequently, capacity building needs are presented with reflections on global versus regional differences in S&T.

Sources of S&T information are mainly the internet, audiovisual media and face-to-face interactions. The words ‘reliable’ or ‘reputable’ were often used when referring to a type of source that participants would preferably consult when searching for S&T information. This is important for organisations or individuals aiming to include information for policy and development. Note that in Egypt and Tunisia, policy stakeholders mentioned ‘personal knowledge’ as sources of information. This correlates with data collected via a global survey by SciDev.Net (Romo, 2012b), where the majority of respondents ranked personal knowledge as their firstranked source of information. It means is that policymakers regularly consume a digest of news or information relevant to their area of work, which are later useful for a particular policy. Media participants rely more on new ICT channels such as social media — which was not mentioned at all by the policy stakeholders group. The media sector also appears to do a lot of benchmarking by screening what other media outlets are publishing. Those in the academic and research sector are more reliant on formal sources of knowledge such as scientific journals. When we analysed sources used to disseminate S&T information, we found that in all sectors there is a prevalence of face-to-face approaches too. Whereas academics and researchers focus on publishing reports in specialised journals, media and policy sector stakeholders concentrate on traditional channels such as TV, radio and print, and so reach the wider public better. In Algeria, policymakers also use videos to reach the wider public, and in Egypt policy stakeholders are making use of social media to disseminate information, particularly to young people. Yet many in Egypt complained that there is no communication from the government to the public about development policies. We were told that public knowledge about policies is based on educated guesses derived from policy implementations, so clearly this could improve. In the case of researchers, their focus is generally on publishing in internationally recognised journals — which is viewed by some as not sharing the results with the public

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report but with international partners, despite the fact that their government may have funded the work. But setting up national scientific journals that attract local talent is a challenge. Table 2 outlines the sources of information used and accessed by each of the groups in the three countries. Table 2: Sources of S&T information by sector Country

Academic and research

Media

Algeria

 Scientific sources and experts  Consultation  Personal knowledge  Internet  Information sent by fax

 Internet  Scientific sources: books, reports and journals or specialised magazines  Specialised information networks such as conferences, workshops and lectures  Radio and television  International training  Social media

 Online: news websites and agencies  Social media  Published studies  Meetings and interviews with scientific figures and international research institutes  Live coverage of new innovations and scientific conferences

Egypt

 Internet  Audiovisual media and written media reports  National statistics and data centres (governmental institutions)  International reports  Personal knowledge  Reliable personnel in various institutions (personal connections)

 Internet and open access resources (websites, modern libraries, ministries, academic outlets)  Training sources  Conferences and meetings  Journals (Springer, Science Direct, Pubmed, Elsevier, Google Scholar)

 Open access sources: internet  Personal connections (experts and scientists)  Publications of scientific organisations  Media sources (coverage based on other media reporting)  Government personnel and emails from government organisations  Specialised international reports

 Media reports  Expert studies and scientific journals  Documentaries  Online: websites  Scientific events and gatherings  Exchange visits

 Statistical reports  Libraries and printed materials  Internet  Lectures, conferences and course material  Exchange visits and talks with scientists (national and international)  Databases

 Studies and references  Fieldwork  Surveys, for example on public opinion  Television, audio and written journalistic material  Social media

Tunisia

Public sector

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report Dissemination routes are identified in Table 3 by the stakeholders in the three countries and encompass academic and non-academic routes.

Table 3: Influential dissemination outlets by sector Country Algeria

Egypt

Tunisia

Public sector      

International reports Audiovisual outlets Conferences Internet Movies SMS

Academic and research

Media

 Scientific publications (national and global)  Conferences and meetings (national and global)  Online: specialised websites, blogs, social networks  Copyright legislation  Documentaries  Various media outlets 

 Audiovisual media  Online: social media and websites  Print  Email  SMS  Advertisements*

 Online: particularly social media)  Audio media  Visual media and newspapers

   

Scientific workshops Media Scientific journals Local and international conferences  Internet 

 Radio and television  Online: social media and internet  journalism  Written media reports

 Radio and TV  Internet  Newspapers and newsletters  SMS  Direct contact

 Reports and publications in scientific journals  Direct contact  Internet

 Internet  Radio  Television

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Capacity building needs for policy stakeholders include: 



 

Governance skills: o Fostering intersectoral collaboration and transparency o Formulation of policies that lead to better development programmes o Importing and adapting international best practices, where appropriate o Consulting with specialists for policymaking Knowledge management skills: improving access and its circulation. For example by providing opportunities for researchers to meet them and exchange knowledge, but also facilitating access to scientific information to the wider public. Technical skills: S&T management, business and governance administration Training of others: skills related to new technologies and their markets for the public, and fostering specialisation with the aim of curtailing import of foreign skills as well as brain drain.

Capacity building needs for researchers include:  



Gender: encouraging women to contribute more in science and ICT Technical: o How to link research with development needs o Evaluating research for practical applications o Continuous training, particularly for new technologies o Business administration (including people management), innovation management (i.e. intellectual property rights), and how to formulate research plans o Addressing ethical issues o Writing skills for publishing o How to identify and attract funding for research Communicating with non-specialists: o How to simplify scientific information for mass communication o Synchronising research efforts with government and non-governmental institutions o Skills to run workshops with policy stakeholders in research institutions Networking o Development of specialist networks and centres of excellence o Attendance at conferences, lectures and other relevant events.

Capacity building for the media revolved around: 

Technical: o Learning how to report science in an interesting and engaging manner o Science journalism, including investigative journalism. This includes a focus on accuracy and interviewing skills o Use of modern technologies for science journalism, for example infographics o Where language is a barrier: learning English.

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report The lack of space for science journalism in traditional media is clearly an issue. Some suggested that research institutes can partner with media organisations to provide training for journalists.

In the three countries, the variations between local and global S&T concerns were mainly about resources, government planning and commitment, and training. For the public sector, similarities with the global context were identified, for example in Egypt with regard to ICT, renewable energy and water, and in Tunisia on fighting terrorism through the use of S&T. Differences were linked to:  

 

Communication between institutions — perceived as being less efficient and transparent compared with the global setting A general lack of involvement from civil society and research organisations in decision-making. Participants also felt there is a lack of policy enforcement and implementation A lack of intellectual property rights in scientific research in the region, and a lack of educational reform In Egypt, a less clear focus on healthcare than at global level

For academic and researchers the feeling, particularly in Tunisia, was that research capacities and application of S&T are limited compared with the global North, despite sharing similar research interests and goals. In Algeria participants said that there are also differences in quality and extent of benefit from research findings. In Egypt, participants explained that the weak focus on research and applications in the country was a result of lacking clarity, strength and funding owing to the general political environment. For the media sector the main difference was on communicating science. Despite sharing similar interests with the global community, such as on climate change, there are almost no programmes on science. So it is not surprising that coverage of S&T topics is minimal and of poor quality. Where there is science coverage the feeling is that policymakers react to it differently than those in the North. Finally, access to information in the region was another issue raised compared to the developed world, particularly for some marginalised groups and women.

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Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Name

Gender

Job title

Organisation

Fatiha Shanoune

Senior researcher

Centre de Development des Energies Renouvelables / Renewable Energy Development Centre

Bilal Yalaoui

Researcher

CRIST (Centre l’Information Technique)

Wahiba Bendaikha

Senior researcher

Centre de Development des Energies Renouvelables / Renewable Energy Development Centre

Fairouz Debbari

Journalist

Chourouk TV

Sidali Chaouche

Chair

Association of Environment Tourism, de Boumerdes

Zouhir Bouamama

Professor

L’Ecole Nationale Sciences Politiques

Aiyad Reyda

Chair

El Arez Association of Environmental Protection

Fayza Khelifi

Administrator

ATRST (Thematic Agency for Research in Science and Technology)

Djamila Yatta

Researcher

INRAA (National Institute Agricultural Research)

Fatiha Mouassa

Member of National board

UNFA (Union Nationale des Femmes Algeriennes)

Hamida Tazka

Head of division

INRAA (National Institute Agricultural Research)

Mounir Rekkab

Journalist

Shorouk Online

El-Haoues Lebbaz

Scientific journalist pharmacist

Moussa Abad

Administrator

and

de Recherche Scientifique

Supérieure

sur et

and

for

Freelance

ATRST

(Thematic

Agency

for

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Name

Gender

Job title

Organisation Research in Science and Technology)

Zeghidi Lahcene

Mohamed

Professor

Université d’Alger

Ahmed Necib

Consultant

Université d’Alger

Rabia Ghanm

Assistant

Faculty d’Alger

Rahma Bessah

Research engineer

Centre de Development des Energies Renouvelables / Renewable Energy Development Centre

Member of board

Association ‘pour la protection de l’enfance’

Karima Guemache

Mehdi

Medicine,

Université

33 37

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Name

Gender

Job title

Organisation

Galal H. Galal-Edeen

Professor and senior innovation policy advisor Faculty of computers (Science and Technology information, Cairo University Development Fund)

Tyseer Aboulnasr

Visiting professor

Mohamed GAD

Professor of hydrology, head of mathematical modelling Desert Research Centre unit

Farouk Kamel El-Baz

Head of investors and National Research Centre technology transfer office

Noha Rabie Mohamed

Executive manager

Magdy Ali Said

Chief editor Nature Arabic edition, and former Nature Publishing Group â&#x20AC;&#x201C; MacMillan of the Arab president Egypt association of science writers

Hamdi Abdelsamei Mohamed

Professor and head of the department of food hygiene Masr El Mahrousa Association and safety

Ibrahim

Head of section

Dalia Abdal-Salam

and

Nile University

Egyptian Center for the Advancement of Science, Technology and Innovation (ECASTI)

environmental

El Ahram Hebdo newspaper

Ashraf Amin

Head of the science department, responsible for Al-Ahram Newspaper Al-Ahram Science Clubs

Rawnaa Al-Masry

Screen writer and science Al-Manara â&#x20AC;&#x201C; science Journalist Egyptian State TV

Waleed AlSebaay

Director

Egyptian satellite channels

Abdel Hamid Abaza

Assistant minister of health

Ministry of Health

Nadia Al-Ansary

Project officer and director Science and Technology of technology incubator Development Fund (STDF), Ministry programme of scientific research

Omeima Kamel

Senior media advisor

channel,

Freelance

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Name

Gender

Job title

Organisation

environment education and public awareness Hassan Mohamed ElSaid Azzazy

Professor of chemistry (AUC) The American University in Cairo and chief technology officer and D-Kimia LLC (D-Kimia)

Salah Obayya

Professor and director of the Zewail City Centre for Photonics and Technology Smart Materials

Ahmed Ellaithy

Director, technology transfer American University in Cairo office

Ehab Abdel-Rahman

Associate research

Ayman Shehata

Strategy manager

Sameera Ezzat

Director of research and associate professor of public Childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cancer Hospital health

Khaled Mohammed Ghanem

Hazem Badr

1) 2)

provost

for

Science

and

American University in Cairo Takatof Foundation

Editor-in-chief Founder

1) 2)

Ennow.Net Green Home Association

Professor

Al-Azhar University

Journalist

Al-Akhbar newspaper

Amira Ismail

Television researcher field producer

Mohamed Hegazy

Head, intellectual property Information Technology Industry office Development Agency (ITIDA)

Abdel-Ghany Mohamed El-Gindy

Professor of agricultural and Ain Shams University biosystems engineering

Mohamed Mottaleb

Associate professor and director of the Centre for Nile University Nanotechnology

Abdel-

and

Belail Media Production & Consulting

35 39

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Name

Gender

Job title

Organisation

Khlifa Mehdi

Journalist

Chourouk newspaper

Hatem Bel Houch

Journalist

Tunisian radio

Issam El Amri

President

Tunisian association for assisting victims of medical errors

Raoudha Zarrouk

President

Cancer association

Riadh Ben Nessib

Scientist

Science city

Slimen Ben Youssef

Press attaché

Ministry of Environment

Fradj El Amri

Representative

Prime Minister’s representative

Sahbi Fradj

Journalist

El Hiwar Ettounsi (TV station)

Chedly Tifefi

Representative

Ministry of Agriculture

Tarek Aouiden

Journalist

Jawhara FM

Selmi Raoudha

Representative

Science city

Ali Nabil

Representative

Moutawasset TV

Mohsen Mohamed

Professor

School

Hela Kochbati

Journalist

Santé magazine

Jaafar Hassen

President

Scientist kids

Aymen Bel Haj Salem

Journalist

National TV

Ghazi El Mabrouk

Journalist

TAP (news agency)

Naceur Mhamdi

Assistant professor

INAT

Fetiha Laamari

Representative

Ministry of Health

Massouda Wesleti

Representative

Ministry of Transport

Houda Romdhani

Representative

Ministry of Social Affairs

Ghassen Khamis

Researcher on development

Mohamed Fagaa

Academic

economic

Institute of Administration Institute of Technology

Middle East and North Africa Focus Group Report

Abdelali-Martini M. (2011). Empowering women in the rural labor force with a focus on agricultural employment in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Expert paper. Expert

group meeting: Enabling rural women’s economic empowerment: institutions, opportunities and participation. Accra, Ghana, 20-23 September 2011. Available at: http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/csw56/egm/Martini-EP-9-EGM-RW-Sep-2011.pdf

BBC (2013a). Egypt ‘worst for women’ out of 22 countries in Arab world. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24908109 BBC (2013b). Revolution brings no job hopes for Tunisia’s women. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-25262847 Becrhi M. and Naccache S. (2006). The political economy of development policy in Tunisia. Contributions to Economic Analysis 278: 307–334. General Electric (2012). GE Innovation Barometer: a preview of the 2012 results . Algeria Analysis-Updated Deck. Available at: http://www.slideshare.net/lyesdz/ge-innovation-barometer-algeria-2012 Hoffman M. and Amaney J. (2012). The youth and the Arab Spring: cohort differences and Middle East Law and Governance 4: 168–188. Available at: similarities. http://mthoffma.mycpanel.princeton.edu/Hoffman_Jamal_MELG.pdf Jamal A. (2013). Ma Tama Tanfeethoh Akal Min 1%: Al Taqa Al Morajadida Biyad Sani Al Qarar [What was accomplished is less than 1%: renewable energy in the hands of policymakers]. Al-Ahram Daily, 1 December 2013.

Parpart J.L., Connelly P. and Barriteau V.E. (eds.). (2000). Theoretical perspectives on gender and development. International Development Research Center (IDRC). Pedric C. (2012). Strategies for combating climate change in drylands agriculture. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA). Available at: http://drylandsystems.cgiar.org/sites/default/files/Agriculture%20and%20Climate%20Chang e_%20Input%20to%20COP%20%288%29.pdf Romo J. (2012a). South East Asia and the Pacific Focus Group Report. SciDev.Net. Available at: http://www.scidev.net/global/evaluation/learning-series/south-east-asia-and-thepacific-focus-group-report.html

SciDev.Net Global Review. SciDev.Net. Available Romo J. (2012b). http://www.scidev.net/global/evaluation/learning-series/scidev-net-global-review2012.html

at:

Schwab K. (ed.) (2012). The Global Competitiveness Report 2012–2013. World Economic Forum. Available at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2012-13.pdf

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