Music Therapy Today, Vol. 6, No. 1 by World Federation of Music Therapy

Music Therapy Today a quarterly journal of studies in music and music therapy

Volume VI, Issue 1 (February 2005)

David Aldridge & Jรถrg Fachner (eds.) Published by MusicTherapyWorld.net UniversityWitten/Herdecke Witten, Germany ISSN 1610-191X

Editor in Chief/Publisher Prof. Dr. phil. David Aldridge Editor Dr. Jörg Fachner, joergf@uni-wh.de Managing editor Christina Wagner, cwagner@uni-wh.de Book review editor and dissertations archive Annemiek Vink, a.c.vink@capitolonline.nl “Odds and Ends, Themes and Trends” Tom Doch, t.doch@t-online.de International contacts Dr. Petra Kern, PETRAKERN@prodigy.net Scientific Advisory Board Prof. Dr. Jaakko Erkkilä, University of Jyväskylä, Finland Dr. Hanne Mette Ridder, University of Aalborg, Denmark Dr. Gudrun Aldridge, University Witten/Herdecke, Germany Marcos Vidret, University of Buenos Aires, Argentinia Dr. Cochavit Elefant, Bar-Ilan University, Israel Prof. Dr. Cheryl Dileo. Temple University in Philadelphia, USA Prof. Dr. Marlene Dobkin de Rios, University of California, Irvine, USA Dr. Alenka Barber-Kersovan University of Hamburg, Germany Prof. Dr. Tia DeNora, University of Exeter, UK Dr. Patricia L. Sabbatella, University of Cadiz, Spain

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Table of Contents Music Therapy Today i Table of Contents vi Editorial 1 JĂśrg Fachner 1 Music Therapy in a Therapeutic Community: Bringing the Music to the Players 5 John Hedigan 5 ABSTRACT: As more and more music therapy graduates have to create jobs for themselves and start programs from scratch, there is a need for music therapists to have skills in designing programs for a wide range of facilities and client groups. This paper empirically describes the design, development and co-ordination of a music therapy program in a Therapeutic Community (TC) for substance dependent adults in Melbourne, Australia. Substance abuse treatment and the ideals of the TC model will be discussed, as will the elements of the music therapy program and how it works within this model. A case vignette will be presented as a means of exploring one clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s journey through all aspects of music therapy in the TC.

Non-structured Initial Assessment of Psychiatric Client in Music Therapy 23 vi

Esa Ala-Ruona 23 Abstract: This paper is based on the grounded theory study, in which experienced music therapy clinicians were interviewed and their conception of an initial assessment were examined in detail. The main result of the study is a qualitative synthesis of initial assessment procedures, including the description of the process how a therapist gains his/her understanding of a client during an assessment period. In practice, an overall structure and a setting of assessment sessions enable practical activities, which are client-centered and usually non-structured. Activities can be seen as a chain of interactional conditions, under which the necessary data is collected: acting, experiencing, encountering, sharing and finally, discreet discussion of what happened and what is perceived. This leads furthermore to reflective working of a therapist and forming more whole conception of the clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s situation and the elements related. When summing up an initial assessment period and drawing up conclusions, therapist uses several sources of information. The process of gaining understanding is constructive, and in an ideal situation the whole multidisciplinary team can take advantage of the cumulative knowledge of initial assessment in music therapy.

Infant research and music therapy - The significance of musical characteristics in early mother-child interaction for music therapy 48 Frauke Schwaiblmair 48 Abstract: This study documents the need to illustrate the effectiveness of improvisation processes in music therapy on the basis of musical-tonal characteristics in the early relationship between mothers and infants. It calls for a critical use of musical metaphors and assesses the work done so far on the subject. It confirms the importance of biologically determined intuitive behaviour and suggests that a therapeutic attitude informed by theory is nevertheless possible. This attitude and the pertinent behaviour may be taught and propagated.

Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Gender Comparison 60 Almut Seidel 60 vii

Abstract: This article documents a music-therapy research project in the psychooncological care of both, male and female cancer patients at the transition point between curative and palliative care in their illness. This article discusses the farreaching implications at the institutional, conceptual, methodological and personal levels. In addition to the detailed description of this field of work, there is a focus on two particular aspects of the research results: first, gender-specific reception to the opportunity of having music-therapy and second, the relationship between the spoken word and making music in the therapy sessions, with the potential of each as an integrating or polarising healing factor.

Review of the triple CD: LIVING SOUL - From the bedside to the studio to the heart 86 Gudrun Aldridge 86 Here we have three CDs that are well worth listening to. It is not only the expression of musicality of the pieces and the professionality of their performance but the relationship to the lyrical content that makes them worthwhile. Embedding the text in different song styles reveals a broad spectrum of expressive facets of being human in the face of living and dying.

English abstracts of the 4th Congress on Music Application in Mental and Physical Health 26th-29th May 2004 in Tehran, Iran 96 Abdollahanjad, R. (ed.) 96 NADA Centre For Music Therapy - Chennai, India 113 Sumathy Sundar 113 Odds and ends, themes and trends 116 Tom Doch 116 viii

Jannuray 28, 2005

Editorial Jörg Fachner MusicTherapyToday Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February 2005)

Welcome to the New Year’s Issues of Music Therapy Today! The New Year is always a good reason to change some habits, like quitting smoking or eating pastry late at night... Usually, and I guess for most of us, we are fighting hard the first two weeks but then discomfort rises and at a weak moment... In our New Years Resolutions we have listened to what you have said to us. First you ask for a citation guide, which you will find at the left menu when you click on http://www.musictherapytoday.com Second, you can reach “Music Therapy Today” directly by using this URL. The citation guide to cite html articles comes from the American Psychological Association and is the APA way of citing pages from the web. Since the html pages do not contain citable page numbers, like (Aldridge 2003, p. 24), this issue comes with ongoing page numbers. Now you can cite pages from published PDF articles. You can also download the whole issue of this month as an eBook containing all articles. 1

Last, but not least, we have listened to those who wanted to know more about the authors who have written the articles. We have opted for a short CV and a photograph at the end of the article. The first practice article, “Music Therapy in a Therapeutic Community: Bringing the Music to the Players”, from John Hedigan continues a stream of articles on music therapy as addiction treatment started in the

last issue . John works in a therapeutic community in Melbourne, Australia and he describes how he has implemented a music therapy program. We have had other articles back in 2003 from Tsvia Horesh who is working in a therapeutic community, as well as Reza Abdollahanjad, who has edited the “Proceedings of the 4th Conference on Music Therapy in Tehran, Iran”. It looks as if this model has some advantage for music therapists and their treatment goals in addiction treatment. Even if it is sometimes hard to distinguish solid criteria for praxis or research articles, the next three articles are filed as research articles. Esa Ala-Ruona researches “Non-structured Initial Assessment of Psychiatric Client in Music Therapy” in which experienced music therapy clinicians are interviewed and their conception of an initial assessment are examined in detail. Almut Seidel already gave us an outline of her research project back in

September 2003 . Now this project, “Music Therapy in Psychooncology – A Gender Comparison”, is finished and results will be published in a book form this year. For readers of “Music Therapy Today”, she has given a short summary of the results based on a talk at the 6th EMTC conference in Finland 2004.

Editorial

The article, “Infant research and music therapy - The significance of musical characteristics in early mother-child interaction for music therapy“, comes from Frauke Schwaiblmair. She has finished her doctoral thesis on this topic and here comes a short overview on her findings. “This study documents the need to illustrate the effectiveness of improvisation processes in music therapy on the basis of musical-tonal characteristics in the early relationship between mothers and infants. It calls for a critical use of musical metaphors and assesses the work done so far on the subject.” Emma O’Brian works as a music therapist at the Royal Melbourne Hospital in Australia and she has collected songs that she has sung at the bedside of suffering patients. She took them to a professional studio and recorded the material. Gudrun Aldridge has listened to the three CDs and has written a “review of the triple CD: LIVING SOUL - From the bedside to the studio to the heart”. As mentioned above we are proud to present the “English abstracts of the 4th Congress on Music Application in Mental and Physical Health 26th29th May 2004 in Tehran, Iran” edited by Reza Abdollahanjad. Reza already reported on the 2003 conference. Here are the English abstracts of the 2004 conference. Early December I had an E-mail conversation with Sumathy Sundar, who has send me a short description of the “NADA Centre For Music Therapy in Chennai, India”. It took some time until I remembered that Chennai (Madras) is on the south coast of India, which was heavily hit by the Tsunami. Having realised this I was frightened it might have hit him and his colleagues in the centre as well and wrote him a short mail and - he answered! “Thanks a lot for your concern. Indeed, Chennai was grateEditorial

fully affected by tsunami and in fact we have not yet come out the shock completely. Fortunately nothing happened to NADA and the colleagues.” Read Sumathy’s encouraging and enthusiastic portrait of philosophy and ideas of the centre. Life goes on!

Tom Doch will give some flesh to the tired bones of winter and invites you on his annual web ride “Odds and ends, themes and trends”.

Until we read again

Joerg Fachner

Editorial

Music Therapy Today Vol. VI (1) February 2005

Music Therapy in a Therapeutic Community: Bringing the Music to the Players John Hedigan

ABSTRACT As more and more music therapy graduates have to create jobs for themselves and start programs from scratch, there is a need for music therapists to have skills in designing programs for a wide range of facilities and client groups. This paper empirically describes the design, development and co-ordination of a music therapy program in a Therapeutic Community (TC) for substance dependent adults in Melbourne, Australia. Substance abuse treatment and the ideals of the TC model will be discussed, as will the elements of the music therapy program and how it works within this model. A case vignette will be presented as a means of exploring one clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s journey through all aspects of music therapy in the TC.

INTRODUCTION Substance abuse is a worldwide problem of substantial proportions. In Australia the billion dollar costs of drug and alcohol addiction are on the increase every year, as are the residual effects of drug related crime. The greatest cost of addiction however, is on the lives of the users and their families. Most clinicians working in the drug and alcohol field in Austra5

Hedigan, J. (2005) Music Therapy in a Therapeutic Community: Bringing the Music to the Players. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 5-22. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

lia work from a multi-causal perspective, taking into account the psychological, behavioural, socio-cultural, and familial theories of addiction. Substance abuse is a pervasive and complex disorder that can often affect numerous aspects of an individual's day to day functioning (Washton, 1995). I consider addiction to be a symptom of many other complexities within an individual, and in my work as a music therapist I have worked with clients diagnosed with all manner of personality disorders (particularly anti-social, narcissistic, and borderline personality disorders), anxiety disorders, acute mental illnesses, moderate to severe clinical depression, eating disorders, sexual abuse victims, and post traumatic stress disorder. The great complexities of addiction mean that clients can be difficult to engage and work with therapeutically, and treatment modalities must involve many aspects to work with individuals holistically (Silverman, 2003; Washton, 1995). Often clients are not simply being rehabilitated, but literally habilitated for the first time in their lives. For some this can mean developing a deeper understanding of themselves as adults in their world, and learning how to better relate to others and develop honest and open relationships. For others it can mean learning how to cook a meal for oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s children or how to design a budget to use money wisely. Treatment options for the addicted client in Australia are fairly limited. Most users of drugs like alcohol, heroin and amphetamines will undergo numerous detoxifications over many years of drug use, but relatively few will attempt a residential rehabilitation. Available treatment options are pharmacotherapies like methadone and buprenorphine which remain popular and moderately successful, self help group such as Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous, individual counselling and psychotherapy, and the Therapeutic Community (TC).

INTRODUCTION

THERAPEUTIC COMMUNITY TC’s are residential programs with lengths of stay anywhere between 1 to 24 months. The movement holds a multidisciplinary view of health which is based on ideas of collective responsibility, citizenship and empowerment (Kennard, 1983). TC’s focus on the using the program's whole community – its members, its ideals and its day to day functioning - as elements of treatment. Staff bodies are commonly made up of a mix of professionally trained staff and graduates of a TC program. A great focus of change in the TC model is the expectation of accountability to the rules and through vigorous participation in the ‘community’ based ideals of the TC. There can be no passengers in a TC. Every interaction throughout the day is considered to be potentially therapeutic. TC’s are made up of myriad forms of group process and these are designed to effect change in the individuals social functioning, while also providing opportunities for the acquisition of job skills and interpersonal understanding. Many TC’s are comprehensive treatment facilities that include group and individual therapies, creative arts therapies, eastern approaches such as acupuncture and yoga, recreational activities and competitive sports teams, and accredited vocational training.

TC’s IN AUSTRALIA Odyssey House Victoria was founded in 1979 at a former monastery on the outskirts of Melbourne. It is an 88 bed facility with a three stage, hierarchical program; Genesis – Phase 1 – Phase 2. Genesis residents are considered ‘pre-treatment’ and this stage lasts for 6-8 weeks. During this time new residents are given the chance to acclimatize to the TC, and begin thinking about what their treatment goals are. Genesis residents transition into Phase 1 (3 to 6 months) through completing their treatment plan which is an inclusive and collaborative process. Hard work in THERAPEUTIC COMMUNITY

groups and commitment to the ideals of the TC will see a resident move to phase 2, the senior stage of the residential program. Phase 1’s and 2’s are directly responsible for the day to day running of the community, with these tasks being completed during their daily ‘job functions’ (during business hours), while also being involved in their therapy groups.

MUSIC THERAPY PROGRAM In 2001 I was employed at Odyssey House Victoria to design and coordinate a music therapy program. My primary goal in implementing a music therapy program at Odyssey was that every member of the community should have the opportunity benefit from the communicative and therapeutic aspects of music making. Now in its 4th year the program has achieved this goal with all residents of the TC participating in active music making at some point in their treatment. To have a successful program in a large facility, it is imperative that all staff understand the fundamentals of music therapy and how we think it can help. Thus the first step in implementing Odyssey’s music therapy program was an in-service to introduce the staff to the concept of music therapy, and its possible benefits for the residents. In a staff meeting I discussed the power of music as a communication tool and its capacity to connect people to one another in a non-threatening way. These staff inservices are experiential (staff improvisations are always dynamic and worthy of much reflection) and are conducted annually. The next goal was to set up a well equipped, secure, and soundproof music room. A former portable classroom adjacent to the main building was chosen as the new location, and with the help of many of the residents and staff, the room was fully functional within about 10 weeks. Funding was provided to purchase the percussion instruments required to allow all residents to

MUSIC THERAPY PROGRAM

join in music making. With most of the original equipment at Odyssey being broken or damaged, I knew that the culture in our new music room had to change. Clear rules were set out (the music room’s Ten Commandments) most importantly ‘only use it if you know how to’ and ‘pack up before you leave’. Accountability was assured by the introduction of a logbook to record all users of the room. IMPROVISATION GROUPS

The most productive and widely used music therapy intervention has been improvisation groups. Improvisation has proven beneficial for the residents because of its usefulness as a ‘here and now’ tool and because of its capacity to expose how people function in a group (Soshensky, 2001). In these groups I introduce residents to the percussion instruments (mostly untuned and some tuned percussion) and then ask them to choose one to play with the group. Before we begin I explain that the goal is to achieve a group sound - to listen to each other and communicate ‘together’. I always play with these groups, usually helping to navigate the inevitable awkwardness at the start (if they are ‘first-timers’), and if necessary sometimes guiding the group towards a productive outcome. Usually the first minute or two is a little uncomfortable for most, with the group searching for a shared sound - but a pulse or feel often emerges and commonly residents are challenged but enjoy the experience. AUDIO EXCERPT A (MP3 340kb) An important part of these improvisation groups is time reflecting on the group’s music and process. Each member of the group is asked to describe their experience of the music – what it sounded like, how it began and ended, how they felt while playing, whether they felt a ‘part of’. Usually the feedback is positive, but it can be challenging to some who struggle to interact with group openly. Some are unprepared to take a risk, some may take too many, some may not listen to the others in the MUSIC THERAPY PROGRAM

group, and some may lead the music in an overbearing way. Often the group’s discussion is far longer than the music itself and it is in this discussion of the latent content of the music that insight and change can emerge. AFRICAN DRUMMING

My own experiences in African drumming informed me how well suited this method would be for Odyssey. When I was first employed our manager explained that in the original TC’s in the 1970’s and 1980’s new residents had to build their own bed and for me this spawned the idea of making instruments at Odyssey. 28 djembe drums (hand drums from West Africa) were hand made by the residents thus involving them in the initial development of the music therapy program. Over the years the African drumming group has fluctuated in size and make up, just as the TC does. For me this means regular readjustment to a new group and the different levels of skill and self-esteem of participants. AUDIO EXCERPT 2 (MP3 142 kb) In terms of increasing resident’s self esteem this group has been positive. When residents first try it, most are sure that they can’t do it. But with a great culture of support and encouragement in the group most are pleased to discover that with some persistence they can play West African rhythms after all. As new drummers become more confident we try more complex rhythms, and eventually each drummer has a turn leading the group with the bass drum. While this group is not therapeutically focused in terms of individual goals and outcomes, it does bear therapeutic merit in that group members can communicate as a group and feel a sense of connectedness, have fun in a drug free environment, and can learn something new while challenging themselves outside their comfort zone.

MUSIC THERAPY PROGRAM

CHOIR

The Odyssey choir - known as ‘Odyssing’ - was put together for our 2001 Christmas carols celebration where we sang a mix of popular, gospel and world music. Working together weekly since then the group mostly works on material that the residents choose themselves, and currently Odyssing is collaboratively creating some vocal arrangements of songs written in treatment by group members. Most choirs are made up of people who have sung before, who audition to be are a part of, and are often fairly confident that they can succeed. Odyssing is very different in this light. It is a choir often involving individuals who have never publicly sung before (some claim to have never even sung before!), and many display high anxiety in rehearsal and performance. Admittedly performance is contra-indicated for some, but I believe that such anxieties can be worked through successfully if each participant’s needs are handled with care. For the participants singing is of social, emotional, and physiological benefit and most find it to be a positive and connecting experience. The make up of Odyssing is forever changing. Consistency of attendance has been difficult for many, as well as the problem of keeping everyone happy in terms of the repertoire we work on. Despite this there has always been a core group of devotees and performances in the TC are highly anticipated. Over 4 years I have found that while a low percentage of residents are willing to take the chance and participate in Odyssing, the ones that do enjoy it more than any other part of music therapy in the TC. AUDIO EXCERPT 3 (MP3 - 100 kb) A more recent development in the program and something which is currently the focus of my Masters research has been closed music therapy groups for residents in Phase 1 and 2 of the TC. Participants are referred

MUSIC THERAPY PROGRAM

to me by their group therapists and are assessed to determine what their goals will be for the group. Groups are made up of 8 members and there is no intake of members for the 12 weeks of its duration. Each session begins with a group improvisation and a detailed reflection on the group’s process from an interpersonal perspective. Because the group have the opportunity to improvise together weekly for 12 weeks, there is far greater focus on the development of the group’s interpersonal dynamics over this time. SONG SHARING

After improvising in each session, one member of the group brings a significant song to share. Song sharing is an intervention widely used in music therapy and its benefits for participants searching for an identity in the group are clear. Music can provide the chance for group members to give a more intimate picture of who they are, and in closed groups we always discuss a person’s song choice in great detail for what it communicates to the group. This has often become an emotional or challenging process for many because people have chosen songs that remind them of times in their life when they have experienced trauma of have been in despair. However the group can also be fun and full of laughter as group members learn more about each others history through the music they choose. At the end of the 12 weeks each group member receives a compilation CD with artwork they have designed. Participants have often commented many months further into their treatment, and some after moving on from the TC, that the CD of their group’s music was still a source of positive memories. One resident who left Odyssey against advice and began to struggle had lost his copy of the group CD. When he bumped into a former peer who he hadn’t seen for some time, I’m told that he asked if they still had it and could he tape it. Music has a great capacity to carry memories right throughout our lifetime. For this client, the CD was

MUSIC THERAPY PROGRAM

a reminder of the relationships made while in treatment, and perhaps of personal progress made. RECORDING

As the music room has gradually developed into a fully fledged digital recording studio, I have been able to assist songwriters at Odyssey in creating CD’s of their own music, as played by them and their peers. In doing this, residents involved have been able to keep tangible versions of their music while also learning valuable skills in working with digital audio – not to mention that the recording process is fun!! We have also made recorded versions of Odyssing, the African Drumming group, and improvisation groups –such experiences can be kept forever on CD by the residents involved. Individual Music therapy is an intervention that grew out of particular relationships in my first 12 months of employment, and it is now a major focus of the program. This intervention is a goal focused one, and through a referral and assessment process I work with the residents to determine what their goals will be. Working with clients individually affords the opportunity to focus more closely on core therapeutic issues, and in this area I predominantly use referential improvisation techniques to help explore relationships and experiences, and bring out issues and attitudes in life that can be worked with analytically. Usually the relationship will begin at the piano where we will play dyadically (i.e. four hands on the piano) to explore the clients inner landscape before branching out into further uncharted territory.

ONE RESIDENT’S ODYSSEY – A CASE VIGNETTE Andrew was a 25 year old poly-drug addicted male. He came from a broken home and experienced a traumatic upbringing at the hands of his abusive, alcoholic father and had an enmeshed relationship with his ONE RESIDENT’S ODYSSEY – A CASE VIGNETTE

mother. He had difficult interpersonal relationships with friends and family. Psychiatric assessment determined a dual diagnosis of mixed personality disorder (in DSM – IV called ‘personality disorder otherwise not specified’) with antisocial and narcissistic traits, and opiate addiction. Psychological testing determined moderate depression (BDI-II), average range intelligence (WAIS-III), appropriate levels of self-disclosure and self-protection, and high levels of emotional dependency, perfectionism, anxiety and self-critique (MMPI-2). He had a history of suicide attempts since the age of 17, and an extensive criminal history although had served no jail terms. Andrew was a talented guitarist and singer, though his self-confidence was low. In improvisation groups he was highly selfcritical and initially found it difficult to connect with others musically despite his musical skills. In his 15 months of treatment Andrew participated in all aspects of the MT program. While slow to find his confidence and identity as a creative person in the TC, he was eventually a highly valued member of Odyssing, and he was lucky enough to participate in djembe making when the program was first implemented. His skills in African Drumming became impressive and he developed skills in using digital audio to capture his burgeoning song writing. He participated in many improvisation groups and learned to hear feedback from others as well as skills in being honest with others about his feelings. Before working with Andrew he partook in a music therapy assessment, as all participants in the music therapy program do. This process is predominantly interview based and has often proven to be the starting point of a connection with a new client that may develop into a strong therapeutic relationship. The goal of assessment is to take a ‘musical history’ of the resident so I can gain an understanding of the role that music has played in their life, while also determining what music therapy methods ONE RESIDENT’S ODYSSEY – A CASE VIGNETTE

might be most beneficial for them. Residents are asked to discuss their earliest musical memories, the role of music in the family home while growing up, and what they recall of their parents music. A key question asked in terms of making a connection with the resident is “What was the first music (CD, record, or cassette) you purchased?” This usually gets a few laughs and begins discussion of the resident’s personal tastes in music from their teenage years until the present day. Goals to be achieved in music therapy are created collaboratively with the resident and their group therapists. During the music therapy assessment Andrew explained his musical history which revealed that he had played in a number of bands since being a teenager but had been unable to maintain any of the relationships that such experiences required. We improvised together with Andrew choosing to play piano (which he was interested in but had never used before) while I played a Surdo (a Brazilian bass drum). Andrew displayed a limited capacity to tolerate his own abstract sounds. He became distressed and repeatedly disengaged from the music saying that he ‘couldn’t do it.’ Wanting to contain him, I joined Andrew at the piano. As we improvised further, his engagement in the musical experience altered. As I responded to and filled out Andrew’s sounds in the bass and middle register he sounded more confident to explore whatever sounds he made in the moment - more engaged in his own music. He responded to my communications to him (showing an awareness of our developing relationship), and played a leading role in the music. He seemed energized after this experience and commented “it’s like we were speaking the same language.” Andrew’s music therapy plan was formulated around beginning the relationship at the piano, (where he felt supported enough to connect with me) with the goal of working towards independence and closure over 12 ONE RESIDENT’S ODYSSEY – A CASE VIGNETTE

– 16 weeks. The aims of music therapy were devised in consultation with Andrew and his group therapists - exploration of past relationships and present relationships, to increase self-esteem, the development of Andrew’s intramusical relationship, and a deeper connection with his emotional self. SESSION 1

Andrew expressed regret about one of his friends, Bruce, deciding to leave the community before finishing treatment. We improvised at the piano together amidst these feelings. Andrew’s affect was mournful and I structured the beginning of the improvisation to resonate with this feeling. We played slowly in 6/8 with Andrew playing melodically on the upper white notes in the A natural minor scale. Andrew was quiet (almost tearful) for a few minutes after this improvisation. He was responsive to verbal exploration of the music and commented that “it felt like the notes were for Bruce.” In this initial session I was careful to make the music work for Andrew. By instructing him to play only white notes I was able to create a chord structure that contained him to ‘good sounds’ but also let him lead and explore what role he could have in the music.

SESSION 2

Andrew explained a recent situation in the community, in which he had reacted angrily to a pleasant ‘hello’ from Robert, another resident. Andrew became increasingly confused while he explained this interaction to me. I suggested we improvise around the title “Hello Andrew” to see if the music could illuminate anything for him. Before beginning Andrew said that he should play the bottom end of the piano “because the music needs to sound dark”. This was a pivotal moment in that Andrew had taken greater control in creating the environment he needed to improvise ‘his’ music. The improvisation began dissonantly with dark sounding clusters played by Andrew in the lower range of the piano and ONE RESIDENT’S ODYSSEY – A CASE VIGNETTE

chromatic flourishes in the middle range played by me. As the improvisation progressed, we moved into more coherent sounds, with Andrew beginning to communicate through and beyond his anger. We reached some passages where we communicated diatonically in a call and response style with single note lines in the middle register, and eventually ended together on a suspended chord. Andrew was elated with this improvisation and we discussed how it felt for him, and how it might inform him about his interactions with people in the TC. He saw that in the music his initial reaction to Robert had been angry and belligerent. His anger consumed what he wanted to say musically, as it had in his interaction with Robert. Once we communicated together, Andrew said he felt that we had heard each other and that from that point on in the music, he no longer needed to project his anger into it. SESSION 4

Andrew discussed his frustration around his still developing negative relationships in residential treatment. We improvised together on the theme of ‘relationships’ using the splitting technique developed in the Priestley model of Analytical Music Therapy (Bruscia, 1987). Still at the piano Andrew played music to represent himself (on the lower and middle register), and I played an unspecified ‘friend’ to allow him to associate freely (on the middle and upper register). AUDIO EXCERPT 4 (MP3 - 476 kb) In this improvisation, Andrew demonstrated his willingness to connect with himself in his own music, and also with me in my musical role in our work together. He was willing to work with dissonance, reflecting his genuine frustration about his current relationships, and also in many ways his feelings about our own developing therapeutic relationship. In reflection Andrew saw that he consistently engaged with my use of dissonance, but often with a raised intensity. He explained that he felt that his ONE RESIDENT’S ODYSSEY – A CASE VIGNETTE

playing was similar to how he behaved in many relationships, particularly that with his ex-girlfriend where he would ‘always engage in the warfare’. The dynamics of our own relationship within the improvisation bore relevance to the ‘here and now’ for Andrew and we examined how it could inform his relationships in treatment. 40 minutes of discussion on the experience of the improvisation and his personal struggles within the TC brought up themes of submissiveness, irritability, belligerence, loneliness, suspicion of others, wanting run away, the need for closure in broken friendships, fear of failure, and the search for common ground. SESSION 5

Andrew acknowledged his avoidance of issues around his relationship with his father. He said “There’s a lot of stuff I need to say to him. I know I feel bound to him – and that I’m very afraid of him.” We improvised around the title “Dad and Andrew” again using the splitting technique. Andrew played music to represent his father (again on the lower and middle register), and I played Andrew (in the middle and upper register). I made the first statement, playing Andrew’s cautious approach to his father. Andrew was quick to portray Dad as a tyrannical, dominating character, his sounds immediately overpowering mine. AUDIO EXCERPT 5 (MP3 - 108 kb) At the start Andrew’s role makes no attempts to work with mine but over the 6 minutes of the improvisation there was some compromise and passages where the two roles strove to connect and work together. There are moments where ‘Dad’ allows ‘Andrew’s’ music to flourish (clear projection of his great desire), and at the end they flourish as one and resolve their differences, ending together in octaves. AUDIO EXCERPT 6 (MP3 - 348 kb)

ONE RESIDENT’S ODYSSEY – A CASE VIGNETTE

He commented immediately after this improvisation that there was a lot for him to learn from it. We spent the next 2 sessions exploring the recording of this improvisation and Andrew’s relationship with his father. Discussed themes included fear, confusion, anger, tyranny, alienation, sorrow, chaos, reconciliation, and the need for acceptance. The experience of improvising music that represented his father was a key process for Andrew. He hadn’t thought he understood what he felt about his father as well as the music demonstrated. He explained that his initial thoughts were “how can I make bad sound good?” but was eventually able to recognized that he does not need to make excuses for his father, nor for how he felt about him. Andrew’s individual music therapy continued for a number of months, though beyond the fifth individual session we rarely improvised together on the same instrument. We would improvise titles as before, but used a wide variety of instruments, often not using the piano at all. After 3 and half months we began to work towards closure. Our final work together involved reconnecting him with his guitar playing and we rehearsed a set of his favorite music to perform together as a guitar duo at a TC event. This proved a productive way to close with him, though after this he remained actively involved in Odyssing, African Drumming, and improvisation groups. For Andrew, individual music therapy formed an important part of his overall treatment in that it provided a safe emotional space for him to begin to explore challenging issues in a familiar and creative medium. More widely, involvement in music therapy at Odyssey provided opportunities for Andrew to develop greater skills in interpersonal relationship though various music groups, and also gave him an identity as a musician within the TC. After 15 months of residential treatment Andrew moved on and continues in Odyssey’s outpatient program. ONE RESIDENT’S ODYSSEY – A CASE VIGNETTE

CONCLUSIONS Music can make us laugh – it can make us cry. It can carry memories that are positive, and also memories that are too painful to bear alone. It can change our mood in an instant, and in the same breath, can amplify a mood already felt. Music is a part of our lives every day and if we let it, it can inspire and change us. For people whose lives are affected by drugs and alcohol, the importance of music seems to be a common thread tying them together, as are a lack of positive interpersonal experiences in life. Music brings people together and that has been my goal in working in a TC – to provide the members of the community with opportunities to come together musically and experience music’s inherent therapeutic qualities. In essence the music had to be brought to the players – for many of these individuals music making may have never entered their lives - but through an inclusive and holistic approach, through the support of staff, and through the ever-inspiring desire to change of the residents at Odyssey, music therapy has become a part of drug and alcohol treatment for men and women of all ages and backgrounds. In closing I would like to share with you one of my daily pleasures working at Odyssey House. Every time I go into the music room, I look in the logbook to see who has recently used the room. To my delight, there are always names in there that surprise me. Young and old, male and female, parents and children. And in this book, are the names of over 400 people and 1200 entries – people who have participated in music making in the TC in some way. Whether they be listening or playing, engaging in music therapy or just having a jam with their friends, I’m glad they have made music a part of their lives and their steps towards recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES Bruscia, K. E. (1987). Improvisational models of music therapy. Springfield, Ill., C.C. Thomas. De Leon, G. (2000). The therapeutic community: theory, model, and method. New York, Springer Publishers. De Leon, G. (1997). Community as method: Therapeutic Communities for special populations and special settings. Westport, CT, Praeger Publishers. Kennard, D. (1983). An introduction to therapeutic communities. London : Routledge & Kegan. Silverman, M.J. (2003). Music therapy and clients who are chemically dependent: a review of literature and pilot study. The Arts in Psychotherapy, volume 30, issue 5, 2003, pp 273 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 281. Soshensky, R. (2001). Music therapy and addiction. Music Therapy Perspectives,19, 1, pp. 22-39. Washton, A. M. (1995). Psychotherapy and substance abuse: a practitioner's handbook. New York, Guilford Press. Yalom, I. D. (1995). The theory and practice of group psychotherapy. New York, Basic Books.

Author Information John Hedigan, RMT, Odyssey House Victoria, Melbourne, Australia.

REFERENCES

John Hedigan is a full-time Music Therapist at Odyssey House Victoria, a residential Therapeutic Community for 88 substance dependent adults. Johnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s work draws extensively on the Analytical, Humanistic and Existential schools of therapy. Working with groups and individuals John predominantly uses improvisational methods to bring clients into the moment, where they can experience themselves and relationships with others more completely. John is currently enrolled as a part-time Masters student at Melbourne University, and is qualitatively researching intrapersonal and interpersonal authenticity as experienced by participants in music therapy groups. jhedigan@odyssey.org.au

This article can be cited as: Hedigan, J. (2005) Music Therapy in a Therapeutic Community: Bringing the Music to the Players. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p.5-22. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

This article can be cited as:

Music Therapy Today Vol. VI (1) February 2005

Non-structured Initial Assessment of Psychiatric Client in Music Therapy Esa Ala-Ruona

Abstract This paper is based on the grounded theory study, in which experienced music therapy clinicians were interviewed and their conception of an initial assessment were examined in detail. The main result of the study is a qualitative synthesis of initial assessment procedures, including the description of the process how a therapist gains his/her understanding of a client during an assessment period. In practice, an overall structure and a setting of assessment sessions enable practical activities, which are client-centered and usually non-structured. Activities can be seen as a chain of interactional conditions, under which the necessary data is collected: acting, experiencing, encountering, sharing and finally, discreet discussion of what happened and what is perceived. This leads furthermore to reflective working of a therapist and forming more whole conception of the clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s situation and the elements related. When summing up an initial assessment period and drawing up conclusions, therapist uses several sources of information. The process of gaining understanding is constructive, and in an ideal situation the whole multidisciplinary team can take advantage of the cumulative knowledge of initial assessment in music therapy.

Ala-Ruona, E. (2005) Non-structured Initial Assessment of Psychiatric Client in Music Therapy. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p.23-47. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

Introduction Assessment in music therapy is getting more and more topical (cf. e.g. Sabbatella, 2004). Working as a music therapist in close relationship with other health care disciplines emerges many questions concerning different practices and music therapist’s role as part of multidisciplinary team. Referring teams and doctors are interested in suitability of music therapy and its possible benefits for a client. Of course, the goal setting for therapy is important, as well as the reasons to choose music therapy when compared to other approaches, like verbal psychotherapy and occupational therapy. Among these questions is also, could music therapy offer some new information about a client, especially when client’s communication is very restricted and confined. As professionals, we should be able to produce also high quality services, and conducting assessments and evaluation is seen as a part of those procedures. Prioritisation relates to assessment issues as well, because the needs of different clients’ should be assessed and the urgency of the needed treatment should be determined. But that’s only part of the story, because money, or actually lack of it, is quite usually the ground for prioritising different services, too. The use of certain assessment models and methods is relatively uncommon, and in practice, music therapists usually have developed needed methods by themselves. This means a lot of diversity in every area and part of assessment work. There are different theoretical grounds and approaches, cultural and practical differences, and diversity in the language of music therapy (Aldridge, 1996; Wigram, 1999). There are no equal or certain ways to conduct initial assessments at least in Finland and presumably in most European countries either. This is the issue, which should be discussed both nationally and internationally in our music therapy community and education. Some common guidelines

Introduction

could be set, and some basic principles of assessment procedures could be defined. In practice, what happens when a music therapist meets a client for first time? Or even before the first encounter, when a therapist is contacted for a new client who is to be referred to music therapy? Some anamnestic information may be available, but is it useful from the music therapistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s viewpoint? The nature of music therapy work is, if possible, even more delicate within psychiatry than in other fields of our clinical work. When conducting initial assessment, a therapist must take into consideration the fact, that an essential part of assessment is building the therapeutic alliance. So, it is quite obvious, that a client is going to continue his/her music therapy with this particular music therapist, and for that reason, their first encounters are very important when building the therapeutic relationship and for the future and also for the success of the music therapy process itself (Horvath, 2000). The overall demanding nature of psychiatric work sets rather high requirements and qualifications for the music therapistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s competence. At least in Finland, the clinical practice of music therapy is very independent by its nature, and on the other hand, the multidisciplinary collaboration is increasingly integral part of the work (Ala-Ruona & JordanKilkki, 2004). Usually teamwork can be seen as a resource, but it can have its limitations, too, depending on the level of communicativeness of the team and its members. One of our challenges as professionals is, how we make our information communicate with other members of teams and beyond the likely barriers of different frameworks. Interesting and important question is also the overall validity and credibility of music therapy assessment. (Wigram, 1999; 2000.)

Introduction

A brief review of the study Although this paper is not focused on research process (Ala-Ruona, 2002; 2004) itself, some basic information on how this study was conducted may come in useful. When I was working as a music therapy clinician within specialized health care, I got more and more interested in assessment issues and what actually happens right at the beginning of the therapy process. At early stage, I considered studying my own work as clinician, but I thought that reflective and hermeneutic study could not possibly emerge basic information from this topic wide enough. RESEARCH QUESTION OF THE STUDY

So I ended up to examine different views of other music therapists and what information they consider essential in initial assessment and how do they get that information they want. Because of the lack of common terminology, I had to examine first what are the main concepts related to initial assessment and how therapists define them.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

When studying different concepts phenomenography is possible as a research approach. The basic idea of this approach is not to study the phenomena as such, but rather by mapping the qualitatively different ways in which people experience, conceptualise, perceive and understand it (Marton, 1988; 1994). In this study of mine, I used phenomenography as a starting point to examine these various aspects of initial assessment through other clinicians experiences and how do they perceive them. The focus of the study developed during the research process and on later stage of it I applied also grounded theory as a complementing approach to get deeper in analysis and to be able to summarise the description of initial assessment process as a whole. I adapted mainly the coding paradigm developed by Strauss & Corbin (1990; 1998), because of its flexi-

A brief review of the study

bility and suitability to former stages of phenomenographic data analysis. These two research approaches and methods supported each other in this study in fairly natural way. INTERVIEWS AS MAIN DATA SOURCE

I conducted five focused in-depth interviews of trained and experienced music therapy clinicians. Their working experience as music therapist was from 10 to 20 years. The only question, which I presented to all of the interviewees, was the opening one: “Describe how do you act, when you get informed about a new client who is going to be referred to you?” By asking this particular question, I led the interviewees to discuss the situation right at the beginning of assessment procedure. After this, the discussion was progressing as free-formed conversation. However, I had a list of possible areas of discussion as an interview guide (see Kvale, 1996), but usually I didn’t need it too much. Conversations were rich and deeply reflective. In most cases, as the interviews progressed, the interviewees seemed to perceive also better how they actually work when doing assessments. This may prove that we were able to reach at least some of the tacit knowledge of these clinicians.

COMPUTER-AIDED DATA ANALYSIS

The interviews lasted typically from two to three hours and therefore I got huge amount of data to analyse. I utilized the QSR Nud*ist (Richards 1998) program for organising and analysing the collected data and found it really useful particularly for its powerful search options. First I studied different concepts, which the interviewees used and defined. After that I got deeper with the analysis and organized the data into categories and upper categories. The last stage of data analysis was to create the qualitative synthesis of categories and especially to find the core category which "tells the story" of collected data (a storyline, which answers to the research questions; see Strauss & Corbin, 1990; 1998).

A brief review of the study

In this study, the storyline appeared to be the progress of gaining understanding in the initial assessment process. This was the main (and core) category to which all the other concepts and categories were related somehow systematically. The final stage of analysis was very demanding and time-consuming to do. I analyzed the data once more in higher conceptual level and formulated (or modeled) a big scheme, which describes to process of initial assessment in music therapy when the assessment is conducted in non-structured way (without scripted content or certain tasks). MEMBER CHECK

After analysis of data and forming the main findings of the study, I sent them to the participants to find out how well the results matched with the experiences of their own. The results of the study were accepted and the feedback was actually very positive. The participants emphasized the successful description of the initial assessment procedure, which is very complex and multi-level phenomena consisting practical, theoretical, framework- and clinical experience-related issues.

The main results of the study CHARACTERISTIC TRAITS OF INITIAL ASSESSMENT

According to this study the characteristic traits of initial assessment are: It is carried out as a process. The initial assessment is usually based on a period of several appointments (up to 6 sessions). • A client-oriented approach means that the initial assessment is always tailor-made. There are no certain tests or other formal ways to conduct the assessment. • Investigation of interaction is the most essential form of gathering information during assessment period. Interaction between client and therapist is observed in musical, verbal and non-verbal relations. • Another important area to be studied is client’s relationship to music. This area is usually assessed by listening to music, which is important or of present interest to client. This brings the contextual aspect to assessment. •

The main results of the study

â&#x20AC;˘

DESCRIPTION OF INITIAL ASSESSMENT PROCESS

When summing up an initial assessment period and drawing up conclusions, therapist uses several sources of information. This procedure reminds triangulation, which is a concept taken from qualitative research terminology. Several data sources are used in order to ascertain the accuracy of collected information.

Next we shall have a closer look to the process of initial assessment as a whole.

The main results of the study

FIGURE 1.

Process of initial assessment in music therapy

The main results of the study

Figure 1 is qualitative synthesis of assessment procedure, and this big overview shows the main results of the study. We can examine the process of initial assessment from three points of view: its chronological stages as numbered, the forms of information gathering on line two and the development of therapist’s understanding of a client from line three. In other words, this description can be viewed as both horizontally as lines and vertically as columns. Now we will take a closer look to certain elements of the big scheme. First we examine the very beginning of the assessment process. Then we will study what happens in assessment sessions. The main interest is especially focused on how therapist’s understanding of a client develops during the assessment period. THE PROCESS OF GAINING UNDERSTANDING

At initial phase. The first column in figure 1 describes a starting point of assessment procedure containing first contact and referral. Oral and written anamneses are got through and the purpose of assessment is also defined. In practice an assessment may be focused on the client’s need for treatment, suitability of music therapy as method of treatment, goalsetting of music therapy, finding appropriate music therapeutic approaches, collecting new information for planning of whole treatment etc. (cf. Bruscia 1987, 13; Sabbatella 1998, 227; Wigram 1999, 8; Wilson 1990, 131-136.) However, the significance of this grounding information varies a lot. Some of the interviewees actually emphasized, that they are not very interested in anamneses and other previous knowledge, because they want to make a fresher start when assessing, and collect the needed information from their own point of view (also framework-related issue).

The main results of the study

This first stage of initial assessment is, of course, also the phase where the process of forming understanding begins. As soon as a therapist gets some information of a new client, it activates different images and associations, as well as emotions and thoughts related to them. From the point of psycho dynamic view, this is the point where counter-transference starts to develop for first time. Therapist’s previous knowledge, clinical experiences and frame of reference are used when outlining this material. A therapist tries to recognise his developing preconception and tries also to obtain neutrality when meeting a client for first time. Different selfclearing (see Bruscia, 1998) procedures are applied and careful selfreflection is used when preparing for meeting a new client. Assessment sessions. Next we shall investigate the assessment sessions. It is important, that the overall structure of assessment procedure kind of imitates the therapist’s characteristic way of working. It means for instance, that if therapist’s orientation is supportive, appointments could be arranged as once a week. But if working more intensively, the assessment is conducted in the same way. This relates also to a therapist’s frame of reference. In this study, most of the therapists named psychodynamic theories as their framework, however there were hints of applications of cognitively oriented learning theories, too. Next we shall go further and discuss some more of the issues concerning the setting and other concepts related to assessment sessions.

The main results of the study

FIGURE 2.

Assessment sessions

The main results of the study

The setting (or therapeutic setting) is integral part of initial assessment. Certain place, time, room, person and the overall structure of appointments are the foremost requirements for successfully conducted assessment. The process nature of assessment is important due to possibility to observe the client in several situations and repeatedly. The structure itself enables to assess important areas concerning for instance client’s engagement and orientation to time and place, and to determine the appropriate structure of planned music therapy. A therapist tries to obtain needed neutrality, concentration, readiness and willingness to encounter a new client. He has to be also aware enough of different biases and preconceptions concerning a client and on the other hand his own mental and general situation. During the sessions (in figure 2). When meeting a client, therapist’s main task is to create and maintain favourable conditions for interaction. Purpose is to enable client’s personal way to act, express oneself and his/ her representation of inner world to come up in situation. Different hopes, fears and needs of a client emerge in musical or nonmusical way as the relationship starts to develop. Therapist’s task is to try creating atmosphere that is safe enough and enabling the development of confidence. This is usually done in both verbal and musical way. Therapist is an active agent when creating favourable conditions for interaction and especially when working with children or adolescents. Musical activities work as flexible and variable ground for different forms of client’s creativity and qualities to come up. One of the main concepts is client-oriented approach, and it means that there is no certain formal way to conduct the assessment sessions. Even The main results of the study

though the assessment period itself is well structured, procedures and activities vary depending on clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s needs, resources, problems and individual orientation. Important is to do different things together and get shared experiences through several activities. Thinking about the role of therapist, balancing between active involvement and free-flowing progress requires sensitive self-awareness and sense of situation. Action (in figure 2). In practice, in the beginning, the therapist usually introduces therapy room and its facilities. A client is allowed and actually encouraged to try the instruments. As soon as something happens, therapist usually joins in activity. Spontaneous clinical improvisation is very typical method and approach. Situation is usually free flowing and is based on musical and behavioural flexibility of a therapist. (cf. Loewy, 2000.) Although neutrality is obtained when meeting a client, in playing situations there should be more room to creative and spontaneous reactions. What if playing is neutral? Is it even possible to play something and share anything without emotional involvement? However, a therapist should be able to receive all possible musical or non-musical material from a client and work as container. This requires continuous alertness and readiness from a therapist. Creating improvised music together opens wider viewpoint to a clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s spectrum of emotions and inner world than what is usually reached in verbal interaction. While defensive behaviour is more obvious in verbal interaction, using spontaneous music making is seen much quicker way to perceive something essential of clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s world.

The main results of the study

If possible, the shared experiences are however discussed together. Exchanging the views on shared situations offers an opportunity to assess client’s cognitive and other mental qualities. How do a client perceive him/herself and what kind of abilities of gaining insight he/she have. Verbalising experiences and musical content is not seen as necessity, but if seen appropriate, it is applied. The special focus is in a client’s latent potential, which emerges possibly in musical situations and relations only. Clinical interview of client (in figure 1 & 2). Therapist may interview the client if needed to get more information of overall situation and especially from client’s own point of view. Usually this is done informally and no certain questionnaires are used. Interviewing a client is more like spontaneous conversation in different situations and it is more or less related to musical activities. MAPPING THE CLIENT’S RELATIONSHIP TO MUSIC (IN FIGURES 1& 2):

Another integral part of initial assessment procedure and form of information gathering is mapping the client’s relationship to music. While investigation of interaction concerns what’s going on between client and therapist, mapping the client’s relationship to music serves more like studying what is fundamental to client’s intrapersonal qualities as reflected to music. Therapist introduces the available music, but makes no choices. Client chooses the music (and may bring his/her own music with too). After listening to music, different thoughts, images, associations and emotions emerged, are to be discussed if possible. This gives the opportunity to study what is characteristic of client’s music. It elicits clues of cultural relations and important experiences in different phases of life as well as hints of symbolic and emotional connections related to music. For example, client’s relationship to music may reveal age-specific issues and how The main results of the study

well he/she is connected to presumable music culture according to his/her age. This is especially assessed when working with adolescents. Other important clues could be for instance: important persons related to client’s history, social relations, emotional tensions and overall present situation of life. Although the main interest when mapping the client’s relationship to music is intrapersonal by its nature, it offers however contextual aspect and gives additional information when trying to understand the nature of interaction between client and therapist, too. This contextual horizon may or may not confirm the previous understanding and it may open deeper and wider perspective to perceive the world of a client and to recognise the fundamental elements of relationship between a client and a therapist. Observation (in figure 2). The observation in assessment situations is conducted at several levels with different focus. One level is therapist’s own emerging emotional content. The other is interaction between a client and a therapist: what is the general nature of it. The third one is the overall observation of client’s musical and non-musical behaviour in sessions, and comparing it to his/her behaviour in other situations. Observation during the sessions is based on subjective perception and observations are not usually systematically rated nor analysed. Data (in figure 2). When thinking the initial assessment as a research, we may consider all the material from the sessions as “data”. This box contains examples what kind of data we can get from the assessment sessions. Examining the experience (in figure 2). When examining the experiences of assessment sessions, therapist’s intuition acts directing the attention, and earlier clinical experience acts like a guide. This means that

The main results of the study

when working with intuition, therapist have to be careful not to believing everything that intuition points out. Therefore, the conclusions are not done based on intuition only without reflecting those emerged ideas carefully first. Self-reflection and investigation of counter-transference is used as main methods when analysing shared experiences. Counter-transference is understood here in the broadest sense of the term, in other words therapist investigates all the emotions and feelings, which emerge in interaction between client and him/herself. Self-reflection is very alike by its nature, but it does not have necessarily connection to the same frame of reference. Or it can be understood more like the use of previous professional experiences. Therapist’s intention is to reach good enough level of neutrality and thorough investigation of emerging emotional content is used as main method to understand client’s emotional qualities and mental state. Intention is to distinguish what is the origin of emotional content emerged in interaction. To be able to do this, a therapist has to be aware enough of his own background and how he has become as him/herself. One has to have active and constant intention to understand his present situation as well. Under these conditions, it is more possible to recognize what emotional content comes up from therapist’s own world and what is reflection of client’s inner tensions and thus presumably subconscious material by its nature. As a summary of assessment sessions, the whole procedure could be presented like this: Structure and setting enables practical activities, which are more or less free-flowing. Those activities can be seen as chain of different conditions, under which the data is collected: there is acting, experiencing, encountering, sharing and discussion of what happened and

The main results of the study

what is perceived. And further, this leads to reflective working of therapist, who tries to form more whole conception of situation and its elements. This kind of working method requires from a therapist very flexible switching between the creative and emotional involvement and on the other hand cognitive and theoretical reflection. This leads to form more whole understanding of client and his/her situation and the possibilities of music therapy. FINAL STAGE OF AN INITIAL ASSESSMENT (IN FIGURE 3)

At the final stage of assessment the outlined understanding is reflected to the clientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own conception. Remarkable is, that client is also assessing if working with this particular therapist and medium and with these instruments could be suitable for him/herself. The outlined conception also is reflected to therapistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s frame of reference, to other theoretical knowledge and previous clinical experience. This leads furthermore to defining the conception and comparing it to the anamneses and the conception of the referring team. In an ideal situation this contributes the learning process of the therapist and multidisciplinary team, and they may refine their practical and theoretical knowledge.

The main results of the study

FIGURE 3.

The final stage of initial assessment

Reporting (in figure 1, last column). A part of the final stage of initial assessment process is reporting. It is done either orally or in writing. A possible recommendation of further counselling or to start music therapy process is presented. A client’s own opinion is considered and reported, too. Here is a summary of typical recommendations: the suitability of music therapy as treatment and possible need for further consulting • the form of therapy: group or individual music therapy • music therapeutic approaches suitable to client •

The main results of the study

the goal-setting and possible outcomes of client’s music therapy • how music therapy integrates to other forms of treatment and how could they complement each other? •

According to this study, it is actually easier to define when music therapy is not suitable for someone and therefore not recommended. Such conditions could be, if client totally lacks his/her sense of illness, or has an antisocial personality disorder, an acute stage of psychosis or a total lack of motivation and therefore is incapable to engage to planned therapy. These were the few conditions mentioned when music therapy could not possibly be recommended. Music therapy is seen so flexible as an approach that a client can usually benefit its possibilities at least to some extent. (cf. Lindvang & Frederiksen, 1999) The report itself is a qualitative description of client’s characteristic traits, his/her problems and potentials, and possible benefits of music therapy etc., and it reflects individual traits of a client and a therapist both. This kind of descriptive report offers therapeutic aspect and alternative viewpoint to the work of multidisciplinary team. Perhaps the most important quality of initial music therapy assessment is the opportunity to gather some information also under such conditions where other approaches don’t work. Usually this additional knowledge collected can elicit something new, bring it available and benefit the work of whole multidisciplinary team.

Conclusion This study describes the viewpoints of experienced music therapists and outlines a qualitative synthesis of initial assessment procedure of psychiatric client in music therapy. The phenomena appear as multifaceted and multi-levelled as music therapy work usually is. The non-structured initial assessment is particularly interesting for its flexibility as an approach. Conclusion

It seems to work well in very demanding situations with challenging clients. However, flexibility could present a problem, too, if considered from the point of music therapy education, since this kind of working requires quite a lot well-integrated skills from a therapist. Music therapy students or novice therapists don’t have that previous clinical experience and tacit knowledge, in which experienced clinicians partly rely on. The question is, how to teach such assessment skills? Is it obvious that we end up using rigid questionnaires, check-lists, rating scales etc., and lose the important flexibility at the same time? Compared with research approaches, non-structured initial assessment is very qualitative by its nature, and the “data” from sessions is somewhat thick and complex. One practical problem is, that we get huge amount of data and have usually only very little time for investigate it. What we could need is a quick enough and easy to use method for structuring and analysing the data from free-flowing assessment sessions. This tool could bring some quantitative data into assessment, serving probably as a tool for evaluation of change in therapy process at the same time. Perhaps the computer-based analysis for clinical improvisations (Erkkilä et al., 2004) can bring some new possibilities to assessments, too. Sensitive and vulnerable interaction between client and therapist is nevertheless the basis, which should be respected, and not to be interfered by applying inflexible tests or other possibly restricting elements to creative sessions.

References Ala-Ruona, E. (2002). Psykiatristen asiakkaiden alkuarviointi musiikkiterapiassa – Musiikkiterapeuttien näkemyksiä alkuarvioinnin käytännöistä ja sovelluksista. [Initial Assessment of Psychiatric Clients in Music Therapy – Music therapists’ views on procedures and

References

applications of initial assessment. Master’s thesis, University of Jyväskylä. Finland]. Ala-Ruona, E. (2004). Psyykkisesti oireileva asiakas musiikkiterapiassa – Alkuarvioinnin käytäntöjä, sovelluksia ja teoriaa. [Clients with Psychiatric Symptoms in Music Therapy – On Procedures, Applications and Theory of Initial Assessment. M. Phil. thesis, University of Jyväskylä. Finland]. Ala-Ruona, E. & Jordan-Kilkki, P. (2004). Music therapy –an individual approach to care and rehabilitation. Finnish Music Quarterly, 4/ 2004, pp. 6-11. Aldridge, D. (1996). Music therapy research and practice in medicine: from out of the silence. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Bruscia, K. E. (1987). Improvisational models of music therapy. Springfield, Ill., U.S.A.: C.C. Thomas. Bruscia, K. E. (1998). Techniques for Uncovering and Working with Countertransference. In K. E. Bruscia (Ed.), The Dynamics of Music Psychotherapy (pp. 93-120). Gilsum NH, Barcelona Publishers. Erkkilä, J., Lartillot, O., Luck, G., Riikkilä, K., Toiviainen, P. (2004) Intelligent Music Systems in Music Therapy. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol V, Issue 5, available at http://musictherapyworld.net Horvath, A. O. (2000). The Therapeutic Relationship: From Transference to Alliance. Psychotherapy in Practice, 56(2), 163-173. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews. An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. London: Sage Publications. References

Lindvang, C. & Frederiksen, B. (1999). Suitability for Music Therapy: Evaluating Music Therapy as an Indicated Treatment in Psychiatry. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 8(1), 48-58. Loewy, J. (2000). Music Psychotherapy Assessment. Music Therapy Perspectives, 18(3), 47-58. Marton, F. (1988). Phenomenography: A Research Approach to Investigating Different Understandings of Reality. In S. Webb (Ed.), Qualitative Research in Education: Focus and Methods. London: The Falmer Press. Marton, F. (1994). In The International Encyclopedia of Education. Second edition, Volume 8. Eds. Torsten HusĂŠn & T. Neville Postlethwaite. Pergamon 1994, p. 4424. Richards, Lyn. 1998. NUD*IST 4. Introductory Handbook. Qualitative Solutions & Research, Melbourne. Sabbatella, P. (1998). How to Evaluate Music Therapy? Music and Therapy â&#x20AC;&#x201C; a Dialogue, [Music Therapy Info Cd-Rom 2]. University of Witten-Herdecke. Sabbatella, P. (2004). Assessment and Clinical Evaluation in Music Therapy: An Overview from Literature and Clinical Practice. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. V(1), 2004. Available: www.musictherapyworld.net Strauss, A. L. & Corbin, J. M. (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. London: Sage Publications.

References

Strauss, A. L. & Corbin, J. M. (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research (2nd ed.): Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. London: Sage Publications. Wigram, T. (1999). Assessment Methods in Music Therapy: A Humanistic or Natural Science Framework? Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 8(1), 7-25. Wigram, T. (Ed.). (2000). Assessment and Evaluation in the Arts Therapies: Art Therapy, Music Therapy and Dramatherapy. Hertfordshire: Harper House Publications. Wilson, B. L. (1990). Assessment of adult psychiatric clients: The role of music therapy. Music therapy in treatment of adults with mental disorders: Theoretical bases and clinical interventions (pp. 126148). New York: Schirmer.

References

Author Information

Esa Ala-Ruona, Music Therapist, M.Phil., Senior Assistant in the department of Music at University of Jyv채skyl채, Finland. Email: esaala@campus.jyu.fi Esa Ala-Ruona is a music therapist and clinical supervisor, and he has worked as trainer and group therapist in several music therapy training programs in Finland. He is past-Chairman of Finnish Society for Music Therapy and past-Chairman of Association of Professional Music Therapists in Finland and has been actively involved with the process of professionalization of music therapists for years. He has worked as a music therapist nearly 20 years within the field of psychiatry and at the moment he work as trainer and lecturer in MA programme of Music Therapy in University of Jyv채skyl채. His main research interest relates to assessment issues in music therapy and he has ongoing PhD research project on iniAuthor Information

tial assessment of psychiatric clients in music therapy. Other areas of interest are e.g. professional issues, processes in music therapy and development of music therapy and music psychotherapy training.

This article can be cited as: Ala-Ruona, E. (2005) Non-structured Initial Assessment of Psychiatric Client in Music Therapy Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 23-47. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

This article can be cited as:

Music Therapy Today Vol. VI (1) February 2005

Infant research and music therapy - The significance of musical characteristics in early mother-child interaction for music therapy

Frauke Schwaiblmair

Abstract This study documents the need to illustrate the effectiveness of improvisation processes in music therapy on the basis of musical-tonal characteristics in the early relationship between mothers and infants. It calls for a critical use of musical metaphors and assesses the work done so far on the subject. It confirms the importance of biologically determined intuitive behaviour and suggests that a therapeutic attitude informed by theory is nevertheless possible. This attitude and the pertinent behaviour may be taught and propagated.

Introduction Recent studies in psychotherapy have increasingly referred to findings from infant research and research of mother-child interaction to describe and understand processes of therapy relationship and treatment (e.g. Beebe & Lachmann, 2002; Dornes, 1993/2001; Stern et al., 1998). A

Schwaiblmair, F. (2005) Infant research and music therapy - The significance of musical characteristics in early mother-child interaction for music therapy. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 48-59. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

similar trend among emerged music therapists (compare Lenz & von Moreau, 2003; Plahl, 2000; Schumacher, 1999) who describe processes in music therapy on the basis of observations from early mother-infant interaction. Personal findings from music therapy practice suggest a deliberate use of the biologically determined infant directed speech (“motherese”) and its musical characteristics; the objective of this study is to illustrate in which way a biologically determined abilities like infant directed speech may be learned and the implications for the curricula of training courses (compare Warner, 2002, p. 416). This involves the question whether there is a distinct line separating conscious and unconscious behaviour and where intuition might be located in this discussion. The core issue is the significance of musical parameters observed by infant researchers in motherinfant interaction for an understanding and assessment of processes in music therapy.

Methods Publications by four researchers were used for content analysis. The focus was restricted to Mechthild and Hanus Papousek, Daniel N. Stern and Colwyn Trevarthen as leading representatives of three different approaches in infant research who all use musical terms to illustrate their findings. Their research has moreover had immediate impact on therapy processes. The work done by the Papouseks has been put into practice for years in an out-patient ward for screaming babies (Kinderzentrum, Munich, directed by Prof. Dr. H. von Voß). Stern’s publications are essential for clinical work and theory debates among music therapists (compare Lenz, 1996; Lenz & von Moreau, 2003; Schumacher, 1999).

Methods

Many therapists refer tot he articles by Trevarthen and his references to music therapy. The findings of both Papouseks, by Stern and Trevarthen were compared chronologically and as to their contents. The core statements of these studies were defined and presented in chronological order, and were analyzed for similarities or discrepancies.

Results A comparison between Papousek, Stern and Trevarthen reveals that Stern underlines the active role of infants in interaction and in particular describes their emotional and mental progress, whereas Papousek looks at language development and the importance of mother-infant interaction in this context. Trevarthen’s focus is on the interaction between infant and caregiver in dependence on basic neurological assumptions. But despite their respective focus they all take other factors into account as well. IN HOW FAR IS IT POSSIBLE TO LEARN AND TEACH GENETICALLY DETERMINED ABILITIES, HERE INFANT DIRECTED SPEECH (IDS) OR “MOTHERESE”?

Universal elements in the interaction between adults and infants were described and substantiated by infant researchers. Papousek, Stern and Trevarthen believe that it is possible to approach or disclose congenital competences. Intuitive behaviour may be learned as part of a reflective process that permits to employ such behaviour deliberately. This process is known from therapy training in practice. Consequently, important effects of music therapy interaction and treatment (compare significance of melodic gestures, tuning of dynamics and rhythm in mother-child interaction) appear to be independent of the basic psychotherapy concept. Music therapy has witnessed methodological advances of those universal elements, since genetically determined effects of melody, and patterns of

Results

harmony (compare basic harmony research according to Haase, 1980) and rhythm were adapted and expanded for therapeutic purposes. WHAT IS THE POSITION OF INTUITION BETWEEN CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS BEHAVIOUR, AND IS IT POSSIBLE TO TEACH INTUITIVE BEHAVIOUR?

Unconscious behaviour is either congenital or learned and occurs irrespective of inner attitude or state of awareness. Conscious behaviour is behaviour to which attention is given. Intuitive behaviour is biologically determined behaviour that occurs in dependence on inner attitude, or the willingness to respond to any event or development. Intuitive behaviour may be inhibited or concealed for a variety of reasons. Willingness to respond to a partner in interaction is of particular importance in the process of discovering one’s own intuitive competence. It enables us to “empathize” with the needs of the other person and to act upon intuition. The ability to open up to the other person, to perceive him or her with all senses and respond accordingly is the object of intensive schooling in psychotherapy with regard to processes of reflection and supervision. This form of empathy is also described by researchers of infant behaviour (e.g. Stern 1977/2000; Trevarthen & Aitken, 1994, p.617ff; 2001) and facilitates indicated and purposive treatment (compare Papousek, 1996, p. 239) corresponding to individual needs.

SIGNIFICANCE OF INFANT RESEARCH FOR CURRENT PRACTICE AND THEORY GENERATION IN MUSIC THERAPY

Infant research offers concepts that may serve to explain what happens in music therapy. This is also due to similarities between music therapy interaction and mother-child interaction of which the essential elements are nonverbal and symbolic. Music therapists are in danger of interpreting findings from mother-infant interaction research – due to the musical metaphors frequently used by infant researchers – as direct indication of the effectiveness of music therapy. Schlinger (1992) described this danger of logical errors in theory generation in the context of behaviour analysis.

Results

The use of metaphors, specifically musical metaphors, was detected again and again in the course of this study. They are frequently employed to interpret quantitative data (compare Warner, 2002, p. 417). Papousek (1994, 1994b) uses musical terms almost exclusively and unambiguously to describe tonal phenomena. In contrast, we see how the metaphor is used to describe synchronous rhythmic patterns with which infants tune in to the musical-poetical emotions expressed by mothers (Trevarthen & Aitken, 2001, p.12) or how the term “communicative musicality” is used instead of nonverbal communication. Concepts of natural musicality (Trevarthen, 2002), self-concept and affect-atunement (Stern, 1977/ 2000) seem to cover only one factor in musical improvisation and music therapy intervention and therefore have to be analysed and assessed by music therapists with critical detachment. According to Trevarthen (2002, p. 26), music has the potential to create emotional togetherness or to heal because it supports intrinsic, neurobiologically determined needs for qualitative human communication that are organized musically, i.e. “in time”. The observation that certain neurological transference processes are synchronized rhythmically leads him to infer an impact of music, due to the analogy to musical rhythm. Describing the dynamics of emotions, Stern (1977/2000) also employs terms that are very familiar from musical contexts: crescendo, decrescendo, fade away, explode, etc. Some terms perceived as musical by musicians (music therapists) basically describe general natural phenomena as e.g. resonance, rhythm or dynamics (compare Spitzer, 2002). The inference that music is effective in a certain way because these phenomena occur in situations other than music is not conclusive. Simple, understandable and apparently logical concepts based on analogies appear convincing to uncritical minds.

Results

Findings from infant research over the past few decades had an impact on psychotherapy concepts in general (compare Beebe & Lachmann, 2002; Dornes, 1993). The literature on music therapy also suggests a transfer to general interactive situations in psychotherapy. Many descriptions published e.g. by Lenz and von Moreau (2003) are true for psychotherapy in general. A connection with music therapy is convincing; a critical reader, however, remains with the impression that these objectives of motherinfant music therapy might also be achieved through other psychotherapy methods, without instruments and with an empathic and vocal therapist. The majority of music therapists who refer to infant research in clinical practice seem to use the findings on relational contact and structure and on emotional regulative processes in order to explain music therapy interventions and their effects. But if the focus is on the emotional significance of interaction, then essential findings from mother-child research relating to integrative and cognitive processes are neglected. A focus on relational contact and structure will have an impact on therapy attitudes as well. In a figurative sense music therapists tend toward a “fostering”, supportive approach and perhaps neglect the necessary demanding and stimulative aspects. CHANCES FOR MUSIC THERAPY FROM A CONTENTUAL ANALYSIS OF INFANT RESEARCH

Research into mother-child interaction provides explanations on conditions for successful contact and interaction, as described by Stern or Trevarthen in particular; moreover, it reveals factors required for successful processes of integration and cognition. Papousek states (Papousek, 1996b) that contact research covers only a partial aspect of early relationships, i.e. an impression of protection and emotional security in stressful situations. Other significant aspects in early development, like integrative and communicative processes, and an infant’s active contribution in exchange with specific parent support are not taken into account in contact classification. A similar process applies to music therapy. Those Results

music therapists in particular who refer to Stern concentrate on the process of emotional atunement, like Stern himself, and do not really recognize the didactic-stimulating components that are, however, important for integrative and cognitive processes. An important point to consider in the treatment of mother and child as well as in music therapy are developmental tasks to be mastered (feeding regulation, sleep-wake organization, attention and affective stimulation etc.) in the context of everyday parentchild interaction, where the infant’s self-regulatory competences are combined with his parents’ intuitive co-regulatory competences (compare Papousek, 1996b). Methodological problems in the definition of specific factors in music therapy may also be due to the close interdependence of behaviour development and somatic and general mental processes. The significance of integrative and cognitive processes should not be underestimated in music therapy with adults either. The slogan “Üben ohne Übung” (practise without practice) (compare Schmölz, 1982, 1991) may serve to describe the offer to provide a zone for further development (compare Vygotsky, 1934/2000) as a method for music therapy improvisation. A music therapist working with adult clients creates a space through musical improvisation, a “zone” for necessary change, which is in itself a metaphor. Universal elements of the mother-infant interaction that can be assessed with musical parameters in particular may serve as evidence of valid effects of music therapy. A few steps in this direction have been taken. Trevarthen e.g. speaks of synchronous rhythms on which he bases a neurological concept that seems more or less random. Many universal elements play a part in the effects of interpersonal communication in general and psychotherapy in particular; it is therefore important to underline the significance of musical elements. Musical elements, or more specifically the processes of joint music-making and improvisation, are in the fore-

Results

ground in therapy. A concentration on universal musical-tonal aspects and also contexts of interaction (compare Papousek, 1994) permits to expand existing concepts from research into mother-infant interaction to include therapy with adults as well. All three infant researchers analyzed here believe in biologically determined motives. On the basis of universal effects of musical parameters (compare infant research) and musical forms (compare musical psychology), the supposition of an interpersonal motive (compare Stern, 1985/ 2000, p. 244) may help to explain why music therapy is indicated specifically for persons who either have no language available, or who are hampered by language. Studies have shown that infants are not much interested in pitch/tuning or singing in itself (Trevarthen & Aitken, 2001, p. 12). What they perceive and reflect is the emotional message in a voice. It remains unclear what emotional expression is, and the question is whether emotional expression is not closely related to tuning/pitch and melody or prosody (compare Papousek) after all. On the other hand we must ask whether a separation of the two is possible, even if only conceptually. Trevarthen quotes studies that indicate that a successful interaction satisfactory to both sides is only feasible through tactile exchange and gestures. Even if it is not emotional exchange via sound that facilitates the interaction, we must wonder whether we can infer tactile impartment. Could there be another perceptible, noticeable level? Despite all doubts we may state that findings from infant research were applied to music therapy and thereby some progress was made towards a clarification of the musicaltonal effects in music therapy improvisation. The fact that the effects of music and thus of music therapy interventions are influenced by many factors must be taken into account in any case.

Results

Music may be a purpose in itself, but is always determined by its cultural and social origins. Music involves congenital abilities, self-regulation and communication and also cultural influences. Music therapists have to be aware of all these different levels. Only an exact and considered use of terminology will allow a proper description of therapy-related effects that is required for a theory-based justification of music therapy as an integral part of comprehensive health care.

References Beebe B., Lachmann F.M. (2002): Infant Research and Adult Treatment.Co-Construction Interactions. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press. Dornes M. (1993/2001): Der kompetente Säugling. Die präverbale Entwicklung des Menschen. Frankfurt/M.: Fischer. Haase R. (1980): Harmonikale Synthese. Wien: Lafite. Lenz G. (1996): Music Therapy and early interactional disorders – the example of the cry babies. Unpublished paper, 8th Congress of Music Therapy `Sound and Psyche´ Hamburg, Germany. Lenz G., von Moreau D. (2003): Resonanz und Synchronisation als regulative Faktoren von Beziehung – das spezifische Potential der Musiktherapie. In: Nöcker-Ribeaupierre M. (Hrsg.): Hören – Brücke ins Leben. Musiktherapie mit früh- und neugeborenen Kindern. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

References

Papousek M. (1994): Vom ersten Schrei zum ersten Wort. Anfänge der Sprachentwicklung in der vorsprachlichen Kommunikation. Bern: Huber. Papousek M. (1994b): Melodies in Caregiver´s Speech: A Species-Specific Guidance Towards Language. In: Early Development and Parenting, Vol. 3 (1), 5-17 Papousek M. (1996): Intuitive Parenting: a hidden source of musical stimulation in infancy. In: Deliege I., Sloboda J. (Hrsg.): Musical Beginnings. Origins and Development of Musical Competence. Papousek M. (1996b): Kommunikations- und Beziehungsdiagnostik im Säuglingsalter – Einführung in den Themenschwerpunkt. In: Kindheit und Entwicklung 5, 136-139. Plahl C. (2000): Entwicklung fördern durch Musik. Evaluation musiktherapeutischer Behandlung. Münster: Waxmann. Schlinger H.D. (1992): Theory in Behavior Analysis. An Application to Child Development. In: American Psychologist, Vol. 47, No. 11, 1396-1410. Schmölz A. (1982): Wiener Schule der Integrierten Musiktherapie. In: Musiktherapeutische Umschau, 3, 299-307. Schmölz A. (1991): Musiktherapie bei psychosomatisch Erkrankten. In: Puer, Musica et Medicina. Internationales, interdisziplinäres Symposium, Kongressakte, 127-132. Schumacher K. (1999): Musiktherapie und Säuglingsforschung. Frankfurt/M.: Peter Lang.

References

Spitzer M. (2002): Musik im Kopf. HĂśren, Musizieren, Verstehen und Erleben im neuronalen Netzwerk. Schattauer: Stuttgart, New York. Stern D.N. (1977/2000): Mutter und Kind. Die erste Beziehung. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. Stern D.N. (1985/2000): Die Lebenserfahrung des SĂ¤uglings. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. Stern, D.N., Bruschweiler-Stern, N., Harrison, A.M., Lyons-Ruth, K., Morgan, A.C., Nahum, J.P., Sander, L., Tronick E.Z., (1998). The process of therapeutic change involving implicit knowledge: some implications of developmental observations for adult psychotherapy. Infant Mental Health, 19: 300-308. Trevarthen C. (2002): Origins of Musical Identity: Evidence from Infancy for Musical Social Awareness. In: MacDonald R.A.R., Hargreaves D.J., Miell D. (Hrsg.): Musical Identities. 21-38. Oxford: University Press. Trevarthen C., Aitken K.J. (1994): Brain development, infant communication, and empathy disorders: Intrinsic factors in child mental health. In: Development and Psychopathology, 6, 597-633. (zit. nach Trevarthen, 1996) Trevarthen C., Aitken K.J. (2001): Infant Intersubjectivity: Research, Theory, and Clinical Applications. In: J. Child Psychol. Psychiat. Vol. 42, No. 1, 3-48. Vygotsky L. (1934/2000): Thought and Language. A. Kozulin (Hrsg.). MIT Press, Cambridge, London.

References

Warner R.M. (2002): Rhythms of Dialogue in Infancy: Comments on Jaffe, Beebe, Feldstein, Crown, and Jasnow (2001). In: Jurnal of Psycholinguistic Research, Vol 31, No.4, 409 - 420.

Author information

Frauke Schwaiblmair studied music therapy at the University of Music in Vienna (Austria) and psychology at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University in Munich and at the Catholic University in Eichstaett (Germany). She is employed at the Kinderzentrum MĂźnchen (Germany, Dir. Prof. Dr. H. v. VoĂ&#x;) and is an university teacher at the University of Music, Vienna. In 2005 she finished her doctoral thesis at the University Witten Herdecke.

This article can be cited as: Schwaiblmair, F. (2005) Infant research and music therapy - The significance of musical characteristics in early mother-child interaction for music therapy. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 48-59. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

Author information

Music Therapy Today Vol. VI (1) February 2005

Music Therapy in Psychooncology – A Gender Comparison A research project of the Master´s Degree programme in Music Therapy, University of Applied Sciences Frankfurt/Main, Germany

Almut Seidel

Abstract This article documents a music-therapy research project in the psychooncological care of both, male and female cancer patients at the transition point between curative and palliative care in their illness. This article discusses the far-reaching implications at the institutional, conceptual, methodological and personal levels. In addition to the detailed description of this field of work, there is a focus on two particular aspects of the research results: first, gender-specific reception to the opportunity of having music-therapy and second, the relationship between the spoken word and making music in the therapy sessions, with the potential of each as an integrating or polarising healing factor.

Introduction The gender study that I will report in this talk is based on the following data: •

work with cancer patients 60

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

with different types of cancer in 3 hospitals patients of all ages, with a concentration between 21 – 68 years stadium of the illness is the transition point from curative to palliative treatment * exactly the same numbers of male and female patients working with male and female therapists emphasis on individual active music therapy with exclusion of vocal work research attention paid to the musical as well as verbal interaction combination of qualitative and quantitative research approaches

• • • • • • • • •

*In fact, we now know that six months after completion of the data collection phase of the project more than 50% of the patients had died.

Aims The intention of the study is to find out what music, working with music and the therapeutic setting means in working with cancer patients and how patients of both sexes receive it. Our initial hypothesis was: We suspect that there must be differences in the way that cancer patients make use of the possibility of music therapy due to the following factors: the seriousness and finality of a diagnosis with cancer on the one hand, • and, on the other, the nature of music and music therapy: that is, that music as a therapeutic agent appeals to the emotionality, expressiveness and ability of the patient to be in dialogue, and that music therapy encourages active and creative coping strategies. •

The degree to which this response is gender specific, or the degree to which there is a gender-specific approach to coping with the illness seems to be an important question (Brähler & Felder 1999; Meadows 2002).

Aims

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

We began work on this project in the spring of 2002 and will complete it by publishing our results in book form (Seidel 2005). I will now like to describe our research design which is shown in the following table. TABLE 1. Research design Local Practitioners • Hospital 1 Music therapist 1 f •

•

Personal level

Hospital 2 Music therapist 2 f Hospital 3 Music therapist 3 m

Aims

-> 6 Patients f -> 6 Patients m -> 6 Patients f -> 6 Patients m

External Describer • Describer 1 f • Describer 2 f • Describer 3 m • Describer 4 m • Coordinator f

Research Team • Project leader f • Music therapist 1 f • Music therapist 2 m • Psychologist / Psychoanalyst f • Psychologist / Statistics m

-> 6 Patients f -> 6 Patients m

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

TABLE 1. Research design

•

Patient statistics (230 Patients) Patient data (36 Patients) Short description of the course of therapy (36 Patients) Audio recording of one selected session per patient Music descriptions by patient and therapist of improvisation from selected session Quantitative Pre- and Post-Test External situation:

•

Internal situation:

• • • • •

Data / Material Level

Evaluation / Interpreta tion Level

•

Relationship between verbal and musical interaction • Pre- and Post-Test • Gender comparison

•

Music descriptions from 18 selected patients using morphological method

•

(additionally) 13 session transcriptions

Setting vari• Conceptual eleables and conments of clinical ditions music therapy • emotional cop- • 5 awareness levels: ing strategies, physical /emotional assumed effect / imagination / thoughts / interaction ⇒ Emotion mode •

•

Methods SUBJECTS AND INTERVENTION

We have three groups of persons who have taken part in the project: 1. the music therapists or practitioners on site 2. the external music therapists who have studied the music of the patients 3. the research team You will see that we have attempted to have balanced representation of men and women in each group (Behnke & Meuser 1999; Strauss 1991).

Methods

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

The local practitioners were charged with giving us a bundle of material; you can see this in Table 1 on page 62 on level 2, the data and materials level. We received statistics, that is, an overview of patients treated, from a year’s work from each therapist. This included data concerning sex, age of the patients, and the number and length of sessions as well as the method of work in the sessions. At this level we divided the methods used into three general categories: active music therapy • receptive music therapy • talking without music •

DATA COLLECTION

Then a selection of 12 patients per therapist, 6 male and 6 female, was made based on the work of the practitioners from approximately the previous 18 months. The selection of patients was made by the therapists themselves after we had determined the total number of patients we wished to have. We received personal data for each patient including a short medical history and a summary of the treatment given in hospital. Therapists documented the course of the therapy by making notes after each session. Here we asked for detailed information about the methodological approach including making music, listening to music, playing for the patient, body work, etc. Out of the total course of therapy with each patient, the practitioner selected one session that he or she subjectively felt was significant in illustrating the therapy process or the situation of the patient. We received an audio recording of this session. One of the music improvisations in the session was described by the patient – as much as was possible for him or her. This was important for the research design and so the therapists gave the patients enough time and space to describe their experiences of making music. Afterwards the therapists also wrote a description of the music from their perspective. Methods

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

QUESTIONNAIRES

In addition, patients were asked to fill out a questionnaire before and after each session documenting the way they felt. The instrument used was the “Basler Befindlichkeitsskala” (BBS). The questionnaire (Hobi 1985) comprises 16 items such as calm and nervous • withdrawn and open • attentive and distracted •

that are grouped into 4 main categories (see Basler Scale: four subgroups ). The sum of the values for all four give an overall value for the condition of the person. FIGURE 1. Basler Scale: four sub-groups

intra-emotional state of balance • vitality • alertness • social extroversion •

BLINDFOLD MORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

For the evaluation of the improvised music we chose the Salber’s method of morphological description through which one can describe the experience of emotional or psychological events (Salber 1980). Only the unbiased emotional response of the listener to the emotional state being expressed by the other person gives access to the fundamental inner state of the other. On a comparable level, the expert’s listening to the improvised music is the morphological descriptive work. Without any further information about the case, the expert listens to the music and then writes down impressions, images, associations, stories, memories and reactions elicited by the music heard. We modified the morphological approach in the following ways in order to achieve our goals: we asked 4 music therapists to undertake this

Methods

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

descriptive work independent of each other and without any knowledge of the source of the music they were hearing, in a blindfold experiment. This means that they received no information about where session had taken place, nor the identities of therapist and patient, about the illness and the clinical background nor the question our research was attempting to answer. In this context, you can see why we excluded vocal elements (Tischer 1993) in the sessions selected for analysis. The describers were asked to listen to and describe the music on 5 consecutive days. We wanted to see if the experience of the music changed or solidified when listened to in such an intensive way. Of course, we also wanted to make use of 4 different ways of hearing and experiencing the music. And so, we speak of an internal and external comparison. The selection of patients whose music was sent to the describers was made from those for whom a full set of data was available; the selected improvisations also typified the responses of patients and therapists in the music therapy session – these characteristics had become increasingly clear through our memos. TRIANGULATION

All methodological steps were decided in the core team in which three subjective perceptions confronted each other (Hurrelmann & Laaser 1998; Soeffner 1979).

So, in the total evaluation of the data, we are

dealing with three viewpoints, that of the local practitioner, the external describer and the core team: we hope that this approach assures controlled subjectivity. FIGURE 2. Triangular dynamic

music therapists as local practitioners • external describers in blindfold experiment •

Methods

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

•

core team of experts

In order to explore the connection between the verbal and musical interaction of a session, we transcribed 13 of the 18 sessions that we had as audio recordings. The selection was made in order to have a balance of male and female patients as well as to cover the work of all the therapists in local practice. We decided not to transcribe all 18 sessions because at a certain point the research material was saturated. Inclusion of this material was not planned from the beginning; we made this decision in response to the tension which became apparent between the external describers’ perception of the music and the rest of the data on hand. The purpose of this comprehensive and carefully documented collection of data can be seen in table 1 on the 3rd level – the evaluation and interpretation level. We considered the so-called external circumstances – the questions of time and place, the instruments selected, the presence of other people and so on – in order to deduct a pattern under which the therapy was conducted. We wanted to discover this pattern in order to make a contribution to the discussion on concepts of music-therapy in the clinical context. Results can be found in the book published in 2005 (Seidel 2005) Then the question arose of how patients deal with the music therapy through their experience and behavior, and how to assess the effect of music therapy work. It was necessary at this point to reduce the data and focus it in order to elicit themes from it. We used two theoretical models as screens through which to look at all the data we had on each patient with specific attention to themes which were significant with regard to coping with the disease.

Methods

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

1.) FIVE LEVELS OF AWARENESS

The first model emerged from the data itself: we identified 5 levels of awareness that are particularly important for patients with cancer. These core categories are: • • • • •

physical or body awareness emotions imagination ideas or thoughts/understanding interaction with others

Table 2 shows the evaluation sheet we developed and used to work with the data we had. TABLE 2. Evaluation sheet Client:

Session:

Instrument client:

Awareness level

physical

emotional

Instrument therapist:

imagination

understanding

interaction

before the session until music production begins External describer’s experience of the music Music therapist’s experience of the music

Methods

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

TABLE 2. Evaluation sheet Patient’s experience of the music after the music production phase You can see in table 2 that we divided the information into an objective section based on the notes of the session, and a subjective one based on the descriptive level. Both levels were then compared and an interpretation was derived. The process of working with this comprehensive amount of data was as follows: each of the three experts on the research team reviewed the data independently and began to reduce it to a more compressed form. Then working together, all emphases that were commonly agreed upon were entered into the tables and used for interpretation. 2.) MULTI COMPONENT MODEL OF EMOTION

Now to the second model: In order to make a gender comparison and to make the qualitative data quantifiable (Behnke & Meuser 1999), as well as to generate a theoretical model, we used a model which stems from the psychology of emotions. This multi-component model includes: FIGURE 3. Emotion model (Bernd Tischer 1993) version I

• • • • •

subjective experience (emotion) cognitive (and imaginative) experience physiological process (body experience) interaction behaviour situational aspects

Methods

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

The model emphasizes the process character of emotionality and examines the function of emotional development in interaction; these are put into a valencing scheme and allow a method of measurement that results in identifying so-called emotion types. In this way a quantifiable instrument is introduced that allows us to develop our results within a broader theoretical model and thereby in an established theory, thus making a bridge to the scientific community. The inter-connection between our data categories and the emotion concept are shown in the next table 3.

Methods

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

TABLE 3. Quadrantenmodell 1 Away from oneself - Patient controls the surroundings

2 Toward oneself – Patient controls the surroundings

Physical level: Patient is very tense Emotional level: Pt. is angry, rejecting, under pressure Imagination: Images of (struggle for) survival Understanding: Patient feels autonomous Interaction level: Patient controls every contact

Physical level: Patient is energized Emotional level: Patient is able to feel interest, pleasure, joy Imagination: rich imaginative ability Understanding: Pt. actively seeks what is good for him/her Interaction level: Patient is in dialogue with others

Tendency to act: Patient feels under attack and resists with intensity

Tendency to act: Patient signals what he/she wants and attempts to achieve it

3 Away from other(s) – Surroundings control the patient

4 Toward other(s) – Surroundings control the patient

Physical level: Patient is in pain, strength for living is waning Emotional level: Patient feels afraid, sad, depressive Imagination: Images of helplessness Understanding: Patient feels dependent on others, not in control Interaction level: Patient is withdrawn, not in contact

Physical level: Patient is cut off from body sensations Emotion: Patient longs for deliverance from suffering Imaginations: Images of dissolution of reality

Tendency to act: Patient closes down and retreats from living

Methods

Understanding: Patient lets everything be done with him/her Interaction level: Patient desires feeling of unity Tendency to act: Patient gives in and gives up

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

SEQUENTIAL TEXT ANALYSIS

In order to explore the relationship between the verbal and musical interaction, we used the method of sequential text analysis of the transcriptions of the audio recordings. This method involves four steps (see Oevermann 1979): 1. Transcription of the verbal material in the session with medium exactness 2. Documentation of the obvious structure of the text by sequential paraphrasing of the sections of the transcript 3. Extensive interpretation of the latent meaning structure using Oevermann’s objective hermeneutic method 4. Comparison of the descriptions of the verbal text and the descriptions of the music The last step in the analysis of the material was the statistical analysis of the pre- and post-test. I will talk about some of the results later.

GENDER COMPARISON

Finally, the gender comparison was an aspect of the concluding assessment and interpretation of the research results.

Interpretation and critical appraisal of the research results In our analysis we dealt with three issues: 1. The question of method: active and/or receptive music therapy, talking 2. The institutional dilemma: resistance / music therapy as intermediate space 3. Gender main streaming – also in music therapy? 1. THE QUESTION OF METHOD: ACTIVE AND/ OR RECEPTIVE MUSIC THERAPY, TALKING

We have overwhelming evidence in our research that music therapy in oncology is in most cases receptive, that is sound meditation on the monochord within a guided relaxation in which music takes over a background function (Verres & Rittner 1997). This form of music production

Interpretation and critical appraisal of the research results

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

is not musically or therapeutically very demanding and can easily distort the image of music therapy as a profession. Rarely, there is also a special form of receptive music therapy which is called “Für-Spielen” in Germany, which means that the therapist plays simple instrumental music for the patient. The therapists gave us the following reasons for this: The patients are physically too weak. They are completely exhausted, their pain is overwhelming and they are challenged enough in other areas. Usually they are not able to walk or must stay in bed to receive infusions. These are plausible reasons, which cannot be dismissed. Consequently our research design proved to be misconceived since active music therapy appeared as an artefact. A certain pressure existed to acquire the patients for the research. In order to fulfill the research design, the therapists made an effort to change their strategy and to do more active music therapy – whether at the bedside, in the patient’s room or in the music therapy room. Then came the first insights: it does work to do active music therapy! It brings results, perhaps even more than receptive music therapy. What is this “more”? Receptive music therapy fits in with the courses of medical treatment: a specific therapy is administered (medication, radiation, operation) and then one waits for the effect. Apart from bearing and suffering through all the side-effects, this waiting is the only active step in the healing cycle (Verres & Klusmann 1997; Gruhlke, Bailer & Kächele1999; Kappauf & Gallmeier 1995).

Interpretation and critical appraisal of the research results

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

Receptive music therapy is the same procedure: in this case a sound induction is „administered“ and one hopes for the relaxation and wellness effect. When this offer is matched with a significant amount of suggestion with regard to the positive effect of the treatment, a degree of autosuggestion cannot be excluded. This carries on through the post-test. It is simply assumed that the expected positive effect has been achieved, or is confirmed by the largely positive comments of the patients, to the degree that they express themselves at all. Active music therapy, on the other hand, is a challenge to patients to give up this stance of being a receiver and to take the instrument of healing literally into their own hands. In that the patients take the initiative they can overcome some of the regressive tendencies that the illness brings with it. This encourages them to produce their autosuggestion in another direction, namely “I can still do it, that has nothing to do with my illness and the physical and emotional restrictions, that is a field with no land mines, that is harmless.” They experience music making as a small step in the direction of reclaiming their autonomy which they have largely relinquished in hospital; they can “forget” themselves a little – that is, they can forget the “sick” self for a time (Weber 1999). It becomes clear to the patient, either explicitly or implicitly, that music therapy can achieve something that lies between, between relaxation and self-healing (Decker-Voigt & Escher 1994). Actively produced music can make tensions audible and ideally can regulate tension. It can make audible what patient is not able to express in words: his restlessness and inner conflict, his anger, resignation, physical and emotional numbness and feeling forlorn (Aldridge1999). The patient can also feel his deep desire to full life strength and his passionate yes to living even if this is an illusionary dream and a sad longing for unattainable harmony. Active music therapy is appropriate for persons who are not able to speak about their Interpretation and critical appraisal of the research results

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

condition but are willing to listen attentively to their own being. This is, however, far removed from relaxing, distraction and relief or from simple “balsam” for the soul, as one patient said (Verres & Klusmann 1997). 2. THE INSTITUTIONAL DILEMMA: RESISTANCE/ MUSIC THERAPY AS AN INTERMEDIATE SPACE

We asked ourselves what makes it so difficult to do active music therapy? Why hasn’t active music therapy become the method of choice, why is it, in fact, occasionally avoided? We became aware of another contradiction: In the analysis of the verbal interaction we realised that therapists take pains to describe what the positive effects of music therapy can be; this often takes the form of extensive instructions. It also became clear that patients speak very little about their emotional experience after they have made music. Often, if they talk at all, they focus on external aspects such as how to handle the instrument or how it was constructed or they talk about their previous experiences with music. If there is talk about the music just produced, therapists tend to make positive value judgements and toward euphemisms. It seems that something is contained in the music which is excluded from conscious examination. On the whole the patients experience the contact as positive and they are interested in this form of therapy. This is shown in the few statistically significant results of the pre- and post-tests: the analysis showed that there was a significant increase in figures for all four factors as well as for the sum of the four, clearly documenting that patients experienced positive benefits from music therapy. A different picture is revealed in the description of the music: •

There is no real understanding of the suffering of the patient, neither by the patient nor the therapist.

Interpretation and critical appraisal of the research results

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

•

• • • • •

Other feelings appear, such as feeling forlorn, loneliness, not being noticed, losing oneself or falling apart. Feeling of numbness and being at the mercy of external influences. In being with someone, which is so much desired, something always drifts apart and destroys the hint of commonality. The loneliness cannot be abolished. There seems to be a compulsion to believe that all will be well, that all is possible and convincing. However: true conviction is missing. Not-understanding actually cloaks rejection. The patient has to go through “hell” alone (the certainty of disease, the suffering, death); one can accompany the patient, but can offer him or her no real help.

These findings are confirmed and quantified through the typology of the emotions model; the type of patient that can most often be identified with equal representation of men and women is Type 3. I will show you this segment of the quadrant model (Table 3 on page 71) again. FIGURE 4. Type 3

Away from other(s) – Surroundings control the patient • • • • •

Tendency to act: Patient closes down and retreats from living There seems to be method in the contradiction in the findings. One could describe it as repression of the oppressive reality and as resistance. How can this be explained?

Interpretation and critical appraisal of the research results

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

The music therapy work in our research project dealt with 6 conflict fields that produce the reaction of resistance. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

general image of music in our society hospital’s instructions on purpose of music therapy music therapist’s professional understanding research design – focus on active music therapy resistance of the patient tension between curative and palliative care

First of all, there is the general image of music that prevails in our society. Music seems to be something very nice and always makes you feel good. Music relaxes and regulates feelings; music lifts our spirits and makes us happy. And if it doesn’t do that, we turn it off – literally, also in the sense of not dealing with it. Secondly, the hospital expressly instructs the music therapist to make a contribution to securing the compliance of the patient. The patient is to feel as well as possible under the circumstances. Thirdly, there is the professional understanding of music therapy, which means using music and the music therapy setting to cope with the illness. Ideally, this means depiction of the conflict and resolution. In this regard, there are principally no limitations to using all methods that are recognized as music therapy. But it is also clear that music therapists have a very sophisticated understanding of the effect of music. And therefore, they cannot exclude the possibility that music will produce other responses than calmness, relaxation, and relief. Fourthly, the research design called for the investigation of active music therapy. However, it was soon apparent that this was and is not the rule in practice of music therapy in psycho-oncology.

Interpretation and critical appraisal of the research results

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

Fifthly, we are dealing with the resistance of the patient which we could describe as protective resistance. This is understandable in the light of the desolate physical condition of the patients and in the light of the demands that the other treatments make on them. Furthermore, active production of music provides a wealth of new and unusual experiences so that the patient undoubtedly experiences it as quite demanding. And finally, the sixth conflict field is the tension between curative and palliative care. As long as medical treatment is based on the hope that life can be prolonged for the patient, the music therapist must fit in so that he or she does not undermine these efforts. And therapists certainly do not want to lose their jobs. So their orientation remains diffuse and becomes an individual problem to solve. It would be much easier to conceive of and carry out music therapy as pure palliation. Thus, music therapy is pulled in many directions. But something does take place in the course of active music therapy, possibly in receptive music therapy as well – that is documented by the external expert’s assessment. This can, perhaps, be explained as follows: Hospitalization means that, although all are fully aware of the potentially lethal outcome of the illness, everything possible is being done to save life (LeShan 1999). This is the ethical principle, and so hope must be the dominant attitude (Aldridge 1999). This is the internal stance of the medical staff, otherwise a professional identity would be unimaginable. This principle can be maintained everywhere else – but not in music. Since music affects the unconscious of an individual, the patient cannot control the elements that begin to surface. What is working in the unconscious of the patient finds an outlet.

Interpretation and critical appraisal of the research results

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

In this context, Winnicott’s model of „intermediate space“ was helpful for us. It serves as a bridge between inner and outer realities. The inner realm is the individual and her experiences. The outer realm is the surrounding reality, in this case, the illness, treatment objectives and methods. The music generated by patient and therapist functions as intermediate space as the inner reality does not remain hidden but is brought into the open • what is brought into the open does not need to be put into words, in that it has already found a form of expression • having expressed the inner reality, it is „enough,“that is, the „thing“ has been given a name – the monster of death, illness, destruction, hopelessness has been given a face, or a sound. •

Therefore, music therapy should be understood as the space into which this experience from the borderlands can flow without having to be put into words or grasped mentally. • a place where these truths can exist and must not be banned as they are in the clinical and private daily reality. • an opportunity for that which is incomprehensible, nonetheless, to be grasped emotionally. The music shows that although the patient is not yet able to understand the illness, the threat and the knowledge of his own fleeting life, the music produced shows that the spirit of the person has already apprehended this reality. •

3. GENDER MAIN STREAMING – IS IT RELEVANT FOR MUSIC THERAPY?

In our research a common observation was confirmed: As long as there is no conceptional obligation, thereby no institutional monitoring, men are excluded from psycho-oncological music therapy. N=148 Patients in 3 clinics • Women 104 = 72% • Men 42 = 28% •

If they end up in music therapy, either through their own initiative or by chance, through something like gender-focused research (Brähler & FelInterpretation and critical appraisal of the research results

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

der 1999; Behnke & Meuser 1999), then they are more likely to experience receptive music therapy if there is music at all (Krantz 1999). TABLE 4. Methods used Active MT Women Men

26% 19%

Receptive MT 50% 33%

Talking 24% 48%

This confirms a common cliché – that men enjoy being waited on by women, they take what supposedly belongs to them without making any efforts of their own, they avoid emotional conflict (Brandes 1992; Hollstein 1999). But they remain alone in their suffering (Neumann & Süfke 2004). A two-class society is created. „There is no gender-neutral reality”, is one of the basic tenets of the gender-mainstreaming movement (Kolip 2000; Meadows 2002). The assumption is that all societal enterprises, also music therapy, wherever they are found, should take into account the life situation and interests of both men and women from the beginning and throughout the further development of the initiative. The goal is the equality of both sexes. At no time or place anywhere in the world has there been any indication that men have a less intensive, less motivated, less elementary or emotional approach to music (Sieg 1995). Men may demonstrate a different affinity for music than women, or may conceptualize it differently, but they need music just as urgently as a life-giving, and life-preserving element in their lives as women (Krantz 1999). That is even more true in such extreme situations as life-threatening illness (Aldridge 1999; Renz 2000).

Interpretation and critical appraisal of the research results

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

We did not document any differences in behaviour, in approach to music therapy, or in results of the therapy between the 18 male patients and the 18 female patients in the study. This applies to all parameters that we studied – from the choice of music instrument and its use, to the transition from talking to making music and vice-versa and to the statistics of the pre- and posttest. We have attempted to show that the clinical reality – when not influenced – makes differences and that the practice of music therapy is far removed from the ideas of gender-mainstreaming. Carrying these ideas into the professional field of music therapy and in the training programmes was and is one of the intentions of this study. In our eyes, psycho-oncological music therapy is a particularly vivid and impressive example of the quality of perception and feeling, the ability to listen to the interior realities and to put them into external expression as a way of coping with illness and life that men as well as women need (Maschewsky-Schneider 1997). Men need it no less, no less naturally, or unquestionably than women. In my eyes, professional quality and responsibility begins at this point.

References Aldridge, D. (1999) Musiktherapie in der Medizin. Forschungsstrategien und praktische Erfahrungen. Bern: Huber Behnke, C.; Meuser, M (1999) Geschlechterforschung und qualitative Methoden. Opladen: Leske und Budrich Bilek, A (1999) Musik bei Krebs? Gedanken zu psychoonkologischen Modellen. Musiktherapeutische Umschau 20, 4, 325-341.

References

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

Brandes, H. (1992): Ein schwacher Mann kriegt keine Frau. Therapeutische Männergruppen und Psychologie des Mannes. Münster: Votum Brähler & Felder (Hg) (1999) Weiblichkeit, Männlichkeit und Gesundheit. Opladen Decker-Voigt, H.H.; Escher, J. (1994) Neue Klänge in der Medizin. Musiktherapie in der Inneren Medizin. Düsseldorf: Trialog Gruhlke, N.; Bailer, H. & Kächele, H. (1999) Krankheitsbewältigung bei Krebs- ein kurzer Überblick. Musiktherapeutische Umschau 20, 4, 342-349. Hobi, V. (1985) Basler Befindlichkeits-Skala. Weinheim Hurrelmann & Laaser (Hg) (1998) Handbuch Gesundheitswissenschaften. Weinheim Hollstein, W. (1999) Männerdämmerung – Von Tätern, Opfern, Schurken und Helden. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck Kappauf, H.; Gallmeier, W.M. (1995) Nach der Diagnose Krebs - Leben ist eine Alternative. Freiburg: Herder Kolip, P. (2000) Weiblichkeit ist keine Krankheit. Weinheim Krantz, B. (1999) Geschlechtsspezifische Aspekte in der Musiktherapie. In: Beiträge zur Musiktherapie. Berlin: Eigenverlag Deutsche Gesellschaft für Musiktherapie (DGMT) LeShan, L. (1999) Psychotherapie gegen den Krebs. Stuttgart: KlettCotta

References

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

Maschewsky-Schneider, U.(1997) Frauen sind anders krank. Weinheim Meadows, A. (2002): Gender Implications in Therapists’ Constructs of Their Clients. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy Vol 11, Issue 2 Neumann, W.; Süfke, B.(2004): Den Mann zur Sprache bringen. Psychotherapie mit Männern. Tübingen: DGVT - Verlag Oevermann, U. et al (1979) Die Methodologie einer "objektiven Hermeneutik" und ihre allgemeine forschungslogische Bedeutung in den Sozialwissenschaften, in: Soeffner, H.G. (Hrsg.) Interpretative Verfahren in den Sozial- und Textwissenschaften. Stuttgart Renz, M (2000) Zeugnisse Sterbender: Todesnähe als Wandlung und letzte Reifung. Paderborn: Jungfermann Salber, W. (1980) Konstruktion psychologischer Behandlung. Bonn Seidel, A. (2005) Verschmerzen. Musiktherapie mit krebserkrankten Männern und Frauen im Spannungsfeld von kurativer und palliativer Behandlung. Wiesbaden Sieg, A. (1995) Eine Männergruppe in der Musiktherapie. Musiktherapeutische Umschau 16, 1, 43-53. Soeffner, H.G. (Hrsg.) Interpretative Verfahren in den Sozial- und Textwissenschaften. Stuttgart, 1979 Strauss, A.L (1991) Grundlagen Qualitativer Sozialforschung. München Verres, R.; Klusmann, D. (1997) Strahlentherapie im Erleben der Patienten. Stuttgart: Hüthig Medizin Tischer, B. (1993) Die vokale Kommunikation von Gefühlen. Weinheim References

Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology – A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

Verres, R. / Rittner, S. (1997) Musiktherapie und High-Tech-Medizin: ein Widerspruch? - Entwicklung eines musiktherapeutischen Konzeptes. In: Verres/Klusmann, Strahlentherapie im Erleben der Patienten. Stuttgart: Hüthig Medizin Weber, S. (1999): Vergessen wo ich bin... Musiktherapie mit Krebspatienten während der Chemotherapie. In: Kraus W, Die Heilkraft der Musik, 186-193. München: Beck

Author Information l

Almut Seidel, Prof. Dr., school music teacher, musicologist, roman language, education science, psychology, sociology. Master of Education (Diploma); Talks, lectures, publications and research on children, addiction, elderly. Since 1971 at University of Applied Science Frankfurt, since 1988 head of master studies in music therapy; active in several professional organisations for music therapy.

Author Information

This article can be cited as: Seidel, A. (2005) Music Therapy in Psycho-oncology â&#x20AC;&#x201C; A Gender Comparison. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 60-85. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

This article can be cited as:

Music Therapy Today Vol. VI (1) February 2005

Review of the triple CD: LIVING SOUL - From the bedside to the studio to the heart Gudrun Aldridge

Here we have three CDs that are well worth listening to. It is not only the expression of musicality of the pieces and the professionality of their performance but the relationship to the lyrical content that makes them worthwhile. Embedding the text in different song styles reveals a broad spectrum of expressive facets of being human in the face of living and dying.

What does Living Soul collection contain? LIVING SOUL is a trilogy of songs written by people whose lives have been touched by cancer. It is the culmination of 4 years of song writing by music therapist Emma Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Brien with cancer patients and their carers. Emma Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Brien is music therapist at the Royal Melbourne Hospi-

tal in Australia. Her 4 years project of song writing covered 8 months of production, including 40 musicians who played and performed the songs.

Aldridge, G. (2005) Review of the triple CD: LIVING SOUL - From the bedside to the studio to the heart. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p.86-95. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

Emma O’Brien produced the collection together with Nigel Derricks from Bakehouse Studios . Patients were invited to write their feelings down, in a journal, and then create a song with the support of the therapist. This trilogy of song compact discs is indeed the sounding story of individuals that allows us insight into a phase of their lives reflecting what it means to suffer and to live within the tension of life and death. It reveals that it is possible, and important, for human beings to experience living and self-expression in the time before death. We know that it is important that patients use their own songs to express feelings and messages to their family or people who are important to them. Personal songs can relieve the mourning of family members and friends, and can offer them a long time support in overcoming the loss of loved ones. At the same time, these songs help to encourage pleasant memories with positive expression. Each track provides information about the people and their lyrics.

Contents of the Compact Discs CD 1 is called Soul Moments. It has 20 tracks of reflected ballads. The lyrics and poetry of the natural language used is touching. It reveals an inner perspective on the lives of women and men who are suffering from cancer, about how they try to endure their situation and in their search for meaning and hope. We encounter defiant questions like “Do you think I’ve gone too soon?” or expressions of will and fight “They said I’d never make it but here I am and of triumphant journeys through treatment” or “No more breaking me down. I am building up again”. We also find lyr-

Contents of the Compact Discs

ics that are addressed to the loved ones left behind “I’ll be the star in the sky”. The musical design of the songs (instrumentation, voice, musical structure and form) is arranged in relation to the text and follows the expressive needs of the patients. The transposition of the lyrics is flexible. It is singable and gives emotions and feelings an expressive form. Beside keyboards, guitars, bass and percussion, we also find instruments like harp and string quartets being used. SOME EXAMPLES CD1:

In ‘1. Breathe’ keys and classical harp are beautiful together. They are a good match in timbre and express the deep feelings of the patient about what she was going through at that stage. Download Breathe MP3 cut (1,2 MB) ‘3. Gone too soon’ has a subtle expression, using keyboard, violin and violoncello, but at the same time is supporting. Musically it enables grief and comfort. ‘9. Milestones’ has a clear musical phrase and a positive and strong ending, which is brought into expression by voice and keyboard. This song reflects the patient’s positive outlook on things. It continues to help her family to cope with her decease and to inspire other patients through their milestones in life. ’14. Rhelma’s song’ with keyboard and guitar uses the clear form of refrain to emphasize that what is meaningful for her. Uncertainty is expressed in a way of Sprechgesang.

Contents of the Compact Discs

Another comforting and consoling song is ‘16. Star in the sky’. High pitch, lively, flowing accompaniment and octave leaps as musical core elements lend a expression of confidence. The therapist’s voice changes according to the words in ’20. Here to stay’. Slide guitar and percussion are a skilful contribution to the patient’s expression of frustration, but also determination and willpower. Download Here to stay MP3 cut (1,2 MB) SOUL HORIZONS

CD 2 is called Soul Horizons. It is a mixture of musical styles, such as classic blues, folk tunes, country and other eclectic styles. It reflects the broad scope of personalities involved in the project. It also reflects that therapist and musicians have found the right type of songs that they worked out with the patients. I particularly like ’10. “My darling, my puffin, my wife”. It has a straight forward expression, using a quick 3/4, played on guitars and flute. It is a wonderful greeting song, expressing the patient’s love and thankfulness for his wife. The choice of a quick tempo and 3/4 time is another means to facilitate the expression of relieve in ’11. Finally’. ‘12. Why me’, expressed by a male voice, using drums and guitar, displays how anger, grief and questions about uncertainty can find matching expression in a folk rock style. The matter of form is important because it is a secure container that holds and supports strong emotions. Download Why me MP3 cut (944 kb)

SOUL INFUSIONS

CD 3, called Soul Infusions, has 21 tracks and is made up of pop tunes. A variety of quotations are used from funk, jazz, and dance tracks. In addi-

Contents of the Compact Discs

tion, gospel choirs and string quartet are used to meet the patients’ feelings and the meaning of their messages. This has been succeeded in the opening track ‘1. Everything will change’. This song has a wonderful upbeat funky feel that supports a young girl’s dream of being let out of hospital after her treatment to get on with her life. Track ‘2. I want to live’ and ‘3. For Melina’ belong together. Here the patient (track 2) and her husband (track 3) express their wish and desire to live and be together. The powerful ballad ‘For Melina’, especially, is a love song that is expressed by the husband and directed towards his dying young wife. The use of a pop music format is very suitable for expressing these deep longing feelings. It is intimate, but also feels safe, because it relates to the broader culturally embedded popular stylistic features of musical expression. Download For Melina MP3 (2,2 MB) There are also moving “thank you” songs to special carers like ’12. Thank you’ and ’13.Turtle’. The soft voice of the therapist illustrates that it is a young woman who dedicates this song to her mum. The delicate sound is complemented by violin, as a second accompanying voice. ’16. Smack the leuk’ and ’17. Together’ have powerful messages of willpower and hope, of fighting the battle together. Guitars, Hammond organ, bass and drums underline this strong expression. Although I only have picked out some of the pieces here each track is worth listening to and has its unique expression.

Contents of the Compact Discs

How does Living Soul fit into the context of music therapy? There is already an existing tradition of song writing in Music Therapy (Hudson Smith 1991; Whittall 1991; Aasgaard 1999; Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Callaghan 1999; Hogan 1999), and Living Soul is on the same track within this tradition, offering a broad range of examples that are convincing in their professionalism of sound production. For music therapists it is interesting to hear the variety of possibilities to create songs in different styles, each song being individually adapted to the needs of each patient and his or her unique situation. We know that songs are important vehicles for expressing deep human feelings (Aldridge, G. 1999). Songs are carried by the coherent properties of their melodies in connection with lyrics that reflect the everyday sentiments of human life. Lucanne Magill (Magill, 2002) uses songs in her work with cancer patients. The powerful expression of the individually adapted songs enables patients to mourn, grieve but also to endure their situation and to find healing and meaning. Various therapists use song creation as a therapeutic tool in their work with children (Aasgaard 1999; Griessmeier 1995) and adults. In pediatric oncology Aasgard not only concentrated on working with the child but with family members, friends, nurses and clinicians who were encouraged to take part. This illustrates that musical activity can be extended to the ecological context, creating new relations between participants. This shifts the emphasis from being ill to being creative. The possibility of being creative in the face of living and dying is an important aspect that many therapists refer to (Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Callaghan 1999; Hogan

How does Living Soul fit into the context of music therapy?

1999). Patients who are encouraged to write their own lyrics to well known melodies or create their own melody may feel a sense of achievement and pride. Writing lyrics out of emerging themes based on meaningful self-reflections promotes self-esteem. Being active, and producing something, helps to reduce the feeling of helplessness and brings a feeling of being able to influence onesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s own path. In experiencing oneself as active, hope can be encouraged, besides the fact that being able to express ourselves is important in times of need. Here we have not only the vital quality of hope that can be experienced when patients are given the opportunity to be remade anew in the moment but a sense of beauty and grace (Aldridge, D., 2003). To have an aesthetic experience of self is vital when the body is failing. Coming back to Living Soul, we can imagine the healing effect of this music for patients and their families, and consequently this product is a valuable contribution to song writing in music therapy with cancer patients. However, although it is an end-product of 4 years of song writing, we donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t get an insight of the process itself that has led to the final songs. Ideally, it would be useful to have a related publication giving evidence of the developmental items that led to the lyrics, phrases, melodies and individual styles; or the detection of external and internal constraints, the involvement in the activity at hand, the exploration of new possibilities, and solutions that contribute to the overall therapeutic process. Overall, a useful product and a valuable resource for music therapists working in the field.

How does Living Soul fit into the context of music therapy?

References Aasgaard, T. (1999). Music Therapy as Milieu in the Hospice and Paediatric Onbcology Ward. In Aldridge, D. (ed), Music Therapy in Palliative Care. New Voices (29-42).London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Aldridge, D. (2003). Music Therapy References Relating to Cancer and Palliative Care. British Journal of Music Therapy 17 (3): 17-25 Aldridge, G. (1999). The Implications of Melodic Expression for Music Therapy with a Breast Cancer Patient. In Aldridge, D. (ed), Music Therapy in Palliative Care. New Voices (135-153).London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Callaghan, C. (1999). Lyrical Themes in Songs Written by Palliative Care Patients. In Aldridge, D. (ed), Music Therapy in Palliative Care. New Voices (43-58).London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Hogan, B. (1999). Music Therapy at the end of Life: Searching for the Rite of Passage. In Aldridge, D. (ed), Music Therapy in Palliative Care. New Voices (68-81).London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Hudson Smith, G. (1991). The Song-Writing Process: A womanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s struggle against depression and suicide. In Bruscia, K.E. (ed), Case Studies in Music Therapy (479-496). Gilsum: Barcelona Publishers. Magill, L. (2002). Music therapy and spirituality. Music Therapy Today (online) December, http://www.musictherapyworld.net

References

Whittall, J. (1991). Songs in Palliative Care: A spousesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; last gift. In Bruscia, K.E. (ed), Case Studies in Music Therapy (603-610). Gilsum: Barcelona Publishers.

Author Information

Gudrun Aldridge works in the Institute for Music Therapy at the Private University Witten/Herdecke and is responsible for lecturing and supervising students in their music therapy training. Her music therapy practice has been predominantly with psychosomatic in-patients and breast cancer patients at a local hospital. Another focus of her work has been with patients suffering with Alzheimerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s disease. She has also undertaken cooperative clinical research studies with an art therapist (link to Aldridge, Brandt & Wohler on Info CD 5). Her research includes a doctoral Study of the development of melody, which she has made under the auspices of the University of Aalborg in Denmark. The emphasis in this study is the development of a musicological approach to therapeutic analysis (Therapeutic Narrative Analysis as a Narrative Case Study Approach); see Aldridge, D. 2004. Case Study Design in Music Therapy.

Author Information

Contact addresses Emma O'Brien MMus Music Therapist Oncology, Palliative Care, Clinical Haematology, Eating Disorders Unit The Royal Melbourne Hospital (03) 9342 8846 visit http://www.mh.org.au/livingsoul eMail: Emma.Obrien@mh.org.au Interanational orders can be accessed through the internet on

http://www.waterfrontrecords.com/releases/ releases.asp Alternatively the order form can be downloaded from the homepage and send directly to the hospital and Emma Oâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Brian will process the order. In terms of converting to other currencys waterfront records is probably the easiest way to go.

This article can be cited as: Aldridge, G. (2005) Review of the triple CD: LIVING SOUL - From the bedside to the studio to the heart. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p.86-95. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

Contact addresses

Music Therapy Today Vol. VI (1) February 2005

English abstracts of the 4th Congress on Music Application in Mental and Physical Health 26th-29th May 2004 in Tehran, Iran Abdollahanjad, R. (ed.)

Music Therapy and Substance Abuse MOHAMMAD REZA ABDOLLAHNEJAD

(M. A. Psychologist, Founder & Member of Board of Directors, MAMPHA; E-mail: abdollahnejad@mampha.org.ir; ar_nejad@yahoo.com) Nowadays, substance abuse is considered to be a social problem causing numerous crimes, health problems, and economical issues. Hence, therapists and researchers in several fields strive to seek ways to treat and prevent substance abuse. The application of music therapy in the treatment and prevention of substance abuse can be viewed from two angles. First, music as a social and cultural element, which is interwoven with people in general and substance abusers in particular, can serve as a destructive and/or constructive factor. In other words substance abusers were found found to have been in close contact with music during their addiction period. Therefore, one of the approaches to prevent recurrent relapse during recovery is changing music habits during addiction period.

Abdollahanjad, R. (2005) English abstracts of the 4th Congress on Music Application in Mental and Physical Health 26th-29th 2004 May in Tehran, Iran Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February)., p.96-112. Available at http://musictherapytoday.net

Otherwise, it is probable that past habits cause relapse in substance abusers. Secondly, music therapy, as an adjunctive, is able to play a defining role in behavioral and psychological reforming of substance abusers helping them to explore their feelings, emotions, lack of self-esteem, and inability to appropriately use leisure time. Furthermore, music therapy can serve to promote self-expression and self-awareness, increase group cohesiveness and peer interaction, enhance the development of positive and healthy self-image, and reduce stress. Key words: music therapy, substance abuse

The Effects of Music Therapy on Demented Patients VAHID ALMASI

(Student of Medicine, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences) Dementia is a mental disorder characterized by multiple cognitive deficits and memory loss. Affected functions include intelligence, language, problem solving, memory, learning, orientation, perception, attention, judgment, concentration, and social abilities. Only in 15% of patients with dementia, the illness is reversible if timely treatment is initiated. Treatment is generally supportive. Therefore, alternative medicine such as music therapy can be important to cure these patients. This article reviews 7 research works and 3 review articles about the effects of music therapy on demented patients.

The Effects of Music Therapy on Demented Patients

The review of literature suggested that music therapy is an effective intervention for improving social, emotional and cognitive skills and for decreasing behavioral problems of individuals with dementia.Music therapy in these patients improved language, attention and memory, and decreased irritability, depressive symptoms and agitated and aggressive behaviors. Key words: music therapy, dementia, alternative medicine

Music and Psychiatry FARBOD FADAI

(M.D., Psychiatrist. Associate Professor of University of Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences) Music is an art that, due to its excessively abstract nature, was investigated by psychiatrists less than other arts. The psychiatric study of music requires research in the fields of sensation, perception and cognition in general. Recent improvements in the last two decades in structural and functional brain imaging techniques, have made the investigation of music reception and production in the central nervous system possible. The early psychiatric theorists stated that the cultural origin of music can be attributed to the dominance of the mankind on the terrifying sounds of the prehistoric living environment. The advocates of the psychodynamic school have presented a constructional plan with respect to the contentment and pleasure that hearing music produces: 1. music satisfies the primary aggressive and sexual impulses, and lets these drives be discharged in a sublimated form in an acceptable social environment without feelings of guilt. Music and Psychiatry

2. Ego is strenghtened by the symbolic and repetitive dominance over the threatening sounds, and 3-Superego is bribed by surrendering to the aesthetic rules and standards. According to the kleinian psychology, immersion in the ocean of music, is identical to the magical attachment to the kind, generous, and merciful mother of the era prior to the emotional ambivalence. The evolution of music from a psychiatric viewpoint: sounds which were used by the primitive humans for expressing affective responses toward the outer stimuli, converted to melody and hence acquired certain characteristics such as the differences in timbre and the sequences of high and low pitches. So the origin of musical scale dates back to the pre-verbal period and it originates from the primary sensory-motor experiences including perception of internal rhythms of the body. Music is related to dancing by rhythms, and to language by melodies. pitch is the third essential element of the music and a part of the “Primary process” that were used by the primitive humans for the inference of the importance of the sounds. Harmony is a newcomer with verbal aspect and is considered a part of the “secondary process”. Homo sapiens combined the melody, rhythm, timbre, and harmony and achieved various and complex forms of an art named music. Neuropsychology, in parallel with psycho-analysis and completing it, has reached valuable findings in the relation between music and the two brain hemispheres that will be presented in detail in the full text. Key words: Music, Psychiatry, Neuropsychology

Music and Psychiatry

Investigation of Effects of Music Therapy in Reducing Sleep Disorders in High School Girls in Lar MARJAN FARSHADI &

(Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences)

MOJGAN FARSHADI

Subjective: Showing the effects of music therapy in reducing sleep disorders including: the duration of going to sleep, amounts of nightmares and dreams, duration of sleep, and emotional condition the next day. Introduction: Music therapy is one of the most important types of sound therapy. Music can reduce pulse rate, blood pressure, and pain; furthermore, it can cause better habits, and depression recovery. Also, increases activity, leads to sleep and peace, and reduces muscle spasm. The music must have frequency between 70-80 beats per minute (same as heart) to cause peace; because high frequencies result in more psychological pressure. The volume should be low as high volume increases pain. The music must be soft and with a steady rhythm to reduce anxiety. It seems, music changes the biochemistry of body, balances the enzymes, and affects directly cells and molecules by making specific frequencies. So, it can be harmful to choose an unsuitable music. Methods: First, we choose 50 high school girls at random and ask them to fill in the questionnaire. Then, we give them the peaceful music and ask to them to listen to it every night. After one month, they answer the questionnaire again and the results are analyzed by SPSS software. Results: In this paper, the peaceful music decreased the duration of going to sleep. Before listening to the music, 42% said they go to sleep in 10 minutes; after listening to the music, 74% went to sleep in 10 minutes (P=0.00005). Also, amounts of nightmare was significantly decreased. They felt better in the next day and so while getting up. The music had no special effect on amount of dreams and hours of sleep. Investigation of Effects of Music Therapy in Reducing Sleep Disorders in High School

Summary: This paper suggests that a suitable rhythmic music can cause peace before, during and after sleep. Also it balances the emotional conditions. So, listening to soft music before sleep can cause increasing personal efficiency, and results in good nature. Therefore, those with anxiety and sleep disorder, can be recommended to listen to peaceful music. Key words: music therapy, sleep disorders

The Influence of Psychoanalytic Thought in Music Therapy KIANOOSH HASHEMIAN PH.D

(Alzahra university, vice - president MAMPHA) E-mail : Kianooshhashemian @ yahoo.com Music therapy was strongly influenced by psychoanalytic thought in the late twenteth century. Many music therapists committed themselves to go through psychoanalytic process under the supervision of an analyst or a psychotherapist. After passing the period of educating themselves some of them practiced as child therapists and some as adult psychotherapists. One of the reasons which one can find about this matter is the construct of transference and counter-transference. Music therapist have a range of interesting options. One of which might be to use words. The notion of musical transference relationship which was proposed by Streeter is that free improvisation is free association with music. Also music therapists can use some aspects of counter -transference within music. In music therapy it is important to keep three critical principles in mind:

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1. Imagination, by which perception and reasoning are recognized as being always informed by the imagination. With this indirect and critical role which imagination plays in human experience has also come an increased appreciation of the power and complexity of, as well as new insight into, the nature of archetype by C.G. Jung. 2. Intuition which determines trend of thinking which are sometimes hypotheses and sometimes judgements reached so fast that reasons for them are not noticed. 3. Improvisation is at the core of music therapy practice. Improvisation is the action-product of our musical imagination and intuition as we call it intuition in action . Improvisation forms an interesting link between our discipline and other modes of work in music and arts, for example Jazz. Flamenco, Indian and African traditions in music…. Key words: Music therapy, Psychoanalysis

The Effect of Music Therapy in Alzheimer Disease LEILA HAMZEHLOU & MINA MAAREFVAND

(Student research committee, Zanjan University of medical sciences) Dementia is a brain failure that has a severe effect on daily activity. Alzheimer disease is one of the common forms of dementia in old people. For example in Canada Alzheimer disease effects 8.0% of the population aged 65 and over, and 34.5 % aged (?) and over. Alzheimer disease (AD) involves parts of brain that control memory, judgment, language, and decision–making ability. Every day researchers collect more information but its cause isn't really known and doesn’t have a good treatment.

The Effect of Music Therapy in Alzheimer Disease

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The result was change in melatonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin, and prolactin following music therapy and increased levels of melatonin following music therapy may have contributed to patients’ relaxed and calm mood, and decrease the Alzheimer's symptom (aggression, confusion, anxiety and depression). In most of these studies, the music has been described as treatment in the regular programs to the patients and they have investigated before, during and after the music therapy. The aim of the study is to organize the present knowledge with a systematic approach so that further research works lead to base the application of music therapy on evidence instead of on singular clinical findings. Key words: Music therapy, Alzheimer disease

Beethoven’s Deafness: An Unresolved Historical Problem ABDULHAMID HOSSEIN NIA

(E. N.T Surgeon) E-mail: Hossein_nia@yahoo.com One of the strangest subject in the world of music art is the deafness of Ludwig van Beethoven, the most famous musician of the world. Stranger than this subject is that his memorable symphonies were made when he was deaf. Key words: Beethoven, deafness

Beethoven’s Deafness: An Unresolved Historical Problem

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The Study of Effect of Music on the Basis of Anxiety in School Age Children Hospitalized in Taleghani Children Hospital in Gorgan SHEIDA KAZEMI MALEK MAHMOODY(M.SC); ABOLFAZL RAHGOOY (PH.D); HASSAN ASHAYERI (PH.D); MEHDI RAHGOZAR (PH.D)

About 30 per cent of children are hospitalised in childhood. Hospitalisation of children causes anxiety, because of separation from their parents, fear of new enviroment, fear of disabilities, fear of future and also causes situational crisis for children. In view of the high percentage of hospitalized children and sideeffects of drugs (medical ways), more attention, has to be paid to non-organic interventions ways. One of the non-organic interventions is music therapy (listening to music). This study is a semi- experimental research into the effect of music therapy on the basis of anxiety in school age children (age 9-12 ) who were confined to bed in Taleghani children hospital in Gorgan in 2002-3. 60 children who were confined to bed in a medical ward were qualified in sample choice, then they were randomly divided in to 2 equal groups for intervention and control of 30 each. The tools of gathering data included information questionnaire, • patient’s demographic data • State – Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children by Spielberger (STAIC) • Face Anxiety Children examined Scale Piyeri (FACES) •

to collect and compare the necessary information of before and after the intervention. The intervention group received two music therapy sessions listening to music on two continuous days, each session 20 minutes. Data were collected before and after interventionand treated with: Kolmogrov – Smirnov test • t-test • Wilcoxon signed ranks • Bartlet and Man Whitney tests •

The Study of Effect of Music on the Basis of Anxiety in School Age Children

The results of analysis show no important difference (P>0.05) between the average of state anxiety and amount of face anxiety in both group before music therapy (listening to music). After listening to music there was a significant difference (P<0.05) for intervention group. Therefore this decrease of amount of anxiety in the intervention group depends on how musictherapy (listening of music) is applied. Key words: Hospitalization, School age children, Anxiety, Music, Listening of music

Application of Music Therapy in Stroke KHADIJEH MAZAHERI

(BSN OF NURSING)

Stroke refers to the damage to part of the brain caused by an interruption to its blood supply. The interruption is most often due to the blockage of a cerebral artery by a blood clot and may also result from localized hemorrhage due to rupture of a blood vessel in or near the brain. Weakness or paralysis on one side of the body, called hemiplegia, is a common effect of a serious stroke. A stroke that affects the dominant cerebral hemisphere may also cause disturbance of language (aphasia). Music can improve various neurological deficits such as amusia, apraxia, emotional disturbance. Music therapy aims to affect physiological, behavioral and psychological changes by the clinical application of music and musical activities within the context of an interactive client-therapist relationship.

Application of Music Therapy in Stroke

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Music therapy however, has brought a uniquely dynamic and expressive dimension to this rehabilitation process, and has emphasized the importance of tackling behavioral and psychological needs directly. As a result, the contribution of music therapy to stroke rehabilitation has covered a diversity of areas including: 1. gait improvement 2. hand grasp strength 3. rate of speech and verbal intelligibility (Purdie et al 1995). Evidence has shown the significance of music therapy in facilitating behavioral and psychological change in people with stroke (Purdie et al 1997). Interpretation of the results of such studies indicated that the treatment group showed improvements on: • • • • •

communication behavior musical behavior anxiety and depression tests, and individual behavioral items – emotional stability, clarity of thought, spontaneous interaction, motivation and co-operation

Key word: music therapy, stroke

The Effects of Music on Educational Performance in Mentally Retarded Children FARAH NADERI; BEHNAM MACKVANDI

(Members of Faculty Board, Psychology Dept, Islamic Azad University, Ahwaz Unit) In this study the effects of music on the learning and educational performances in mentally retarded students were examined. The only hypothesis of this research was assumed as follows: The Effects of Music on Educational Performance in Mentally Retarded Children

106

Music impacts the educational performance in retarded children. For hypothesis testing, Pre-Test and Post-Test Experimental design with control group were processed. The subjects were 30 (15 female and 15 male) students at the first grade of elementary exceptional education schools in Ahwaz city. All subjects were randomly selected. The sample was divided into two groups by random: Experimental group (Students who received music) and control group (Students not receiving music). After a period of 3 months, the educational performance scores of the two groups were analyzed by using T test for two independent groups. Results indicate significant differences. Therefore the research hypothesis was confirmed as following: Music affects the educational performance in mentally retarded (Learning Disability) children. Key Words: Mental Retardation, Learning, Music

Characteristics of a Musiciansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Brain MASOUD NEMATIAN

(M.D., Founder and Member of board of Directors, Music Application in Mental and Physical Health Association,Tehran University of Medical Sciences) The Brains of musicians have definite anatomical and functional characteristics which are not found in non - musicians and which are correlated with the age at which musical studies began. These differences have been detected in musicians by modern neuroimaging methods. Indeed, maturation of the tissue fibres and interacortical networks continues up to the age of seven. Consequently, early musical training results in structural

Characteristics of a Musiciansâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Brain

107

adaptation, probably plastic organization, i.e. changes in synaptic connections and / or neural growth processes. Whether those brain characteristics in musicions are due solely to cortical plasticity through training or to an innate structural property, or both, however, is still an open question; After all, it is not known how the expression of neuroplastic processes is modulated by genetic or environmental factors. Key words: Music, Brain, Musician

Role of Music in Pain Relief Z.ROJHANI SHIRAZI

(Iran university of medical sciences.faculty of rehabilitation) Introduction: Pain is a symptom in many diseases. It can decrease appetite and produce sleep disturbance and it may cause prolonged hospitalization. There are two kinds of pain: acute and chronic. Pain relief is important in both conditions. There are many ways for relief of pain including invasive such as nerve block and non-invasive such as physical therapy, drug thrapy and music therapy Causes of using music in pain relief: Music decreases stress responses such as anxiety and hypertension and it is effective in migraine and pain. Review of articles showed that music decreases pain and anxiety in patients in ICU and decreases pain and nauseas in patients with bone marrow transplantation and abdominal surgery. Why music decreases pain and anxiety: music decreases pain and anxiety by psychological and physiological processes. It can influence the limbic system and neuronal connections in brain. New research works showed that nitric oxide has an important role in this respect.

Role of Music in Pain Relief

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Parameters in music therapy: Intact auditory cortex has a major role in the perception of auditory patterns and thus music. Types of music,duration and number of sessions are other parameters in music therapy. Conclusion: Music is used in the management of post surgical pain. Auditory cortex of temporal lobe has a major role in music perception. Music through psychological and physiological pathways can cause relief of pain. Key words: music,pain,anxiety

The Effects of Music on Mood M. SHAHRIARY AHMADY

(M.A. Psychologist, Islamic AzadUniversity) Music is an effective stimulus on mood. Studies in cognitive psychology suggest that cognition is related to mood. The purpose of this study is the relationship between different typs of music (classical, pop) and mood induction. 120 pupils (all students of psychology in Azad University) assigned to four groups of solomon design. Results from statistical data analysis (ANOVA), support the effects of pop music on mood induction. Key words: Music, Mood induction

Past, Present and Future with Music MOHAMMAD SAEED SHARIFIAN

(Ph.D. Academic & Composer) E-mail: Saeed_Sharifian 2002@yahoo.com

The Effects of Music on Mood

109

The purpose of this speech is about music and its importance in human societies. Regarding its history, music has affected sociological issues which is an ever - continuing interaction. Key words: Music, Sociology, Music history

The Effects of Music Therapy on Acute Pain ALI YOUSEFI NEJAD

(MSc Nursing, Tehran University of Medical Sciences)

Background: Acute pain is a major issue in patients and there are different methods for reducing it. Music therapy as a non-invasive method is sometimes used in pain treatment to help reduce pain as well. Objective: To evaluate the effects of music therapy on the acute pain degree in some patients with pain in TUMS hospitals. Method: This is a semi-experimental study. The total sample consisted of 40 patients with acute pain aged between 15-65 years. In this cross-over study, pain degree was measured by scaled ruler (0-10). The data was analyzed by Wilcoxon statistical tests. Findings: Comparison of acute pain degrees in stages of before-after implementation of music therapy showed significant differences on variables of research. Conclusion: This research shows that music therapy reduces acute pain degree . Key words: Acute pain, Music therapy

The Effects of Music Therapy on Acute Pain

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Author Information

Reza Abdolahnejad is psychologist and music therapist based in Tehran, Iran. He is researcher in the field of music therapy treatment for addiction or substance abuse and has established a music therapy program in a therapeutic community as you can see on the site www.tehrantc.ir He is one of the founders of MAMPH (Music Application in Mental and Physical Health Association) and is a board member of this association.

Author Information

111

ADDRESS

M.R. Abdolahnejad (M.A. Psychology) Board / Founder Member - MAMPHA (Music Application In Mental And Physical Health Association) Head of central TC (Therapeutic Community) at Tehran, Iran No. 66, Tabarestan Alley, Farhang St., Vahdat Esla mi Ave., Tehran, Iran Postal Code: 11939 Mobile:0098-912-113 490 www.mampha.org

This article can be cited as: Abdollahanjad, R. (2005) English abstracts of the 4th Congress on Music Application in Mental and Physical Health 26th-29th 2004 May in Tehran, Iran. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February ), p.96-112. Available at http://musictherapytoday.net

This article can be cited as:

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Music Therapy Today Vol. VI (1) February 2005

NADA Centre For Music Therapy - Chennai, India Sumathy Sundar

‘Without music, life would have been a mistake’ FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE ‘Music expresses many nuances of emotions’ HEGEL ‘Without peace of mind, there can’t be any well being’ SAINT THYAGARAJA ‘Music activates the psychic processes’ LEHTONEN ‘While hearing is the action of the body, true listening begins with the heart’ JOANNE CRANDALL ’East or West, Music is the Best’ T V SAIRAM

No longer, the biomedical approach of treatment of illness basing on mere physical symptoms stands as a valid and self-sufficient one. The change in the pattern of diseases from contagious ones in earlier days to life style and behaviour oriented diseases like heart ailments and cancer have made health professionals to focus their attention to a holistic 113

Sumathy Sundar (2005) NADA Centre For Music Therapy - Chennai, India. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 113-115. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

approach of treatment of human ailments and diseases, the use of music has become supplementary and complementary. The field of Music Therapy, therefore, increasingly gains more attention in health related issues. The value of music being used as a therapeutic means has been present since ancient times. The application of music in various settings have been found to have potential benefits. The use of Music as a prophylactic tool in alleviating the stress of the modern day life style is being encouraged. To enable a healthy living, music therapy as an important strategy and resource increasingly engages the attention of researchers in various fields like psychology, Musicology and neurology and general medical practitioners, musicians and of course the Music Therapists. NADA CENTRE FOR MUSIC THERAPY A NON PROFIT, CHARITABLE ORGANISATION BASED IN CHENNAI, THEREFORE, DEDICATES ITSELF:

• •

•

• •

•

To propagate the therapeutic effects of Indian Music in clinical and non-clinical environs. To document the traditions relating to the use of sound and music in ancient cultures across the globe with special reference to the Indian sub-continent To popularize the prophylactic and therapeutic role of music among children and adults and to spread the music consciousness among the general public, through lectures, seminars, workshops and published literature (books, journals, newsletters, pamphlets, posters, tableaux etc.) To evolve ‘appropriate music’, tailor-made to help individuals and professional organizations through consultations To introduce greater use of such ‘appropriate music’ as a part of life style for the health of the individuals, families, organizations, and the nation as a whole To undertake studies and research on acoustics and music and to disseminate the findings thereof through research publications To undertake comprehensive training programmes, using the state of art technologies to produce an army of professionally trained music therapists, and to certify them for their professional competence. To produce and release Audio and Video Cassettes and CDs having therapeutic effects for common ailments

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Sumathy Sundar (2005) NADA Centre For Music Therapy - Chennai, India. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p. 113-115. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

To undertake preliminary training programmes to the general public to create awareness on the power of music and its utility in creating a healthy society • To undertake specialized and need-based training programmes to specific populations, e.g., pregnant women, premature children, school – going children, college students, elders, mentally disabled, terminally ill patients in hospices, inmates of jail and other rehabilitation centres, computer professionals, new entrants in public and corporate offices, army and police personnel, • To help people, who are prone to stress and stress-related disorders to overcome their problems by counseling on the type and dose of music to be inculcated in their life- situations •

Contact: The President, NADA Centre for Music Therapy, Plot No.11/25 Jothi Ramalingam Street, Madipakkam, Chennai 600 091 Phone: 91 44 22420341 Email: sumusundar@yahoo.com

This article can be cited as: Sumathy Sundar (2005) NADA Centre For Music Therapy - Chennai, India. Music Therapy Today (online) Vol. VI, Issue 1 (February), p.113115. Available at http://musictherapyworld.net

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Odds and ends, themes and trends Tom Doch

The role of orbitofrontal cortex in experiencing regret By Giorgio Coricelli (with Nathalie Camille, Jerome Sallet, and Angela Sirigu) source:

http://www-ceel.economia.unitn.it/events/workshop/seventh/

abstract.html ABSTRACT

In this study orbitofrontal patients and normal control subjects participate in a series of choices between risky gambles. We induce distinctive emotional responses providing different feedback information. Normal controls report emotional responses consistent with counterfactual reasoning between obtained and non-obtained outcomes; they choose minimizing future regret and learn from their emotional experience.

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EmotionFace is a software interface for visually displaying the self-reported

Whereas orbitofrontal patients do not report regret and do not anticipate negative consequences of their choices. These results suggest that orbitofrontal cortex has a fundamental role in linking between cognitive and emotional components of decision making under risk. OUTDOORLINKS:

Institut f端r Kognitionswissenschaften in Bron (Frankreich) http://www.isc.cnrs.fr/ Email Nathalie Camille camille@isc.cnrs.fr Science http://www.sciencemag.org/

EmotionFace is a software interface for visually displaying the self-reported emotion expressed by music. Taken in reverse, it can be viewed as a facial expression whose auditory connection or exemplar is the time synchronized, associated music. The present instantiation of the software uses a simple schematic face with eyes and mouth moving according to a parabolic model: Smiling and frowning of mouth represents valence (happiness and sadness) and amount of opening of eyes represents arousal. Continuous emotional responses to music collected in previous research have been used to test and calibrate EmotionFace. The interface provides Odds and ends, themes and trends

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EmotionFace is a software interface for visually displaying the self-reported

an alternative to the presentation of data on a two-dimensional emotionspace, the same space used for the collection of emotional data in response to music. These synthesized facial expressions make the observation of the emotion data expressed by music easier for the human observer to process and may be a more natural interface between the human and computer. Future research will include optimization of EmotionFace, using more sophisticated algorithms and facial expression databases, and the examination of the lag structure between facial expression and musical structure. Eventually, with more elaborate systems, automation and greater knowledge of emotion and associated musical structure, it may be possible to compose music meaningfully from synthesized and real facial expressions. OUTDOORLINKS:

Fulltext at http://music.arts.unsw.edu.au/aboutus/research/Schubert/ ICAD04SchubertEmotionFace.pdf Dr Emery Schubert http://music.arts.unsw.edu.au/aboutus/staff/eschubert.shtml School of Music & Music Education /University of New South Wales http://music.arts.unsw.edu.au/ International Conference on Auditory Display http://www.icad.org/websiteV2.0/Conferences/ICAD2004/ Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Specialist individual music lessons could hugely benefit children with autism -

Music Perception http://www.ucpress.edu/journals/mp/

Specialist individual music lessons could hugely benefit children with autism - Many children with this disorder have outstanding abilities in tone recognition source: alphagalileo.org 24. May 2004 http://www./index.cfm?fuseaction=readRelease&ReleaseID=18442&ts=e3RzICcyMDA0LTA1LTI0IDE5OjU1 OjIxJ30= Specialist individual music lessons could hugely benefit children with autism, according to researchers Dr Pamela Heaton and Dr Francesca Happe at the University of London. The study, which was funded by ESRC, suggests that many children with this disorder have outstanding abilities in tone recognition. “A lot of work has been done on musical savants with exceptional musical memory and rarely found absolute pitch ability” says Dr Pamela Heaton who led the research. “But our research shows that even children without these special talents and no musical training can have highly developed musical 'splinter skills'. If we could develop effective non-verbal music teaching methods, we might be able to understand more about the way these children learn and process other information.” A series of music workshops in which chil-

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Stuttering: A novel bullfrog vocalization

dren with autism will be taught to read musical notation are currently being planned. The research compared the skills of six to 19 year old individuals with autism, and a control group with matching age, IQ and level of musical background, on a series of tasks into tone memory and discrimination. Using a touch-screen laptop computer, they were asked to identify musical notes by moving the image of a boy up and down a flight of stairs. Although the children with autism had the communication difficulties associated with this disorder, a sub-group of them produced exceptional results. In one of the tests four children from the autism group achieved a score of 89 per cent compared to an average score of 30 per cent. â&#x20AC;&#x153;These findings were surprising, especially given that two of these children had intellectual impairment and none had experienced musical training. Autistic children can be highly analytical listeners and are able to access musical details more readily than typically developing children,â&#x20AC;? says Pamela Heaton, who worked as a musician before gaining a doctorate in psychologyâ&#x20AC;? OUTDOORLINK:

Dr Francesca Happe http://www.icn.ucl.ac.uk/members/Happe93/

Stuttering: A novel bullfrog vocalization Author: Andrea Simmons Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Stuttering: A novel bullfrog vocalization

source: http://asa.aip.org/web2/asa/abstracts/search.may04/asa23.html ABSTRACT:

The advertisement call of male bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) consists of a series of individual croaks, each of which contains multiple harmonics with a missing or attenuated fundamental frequency of approximately 100 Hz. The envelope of individual croaks has typically been represented in the literature as smooth and unmodulated. From an analysis of 5251 advertisement calls from 17 different choruses over two mating seasons, we show that males add an extra modulation (around 4 Hz) to the envelope of individual croaks, following specific rules. We term these extra modulations stutters. Neither single croak calls nor the first croak in multiple croak calls contains stutters. When stuttering begins, it does so with a croak containing a single stutter, and the number of stutters increases linearly (plus or minus 1 stutter, up to 4 stutters) with the number of croaks. This pattern is stable across individual males (N=10). Playback experiments reveal that vocal responses to stuttered and nonstuttered calls vary with proximity to the stimulus. Close males respond with nonstuttered calls, while far males respond with stuttered calls. The data suggest that nonstuttered calls are used for aggressive or territorial purposes, while stuttered calls are used to attract females.

OUTDOORLINKS:

Andrea Simmons

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Pretending To Be A Bird

http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Psychology/faculty/asimmons.html Brown-Universität http://www.brown.edu/ Amerikanischen Akustischen Gesellschaft in New York http://asa.aip.org/

Pretending To Be A Bird Tape-recorders allow us to record and analyze birds’ singing, but communicating with birds is more difficult source:

http://www.alphagalileo.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=read-

Release&ReleaseID=18445 From time immemorial, people have listened to the birds singing, recognized birds by voices, have been able to guess their condition. Some people are able to successfully imitate bird’s singing. Only in the 50s of the last century, researchers managed to put the matter on a strictly scientific basis, when the tape equipment became available. Researchers started to record birds’ sound signals and to analyze their frequency and rhythmical peculiarities. B.M. Zvonov, specialist of the Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, has spent more than 30 years on this investigation. He analyzed the mechanism of creating alarm signals and breeding songs of multiple bird species and came to the conclusion that all signals were

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Pretending To Be A Bird

based on common principles, the knowledge of which allows to communicate with birds and to control their behavior. Let us take fledgings, for example. They give sound signals so that the parents would not forget about them. Each species has individual frequency characteristics of this squeak. When fledgings are fed up and happy with life, their pipe is rhythmical. That signals for proper order. Once a baby bird gets hungry, it starts to signal much more frequently, this being a common pattern for all investigated bird species. The parents, when they hear a more frequent ‘yells’ of their baby, rush feeding and protecting it. Adult birds sing during the nesting period to mark up their territory. B.M. Zvonov analyzed singing of two species – lanceolated warbler (Locustella lanceolata) and grasshopper warbler (Locustella naevia). These birds bear close resemblance with each other, besides they live side by side. In such cases, a song is nearly the sole opportunity to distinguish the species. The record analysis showed that breeding signals of both species are based on the same principle – the males use rhythmical succession of coupled syllables parted by a time gap. However, individual syllables in the breeding song of the grasshopper warbler are shorter than those of the lanceolated warbler, and the frequency of syllable succession is one and half times higher. These rhythmical peculiarities allow to determine the species the singer belongs to. During the breeding period, some species have distinct territorial delimitation, and each male is flying over its territory and singing its species song, thus marking up the boundaries of its lot. To a human ear, all songs

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Pretending To Be A Bird

seem similar, however, each male sings an individual song, thanks to which it “pegs the lot”. As a rule, the above differences are reached due to peculiarities of rhythmical structure of singing, but not due to the frequency range. Along with that, each male manages to preserve rhythmical pattern specific for its species. All principles “used” by the birds in their communications were also accepted by people. The most well-known example is decoys, with the help of which the hunters call to the birds. All decoys are based on the simple principle – they are to provide the required frequency range, and the hunter’s breath ensures the needed rhythmical pattern. However, the decoy use is the art to a large extend. The record analysis allows to translate rhythmical and frequency peculiarity of each song into digits and based on precise knowledge to build birds’ signals synthesizers. These synthesizers help to frighten away or to call to birds not only for hunting purposes, but also for counting, feeding or observation. However, interested persons can mention a number of other situations, when they would like to “talk” with birds. The equipment would even allow to pretend a quite definite bird or two birds and to carry on a lively dialogue between them. OUTDOORLINKS:

Institute of Ecology and Evolution Problems http://www.sevin.ru/index.html

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Remembrance of smells past: How the brain stores those meaningful memories

Remembrance of smells past: How the brain stores those meaningful memories source: www.alphagalileo.org/24 May 2004 Smells trigger memories but can memories trigger smell, and what does this imply for the way memories are stored? A UCL study of the smell gateway in the brain has found that the memory of an event is scattered across sensory parts of the brain, suggesting that advertising aimed at triggering memories of golden beaches and soft sand could well enhance your desire to book a seaside holiday. By reversing the premise used in Marcel Proustâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Remembrance of Things Past, UCL researchers established that the memory of an event is spread across different areas of the brain such as the hippocampus and the olfactory cortex - the smell gateway of the brain. In Proustâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s story, protagonist Charles Swann is transported back to his childhood when the smell of a biscuit dipped in tea triggers memories from his past. Dr Jay Gottfried and colleagues at UCLâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Institute of Neurology set up an experiment to establish whether this mechanism could be reversed, i.e. that memories would reawaken the smell-sensitive regions of the brain. The study is published in the latest issue of Neuron. A group of volunteers was asked to create stories or links between pictures of objects and various different smells.

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Remembrance of smells past: How the brain stores those meaningful memories

When the volunteers were later shown pictures of the same objects, their piriform (olfactory) cortex was re-activated even though the smell was no longer present. Dr Jay Gottfried explains: “Our study suggests that, rather than clumping together the sights, sounds and smells of a memory into one bit of the brain, the memory is distributed across different areas and can be reawakened through just one of our sensory channels. This mechanism would allow human beings more flexibility in retrieving their memories.” “For example, let’s say you spent an enjoyable evening in a nice restaurant and ate a delicious steak. Now, if the memory of this evening was packaged into a single area of the brain, then major aspects of the original evening might have to be recreated to reactivate the memory successfully.” “But if the individual aspects of the evening, such as the music playing in the restaurant, the candles on the table and the taste of the steak were stored in different sensory parts of brain, then the whole memory could come back to you through just one of your senses being re-awakened.” “In an extreme case such as a survival situation, by creating memory associations you would learn to anticipate the pounce of a predator from a number of sensory cues – a pattern of footprints in the sand, a rustling of a bush, or a musky scent in the wind – even if you couldn’t see it.” “Advertising relies on the fact that memories are a set of associations rather than unitary chunks, where a picture of woman drinking a cocktail on a beach can stir up your own holiday memories, even if the only similarity between the image and your memory is the sun hat she is wearing.”

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Placebos effect revealed in calmed brain cells

â&#x20AC;&#x153;That sun hat can set off your own memories of feeling the sand between your toes, hearing the crash of waves, and smelling the pungent aroma of seaweed.â&#x20AC;? OUTDOORLINKS:

Department of Imaging Neuroscience http://www.fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/

Placebos effect revealed in calmed brain cells source: www.newscientist.com/16 May 04 http:///news/news.jsp?id=ns99994996 Detailed scans of brain cells in Parkinson's disease patients have revealed the action of the placebo effect on an unprecedented scale. "It's the first time we've seen it at the single neuron level," says Fabrizio Benedetti, head of the team which conducted the experiments at the University of Turin Medical School in Italy. When the patients in the study received a simple salt solution, their neurons responded in just the same way as when they had earlier received a drug which eased their symptoms. "The research provides further evidence for a physiological underpinning for the placebo effect," says Jon Stoessl, at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. His team demonstrated in 2001 that pla-

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Placebos effect revealed in calmed brain cells

cebos can relieve symptoms by raising brain levels of dopamine, a beneficial neurotransmitter. "We suggest that the changes we ourselves observed are also induced by release of dopamine," says Benedetti. ABNORMAL FIRING

Parkinson's patients suffer from a lack of dopamine, meaning that brain cells in a region called the subthalamic nucleus firing in abnormal bursts. This triggers the familiar symptoms of muscle rigidity, tremors and slowness of movement. Drugs which mimic dopamine, such as L-Dopa and apomorphine, can block abnormal firing. But now, Benedetti has shown that a simple saline solution did the same. First, he "pre-conditioned" the patients by giving them three doses of apomorphine. Then he surgically implanted electrodes into each patient's subthalamic nucleus, each carrying sensors to monitor the firing activity of around 100 individual neurons. During the surgery, for which the patients remained awake, he also administered the placebo. He found that it induced the same calming effect on neurons as the apomorphine. Residual traces of apomorphine cannot explain the findings, he says: "Apomorphine effects only last for one hour, and the last apomorphine dose they received was 24 hours before the operation."

COGNITIVE VS CONDITIONING

He suggest two possible explanations. The first is the "cognitive" hypothesis, where the physiological effects are triggered by the patient's expectation of benefits. Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Brain Limits - Scientists studying our brains may have found why mistakes can

The second is the classic "conditioning" response. This was discovered in 1889 by the Russian psychologist, Ivan Pavlov, who found conditioning could induce dogs to salivate for food at the sound of a bell. "The context around the therapy could induce such a response," says Benedetti. In his latest experiments, Benedetti is investigating whether the brain cells react to placebos in "naive" Parkinson's patients, who have not first been conditioned with genuine drugs. "It's a logical next step," says Edzard Ernst, professor of complementary and alternative medicine at the University of Exeter, Devon, UK. He describes the new work as "one of the first glimpses of a mechanistic explanation for the placebo effect". OUTDOORLINKS:

Fabrizio Benedetti http://hal9000.cisi.unito.it/wf/DIPARTIMEN/Neuroscien/Fisiologia/ Staff/Professori/EmbeddedText.htm_cvt.htm University of Turin Medical School http://www.ircc.it/about/university.html

Brain Limits - Scientists studying our brains may have found why mistakes can happen when we try to do too many things at one time By Karen Lurie Source: Karen Lurie/www.sciencentral.com/27-05.04

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Brain Limits - Scientists studying our brains may have found why mistakes can

http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?article_id=218392252 As a ScienCentral News video reports, they have found we need a little time to process everything we do. <to

see

the

video

go:

http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/

view.php3?article_id=218392252>

<http://www.sciencentral.com/arti-

cles/view.php3?article_id=218392252 TO SEE OR NOT TO SEE

The next time you're driving, changing the radio station, talking on your cell phone, reading a road sign, and keeping an eye out for rogue bicyclists, you might want to try paying attention to one task at a time. "Attentional blink" is a term psychologists use to describe our ability to be aware of an event or object, such as a sign on the road or someone's face, even if we are paying attention to another visual event. But what goes on in the brain during the attentional blink? Rene Marois, a psychologist at Vanderbilt University, wanted to find out. Marois and his team used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to monitor the brains of 20 participants while they were presented with a barrage of visual information. The researchers mixed in an image of a face and an intact scene among a bunch of other scrambled indoor and outdoor scenes. The intact scene was shown about a half a second after the image of the face. Marois found that the participants could recall only some of what they saw. Specifically, they often missed the intact scene, as if they "blinked" during it, because they were paying attention to the face, which they were told to look for. Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Brain Limits - Scientists studying our brains may have found why mistakes can

Furthermore, according to the fMRI results, if a participant reported having seen the intact scene, the part of the brain called the frontal cortex (associated with motor functions and complex thinking) was activated. But a part of the visual cortex called the inferior temporal cortex was activated even when a participant did not report having seen the intact scene. In other words, you can see something, but not noecessarily process it. Marois says his study reveals that "whenever we pay attention to an object or a visual event we actually need to dwell on that object or event for a few hundred milliseconds, almost up to a second or half a second, and that while our brain is busy processing one visual event then we may not be able to process other visual events that are going on in the visual world." So the human brain has limitations, especially in a world where we're constantly bombarded with stimuli. "Even though our brain is often very much vaunted for its incredible processing capacity, that it's a very sophisticated parallel processing computer, well, that's not the whole story," says Marois. "Our brain has very humbling limitations. So even though there's evidence that our brain can process a lot of information parallel, there are these bottlenecks of information processing that limit what we actually become aware of and can act upon. It's a sobering experience to know aboutâ&#x20AC;Śfor instance, when we're driving, [if] there's something that attracts our attention in the visual field, then we're less likely to detect something else going on in that visual field within about half a second after that. When you're driving, this can have dire consequences." Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Smart music system skips to chorus

So for all of you multi-taskers out there, Marois has a warning: "Unless you're very practiced at this multi-taskingâ&#x20AC;Śyou're going to suffer. Whenever you engage in two tasks that require attention, then it means you have less attention available for [the] other task." This research appeared in the February 6, 2004 issue of the journal Neuron and was funded by the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health. OUTDOORLINKS:

Rene Marois http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/marois/ Vanderbilt University http://www.vanderbilt.edu/ Journal Neuron http://www.neuron.org/

Smart music system skips to chorus Song analysis could replace fast forward button. The programme highlights the chorus and other repetitive areas of music Source: HELEN PEARSON/www.nature.com/28 May 2004 http://www.nature.com/nsu/040524/040524-10.html ÂŠ Masataka Goto

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Smart music system skips to chorus

Sick of hitting fast forward to find your favourite bars of a song? A Japanese researcher has invented a new programme that can jump straight to the chorus or verse. The prototype programme, dubbed the SmartMusicKiosk, was exhibited at the meeting of the Acoustical Society of America in New York City on Tuesday. It was invented by Masataka Goto of the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba. Blasting pop classics such as My Heart Will Go On by CĂŠline Dion, and Jon Bon Jovi's You Give Love a Bad Name, Goto showed how the SmartMusicKiosk skipped the filler and zipped straight from chorus to chorus. "I really like this music," he said. Goto hopes the SmartMusicKiosk will ultimately enhance conventional CD and digital music systems, which only recognise the gaps between songs. Frustrated listeners are left pressing fast forward and rewind buttons to reach the choice refrain. To automate this, Goto had to design a system that could recognise the structure of music, and then make out repeated choruses. In an advance on other such methods, Goto's takes into account the fact that the key, lyrics, and accompaniment often change from one chorus to the next. The SmartMusicKiosk breaks down the song into twelve different pitches ranging from C, C#, D and so on up to B. It then sums together the power of the frequencies at each pitch, so a high B and a low B are added together. It analyses how these twelve pitches change over time through the song.

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Smart music system skips to chorus

The algorithm then looks for matching patterns in the pitch structure and selects which is most likely to represent the chorus, assuming this is the longest and most frequently repeated section, and often broken into two similar refrains. The analysis takes about one minute for a four-minute tune, and gets the chorus right about 80% of the time. For listeners, the programme produces a Music Map on screen, which reveals repeated segments of the song, and has a Jump to Chorus button alongside the regular play and pause keys. "You can listen to any part of a song whenever you like," Goto says. Goto hopes that listening stations in record stores will be first to adopt SmartMusicKiosk, because shoppers are impatient to hear the chorus of a song to judge whether they want it. He says he has already been contacted by companies interested in commercialization. Although it is designed for pop songs with clear choruses, the SmartMusicKiosk can also pick up recurring sections in classical music, Goto showed. However, experimental music may prove more of a challenge. ÂŠ Nature News Service / Macmillan Magazines Ltd 2004 OUTDOORLINKS:

Dr. Masataka Goto's Home Page http://staff.aist.go.jp/m.goto/ Nationales Institut fĂźr Wissenschaft und Technologie in Tsubaka/Japan http://www.aist.go.jp/index_en.html 147th Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America (ASA)

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Brain Building

http://asa.aip.org/newyork/information.html

Brain Building source: Karen Lurie/www.sciencentral.com/04.06.02 http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?article_id=218392262 Brain imaging research has uncovered new details about how young brains develop through the teenage years. This ScienCentral News video reports why idle isn't better when it comes to the mind. LONG-TERM LEARNING

Summer is approaching, but that doesn't mean kids should stop using their brains. New research confirms that during the teen years, the brain is ripe for learning new things. Scientists used to think there was a spurt of the production of gray matter, the tissue of the brain responsible for information processing, during the first eighteen months of life, and then a steady decline. But in the late 1990s, brain scientist Jay Giedd discovered a second spurt of gray matter production just before puberty, followed by a period of "pruning" during the teenage years. "The second wave increases throughout childhood, peaks at about age eleven in girls and twelve in boys, and then in the teen years it prunes or thins down," Giedd explains. "The teen brain is particularly active in terms of the growth of connections and pruning back of those connections. It's a very tumultuous time in terms of the brain development story."

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Brain Building

Now, a new study reveals for the first time the actual sequence of brain development between the ages of five and twenty. Giedd, chief of brain imaging at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), and his colleagues at the NIMH and the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), have created a unique time-lapse 3D animation of the maturing brain by using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology to scan the brains of thirteen healthy children and teenagers every two years for ten years. They found that the first areas of the brain to mature, the extreme front and back, are those involved with the most basic functions, such as movement. The areas involved with spatial orientation and language are next, and the last to mature are the areas like the prefrontal cortex that are involved with more advanced "higher-order" functions like reasoning. "The brain grows in fits and starts, and different parts mature at different ages," says Giedd. This look into actual brain development confirms that the teen years are the perfect time to give brains a workout. "We think that during the times when the brain is undergoing the big changes of growing new connections and then cutting them down is the time when practicing a new instrument or doing studies my have a much greater impact than in much later years in life," Giedd says. Arthur Toga, neuroscientist and head of the Laboratory of Neuro Imaging (LONI) at UCLA, oversaw the new brain animation, and says this research may also explain why learning seems much faster and easier when we're younger.

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Brain Building

"The brain is particularly plastic in these younger ages, because the circuitry is ready for tailoring," he says. "If you were to do a functional scan of somebody trying to play the piano for the first time, then you scan them repeatedly as they took concentrated lessons over time, you would find the amount of brain that's necessary for that person to perform that piano concerto would become less as they become more proficient. The brain has the remarkable ability to capitalize on efficiency, to tune the appropriate circuitry. It may be that provides the necessary hardware to perform that task. The very same thing may be going on in maturation." So it seems like a good idea to stimulate this stimulus-dependent organ during this particularly fertile time in its development. This research was published in the May 17, 2004 issue of the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and was funded by the National Institutes of Health. OUTDOORLINKS:

Jay Giedd, M.D. http://gpp.nih.gov/researchers/viewbook/Giedd_Jay.html National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) http://www.nimh.nih.gov/ University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) http://www.ucla.edu/ The unique time-lapse 3D animation of the maturing brain http://www.nimh.nih.gov/press/prbrainmaturing.mpeg

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Humor and laughter

Arthur Toga http://www.loni.ucla.edu/About_Loni/people/ Section_Detail.jsp?section_id=1 Laboratory of Neuro Imaging (LONI) at UCLA http://www.loni.ucla.edu/ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences http://www.pnas.org/

Humor and laughter Psychological and psychophysiological effects of exhilaration and laughter training Background This research project represents a combination of two of our main research fields - affective neuroscience and psychophysiologically oriented psychosomatic research. To date researchers in both fields have almost exclusively focussed on negative emotions. The study of psychological and psychophysiological effects of exhilaration and laughter is an important addition to our research on correlates of affective states in the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. In addition to that, it provides scientific evidence to the question whether laughter may be beneficial to physical health and well-being. (To date, the actual scientific evidence that this may be the case is only weak).

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Humor and laughter

Together, the findings may help to clarify some of the connecting links between psychological processes (emotions, thoughts etc.) on the one hand and body functions and physical health on the other hand. PURPOSES AND METHODS

Both short-term effects of amusement and effects of periodical laughter sessions over a longer time period will be investigated in students. Contagious material will be used to evaluate short-term effects of exhilaration. To investigate long-term effects of laughter training, participants in the experimental group will do Laughter Yoga exercises for three weeks, five days a week, after an initial weekend seminar. The EEG will be recorded to evaluate changes in brain activity, and measures of blood pressure, heart rate, heart rate variability, and pain sensitivity will be obtained. Measures of mood state, experienced stress and physical well-being will be obtained as well. In another study (in collaboration with the Neurologisches Therapiezentrum Kapfenberg), stroke patients will do (adopted) Laughter Yoga exercises for several weeks, 2-3 days a week. Blood pressure, mood state measures and cognitive measures will be obtained before and after the training and in a control group.

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

The idea that humor and laughter have positive health effects is embodied in the folklore of many cultures. In recent years it has been increasingly promoted by respective movements and organizations claiming various sensational consequences of frequent laughter for health and well-being. More and more often humor or laughter courses are offered for managers or in clinical environments. In contrast to that, scientific research has remained far behind. To date the actual empirical evidence that laughter may be beneficial to health

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An eye on the tongue

and that 'laughter therapy' may improve mood and quality of life on a lasting basis is only weak. On the other hand, in view of the increasing financial problems of the health care system, approaches that are able to promote health, prevent diseases or reduce medication should be promoted. Thus, it is high time to do more research, in order to critically evaluate whether it is justified to seriously claim that humor and laughter may have the potential to have health benefits. In addition to that, the project evaluates the effectiveness and applicability of Laughter Yoga as a therapeutical method. Started in 2003. OUTDOORLINKS:

Professor Ilona Papousek http://www.uni-graz.at/ilona.papousek/lachyoga.html University of Graz Department of Psychology/Biological Psychology http://www-ang.uni-graz.at/~papousek/research.html Lach-Yoga in Deutschland http://www.lachyoga.de/

An eye on the tongue source:

http://www.iforum.umontreal.ca/ForumExpress/Archives/

vol3no3en/article02_ang.html

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An eye on the tongue

Sitting blindfolded with a device equipped with 144 pixels in his mouth, any journalist would wonder about his career choice. But after a few minutes of experimentation, you have to recognize that the system developed by neuropsychologist Maurice Ptito of Université de Montréal, together with colleagues in Denmark and the United States , to allow blind people to “see with their tongue” appears strangely effective. In just the first few minutes, the subject is able to build up a fairly clear picture of the letter “T” placed in various positions and transmitted by electrical impulses to the device on his tongue. The can activate areas that are normally reserved for visual information and are unused when someone suffers from congenital blindness. “The tongue will never replace the eye, of course,” says Prof. Ptito. “But for people born blind, the cerebral cortex, which is normally used for vision, is reactivated by this device. The electrical activity, recorded by a scan, is very clear about this.” When we press the researcher to find out more about possible applications of this system, he delights in describing a miniaturized system worthy of the Bionic Man. “We can imagine a camera installed in the eye, which transmits an image from a device worn on the belt. This would send an electrical stimulus to the lingual stimulator mounted on a trip indicator the user wears under the palate. To have access to the camera’s images, all he would have to do is press his tongue against it.” In the shorter term, we can imagine a system that would replace the Braille alphabet. In fact, if the tongue were capable of “reading” the let-

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An eye on the tongue

ters of the alphabet, it would be able to read texts broadcast via electrical signals. When it has been perfected, this system could considerably improve the quality of life of blind persons. It would be a “hands-off” non-invasive system. It is no surprise that the tongue is the focus of Maurice Ptito’s work. Processing of information from this organ occupies a large part of the brain, and the presence of saliva creates excellent conditions for the transmission of electrical stimuli. “ Our research shows that our senses are recyclable, in a way,” explains neuropsychologist Maurice Ptito of the School of Optometry , who collaborated with a researcher from the University of Aarhus, Denmark, Ron Kupers. Started in Scandinavia , this research is now being pursued in Canada by a Master’s student, Solvej Moesgaard. Professor Ptito was able to obtain the equipment he needed

to advance the project thanks to various

sources of funding. Research on the congenitally blind has already begun, and the School of Optometry is taking advantage of the proximity of the Nazareth and Louis Braille Institute in the same building to recruit research subjects. OUTDOORLINKS:

Maurice Ptito http://www.crsn.umontreal.ca/mbcrsn/crsn_1page66.html Universität Montreal http://www.forum.umontreal.ca/

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Local sleep and learning

Tongue Display Unit (TDU)/Zungen-Brille http://kaz.med.wisc.edu/TDU.htm

Local sleep and learning RETO HUBER1, M. FELICE GHILARDI2, MARCELLO MASSIMINI1 & GIULIO TONONI1 source:

http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/jour-

nal/vaop/ncurrent/abs/nature02663_fs.html 1 Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53719, USA 2 Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York 10032, USA

Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to G.T. mailto:gtononi@wisc.edu). Human sleep is a global state whose functions remain unclear. During much of sleep, cortical neurons undergo slow oscillations in membrane potential, which appear in electroencephalograms as slow wave activity (SWA) of <4 Hz. The amount of SWA is homeostatically regulated, increasing after wakefulness and returning to baseline during sleep. It has been suggested that SWA homeostasis may reflect synaptic changes underlying a cellular need for sleep. If this were so, inducing

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Selective neural representation of objects relevant for navigation

local synaptic changes should induce local SWA changes, and these should benefit neural function. Here we show that sleep homeostasis indeed has a local component, which can be triggered by a learning task involving specific brain regions. Furthermore, we show that the local increase in SWA after learning correlates with improved performance of the task after sleep. Thus, sleep homeostasis can be induced on a local level and can benefit performance. OUTDOORLINKS:

University of Wisconsin Department of Psychiatry http://www.psychiatry.wisc.edu/UW-PsychiatryWeb/uwpHome.htm Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons http://cpmcnet.columbia.edu/dept/neurobeh/nb_spencer_seminar.html

Selective neural representation of objects relevant for navigation Gabriele Janzen1, 2 & Miranda van Turennout2 1 Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Postbus 310, 6500 AH Nijmegen, The Netherlands. 2 F.C. Donders Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands.

source: Nature Neuroscience 7, 673 - 677 (2004) /16 May 2004

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Selective neural representation of objects relevant for navigation

http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/neuro/journal/v7/n6/ abs/nn1257.html As people find their way through their environment, objects at navigationally relevant locations can serve as crucial landmarks. The parahippocampal gyrus has previously been shown to be involved in object and scene recognition. In the present study, we investigated the neural representation of navigationally relevant locations. Healthy human adults viewed a route through a virtual museum with objects placed at intersections (decision points) or at simple turns (non-decision points). Event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were acquired during subsequent recognition of the objects in isolation. Neural activity in the parahippocampal gyrus reflected the navigational relevance of an object's location in the museum. Parahippocampal responses were selectively increased for objects that occurred at decision points, independent of attentional demands. This increase occurred for forgotten as well as remembered objects, showing implicit retrieval of navigational information. The automatic storage of relevant object location in the parahippocampal gyrus provides a part of the neural mechanism underlying successful navigation. OUTDOORLINKS:

Gabriele Janzen http://www.mpi.nl/world/persons/profession/gabjan.html

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Sounds from the Infant Universe

Miranda van Turennout http://www.kun.nl/fcdonders/website/index.php Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics http://www.mpi.nl/world/ Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging http://www.kun.nl/fcdonders/website/index.php

Sounds from the Infant Universe Abstract for talk at AAS session on public outreach (6/3/04) Two paragraph summary of the Big Bang Acoustics Project By Mark Whittle, University of Virginia source:

http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~dmw8f/sounds/aas/

aas_abs_web.txt One of the most impressive developments in modern cosmology has been the measurement and analysis of the tiny fluctuations seen in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation -- the omni-directional wall of hot glowing gas which dates from when the universe was only 400,000 years old. When discussing these fluctuations, cosmologists frequently refer to their acoustic nature -- sound waves move through the hot gas and are seen as peaks and troughs when they cross the glowing wall. Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Sounds from the Infant Universe

As is now well known, the most recent observations (culminating with the February 2003 WMAP results) quantify the amplitudes of these waves, revealing both a fundamental tone and several harmonics, whose relative strengths have played a key role in determining a number of fundamental cosmological parameters. Not surprisingly, these recent results have wonderful pedagogical value in educating and inspiring both students and the wider public, and indeed many excellent non-specialist articles have already been written about the CMB. To further enhance this opportunity to communicate the field, I have attempted what might seem rather obvious: to reproduce the CMB power spectrum as an audible sound, preserving both volume and sound quality while shifting the frequency up by the necessary 50 or so octaves to bring it into the human range. By choosing the fundamental to fall at 200 Hz (matching its harmonic "l" value), the resulting sound is a rather loud hissing roar, of about 90 decibels volume. Matching the progress in observational results has been an equally impressive development of the theoretical treatment of CMB fluctuations, culminating in highly sophisticated computer simulations which can accurately reproduce the observations, once the various fundamental parameters are set. Using these simulations it is possible to recreate the sound generated by various types of universe with, for example, different curvature (yielding

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Sounds from the Infant Universe

sounds of different pitch) or different baryon content (yielding different higher harmonics). Pushing further, one can generate the "true" sound, characterized by P(k), rather than the "observed" sound, characterized by C(l). From P(k), we learn that the fundamental is offset from the higher harmonics, yielding a chord somewhere between a major and minor third. Finally, tracking P(k) forward in time one can listen to the development of cosmic sound from the Big Bang, through recombination, and beyond. This sound sequence can be loosely described as a descending scream, changing into a deepening roar, with subsequent growing hiss, nicely matching the increase in wavelengths caused by universal expansion, followed by the post recombination flow of baryons into the small scale potential wells created by dark matter. This final sound, of course, sets the stage for all subsequent growth of cosmic structure, from stars (hiss) through galaxies (mid-range tones) to large scale structure (bass notes). Although popular presentations of CMB studies already make use of many visual and conceptual aids, introducing sound into the pedagogical mix can significantly enhance both the intellectual and the emotional impact of the subject on its audience, without sacrificing scientific honesty. OUTDOORLINKS:

Mark Whittle http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~dmw8f/index.php Big Bang Acoustics: Movie and Sound Files Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Seismic waves from elephant vocalizations: A possible communication mode?

http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~dmw8f/sounds/cdromfiles/index.php

Seismic waves from elephant vocalizations: A possible communication mode? Roland H. G端nther, Caitlin E. O'Connell-Rodwell, and Simon L. Klemperer Department of Geophysics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA ABSTRACT

We conducted experiments with trained African elephants that show that low-frequency elephant vocalizations produce Rayleigh waves. We model a potential range for these seismic waves, under ideal conditions, of c. 2 km. In appropriate conditions, surface waves from an elephant's infrasonic vocalizations might propagate further than airborne sound and provide advantages over acoustic communication. However, if we use the detection capabilities of the human ear as a benchmark for the signal-detection thresholds of elephants, our estimates of attenuation and ambient seismic noise suggest that the seismic detection range is unlikely to exceed the acoustic detection range under normal atmospheric conditions. We conclude that elephants may benefit from seismic detection in circumstances where the range of acoustic communication is limited, or in cases where multimodal communication is advantageous. Given our current understanding, elephants are unlikely to rely on seismic waves as their primary mode for long-range communication.

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Brain Connections

OUTDOORLINKS:

Stanford University http://www.stanford.edu/ Tondatei/Soundfile http://www.oaklandzoo.org/atoz/azelesnd.wav Geophysical Research Letters http://www.agu.org/journals/gl/

Brain Connections Scientists have discovered that not only does your brain go through growth spurts; it also goes though periods of pruning. This ScienCentral News video has more source: by Karen Luri /www.sciencentral.com/8.6.04 http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?article_id=218392268 BRANCHING OUT

What goes on in your brain while your're learning? Two scientists offer a sneak peak underneath our thinking caps. In the brain, nerve cells, or neurons, grow new connections, which resemble branches on a tree. These branches send and receive signals, and their growth is vital to normal brain function; the more branches there are, the more sites by which a neuron can send and receive information.

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Brain Connections

"While you're an adult, your brain doesn't just stop growing and doesn't just stop making new connections. It actually forms new connections all the time," says Bonnie Firestein, professor of cell biology and neuroscience at Rutgers University. "We know that when you're learning something, you have new connections made. So, the brain is constantly growing and constantly changing." Firestein has found that a brain chemical called cypin helps nerve cells sprout new branches of communication, and the more cypin you have, the more branches you have. "We know that if you decrease cypin, in our system, you have a lower amount of branches," she explains. "So, right now…we just know that cypin is really important for making the correct number of branches, and that if you increase cypin you get more branches, and that it's been shown that more branches generally corresponds to learning and memory. When you're learning, you're making the nerve cells active, you're having increases in cypin, and then you're having more branches or more wiring so that you can learn." But there is such a thing as too many branches, says Jay Giedd, chief of brain imaging at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) , and the brain knows how to get rid of excess. "How does the brain, the most complicated three-pound mass of matter in the known universe, become the brain? Through simply but powerful processes," Giedd explains. "The first is overproduction. Way more brain cells and connections form than can possibly survive. And the second process is war, or competitive elimination. They fight it out for survival. Only a small percentage of the connections can make it, but it's nature's way of making sure that those [that] do survive are healthy and robust and strong." Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Brain Connections

Studying MRI scans of children and teenagers over a ten-year period, Giedd found that nerve cells in young brains undergo two waves of intense branching, the first in the womb and up to the first two years of life, and the other peaking at about age eleven or twelve, followed by a self-pruning period during the teen years. Both Firestein and Giedd point out that our brains continue to develop throughout our lives, just not at the same rate as in children. And both say understanding how the brain develops could lead to new therapies for the diseases that affect it, like autism and Alzheimer's. This research appeared in the May 25, 2004 issue of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and the February, 2004 issue of Nature Neuroscience. It was funded by the National Institutes of Health; Busch Biomedical Grants; New Jersey Commission on Spinal Cord Research Grant and the National Science Foundation. OUTDOORLINKS:

Bonnie Firestein http://lifesci.rutgers.edu/~firestein/default.htm Rutgers University http://lifesci.rutgers.edu/ Jay Giedd http://gpp.nih.gov/researchers/viewbook/Giedd_Jay.html National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) http://www.nimh.nih.gov/ Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Auditory and Action Semantic Features Activate Sensory-Specific Perceptual

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences http://www.pnas.org/

Auditory and Action Semantic Features Activate Sensory-Specific Perceptual Brain Regions By Thomas James, Isabel Gauthier source:

http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/gauthier/publi/

JaGa03.html Traditionally, concepts were considered propositional, amodal, and verbal in nature. Recent findings, however, suggest that conceptual knowledge is divisible into different types and that each type may be linked to specific sensory and motor processes. This implies that sensory processing regions of the brain may also process concepts. In fact, there is some neuroimaging evidence that conceptual information does activate perceptual brain regions and that there is a correspondence between knowledge type and the region being activated. In the following experiment, using a training technique developed in previous studies, participants verbally learned associations between novel objects and conceptual features. The objective was to create objects that were associated with features from only one knowledge type, something that does not occur with common objects.

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Deconstructing Brain Waves: Background, Cue, and Response

During a visual task that did not require retrieval of learned associations, the superior temporal gyrus, which responds well to sounds, was preferentially activated by objects associated with auditory features (e.g., buzzes). Likewise, the posterior superior temporal sulcus, which responds well to motion, was preferentially activated by objects associated with â&#x20AC;&#x153;actionâ&#x20AC;? features (e.g., hops). These findings support the theory that knowledge is grounded in perception. Read more: Fulltext at http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/gauthier/publi/JaGa03.pdf OUTDOORLINKS:

The Study (Engl) http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/gauthier/publi/JaGa03.html Thomas James http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/postdocs/jamestw/ Isabel Gauthier, Ph.D. http://www.psy.vanderbilt.edu/faculty/gauthier/Isabel.html

Deconstructing Brain Waves: Background, Cue, and Response DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0020180 Published June 15, 2004 Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Deconstructing Brain Waves: Background, Cue, and Response

source:

http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-docu-

ment&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020180 Light waves from an awaited signal—a white circle—arrive at the subject's eye; within a fraction of a second, the subject's thumb presses a button. Between eye and thumb lies the central nervous system, its feats of perception, integration, and response largely opaque to scientific scrutiny. Imaging techniques like magnetic resonance imaging can detail brain anatomy but can only broadly show changes in activity levels occurring over seconds—indirect echoes of brain function. Electrodes stuck to the scalp record coordinated neuronal symphonies, and wires inserted among neurons can capture the single-cell firing patterns of the individual instruments of the neural orchestra. But how these electrical signals map to information processing within and across neural circuits remains blurry. A new analysis sharpens the focus by separating individual brain wave patterns, measured from multiple sites across the scalp, into nine distinct process classes, each centered in an anatomically relevant brain area and producing predictable patterns as human subjects receive visual cues and produce responses. Scalp electroencephalograms (EEGs) are dominated by waves of synchronized neuronal activity at specific frequencies. Decades of research have associated wave patterns recorded at different scalp regions with different states of alertness—attending, drowsy, sleeping, or comatose; eyes open or closed—and gross abnormalities, such as seizure, brain damage, and tumor.

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Deconstructing Brain Waves: Background, Cue, and Response

In order to separate EEG responses to specific events from background, state-related activity, researchers repeat an experiment like the buttonpress exercise tens or hundreds of times and average the EEG across trials. By averaging out background activity, this technique reveals a characteristic waveform, called an event-related potential (ERP). It differs by electrode location, but often contains a large positive wave that peaks 300 milliseconds or more after an awaited visual cue. In the current paper, Scott Makeig et al. argue that ERP averaging removes important information about ongoing processes and their interactions with event-related responses. Instead of averaging multiple recordings from each of 31 electrode sites, the authors applied an algorithm that seeks independent signal sources contributing to the individual tracings. The researchers measured signal source activities by the frequency and phase of wave patterns and source locations by comparing signal strength and polarity at different electrodes. Altogether, the researchers identified nine classes of maximally independent sources, each having similar locations and activities across subjects. The results dovetail neatly with prior anatomical and functional observations. This analysis demonstrates that average waveforms identified in ERP studies probably sum multiple, separate processes from several brain regions. In particular, the large positive ERP seen 300 milliseconds or more after a visual cue reflects different waveforms from frontal, parietal, and occipital cortexâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;areas involved in task planning, spatial relationships and movement, and visual processing, respectively.

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Deconstructing Brain Waves: Background, Cue, and Response

In addition, this study showed a two-cycle burst of activity in the 4–8 (theta) frequency band after button presses—another common ERP feature. The theta activity was coordinated across several signal sources, and localized to areas associated with planning and motor control. Notably, the planning component seemed to lead the motor signal. Suppression or resynchronization of several EEG processes followed the visual cue or button press. The authors theorize that such coordination might influence the speed or impact of communication between brain areas and help retune attention after significant events. Using this approach in more subjects, and under differing conditions, could provide an unprecedented glimpse of how the brain translates perception and planning into action. The results suggest that EEG data contain an untapped richness of information that could give researchers and clinicians a new window into thought in action. © 2004 Public Library of Science. OUTDOORLINKS:

Scott Makeig http://www.sccn.ucsd.edu/~scott/ University of California San Diego: http://www.ucsd.edu/

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Bilingualism, Aging, and Cognitive Control: Evidence From the Simon Task

Bilingualism, Aging, and Cognitive Control: Evidence From the Simon Task source:

http://www.apa.org/journals/pag/press_releases/june_2004/

pag192290.pdf Previous work has shown that bilingualism is associated with more effective controlled processing in children; the assumption is that the constant management of 2 competing languages enhances executive functions (E. Bialystok, 2001). The present research attempted to determine whether this bilingual advantage persists for adults and whether bilingualism attenuates the negative effects of aging on cognitive control in older adults. Three studies are reported that compared the performance of monolingual and bilingual middle-aged and older adults on the Simon task. Bilingualism was associated with smaller Simon effect costs for both age groups; bilingual participants also responded more rapidly to conditions that placed greater demands on working memory. In all cases the bilingual advantage was greater for older participants. It appears, therefore, that controlled processing is carried out more effectively by bilinguals and that bilingualism helps to offset age-related losses in certain executive processes. or go to http://www.apa.org/journals/pag/press_releases/june_2004/ pag192290.pdf

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Memory fails you after severe stress

OUTDOORLINKS:

Ellen Bialystok http://www.psych.yorku.ca/ellenb Universit채t York http://www.psych.yorku.ca/

Memory fails you after severe stress source: Alison Motluk/www.newscientist.com/14 June 04 http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99995089 People are woefully bad at recalling details of their own traumatic experiences. When military personnel were subjected to threatening behaviour during mock interrogations, most failed to identify the questioner a day or so later, and many even got the gender wrong. The finding casts serious doubt on the reliability of victim testimonies in cases involving psychological trauma. Numerous studies have questioned the accuracy of recall of traumatic events, but the research is often dismissed as artificial and not intense enough to simulate real-life trauma. Other studies have suggested that intense, personal experiences might produce near photographic recollection, something that prosecutors and juries in legal cases often assume. But some researchers think this is an illusion. "People come away from these experiences feeling they will never forget what happened," says

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Memory fails you after severe stress

Gary Wells, an expert on eyewitness testimony at Iowa State University in Ames, "but they confuse that with thinking they remember the details." Now Andy Morgan at Yale University and his colleagues have evidence from truly stressful situations. They studied over 500 soldiers, sailors and pilots at "survival schools" - three mock POW camps run by the US military, who partly funded the study. The subjects, whose mean age was 25, were being trained to withstand the mental and physical stresses of capture. THUMPING HEART

After 48 hours without food or sleep, they were subjected to intense interrogation. Half of the subjects were physically threatened, and this caused them to show all the signs of intense physiological stress - very high heart rate and levels of adrenalin and cortisol, combined with plummeting sex hormones. Twenty-four hours after release from the camp, the subjects were asked to identify their interrogators. Some of them were shown a live line-up of 15 people, others were shown a photo-spread, and a third group was shown single photos sequentially. Using a scale of 1 to 10, participants were asked to say how confident they were that they had chosen the right person. Most of the mock interrogators appeared or were pictured dressed in standard military garb, but some were shown dressed exactly as they had been during the questioning. The performance of all groups was abysmal. Only 30 per cent could find the right person in a line-up, 34 per cent from a photo-spread and 49 per cent from sequential photos - though the clothing cue boosted correct

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Memory fails you after severe stress

identification to 66 per cent. Thirty people got the gender wrong, and those subjected to physical threats were the worst at recognising their interrogator. Elizabeth Loftus, a psychologist at the University of California at Irvine, says the study is unique because the stresses were intense and real. "I think people will pay attention to this," she adds. Wells agrees: "What it illustrates is that stress does not help memory." Journal reference: International Journal of Law and Psychiatry (vol 27, p 265) OUTDOORLINKS:

The Yale Department of Psychiatry http://www.info.med.yale.edu/psych/welcome.html Gary Wells http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/faculty/gwells/homepage.htm Elizabeth Loftus http://faculty.washington.edu/eloftus/ Iowa State University http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/ University of California http://www.washington.edu/

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Tunes create context like language

Tunes create context like language Maths shows why tonal music is easy listening. Repitition of notes in music create semantic meaning. sorce: PHILIP BALL /www.nature.com/2004 http://www.nature.com/nsu/040614/040614-11.html Ever felt as though a piece of music is speaking to you? You could be right: musical notes are strung together in the same patterns as words in a piece of literature, according to an Argentinian physicist. His analysis also reveals a key difference between tonal compositions, which are written in a particular key, and atonal ones, which are not. This sheds light on why many people find it so hard to make sense of atonal works. In both written text and speech, the frequency with which different words are used follows a striking pattern. In the 1930s, American social scientist George Kingsley Zipf discovered that if he ranked words in literary texts according to the number of times they appeared, a word's rank was roughly proportional to the inverse of its frequency. In other words, a graph of one plotted against the other appeared as a straight line. The economist and sociologist Herbert Simon later offered an explanation for this mathematical relationship. He argued that as a text progresses, it creates a meaningful context within which words that have

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Tunes create context like language

been used already are more likely to appear than other, random words. For example, it is more likely that the rest of this article will contain the word "music" than the word "sausage". Physicist Damian Zanette of the Balseiro Institute in Bariloche, Argentina, used this idea to test whether different types of music create a semantic context in a similar fashion. The key in which a piece of music is written is one factor that influences which notes are more or less likely to come next. The repetition and elaboration of particular melodic phrases is another. FROM BACH TO SCHOENBERG

To measure these effects, Zanette analysed four different compositions: J. S. Bach's Prelude Number 6 in D; Mozart's first movement from his Sonata in C (K545); Debussy's Menuet from the Suite Bergamasque; and the first piece from Schoenberg's Three Piano Pieces, Opus 11. Each is a solo piano piece, but they all differ in style and period. Zanette counted the frequency of different notes in each piece (taking into account both the pitch and the length of the note), and plotted that against their rank, as Zipf did with texts. All of the pieces showed a text-like distribution, especially for the higher-ranking notes. But the strength of the relationship varied, as indicated by the slope of each graph, published on the preprint server. The pieces by Bach, Mozart and Debussy all produced a relatively steep graph, suggesting a strong relationship between rank and frequency, and therefore a high level of meaningful context. In other words, if you have heard part of the piece, it is relatively easy to predict what kind of thing

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Tunes create context like language

will come next. Zanette adds that jazz pieces he tested showed a similar pattern. But the Schoenberg piece, one of the first truly atonal works, had a much flatter graph. This means that the piece does not have a set vocabulary of commonly used words that keep appearing. Instead, the size of the vocabulary increases at about the same rate as the length of the piece; new "words" are constantly introduced, while earlier ones are seldom repeated. Although all of the piano pieces have a text-like property, the atonal composition has less structure and less context; it is like a story whose characters are constantly changing. UNFAMILIAR FLUX

Zanette says the finding implies that the reason many people find it unsatisfying to listen to atonal music is not simply because its harmonic and melodic structures are unfamiliar, but because the meaning or context of the piece is constantly changing. "That doesn't mean Schoenberg's music is not comprehensible," Zanette cautions. Indeed, Schoenberg himself wrote that the goal of the composer is to produce comprehensibility. Zanette points out that the sequence of notes is only one of the ways to create context in music. It could also be produced rhythmically, for example. He suggests that to appreciate atonality, we may need to look for coherence in different aspects of the composition.

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Contribution of inhibitory mechanisms to direction selectivity and response

"It's very good to start having these scientific bases for understanding music", says Brazil-based composer Heather Jennings. "They provide a fresh perspective on musical theory." OUTDOORLINKS:

Zipf's law and the creation of musical context http://www.arxiv.org/abs/cs.CL/0406015 Damiรกn Horacio Zanette http://www.cab.cnea.gov.ar/users/zanette/ Benford's Law and Zipf's Law http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/zipfLaw.shtml Herbert Simon http://www.psy.cmu.edu/psy/faculty/hsimon/hsimon.html

Contribution of inhibitory mechanisms to direction selectivity and response normalization in macaque middle temporal area Thiele, C. Distler, H. Korbmacher, and K. -P. Hoffmann source: http://www.pnas.org/Juni http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0307754101v1

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Contribution of inhibitory mechanisms to direction selectivity and response

Edited by William T. Newsome, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, and approved May 10, 2004 (received for review November 21, 2003) Inhibitory mechanisms contribute to directional tuning in primary visual cortex, and it has been suggested that, in the primate brain, the middle temporal area (MT) inherits most of its directional information from primary visual cortex (V1). To test the validity of this hierarchical scheme, we investigated whether directional tuning in MT was present upon blockade of local -aminobutyratergic (GABAergic) inhibitory mechanisms. Direction selectivity during the initial 50 ms after response onset was abolished in many MT cells when the local inhibitory network was inactivated whereas direction selectivity in later response periods was largely unaffected. Thus, direction selectivity during early response periods is often generated autonomously within MT whereas direction selectivity during later response periods is either inherited from other visual areas or locally mediated by mechanisms other than -aminobutyric acid type A receptor (GABAA) inhibition. GABAergic inhibition may also mediate contrast normalization. Our data suggest that GABAA inhibition implements a local direction-selective static nonlinearity, rather than a full normalization in MT. These findings put constraints on strict hierarchical models according to which MT performs more complex computations based on local motion

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Psychophysiological Responding During Script-Driven Imagery in People

measurements provided by earlier areas, arguing for more distributed and independent information processing. Correspondence should be sent at the present address: University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom. A. Thiele, E-mail: alex.thiele@ncl.ac.uk OutDoorLink: Prof. Dr. Klaus-Peter Hoffmann http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/neurobiol/mitarbei/klauspeter_hoffmann/e_kphoffmann.htm

Psychophysiological Responding During ScriptDriven Imagery in People Reporting Abduction by Space Aliens Richard J. McNally, Natasha B. Lasko, Susan A. Clancy, Michael L. Macklin, Roger K. Pitman and Scott P. Orr source:

http://www.psychologicalscience.org/members/journal_issues/

psinpress/McNally.pdf ABSTRACT

Is recollection of highly improbable traumatic experiences accompanied by psychophysiological responses indicative of intense emotion? To investigate this issue, we measured heart rate, skin conductance, and left

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Psychophysiological Responding During Script-Driven Imagery in People

lateral frontalis electromyographic responses in individuals who reported having been abducted by space aliens. Recordings of these participants were made during script-driven imagery of their reported alien encounters and of other stressful, positive, and neutral experiences they reported. We also measured the psychophysiological responses of control participants while they heard the scripts of the abductees. We predicted that if "memories" of alien abduction function like highly stressful memories, then psychophysiological reactivity to the abduction and stressful scripts would be greater than reactivity to the positive and neutral scripts, and this effect would be more pronounced among abductees than among control participants. Contrast analyses confirmed this prediction for all three physiological measures (ps < .05). Therefore, belief that one has been traumatized may generate emotional responses similar to those provoked by recollection of trauma (e.g., combat). Read Fulltext at attached PDF or go to: http://www.psychologicalscience.org/members/journal_issues/psinpress/ McNally.pdf Address correspondence to Richard J. McNally, Department of Psychology, Harvard University, 33 Kirkland St., Cambridge, MA 02138; e-mail: rjm@wjh.harvard.edu.

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Brain development and puberty may be key factors in learning disorders

OUTDOORLINKS:

Harvard-Universit채t http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/psych/epp.html Richard J. McNally http://www.researchmatters.harvard.edu/people.php?people_id=666

Brain development and puberty may be key factors in learning disorders source: www.eurekalert.org/21-Jun-2004 http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-06/nu-bda061604.php A Northwestern University study is the first to suggest that delayed brain development and its interaction with puberty may be key factors contributing to language-based learning disabilities such as dyslexia. The article will appear in the online edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) the week of June 21. In "Learning Problems, Delayed Development and Puberty," co-authors Beverly A. Wright and Steven G. Zecker provide a new and overarching developmental hypothesis that could change the way that these disabilities, that affect one out of 12 children with normal intelligence, are studied, understood and treated. The authors are associate professors of communication sciences and disorders at Northwestern.

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Brain development and puberty may be key factors in learning disorders

"Approaching learning disabilities from the perspective of brain development could potentially unite many seemingly disparate deficits observed in adults with learning problems -- from evidence that their white brain matter is abnormally distributed to findings that they have difficulty distinguishing and manipulating language sounds," said Wright. The idea of brain delay also could help explain anecdotal evidence that learning disabled children toilet train late, have difficulty learning to ride a bicycle, talk later and generally appear less developmentally mature than their unaffected counterparts. The Northwestern researchers found that the brains of individuals with learning problems not only appear to develop more slowly than those of their unaffected counterparts but also actually may stop developing around the time of puberty's onset. Combined, these two findings could help to account for an array of existing scientific data documenting similarities and differences between individuals with and without learning problems. Wright and Zecker focused on the hearing ability of 115 participants who ranged in age from 6 years to adult. Of these individuals, 54 had been diagnosed with dyslexia, specific language impairment or central auditory processing disorder while the remaining 61 had no suspected learning difficulties. The participants completed five auditory detection tasks that measured their ability to hear a tone in the presence of background noise. On all five tasks, the children with learning problems performed like unaffected children who were 2 to 4 years younger. On three of the tasks -- tasks for which performance was found to be "adultlike" at or before Odds and ends, themes and trends

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Brain development and puberty may be key factors in learning disorders

age 10 in children without learning problems -- the performance of the individuals with learning problems caught up with that of the other participants by adulthood. However, on the two tasks in which the performance of unimpaired participants was found to continue to improve during the teenage years, the adults with learning problems performed more poorly than unimpaired adults and thus had failed to make up for their delays. "We found that the children with impairments started out about three years behind, but after that, their rate of improvement was very similar to that of the children without impairments," said Wright. "At around 10 years, however -- right around puberty's onset -- we saw a halt in further development in the children with learning problems." In attempting to understand the causes of learning disabilities, scientists including Wright have tended to identify and study differences between children with learning problems and their same-aged counterparts. In a study published in Nature several years ago, for example, Wright concluded that children with specific language impairment had difficulties hearing sounds only in particular sound contexts. "Back then I thought that the hearing problem was really contributing to their learning disability, as though some unique, particular, detailed characteristic were responsible. Today I'm thinking more broadly, trying to keep in mind the wide array of characteristics that have been observed to be abnormal in individuals with learning problems," said Wright. What she and Zecker are proposing is a very testable hypothesis that can be applied to a wide range of existing data. "If people start finding more evidence consistent with this hypothesis it will dramatically change the

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Brain development and puberty may be key factors in learning disorders

way we study learning problems," Wright said. "Scientists will design experiments that examine subjects of varied ages in order to determine the developmental course of the characteristic they are studying." Wright and Zecker's research also lends credence to what scientists using MRI and other techniques have discovered about the activity in the teenage brain. Until recently, it was thought that the brain was fully developed relatively early in childhood. Today it is clear that the teenage brain is a formidable work-in-progress undergoing myriad changes. "If our hypothesis is correct, it suggests a strong need for early intervention and a potential for improving the abilities of individuals with learning difficulties," said Wright. "With early identification of children with language-related learning disabilities, we may be able to remediate many of these problems by 'training' a child's brain very early in life." OUTDOORLINKS:

Beverly A. Wright http://www.communication.northwestern.edu/csd/faculty/ Beverly_Wright Steven G. Zecker http://www.communication.northwestern.edu/csd/faculty/ Steven_Zecker/ Northwestern University/Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders http://www.communication.northwestern.edu/csd/

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A large-area, flexible pressure sensor matrix with organic field-effect

A large-area, flexible pressure sensor matrix with organic field-effect transistors for artificial skin applications source: http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0401918101 Edited by George M. Whitesides, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, and approved May 25, 2004 (received for review March 18, 2004) It is now widely accepted that skin sensitivity will be very important for future robots used by humans in daily life for housekeeping and entertainment purposes. Despite this fact, relatively little progress has been made in the field of pressure recognition compared to the areas of sight and voice recognition, mainly because good artificial "electronic skin" with a large area and mechanical flexibility is not yet available. The fabrication of a sensitive skin consisting of thousands of pressure sensors would require a flexible switching matrix that cannot be realized with present silicon-based electronics. Organic field-effect transistors can substitute for such conventional electronics because organic circuits are inherently flexible and potentially ultralow in cost even for a large area. Thus, integration of organic transistors and rubber pressure sensors, both of which can be produced by low-cost processing technology such as large-area printing technology, will provide an ideal solution to realize a practical artificial skin, whose feasibility has been demonstrated in this paper.

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A large-area, flexible pressure sensor matrix with organic field-effect

Pressure images have been taken by flexible active matrix drivers with organic transistors whose mobility reaches as high as 1.4 cm2/V路s. The device is electrically functional even when it is wrapped around a cylindrical bar with a 2-mm radius. To whom correspondence should be addressed at: Quantum-Phase Electronics Center, School of Engineering, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan. Takao Someya, E-mail: someya@ap.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp OUTDOORLINKS:

Robots get sensitive Electronic skin could give machines a sophisticated sense of touch. http://www.nature.com/nsu/040628/040628-14.html Takao Someya http://www.ntech.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/ Pentacene http://chrom.tutms.tut.ac.jp/JINNO/DATABASE/17pentacene.html

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