Asian Development Bank Board of Governors Annual Meeting 2007

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Words into Action Delegate Publication for The Fortieth Annual Meeting of The Board of Governors of the Asian Development Bank Kyoto, Japan 4th to 7th May 2007 「Words into Action」 シリヌズ 第40回アゞア開発銀行幎次総䌚 囜立京郜囜際䌚通、2007幎5月4日〜7日 参加者配垃出版物 Published by Faircount Ltd 出版 フェアカりント瀟 European Headquarters 5 Ella Mews, Hampstead London NW3 2NH United Kingdom Tel: + 44 (0)20 7428 7000 Fax: +44 (0)20 7117 3338 email: publisher@faircount.co.uk

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Publishers Peter M. Antell Ross W. Jobson

Marketing Executives Malcolm Church Margaret Cole Guy Hayes Stephen Idrissi Gary Tarian

Associate Publisher David Woods

Design & Production Controller Sandip Patel

Editor Kevin Rafferty Translation japanesetranslations.co.uk Sales & Marketing Director Lawrence Rosenberg Project Manager Trevor Raymond

Picture Research Kay Rowley Production Coordinator Colin Davidson Office Manager Ekta Dash Suri Patel Margaret Dube (Assistant)

Photography as credited Cover images © AFP/Getty Images, Corbis, Hutchison Whampoa Ltd, Panos, Rafoto and Redlink Printed in Singapore Special thanks to the ADB for their assistance

©Copyright 2007, Faircount Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction of editorial content in whole or in part without written permission is prohibited. Faircount Ltd does not assume responsibility for the advertisements, nor any representation made therein, nor the quality or deliverability of the products themselves. Reproduction of articles and photographs, in whole or in part, contained herein is prohibited without express written consent of the publisher, with the exception of reprinting for news media use.





Foreword

序文

It is over forty years since Takeshi Watanabe, the Asian Development Bank’s first President, addressed its founding countries’ representatives, dignitaries, and bankers at the inaugural meeting in Tokyo. Amongst the many laudable intentions in his speech was this thought: “The lesser developed countries want, above all, progress which they can hold in their hands - progress which fills their stomachs, then clothes their bodies, and shelters their young.”

アゞア開発銀行ADBの初代総裁、枡蟺歊氏が東京におけ る創立䌚議で創立各囜の代衚、芁人、銀行家などに講挔した 日からもはや40幎の幎月が経った。 「発展途䞊囜は䜕よりも 具䜓的な発展、衣食䜏を保蚌する発展が欲しい」など、枡蟺 氏の講挔䞭に称賛すべき指摘がいく぀かあった。

That life has improved for many in Asia over the intervening years and that some of the aspirations of Watanabe and his colleagues have, in some measure, been realised is not doubted. Today, official figures suggest that just under one-third of the region’s population lives in poverty, life expectancy has increased to 65 years, and 70 percent of the adults are literate. The financial crisis of the late nineties not only slowed down the pace of poverty reduction, but also resulted in a considerable increase in the number of the “officially” poor. Subsequent growth in many of the region’s economies - in some, spectacular growth in the last decade - recovered lost ground. Yet, depending on whose estimates you accept, up to two-thirds of the world’s poor - those living on less than a dollar a day - still live in Asia. Some human tragedies, such as the tsunamis and earthquakes that have destroyed lives, livelihoods, and communities, will always be beyond our control. Conversely, the alleviation of most deprivation, poverty, and much human suffering is within the grasp of the world community - providing the will is there. How best to direct the resources at our disposal to improve living conditions - environmental, financial, and social - is something that, rightly, continues to exercise the minds of politicians, economists, ecologists, and many others. Money alone, although of central importance, has never been an entire answer, as many issues are clearly too complex to be capable of resolution through the simple application of funds. This publication sets out to debate some of the fundamentals of the ways in which the great institution that is the ADB operates, recounts recent events that may throw light on those operations, airs the opinions of those experienced in working in relevant areas, and asks whether the bank’s raison d’être is as clear as it may once have been. All of this is presented in the sincere hope that those attending the bank’s fortieth annual meeting may find it of use in their deliberations, helping turn words into positive actions that will demonstrate that the ADB, properly used, can be the huge force for good that its supporters believe it to be.

この40幎の間、アゞアの倚くの人々にずっお生掻が改善さ れ、枡蟺氏ずその同僚達の倢がある皋床叶ったずいうこずは 吊定できない。公匏統蚈によれば、アゞア党䜓で貧困局ずな っおいるのは党人口の3分の1匱であり、掚定寿呜が65歳た で䞊がり、 さらに読み曞きのできる倧人が70%である。 1990幎代の金融危機により、貧困察策のスピヌドが萜ちた だけでなく、 「正匏な」貧困者の数も著しく増えた。その埌、圓 地方内のいく぀かの囜々における経枈成長、特にここ10幎に わたる数ヶ囜における急成長が倱地を回埩した。 しかし、 ど の統蚈を遞ぶのかにもよるが、珟圚でも、1日1ドル以䞋で生 掻しおいる䞖界貧困者人口の3分の2もがアゞアにいる。 呜を奪い取り、生掻やコミュニティを砎壊する接波や地震な ど、人間のコントロヌルの及ばないものはい぀たでもある。 䞀方、その意思さえあれば、窮乏や貧困、苊難の倧郚分を和 らげるこずが䞖界コミュニティの手により実珟可胜である。 環境、金融、瀟䌚などの生掻条件を改善するために、我々が 持っおいる資源を最も効率良く適甚する方法は、圓然のこず ながら政治家、経枈孊者、生態孊者などの間で垞に亀わされ おいる議論である。資金は非垞に重芁であるが、資金を䞎え るだけでは解決できない問題がたくさんあるこずは明らかで あり、それだけでは答えにならない。 この出版物では、ADBずいう立掟な組織の行動の基瀎を考 え盎す目的で、その行動を浮き圫りにする最近の出来事を語 り、該圓分野で豊富な実務経隓のある方々の意芋を述べる ず同時に、ADB自䜓の存圚理由が以前ず同様に明らかである かどうかずいう質問を投げかける。ADBの支揎者はADBが善 を促進する莫倧な勢力であるず信じおいるが、䜿い方次第で は確かにそのずおりである。 ここに蚘茉されおいるこずが第 40回幎次総䌚に参加される方々にずっお有意矩な資料ずな り、蚀葉が行動に移るこずにより、それが立蚌されるこずが我 々の誠心誠意の意図である。



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Over the past two decades, China’s economic growth continued at over 9%, reaching 10% in 2006, and robust growth in China’s economy is expected to continue. In 2006, China’s GDP amounted to 21,000 billion renminbi and it became the third largest trading country in the world, with GDP per capita close to $2,000 US. The fundamental change in the economic environment has driven the transformation of people’s attitudes, both towards living and investment. Meanwhile, it has provided enormous opportunities for the development of its domestic commercial banks. The total value of domestic commercial banks has attained 40,000 billion renminbi, while the total assets of CCB as at the end of June 2006 exceeded 5,000 billion renminbi. CCB’s business is growing rapidly and this momentum is expected to be maintained in the coming years. Dynamic growth CCB’s leading position in many core areas of activity in the first half of 2006 - total new loans and deposits, new infrastructure financings, new residential mortgages, the issue of new credit cards, and the underwriting of short-term financial notes - made it the most profitable bank, with the best asset quality, of the ‘big four’. CCB believes that it will benefit most from the new opportunities, because it has been well prepared and has a strong foundation.

That firm foundation will allow a dynamic expansion programme. China’s banking industry is maturing and new opportunities are open for those banks that are prepared to meet the challenges of a more complex banking market. Domestically, CCB has a huge banking network and experience in traditional banking services. There are non-traditional areas with enormous growth potential, however, such as wealth management, credit card services, and other fee based services. Growth in the home territories will not be so much geographic - though it is certain that new branches will open - as it will be a growth in the type and quality of financial services CCB is able to offer. The bank has, for example, established an investment banking department, and CCB-Principal Asset Management Company Ltd. represents an important step toward its integrated business model. CCB will continue to explore such opportunities, whether in investment banking, insurance, asset management, or other financial services. The bank has strengthened its fee-based income through a greater presence in investment banking and leasing. It has also expanded its financial services to individuals, small and medium sized enterprises, boosted its fee and commission based services and introduced new financial services and products. Consumer banking is now the

fastest growing area of CCB’s business, and it has a competitive edge and maintains a comprehensive customer base in corporate and personal loans. The bank also enjoys traditional advantages in infrastructure loans, home mortgages and project auditing, and its risk and financial management are among the most advanced in China. The financial restructuring and IPO project has consolidated CCB’s capital position for sustainable long term development. Growth with firm risk management Amongst Chinese banks, CCB is also the leader in risk control, being the first to adopt the independent credit auditor system, implement the economic capital budget & economic value added management method, and set up the risk and return mechanism, with economic capital as the central tenet in reaching a balance between risk and return. CCB very much believes in the importance of constructing firm risk management in order to balance its dynamic growth. Technologically advanced Underpinning the bank’s day to day operations, and the needs of its expansion, is its major investment in the best information technology. A major innovation is the operational customer relationship and integrated product service system (OCRMIPSS), which was successfully launched in 2006. The system has allowed face to face sales activities to be streamlined, including a product based automated dealing system with direct foreign exchange transaction processing for both retail and commercial accounts. The facility made CCB the first4


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CCB is currently implementing an ERP financial software package, which when completed will allow the general ledger and financial information for disclosure to be managed centrally. In addition, the first phase of a data warehouse and management information system will be completed shortly, which will help to improve information sharing throughout the bank and enhance its operational management capability. All of this would represent a huge technological investment for any of the world’s major banks. Given that CCB is only just moving into the international arena, it signals a massive commitment to improving services and to resourcing its expansion plans.

The international perspective Industry observers are right to suggest that listed banks with adequate capital resources will, once they have assessed the feasibility of cross-industry mergers and acquisitions, develop new product lines, increase their business scope, and exploit new markets through overseas expansion, for, just as overseas competitors are viewing the huge potential of the Chinese market with relish, CCB has put in place plans for major international expansion. Internationally, CCB has formulated an expansion strategy and will align its overseas development with the needs of its customers in their international operations. The plan is to take firm, gradual steps, carefully evaluating the risks and opportunities in each market. Hong Kong is an important foothold and, recently, CCB purchased Bank of America (Asia), which now serves as the foundation for further international expansion through mergers and acquisitions, branch establishments, and other strategies. This will allow CCB to build an international advantage over its Chinese counterparts. The road ahead The consensus view amongst experts is that there is likely to be a macroeconomic tightening in the second half of 2007, with the Central Bank applying rate increases, issuance of notes and increases in reserve ratio requirements. Credit growth and capital utilization of banks will be restricted and, coupled with increasing foreign exchange reserves, excess liquidity will be exacerbated. With the opening up of markets and the competition that it will generate, CCB seems well placed to take advantage of the experience it has already gained in areas such as the best practices of its international counterparts in the areas of payment and settlement, information technology, foreign exchange management, and personal banking. In July 2006, CCB was ranked the first among all mainland Chinese banks and 11th worldwide in The Banker’s “Top 1000 World Banks� listing and the “most profitable bank in Asia� on Asiaweek’s list of “Top 300 Asian Banks�. g

Website: www.ccb.com Service hotline: 95533 Email: pr.zh@ccb.com


06 Foreword 序文 12 Introduction 䞍惑の歳 32 Programme of events スケゞュヌル

JTB Photo Communications, Inc. / Alamy

Contents 目次

22 36 48 54

Kuroda’s path 黒田総裁の歩み Inside the ADB’s comfort zone 快適な環境から抜けられないADB The high cost of urban growth 郜垂拡倧の代䟡 ADB on the move 倉化する䞖界、远い぀づけるADB

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ADB in the spotlight ADB

64 68 70 74

‘Womenomics’ could rescue Japan’s men 女性経枈が日本の男達を救う The kawaii face of Japan Inc Japan Inc.のカワむむ衚情 Abe puts the clocks back 時蚈を戻す安倍総理 Japan’s economy: the roar of a mouse 日本経枈 ― ネズミが吠える

© UPPA / Photoshot

Japan 日本

80 Mobius, restless guru of emerging markets モビりス ― 安息なき新興囜垂堎のカリスマ 86 Hong Kong, China’s stock market of choice 䞭囜䌁業の䞊堎は銙枯に軍配が䞊がる

© Mike Kemp / Corbis

Focus on finance 金融

90 96 104 110 120 124

Chinese aid wins support 䞭囜の揎助に賛成 China: socialist market economy 䞭囜 ― 瀟䌚䞻矩垂堎経枈 India’s SEZs court controversy 賛吊䞡論が枊巻くむンドのSEZ India: living in several centuries at once むンド ― 拡倧する貧富の差 Making the road as smooth as silk for the CAR’s 䞭倮アゞアの新しい「絹の道」 Thailand’s military manoeuvres inhibit investors タむ軍郚の行動が投資を抑制

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Regional overviews 地域

132 Flying the flag for private enterprise 民間䌁業のための旗振り圹ずなる 138 Sixt sense will be missing from Kyoto 京郜総䌚にシクスト・センスが欠ける 142 An affable storm blowing across the world 穏やかな嵐が䞖界を吹きぬける

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© Rafoto

The corporate perspective 䌁業



ADB in the spotlight

© JTB Photo Communications, Inc. / Alamy

䞍惑の歳

A time for reflection Kyoto is an appropriate venue for the 40th annual meeting of the Asian Development Bank. The special reason, of course, is that this was where the much heralded, much abused and much ignored protocol on climate change was signed 10 years ago, so Kyoto draws attention to the brave promises as well as the dashed hopes and contradictions of the attempts to create a better world. In this and the following articles Kevin Rafferty reviews the issues facing Asia, and the ADB in its forties.

B

y the time that the delegates arrive the famous cherry blossoms will have long blown far away, blooming early this year because of the unpredictable world weather patterns. It is a pity that they cannot be captured and handed to each delegate, even to each politician or business executive who has pretensions to become a president, prime minister or CEO as a lesson in the fragile life of this planet. Individually, the cherry blossoms are as beautiful and delicate and individual as a snowflake. Together, they have a dazzling intensity so their pink becomes brighter than the most shining white, but they die or get thrown to the winds within days. Even after the blossoms have gone, Kyoto also has its own special charms and lessons. If the delegates to the meeting can escape the concrete cocoons of the conference centre and their hotels, they will find a treasured place of culture and religion and history and politics and economics that should cause them to reflect on the issues that they have come to discuss. It was the most gracious of the Japanese capital cities, as you can still see from the temples and shrines, of which Kyoto has more than a tourist can take in during a hundred visits. It was a city of politics: tread carefully on the aptly named “nightingale floor” in Nijo Castle and listen to the sweet chirping noise you make, even if you go on tiptoes, and reflect that this was the sound of death, because it

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told the guardian of the castle that there was an intruder within; and you can feel the chill of old Japanese technology. It was also, and still is, a city of contemplation that offers hundreds of places to reflect on the cycle of life, something that might be useful for ADB and government officials as they ponder the Sisyphean task of economic development – or even for the well paid bankers who contemplate what they have done to earn their vast salaries and where they can possibly spend the money. Possibly the most famous place for contemplation is the Ryoanji temple and its famous rock garden consisting of 15 stones and some moss set amongst gravel, of which it is only possible to see 14 stones at any one time. Only when you die and go to Heaven, it is said, will you be able to see all 15 stones at the same time. But there are other temples: Genkoan, also a Zen temple, is quieter with two windows side by side. One is square, the window of trouble, a symbolic expression of human life that echoes Buddhist sayings about the four pains of mankind – shou-roubyou-shi: birth, aging, disease and death or the strong hardship of life – shiku-haku. The other window is, very unusually, round and called the window of spiritual awakening, and reflecting, though there is no glass in it, the spirit of Zen Buddhism. It suggests that in life it is better to aim for a rounded shape than to be aggressive and have angles that create

京郜はアゞア開発銀行ADBの第40回幎 次総䌚の堎ずしお最適な地である。埌に歓迎 ・毒舌・無芖の察象ずなったあの気候倉動 議定曞が10幎前に締結されたのもこの地 であったためである。それ以来、京郜はより 良い䞖界を䜜ろうずする詊みの倧胆な玄束 ず同時にその矛盟ず打ち砕かれた期埅を象 城するようになった。 この䞭ではケノィン・ラ ファティ Kevin Rafferty氏がアゞアず40æ­³ になったADBが盎面しおいる諞問題を怜蚎 する。 幎次総䌚の参加者が集たる頃には、有名な桜はずっ くに散っおいるに違いない。䞖界の気候の予枬でき ない倉動により、今幎は平幎より早く咲いたのであ る。地球の諞さを教えるシンボルずしお、 その各々をキ ャッチしお参加者党員、いや今埌倧統領、銖盞、最高 経営責任者になろうず考えおいるすべおの政治家や 䌚瀟幹郚に枡すこずができないのはたこずに残念で ある。個別の桜の花はそれぞれ雪片ず同じように矎し く、デリケヌトであり、ナニヌクである。たずたるずず、 そのピンクの匷烈な眩しさできらめく癜色をも圧倒 するほどであるが、数日の間に萜ちおしたうか、颚に 吹っ飛ばされおしたうのである。 桜が散った埌でも、京郜には独自の魅力ず教蚓があ る。総䌚の参加者が囜際䌚通やホテルずいうコンク リヌトのコクヌンから抜け出すこずができれば、持 っおきた議題を再考させる文化、宗教、歎史、政治、 経枈孊などの宝庫に出䌚うこずができる。芳光客が 100回蚪れおも回りきれないほどの寺院がある京郜 は、やはり日本の歎代の銖郜の䞭でもっずも優雅な 郜であった。そしお政治の街でもあった。二条城の 「うぐいす匵りの廊䞋」にそっず぀た先を乗せお甘い 鳥の声を聞いおから、実はこれが城䞻に曲者の存圚 を知らせる死の音であったこずを知るず、昔の日本の 技術に今でも背筋がぞっずするこずだろう。 䞀方、京郜は昔から呜の茪に぀いおじっくりず考えに 耜る堎所を䜕癟も提䟛する熟慮の堎でもある。経枈 開発ずいう、シヌシュポスの岩にも匹敵できるような 骚の折れる仕事を思案するアゞア開発銀行ADBや 各政府の官僚達、たた巚額の絊䞎をもらうために自 分が䜕をしたのか、そしおそのお金を䞀䜓どのよう に掻甚したらよいのかで悩む高絊取りの銀行員達に は必芁な堎所であろう。倚分、 「熟慮の堎」 ずしお最も 有名なのは、癜砂の䞭に眮かれた苔ず15個の石から なる韍安寺の石庭であろう。䞀床に芖界に入る石は 14個だけなので、15個がすべお同時に芋えるように なるのは死埌、成仏しおからずいう謂れがある。 無論、ほかにも芋る䟡倀のあるお寺がたくさんある。 韍安寺ず同じく犅寺でありながらより静かな源光庵 には、䞊んだ2぀の窓がある。窓の1぀は四角い「迷い の窓」であり、生老病死ず四苊八苊ずいう仏教の教え を象城しおいる。 もう1぀は珍しく䞞い「悟りの窓」 であ り、ガラスは入っおいないが反射的に犅の原理を教 えおいる。人生で苊劎の基ずなる攻撃的な角を䜜るよ りは、䞞い圢をずったほうがいいず瀺唆しおいる。 この お寺では、政治家、官僚、銀行員などが自分達の仕事 の因果関係を認識し、 より冷静に、 より思慮深くなるよ うな課題を呈しおいる。総䌚の参加者がちょうど必芁 ずしおいるものそのものではなかろうか。 京郜は最終的に日本の郜ずいう題を譲った。 しかし、 それでも戊埌では建築ずいう名の蛮行を免れなかっ た。倚くの蚪問客が到着するコンクリヌトの山、京郜 駅を嫌う評論家は倚いが、それもただ商業を祭っお いる碑のようなものに過ぎない。もっず蚱せないの は、源光庵を蚪れたこずがなかったであろう郜垂蚈 画家達が、䌝統建築の䞊に聳え立぀巚倧な怪物を建 お、倧路小路を電柱ず電線で食り、さらに醜い看板を 加え、おたけに眩しいネオンを付けたこずである。 ど れをずっおも、䌝統文化の静かで優雅なスタむルを芆 す圢や魂を叫びながら蚎えおいる。米囜は戊時䞭、 日 本の各郜垂を瓊瀫の山ず化した空襲地獄を意図的に 4


Introduction

troubles. This temple suggests contemplation of all the things that would make a politician, bureaucrat or banker calmer, more thoughtful, and more aware of the consequences of their work, precisely what people attending the annual meeting need. Ultimately Kyoto yielded the title of capital of Japan. That did not stop it from being a target for vandalism in the form of post-war architecture. Many critics hate the concrete pile of the railway station, which is the way that most people will arrive, but the railway station is just a monument to commerce. What is unforgivable is the way that the Japanese planners, obviously never having been to Genko-an, built monstrosities that dwarfed the traditional architecture, festooned the streets with poles and wires and then added ugly signs and lit them with glaring neon, all expressions of form and spirit that screamed the opposite of the quiet grace and style of the traditional culture. The Americans claimed to have deliberately spared Kyoto the agony of the bombing and firebombing that devastated other Japanese cities during the war. The modern Japanese took their revenge on their own people in the unplanned plug-ugliness of modern Kyoto, which can only be celebrated as an appropriate monument to the notoriously corrupt construction industry, a warning example as to what happens when powerful bureaucrats and greedy politicians get together with unscrupulous businessmen. Kyoto is thus Japan at its best and worst. The Asia to which the bank members belong is like Kyoto, the best and most gracious in the world and the ugliest, most squalid. There is so much variety that it is hard to generalise and give a single characteristic that all the members share, except being part of Asia. In population, they range from the billion plus of China and India to the minnow states of a few thousand people each adrift in the Pacific Ocean. In religion, they run from the austere Muslim countries like Afghanistan and modern Pakistan to those with Sufi traditions and places like Indonesia where influences of animism, Buddhism and

colonial Christianity have mixed and softened the fierce unrepenting face of the religion you see in West Asia that’s Islam alone. But Asia also embraces Buddhist Thailand and Sri Lanka; India, where Hinduism lives with secularism; the Catholic Philippines; Korea, where Buddhism, evangelical Christianity and modern materialism meet, not to speak of China and the clash of Communism and capitalism and Vietnam - Viet Nam, as the ADB calls it - which is also developing a taste for prosperity within a stern socialist framework.

© FRILET / Rex features

The Genko-an temple suggests contemplation of all the things that would make a politician, bureaucrat or banker calmer and more thoughtful

Nauru is an object lesson in mismanagement, both of the environment and of the economy.

In resources, Brunei and Malaysia float on oil and gas, whereas Korea and Bangladesh have only their people to provide their energy. Ranked by income and economic development, Asia ranges from Brunei, Hong Kong and Singapore, where incomes are about $30,000 and which are at a more advanced level than most of members of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development to Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos and Nepal, which have considerable populations and low income. Why Hong Kong and Singapore, and indeed South Korea, which is a member of the OECD, are listed as “developing member countries” of the ADB can only be attributed to laziness in not bothering to upgrade them or the reluctance of these members to shoulder the aid of helping their fellow developing members. In terms of speed of economic development, China and India are on a rapid growth track that is as fast as Korea and the other Asian tiger economies achieved, whereas Thailand is beginning to stall as political argument swirls around; Afghanistan and Cambodia are suffering the effects of war, and Bangladesh has struggled to an average income of $440 as it tries to cope with poor resources and a rapidly growing population. A few of the countries, notably low-lying ones like Bangladesh, the Maldives and the Pacific members, are already on the receiving end of the effects of global warming. But all of the ADB members have reason to worry about the consequences of environmental degradation, particular as their faster growth begins to take its toll of fragile structures. In size, the members of the bank range from China, the biggest success story the world has seen, with 1.3 billion people and a per capita income that has risen from about $200 twenty years ago to $1,290 according to the ADB figures or $7,600 according to the Central Intelligence Agency calculating on purchasing power parity figures. At the other extreme there is Nauru, which according to the ADB’s basic statistics has a total land area of 0.0 in thousands of square kilometres. It is actually a 21 square

京郜には送らなかったず䞻匵する。 しかし、戊埌の日 本人は米囜に代わり、近代京郜の無蚈画な醜さによ り、自分の囜民に酷い埩讐をした。腐敗の代名詞ずも なっおいる建蚭業の蚘念碑ずしおしか祝うこずができ ない力が䜙っおいる官僚ず欲匵り政治家が、無節操 な商人ず手を組んだずきに発生する倧惚事の譊告ず しか衚し様がない。 ぀たり、京郜は日本の最善の面ず最悪の面を䞡方打 ち出しおいる。 たたADBのメンバヌが所属しおいるア ゞアも京郜ず同様に、䞖界で最高に優雅な堎所であ りながら最も醜い、最もむさ苊しい偎面もある。あた りにもバラ゚ティに富んでいるため、 「アゞアから来 おいる」 ずいうこず以倖にすべおのメンバヌ達に䞀様 に圓おはたる特色は䞭々芋぀からない。人口では、 10億人以䞊の䞭囜やむンドから倪平掋に浮かんでい る数千人の小さい島々たである。宗教では、アフガニ スタンや近代的なパキスタンのような厳栌な回教の 囜々から、 スヌフィヌ䌝統のある囜や、西アゞアの「回 教䞀筋」の険しくお匷情な顔が粟霊信仰、仏教、怍民 地時代のキリスト教などの圱響により柔らかくなっお 包括的になったむンドネシアたである。 しかし、 アゞア にはさらに仏教囜のタむやスリランカ、䞖俗䞻矩ずヒ ンドゥヌ教が共存するむンド、カトリック教のフィリピ ン、仏教ず犏音䞻矩キリスト教ず近代的な物質䞻矩が 合流する韓囜、䞊びに共産䞻矩ず資本䞻矩が衝突を 繰り返しおいる䞭囜、そしお同じように厳しい瀟䌚䞻 矩の枠組みの䞭でも繁盛が奜きになっおきたベトナ ムがある。 資源を芋るず、 ブルネむずマレヌシアは石油ずガスを 原動力ずしおいるが、韓囜ずバングラデシュの゚ネル ギヌは囜民の力に頌っおいる。たた所埗や経枈開発 では、アゞアには平均所埗が玄3䞇米ドルずなっお倚 くの経枈協力開発機構諞囜より発達を遂げおいるブ ルネむ、銙枯、シンガポヌルから、膚倧な人口を抱え お収入の䜎いアフガニスタン、バングラデシュ、カン ボゞア、 ラオス、ネパヌルたでがある。銙枯、シンガポ ヌル、そしお経枈協力開発機構加盟囜の韓囜たでが ADBの䞭で「発展途䞊加盟囜」 ず分類されおいるこず は、誰かが昇栌を怠ったか、たた䞊蚘の加盟囜が仲 間であるはずの発展途䞊囜に支揎を共に提䟛する責 任を回避しおいるずしか思えない。経枈開発のスピヌ ドでは、䞭囜ずむンドは韓囜などの「アゞアの虎」が以 前達成したず同じ成長率を遂げおいるが、 タむでは政 治的議論が枊を巻く䞭で成長が暪ばいになる。たた アフガニスタンずカンボゞアは戊争の圱響を受け、バ ングラデシュでは少ない資源ず人口急増ずいう䞡面 の闘いを続けながらやっず440米ドルの平均所埗に 達した。 バングラデシュ、モルディブ、倪平掋内の加盟諞囜な ど、䜎海抜のいく぀かの囜々ではすでに地球枩暖化 のむンパクトに盎面しおいる。 しかし、急成長が脆い 自然構造を砎壊し始めおいる䞭で、環境劣化に぀い お心配する必芁のないADB加盟囜はない。 経枈芏暡では、加盟囜の䞀端には䞭囜がある。史䞊 最高の成功䟋である䞭囜では、13億人の囜民の1人 圓たり所埗は過去20幎で玄200米ドルから、ADB統蚈 では1290米ドル、賌買力平䟡説に基づくCIA統蚈で は7600米ドルたで䞊昇した。 もう䞀端には、ADBの基本統蚈では党囜土が0.0千 平方キロメヌトルずなっおいるナりルがある。実際に は、倪平掋の䞭にある21平方キロメヌトルの豆粒の ような島であり、最寄の隣接島からは300キロ、耕地 れロ、䜜物れロ、13287人CIA統蚈のうちの90%が 倱業しおいる囜である。䞖界䞭で正匏の銖郜を持た ない唯䞀の囜である。そのナりルも、珟代経枈開発の 歎史の䞭では独特な䜍眮を占めおいる。短い期間で はあったが、高䟡な鉱物を萜ずした海鳥達ず同じよう にリン酞塩の䟡栌が舞い䞊がったずき、䞀時的には 1人圓たり所埗が3侇5000米ドルにもなり、䞖界で最 も裕犏な囜ずなった。 ナりルがさらに興味深いなのは、環境ず経枈䞡方の 倱策の教蚓ずなる実䟋になったからである。鉱物を 抉り取った埌の地圢は月のようにクレヌタヌず岩石 だらけである。ほずんどの人は政府に雇甚され、ゞャ ンクフヌドず運動䞍足で肥満になったため、 ナりルが 䞖界䞀の糖尿病率を誇るようにもなった。そしおリン 酞塩から埗た収入はたさかのずきに備えお、 メルボル

WiA Delegate Publication

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ADB in the spotlight

kilometre speck of land in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, with 13,287 people (according to the CIA), 300 kilometres from the nearest neighbour, with zero arable land, zero crops and 90 percent unemployment. It is the only country in the world not to have an official capital city. Nauru has its own special significance in the annals of modern economic development. For a very brief while it was the richest country in the world in terms of per capita income, more than $35,000 as phosphate prices soared like the birds that had originally deposited the prized mineral there. Nauru is also interesting because it is an object lesson in mismanagement, both of the environment and of the economy. The landscape today is as rocky and cratered as the moon because of the way the mineral was gouged out. The government employed most of the people, who got fat eating junk food and doing nothing, so that Nauru had the world’s highest incidence of diabetes. The earnings from phosphates were saved for a rainy day and included investment in the so-called “Birdshit House”, Nauru’s 50 storey flagship building in Melbourne. The money, at one stage more than $1 billion was then wasted through extravagant spending and poor investment in a national airline and Nauru has had to resort to unusual measures to stay afloat financially, so to speak. For a while Nauru became a tax haven until obvious money-laundering activities led to concerted international pressure that successfully shut it down. More recently, Nauru has got aid and small sums of money from Australia for being an offshore detention centre for processing asylum seekers trying to get to Australia. Asia, of course, has plenty of economic success stories. China is one. India is another. And it is impossible not to feel the contrasting excitement between the two giants. China is more efficient and straightforward. Sitting in Beijing, perhaps in that Starbucks inside the Forbidden City, you can only marvel at what has been achieved. From a country that was as cut off from the world as the

emperor in the Forbidden City, China has become the star of the emerging world with years of double digit growth, higher than the fabled Asian tigers achieved, and the rapid growth continues to roar ahead. The latest ambition is that China is planning to build passenger aircraft to take on Boeing and Airbus, and you can be sure that this will be a dogfight that the World Trade Organisation will be called on to adjudicate before long. China now feels confident to flex its muscles internationally, sending billions of dollars in aid abroad and calling for renegotiation of international contracts that were struck before the recent surge in markets. Even Starbucks, which helped to pay for renovations to the Forbidden City, is being told by aggressively confident young Chinese that its presence in the old city is “unChinese” and it should get out.

© Getty Images

From a country that was as cut off from the world as the emperor in the Forbidden City, China has become the star of the emerging world

Sign of the times: Starbucks in the Forbidden City. Young Chinese have called it ‘UnChinese’.

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ンにある50階建おの目玉建物通称鳥糞の家な どに投資された。䞀時的に10億米ドルをも䞊回った お金は、その埌のぜいたくな浪費ず囜営航空䌚瀟ず いうおろかな投資により費やされ、 ナりルは経枈的に 沈たないために異垞な措眮を取らざるを埗なくなっ た。 しばらくタックス・ヘむノンずなったが、明らかな マネヌロンダリング掻動に察する囜際的な圧力が掛 かったために閉鎖した。 より最近、 ナりルはオヌストラ リアぞの移民を垌望しおいる難民の沖合い収容所ず しお、オヌストラリアから支揎ず僅かな資金をもらっ おいる。 蚀うたでもなく、アゞアには経枈が成功した䟋もたく さんある。その1぀は䞭囜。もう1぀はむンド。その2぀ の倧囜のコントラストを芋お、倚くの人は関心せずに はいられないであろう。䞭囜はより単玔で効率が高 い。北京に、たずえば玫犁城内のあのスタヌバックス に座っおいるず、偉倧な実瞟に驚嘆するばかりであ る。玫犁城内の皇垝ず同様に回りの䞖界から隔離さ れおいた䞭囜は、噂の「アゞアの虎」経枈よりも高い 2桁成長を䜕幎も遂げ、新興䞖界のスタヌずなっおき た。その急成長は今も先頭を走っおいる。䞭囜の最新 の野望は、Boeing瀟やAirbus瀟ず競争する旅客機を 生産する蚈画であるらしい。近いうちに䞖界貿易機関 WTOWorld Trade Organisationが裁定を迫ら れる空䞭戊になるに違いない。䞭囜は既に囜際舞台 で実力を行䜿する自信が付き、海倖に䜕十億ドルも の支揎を送ったり、最近の垂堎高隰の前に締結され た囜際契玄の再亀枉を呌びかけたりしおいる。玫犁 城の修埩に資金揎助したStarbucks瀟でも、 自信のあ たりに攻撃的になった若い䞭囜人に、 「旧垂街におけ る存圚が『非䞭囜的』なので垰れ」 ず蚀われおいる。 䞀方むンドでは、䞭囜の蚘憶が灰色に薄れるほど、

In India, the scene is more colourful, like 䞇華鏡を芗いたようにもっず鮮やかな環境である。 a kaleidoscope being shaken vividly, so that むンドに お ける䌚 話 は 哲 孊、政 治、経 枈 å­Š などを the memories of China begin to seem grey. 倧胆にミックスしお、より倚方面に枡る。䟋えば、蚈 Conversations in India will be more wide- 画委員䌚の副委員長モンテック・シン・アルワリア ranging, confidently mixing philosophy, Montek Singh Ahluwalia氏ずの話は、博識が高く 薀蓄もあるが、同時に論砎しようずいう遊び心があり、 politics and economics. Talking to Montek たるでオックスフォヌド・ナニオン蚎論䌚におけるデ Singh Ahluwalia, the deputy chairman of the ィベヌトを聎いおいるようである。その反面、同氏は planning commission, for example, is a bit like 優秀な経枈孊者でありながら、デリヌの快適な環境 listening to a debate at the Oxford Union Society: ず同じくらい囜の今埌の経枈に圱響を䞎える田舎町 sophisticated, full of erudite knowledge, but の汚い政治はずもかく、自分の空調付き事務所ず自動 playful, point-scoring, so that you do wonder 車から出お、普通のむンド人の普通の生掻における how many times the brilliant economist has 埃ず匂いず暑さを芋お、感じお、共有したこずは果たし お䜕床あるのかず考えるほどである。 stepped outside his air conditioned office and car to see, smell, feel and share the heat and ただ蚀っおいるだけではない。䞭囜でも、むンドで も、経枈ミラクルが取り残した、たたは通り過ぎた人 dust of the real life of real Indians, let alone the 々をどうするか、さらに急成長に䌎う汚染の増加に grubby small town and rural politics that shape どう察凊するかずいう深刻な問題がある。䞭囜では the economic future as much as what happens 共産党の支配により、決断プロセスがより簡単であ in air conditioned Delhi. るが、むンドでは党囜・州・地域の各レベルに意思決 This is not an idle point. Both in China and 定者の局が存圚し、それぞれがグルヌプの䞭で、そし in India there are real problems as to how to お局の間で無限の民䞻的蚎論に参加できるずいうこ cope with the people left behind or left out of ずを倧いに楜しんでいる。以前䞭囜の高玚金融官僚 であった、たた今埌もいずれそうなるずいうADB副 the economic miracle, just as there are about 総裁、金立矀Jin Liqun氏によるず、䞭囜では共産 how to tackle the mounting pollution that 党が䟝然ず力を持っおいるにもかかわらず、䞖論ず is coming with the rapid growth. In China 蚎論に耳を傟ける必芁がある。䞭囜の銖盞、枩家宝 decisions are more straightforward, given Wen Jiabao氏も3月の党囜人民代衚倧䌚で講挔 the dominance of the Communist Party, したずきにこのポむントに觊れた。枩氏が認めたよう whereas in India there are layers of decision に、䞡囜で貧富の差が拡倧し぀぀あるずいう結論に makers at national, state and local level, なる。 all rejoicing in their ability to take part in ADBのアゞア内の加盟囜には、軍事政暩がビルマか free-ranging democratic debate both among ら改名したミャンマヌもある。玄60幎前にビルマずし themselves and between the various layers. お独立したずきには想像もできなかったこずである が、圓政暩が倩の邪鬌のように鎖囜政策に乗り出し Jin Liqun, the ADB vice president who was たために、アゞアで最も資源を持った、将来が有望芖 and will again be a high ranking Chinese された囜の1぀がのけ者ずされる埌進囜ずなり、圓該 finance official, cautions that although the 地域の繁盛を共有できなかった。 Communist Party holds sway in China, it still たた、倧陞の反察偎には加盟囜ではないが䞻芁加盟 has to heed public opinion and debate. The 囜がずおも気にしおいる北朝鮮がある。その「芪愛な point was also made by Chinese premier る指導者」ず数人の゚リヌトを陀けば、近代経枈の利 Wen Jiabao in his address to the National 益を共有できる北朝鮮人はいない。 People’s Congress in March. The bottom line 䞊蚘の間には、以前゜連が匷芁しおいたような地方 is, as Wen admitted, that income disparity is 協力䜓制を今床は自発的に䜜り䞊げるこずができれ ば、明るい未来がたた開く可胜性のあるシルクロヌド 4 increasing in both countries.


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ADB in the spotlight

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䞊の囜々など、バラ゚ティに富んだ様々な囜がある。 たた政治的玛争や軍隊による政暩奪取が急に民䞻 䞻矩を廃止し、海倖投資家が䞍安になるに連れお経 枈成長の倱速を匕き起こしたタむがある。

Engagement is the answer, says Chris Patten, if Burma’s ‘pariah’ status is to be resolved. Here, China’s Army Chief Liang Guanglie meets Burma’s General Than Shwe.

Asian members of the bank also include Burma – or Myanmar as the military junta renamed it – which has failed to share in the rising prosperity of the region because the regime has closed its doors and turned one of the best-endowed and promising countries in Asia into a pariah and backward land, a perverse achievement that it would not have been possible to imagine when Burma gained independence almost 60 years ago. At the other side of the continent there is North Korea, not a member of the bank, but very much a preoccupation of the major members of the bank, whose Dear Leader and the few of the elite are the only North Koreans to share in the modern economy. In between there is such a rich variety of countries, from those on the Silk Road, which may be on the brink of re-opening an exciting future for themselves, if they can learn to work together and achieve by voluntary means the sort of regional cooperation that the Soviet Union enforced on them. There is also Thailand where political disputes and a military takeover have abruptly put an end to democracy and also led to the stalling of economic growth as foreign investors get nervous.

One of the flaws of the ADB is that it is not a political organisation and it cannot handle politics It points to one of the flaws of the ADB: that it is not a political organisation and it cannot handle politics. Rajat Nag, the managing director general and major domo of the bank’s development effort, politely declined to discuss Burma and equally politely said that the bank believed that such conversations should be held in private behind closed doors. All one can say is that such conversations, if any, have not resulted in any success that can be seen by the naked eye. Experienced politicians like Chris Patten, former governor of Hong Kong, EU commissioner, chairman of the Conservative 16

Party and minister for development, gave the answer – engagement between the rulers of Burma and the neighbours, just as engagement is the answer in North Korea. That means China and Thailand, which both have heavy investment in the country. It is a huge failure of China’s leadership that Beijing can present itself as a friend of the developing world and prop up such a corrupt regime. It is an indictment of Thailand’s nascent democracy that a few generals and politically connected businessmen have been able to enjoy the fruits of deals with Burma at the price of continuing misery for the masses of Burma. It is a surprise that squeaky clean Singapore, which correctly shuns corruption like the plague it is, allows its companies to do good business with the regime in Burma. Clearly, the ADB has not been able to use its influence even to bring about constructive engagement with Burma. The ADB is not a political body, but the problem is that there appears to be no pan-Asian political forum where shape and direction can be given to political and economic matters concerning the region and individual countries. APEC or the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation looks like the nearest institution, but APEC has a number of flaws compared even to the ADB. It does not include the countries of the Indian subcontinent or central Asia; it does include Latin American countries whose natural political and trade directions are to the north; it does not include European members; it has been dominated, especially in the years of George W Bush, by US attitudes; and APEC is more about the annual summits, rather than an ongoing political and economic dialogue, as for example the European Community or even Asean have. It would be a step forward in relevance for the Asian Development Bank if, at these annual meetings, trade ministers could be included as well as finance ministers and central bank chiefs. Trade is a central part of the development story, and, as with the World Bank and the IMF, these annual meetings have suffered by being narrowly focussed - when the main work of the bank

これでADBは政治的な組織ではないため、政治に 察応できないずいう぀の短所が明らかになる。 ADBの事務総長であり開発業務を担圓するラゞャヌ ト・ナグRajat Nag氏は、䞁寧にもミャンマヌの話題 を断り、同じく䞁寧に銀行の意芋ではそのような䌚話 はプラむベヌトに、密宀で行ったほうが良いず述べ た。そのような密宀での䌚話が行われたずしおも、裞 県で芋えるような結果は生んでいないずしかいえな い。銙枯総督、欧州連合委員䌚委員、保守党幹事長、 開発倧臣などの職歎を誇る経隓豊富な政治家、 クリス ・パッテンChris Patten氏が蚀うように、 ミャンマヌ でも、北朝鮮でも、答は圓該囜の支配者ず回りの囜々 ずの積極的な係わり合いである。぀たり、 この堎合は その囜にかなりの投資を行っおいる䞭囜ずタむにな る。䞭囜政府が発展途䞊諞囜の友であるように振舞 いながら、そのような腐敗した政暩を支揎するのは、 リヌダヌ達の倧きな倱敗であろう。たた、 ミャンマヌ の囜民が䟝然ず苊しんでいる間に、数人の将軍ずコ ネのある商人達がミャンマヌずの取匕から倚倧の利 益を埗おいるこずは、 タむで生たれ぀぀ある民䞻䞻矩 の厳しい批刀である。 たた政治の腐敗を圓然、ペスト のように避けながら枅廉朔癜を貫くシンガポヌルで さえ、囜内の䌁業にミャンマヌ政暩ずの矎味しい取匕 を蚱しおいるのは驚くべきこずである。ADBがミャン マヌずの積極的な係わり合いを促すように力を発揮 するこずができおいないのは明らかである。 ADBは政治的な機関ではないが、問題は党アゞアを 察象ずしお、個々の囜ず地域党䜓に関係する政治的 ・経枈的事項のあり方や方向性を決めるような政治 的フォヌラムがないようである。最も近いのはアゞ ア倪平掋経枈協力APECAsia Pacific Economic Cooperationであろうが、APECはADBず比范しおも いく぀かの短所がある。APECはむンド亜倧陞や䞭倮 アゞア諞囜を含たないが政治や貿易の自然な方向が 北を向いおいる南米諞囜は含み、欧州の加盟囜を含 たない。特にゞョヌゞ・W・ブッシュ George W. Bush 政暩の間は米囜の考え方に支配されおきおいる。 そし お欧州共同䜓やASEAN東南アゞア諞囜連合が行う 継続的な政治的・経枈的察話ずいうより、むしろ幎次 銖脳䌚議に重点をおいおいるずいった問題がある。 ADBの幎次総䌚に金融倧臣や䞭倮銀行総裁に加え お、貿易倧臣も含むこずができれば、圓銀行の存圚 意矩が進歩するであろう。貿易は開発の䞭の䞭心 的な郚分であり、䞖界銀行ず囜際通貚基金IMF International Monetary Fund も経隓しおいるよう に、銀行の䞻な仕事が貿易や䞀般的な開発を含んで いるにもかかわらず、幎次総䌚の焊点が狭すぎるた めに損をしたこずがある。正盎なずころ、ADBの総䌚 はおしゃべりの堎ずなっおきおいるため、アゞアの䞭 栞地域でも䞀般倧衆には興味が湧かないが、総䌚の 焊点をもっず広く捉えるこずにより、総䌚の存圚意矩 を䌝え、より倚くの䞀般人の関心を呌ぶ可胜性があ る。 たたADBの本業である経枈開発の日垞的な課題で も、䞀様にいい結果が出おいるずもいえない。いかめ しい名前が付けられた「ミレニアム開発目暙」を考え おみよう。 これらは䞭々捉えがたい8぀の目暙であり、 非垞に明確なもの普遍的初等教育の達成、 より䞀 般的なもの極床の貧困ず飢逓の撲滅、曖昧すぎる もの環境の持続可胜性の確保、そしお最埌にあた りにも意味のない感傷的な衚珟なので信心家ぶっお いるか倢想であるずしか蚀い様がないもの開発の ためのグロヌバル・パヌトナヌシップの掚進 を含む。 唯䞀特定した目暙である教育は、急成長䞭の囜々で は達成しおいるが、いく぀かの䞻芁な囜々ではただ 遠いようである。数幎前に自爆攻撃を「即時の地獄行 き」 ず宣告しおいたタリバンが女子生埒のいる孊校に 自爆テロを掛けるアフガニスタンはさおおき、むンド でさえ、地方では教垫を出勀させるこずは至難の技で ある。 貧困の撲滅ずなるず、䞭囜をはじめずする急成長囜で は確かに1日1ドル以䞋で生掻しおいる人の数が劇的 に枛った。 しかし、1日2ドル以䞋で生掻しおいる人の

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ADB in the spotlight

includes trade and general development. Widening the focus of the meeting might also add relevance and general interest since, frankly, there is not much general public interest even in the Asian heartland in the talking shop that an ADB annual meeting has become. Even when it comes to the bread and butter issues of economic development that are the bank’s staple fare, the record is mixed. Take the grandly entitled Millennium Development Goals. These are an elusive bunch of eight targets that include some highly specific targets, such as “achieve universal primary education”, some more generalized ones, such as “eradicate extreme poverty and hunger”, others too vague, for example, “ensure environmental sustainability” and the last so mushy and meaningless that it can only be termed pious or wishful thinking, “develop a global partnership for development.” Educational goals, the only specific target, have been achieved in the rapidly growing countries, but still look elusive in some key countries. Leave aside Afghanistan, where the Taliban have resorted to sending suicide bombers – something that a few years ago was condemned as an instant sentence to hell – to blow up schools attended by girls, even in India it is difficult to get teachers to turn up for work in rural areas. In terms of defeating poverty, the fast growing countries, particularly China, have shown rapid reductions in the number of people living on $1 a day or less. But reducing the numbers on $2 a day or less is proving to be more intractable. Rapid economic growth - the magic number varies by country but is of the order of 7 percent plus - is essential if countries are to combat poverty. The experience of China and India is that rapid growth also increases disparities and gives the rich more opportunities, so it is important that even a rapidly growing country can tilt the playing field to ensure that the poor can begin to compete and climb towards prosperity. In a lively democracy like India’s any government that lets the poor feel they are being left behind risks being swept from power; in China even premier Wen Jiabao admitted feeling the pressure from widening disparities.

After 40 years of the Asian Development Bank and more than 60 years of the World Bank and IMF, there is growing recognition that the cause of bringing economic development is more complicated than highly paid international bureaucrats pretend and some of the factors are precisely political with a small p. A couple of years ago, on his way to Madras (or Chennai) in southern India for a seminar on water, the ADB expert said that as far as water is concerned “24/7 is the only way”, meaning a constant supply round the clock is the most efficient way of delivering the precious commodity, though he did stress that one of the vital things was getting the pricing right, so that the user paid and ensured efficient use of supplies. When we got there, we found that the local people had to go out into the streets every day taking buckets and pots and pans to collect water from tankers.

© Neil Cooper / Panos Pictures

It would be a step forward in relevance for the ADB if, at these annual meetings, trade ministers could be included as well as finance ministers and central bank chiefs

People have to go out into the streets every day with buckets, pots and pans to collect water in Madras. “A 24/7 supply is the only way”, says the ADB’s expert.

18

数を枛らすこずはより困難な問題である。貧困ず闘う ために必須なのは急激な経枈成長である。具䜓的な 数字は囜によっおたちたちであるが、凡そ7%以䞊ず 考えおよかろう。䞭囜ずむンドの経隓が瀺すように、急 成長では貧富の差が拡倧し、富裕局にはさらにたく さんの機䌚を䞎える。そのため、急成長囜でも、貧困 局が公平に競争し裕犏ぞの道を登りはじめるこずが できるように「土俵を傟ける」必芁がある。むンドのよ うに民䞻䞻矩が掻発に働いおいる囜では、貧困局が 取り残されおいるず感じさせるような政府はすぐに暩 力から远われる危険性がある。䞭囜では、銖盞の枩家 宝氏でさえ拡倧し぀぀ある貧富の差から圧力を感じ おいるず認めた。 アゞア開発銀行ができお40幎、䞖界銀行ずIMFができ お60幎䜙りの今日では、経枈開発を掚進する䜿呜は 高絊取りの囜際官僚たちが蚀うほど単玔な問題では なく、やはり政治的な偎面も無芖できないずいう認識 が広がり぀぀ある。23幎前に、氎に関するセミナヌ のためにむンド南郚のチェンナむ旧マドラスに向 かっおいたあるADB専門家は「氎に関しおは24/7し かない」、぀たり䞀日䞭の安定䟛絊がこの高䟡な物資 を䟛絊する最も効率的な方法であるず蚀ったが、同 時にナヌザからの支払により効率的な䟛絊が保蚌さ れるために、その䟡栌蚭定が重芁であるこずも匷調 した。 しかし、珟地に着いおみるず、䜏民は毎日バケ ツや鍋を持っお街のタンカヌから氎をもらっおいた。 それでも「私達はバンガロヌルよりはラッキヌです。 向こうは1日おきにしかこないから」 ず嬉しそうに語る 人がいた。むンド南郚内の広い地域における氎の䟛 絊が長い間、政治的な争いのために䞭断され、たた は停止されおいる。䟋のADB専門家の意芋は正確だ ったのかもしれないが、ある意味では論拠がずれお いた。政治家がしっかりするたでは、ADBをはじめ、第 3者にできるこずはほずんどなかった。無論、問題は ADBの働きにより、それぞれの圓事者が賢くなるこず が可胜かどうかであった。

Some of the people said happily, “We’re better off than Bangalore. They only get deliveries every other day.” Water supplies across huge areas of south India have long been disrupted 良い家を建おる前に良い基瀎が必芁であるずいうの は近代の倧発芋ではない。それず同様に、経枈政策 or even suspended because of political にも匷い基盀がなければ、資金の無駄遣いになりや disputes. The ADB expert may have been すい。䜕幎も前になるが、埌で台湟䞭倮銀行の総裁 correct, but in a sense what he was arguing になったADBの圹員、謝森䞭Samuel Shieh/Hsieh was irrelevant: until the politicians could get 氏は、どの経枈開発プログラムやプロゞェクトでも、 their act together, there was little the ADB 最も重芁なのは「シヌケンス」、即ち物事の順番を正 or anyone else could do. The question, of しく決め、経枈ずいう家の基瀎を正しく䜜るこずであ course, was whether the ADB might be able るず䞻匵した。 銙枯で蚌刞先物委員䌚の委員長を勀めおから、珟圚 to help knock heads together. It is certainly not a recent breakthrough はマレヌシアず䞭囜の倧孊で教授ずなっおいる沈联涛 Andrew Sheng氏は2007幎がアゞア通貚危機か in knowledge that you have to have good らちょうど10呚幎であるこずを指摘する。沈氏による foundations before you can build a good ず、 「良いニュヌスはアゞアの経枈はそれぞれ危機か house. In the same way, economic policies ら確実に回埩し、たた成長するようになっただけでは need a strong base, or money can easily be なく、様々な圢でより匟力的になったこずです。䌁業統 wasted. Many years ago, an ADB director 治の改善、監督の匷化、財政状態および囜際収支の called Samuel Shieh (sometimes written 健党化、そしお匕圓金の増加ずいった偎面がすべお Hsieh), who went on to be head of Taiwan’s 良くなりたした。貧困局は残っおいたすが、党䜓ずしお は貧困が少なくなりたした」 central bank, argued that the most important 「アゞアの悪い癖や偏狭的な考え方が完党に part of any economic development ただし、 ずいう忠告を加える。沈 programme or project was “sequencing” 消えたわけではありたせん」 氏はさらにアゞアにおける機䌚ず問題に関するいく - getting things in the right order, building ぀かの論文を曞いおいる。䞻に金融や出資のために proper foundations for the economic house. 専ら銀行に頌るずいう䌝統的なやり方を離れ、資本 Andrew Sheng, who was Hong Kong’s 垂堎をより広くより深くしようずする詊みに焊点を絞 securities regulator and is now a university っおいるが、この批刀的なコメントはもっず広い開発 professor in Malaysia and China, notes that 領域においおも重芁な意味を持っおいる。 2007 is also the tenth anniversary of the 沈氏は政治経枈孊ずいう領域の重芁性を指摘し、囜 Asian financial crisis. He says that the good 際金融機関がそれを考慮しなかったこずをき぀く批 「䞎えられた制床的枠組みを前提ずする news is that “The Asian economies have 刀しおいる。 definitely recovered from the crisis and こずにより、政治経枈孊、既埗暩益、官僚的惰性、腐敗 など、短期的解決のない長期問題ずいう厄介な分野 have regained not only their growth, but に足を螏み入れるこずなく政策を策定するこずがで also shown greater resilience in many ways. きたした。理屈の䞊では完璧であたねく評䟡される The improvements include better corporate が実践的には欠点だらけの理論ず、それらに裏付け governance, stronger supervision, healthier られた綺麗な政策に集䞭した方がはるかに楜でし fiscal and balance of payments positions, た 経隓的モデルに基づいたポリシヌを匷調した and higher reserves. Overall poverty has が、それらのポリシヌを執行するために必芁な制床 come down, although there still remains a 的枠組み、぀たり䌚蚈、法埋、効率の良い叞法制床や 官僚䜓制ができおいるずいうこずを倧胆に、 たた単玔 4 large number of poor.”


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ADB in the spotlight

Andrew Sheng: The Asian economies have definitely recovered from the crisis.

But Sheng cautions that, “Asian bad habits and parochial thinking have not completely gone away.” He has also been doing a series of research papers into the Asian opportunities and problems. Although his principal focus is finance and the attempt to widen and deepen capital markets to get away from the traditional heavy reliance on banks for finance, his critical comments have a relevance across wider areas of development. He points to the importance of the area of political economy and comments sharply that the international financial institutions failed to take it into account. “By assuming away the institutional framework as given, policies could be formulated without getting into the messy area of political economy, vested interests, bureaucratic inertia, corruption and other long-haul issues that had no easy short-term solutions. It was so much easier to focus on elegant policies, supported by universally acclaimed theories that were logically impeccable but practically flawed... The emphasis on policy, using empirical models of behaviour, made bold and simplistic assumptions that the institutional framework of accounting, law and efficient judiciary and bureaucracy were in place for the policies to be effected. As we all know, in many emerging markets, the quality of the property rights infrastructure was in many ways defective, and policies that worked in market economies were in many instances ineffective when applied in emerging markets.” Sheng’s argument is that institutional change is tough because “there are usually too many vested interests and conflicting view on the outcomes of change. Change managers understand that a first priority of institutional change is ownership or the creation of the common understanding of issues, common language of reform and at least sufficient acceptance of the tradeoffs of change. This involves game theory, a greater grasp of local conditions and values, and is so much more interrelated and complex than providing macroeconomic policy advice.” 20

He cites an APEC study about capital markets that found almost 30 different regulatory and systemic impediments to cross-border investment in Asian capital markets, ranging from technical matters, discriminatory treatment of foreigners, difficulties of market access, quality of infrastructure, illiquidity of markets, lack of supporting institutions, laws, regulations, supervision and standardisation and so on. There are important implications in Sheng’s work that the ADB could profitably study. One simple point involves corruption, which has become a focus for places like the World Bank. Sheng notes that “focussing on corruption is looking at the symptoms rather than the roots of the institutional barriers to growth.” Kyoto, of course, is highly evocative and symbolic because of the protocol, and the fact that the US, the world’s largest emitter of carbon dioxide, has not ratified it. It is impossible to escape the widespread feeling that the Kyoto meeting has come two years too early, that the world is marking time until the end of the eight do-nothing years of the George W Bush presidency. When Bush has gone and the US can be persuaded to be practical and realistic and engage the rest of the world rather than making lofty statements as if it is owner of the world, then it may be possible to make progress on issues of climate change. China and India will not come in until there is a change of heart in Washington.

Perhaps Kuroda’s greatest contribution to Japan and the bank could be in preparing the two for a non-Japanese successor. Kyoto would be an ideal place to sow those seeds But Kyoto is also important because it is in Japan and because Japan, as many officials from ADB developing countries see it “owns” the bank by virtue of always nominating the president without challenge. But perhaps it is time for the Japanese officials to take some time off from their wall to wall meetings and go to contemplate at Ryoanji, or maybe better still at Genko-an. Japan is the host of the meeting and is Asia’s original and great development success story, as seen in the Meiji era and, again, after the Second World War. But Japan, and particularly the finance ministry in Kasumigaseki, needs to think whether Japan is too stuck in its own way of doing things to see clearly that Asia is not just Japan and that Japanese lessons need to be adapted and put into new contexts. Haruhiko Kuroda is one of the most distinguished people to have ever headed the ADB. He is intelligent, intellectual, international in outlook. He has a broad vision of the needs for Asia to come together and use its combined strengths and skills. Perhaps his greatest contribution to Japan and the bank could be in preparing the two for a nonJapanese successor. Kyoto would be an ideal place to sow those seeds. g

に、想定しおいたした。誰でも知っおいるように、倚く の新興囜垂堎では財産暩基盀の質が䞍備なずころが 倚く、垂堎経枈でうたくいったポリシヌでも、新興囜垂 堎に圓おはめたずきには䜿い物にならないこずがよ くありたした」 沈氏が考えるには、制床改革が難しいのは「通垞、既 埗暩益や、改革の結果に関する意芋の衝突が倚すぎ るためです。改革を運営する人ならその改革のオヌ ナヌシップ、぀たり問題の共通意識ず改革に関する共 通の蚀語衚珟の䜜成、そしお改革におけるトレヌドオ フの受諟が少なくずも充分なレベルに達しおいるこ ずが制床改革の優先事項であるこずを理解しおいた す。 これにはゲヌム理論や珟地の状況ず䟡倀芳をより 良く把握するこずが絡んでくるから、マクロ経枈的な アドバむスを提䟛するこずよりはるかに耇雑な盞互 関係がポむントになりたす」 沈氏が匕甚する資本垂堎に関するAPECの調査では アゞアの資本垂堎には技術、倖囜人の差別的扱い、 垂堎ぞのアクセスの難しさ、基盀の質、垂堎自䜓の非 流動性、支持する機関・法埋・芏制・監芖機構・暙準化 の欠萜など、 クロスボヌダヌ投資を劚げる玄30皮も の芏制䞊・制床䞊の芁因が怜出された。 沈氏の研究の䞭で、ADBが勉匷するに倀する重芁な 事柄がいく぀か含たれおいる。その1぀は䞖界銀行な どでも泚目されおいる腐敗に関する単玔な指摘であ る。 「腐敗に泚目するずいうのは、成長を劚げる制床 的芁玠の原因ではなく結果ばかりを芋るず同じこずで す」 ず沈氏は述べおいる。 䞖界で二酞化炭玠を最も倚く排出しおいる米囜も批 准しおいない議定曞のために、京郜ずいう堎所が非 垞に象城的であり、感情に蚎えるのは蚀うたでもな い。そのため、 この京郜総䌚も2幎早いのではないか ずいう予感から抜けられない。ゞョヌゞ・W・ブッシュ 政暩の無為無策の8幎間が終了するたで䞖界䞭で足 螏み状態が続いおいる。ブッシュ氏が舞台から去り、 米囜がいかにも地球のオヌナヌであるかのごずく高 尚な発蚀をする代わりに他の囜々ず積極的に係わり 合い、珟実的な、実践的な行動をするように説埗する こずができれば、気候倉動の問題における進歩も倢 ではないかもしれない。 ワシントンが心を入れ替えな ければ、䞭囜ずむンドはチヌムに加わるはずがない。 京郜が重芁であるもう1぀の理由は、 日本にあるため である。ADB加盟発展途䞊囜の倚くの担圓官の意芋 では、日本が必ず銀行の総裁を競争なく指名するた め事実䞊銀行を所有しおいるのである。では、 日本の 担圓官が果おしない䌚議から少し離れお、韍安寺、あ るいはさらに奜たしいのは源光庵でしばらく沈思黙 考するずきがきたのではなかろうか。 この総䌚の䞻催 囜である日本は明治維新ず第二次䞖界倧戊埌に芋ら れたように、アゞア初の偉倧な開発成功䟋である。 し かし日本、 ずりわけ霞ヶ関の財務省は、日本が独自の 道にはたり蟌み、アゞア日本だけではなく、たた日 本で孊んだこずが新しい環境で生かされる堎合は修 正が必芁であるこずが芋えなくなっおいるずいう可胜 性を考える必芁がある。 ADBの総裁を務めおきた歎代の人々の䞭で、黒田東 圊氏は最も優秀な人物なのかもしれない。知的であ り、知性的であり、芖野も囜際的である。 アゞアが団結 し、総合的な力やスキルを掻甚する必芁性に関する 広いビゞョンを持っおいる。黒田氏が日本のために、 たたADBのためにできる最高の貢献は、日本人でな い埌継者を受け入れるように根回しを始めるこずな のかもしれない。そのような皮を蒔く堎所ずしお、京郜 は理想的な地ではなかろうか。■

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ADB in the spotlight

黒田総裁の歩み ADB総裁就任から3幎目を迎えた黒田総裁 が過去、珟圚、 そしお総裁が抱いおいる未来 ぞの垌望に぀いおWords into Actionのケ ノィン・ラファティ氏ず語る。

© Rafoto

頭脳明晰で歯切れが良く、囜際金融事情の 裏衚を経隓し、開発問題に詳しく、耇雑な官 僚ず政治の関係ず日本から欧米に匵り巡ら された蜘蛛の糞のような人脈を知り尜くし おいる黒田東圊総裁ほどアゞア開発銀行 総裁の適任者はいない。 しかしたた、 リヌダ ヌずいうよりも瞁の䞋の力持ちずしお衚舞 台に立たず、合意を奜み争いを避けるこず を望む黒田総裁ほどアゞア開発銀行の総 裁に適さない人物もいないのではないか。

Kuroda’s path As ADB’s president entered his third year in office, he discussed the past, the present, and his hopes for the future with WiA’s Kevin Rafferty

H

aruhiko Kuroda is the very best of persons to be President of the Asian Development Bank: articulate, bright, experienced in the highways and the byways of international financial affairs, well versed in development issues, knowledgeable about the byzantine connections between bureaucracy and politics and with a veritable spider’s web network of contacts spinning out from Japan to the US and Europe. But then again, he may also be the very worst of persons to be the president of such a bank, since he is a back room player, trained to be self-effacing rather than a leader, preferring consensus and eschewing controversy. Like his predecessors, Kuroda comes to the job from Japan’s ministry of finance (MoF). He is without doubt the most distinguished of them in terms of his past career and international outlook. It would certainly be a mistake to see the top Japanese bureaucrats as peas from the same pod, and indeed under the common grey exterior of consensus that Japanese officialdom loves, there are often deep passions and sometimes petty personal hatreds. But, like the archetypal high-flying bureaucrat, Kuroda is a law graduate of the elite Tokyo University, whose career of almost 40 years with the government was spent in the ministry of finance, most of it within the grim fortress building in Kasumigaseki in the centre of Tokyo. However, Kuroda managed to escape from the Japanese confines, first to Oxford to do a graduate degree in economics, where he studied under Nobel laureate John Hicks among others. Hicks, by this 22

time, was coming to the end of his career and was not an impressive lecturer, but in the warmer environment of a tutorial, he had wisdom, practical common sense and a superb network of contacts. Kuroda recalled that, “[Hicks] was so famous he could attract not only economics professors, but also practitioners - central bank governors, bankers, industrialists, and politicians - to his seminars. Graduate students would sit and discuss with the guest speaker, and, at the end of the seminar, he sort of summed up - a very short summary. Quite interesting. It was the interaction of theory and reality, of policy and the theoretical.”

It would certainly be a mistake to see the top Japanese bureaucrats as peas from the same pod

黒田総裁も前総裁ず同様日本の倧蔵省出身 である。歎代の䞭でも黒田総裁の経歎ず囜 際性が突出しおいるこずは蚀うたでもない。 日本の高玚官僚を党お同䞀線䞊で論じる のは確かに間違っおいる。日本人が奜む衚 面䞊の灰色決着の䞋には、激しい情熱がた ぎっおいるこずが倚く、わずかな個人的憎し みが隠されおいるこずもある。 しかし、兞型 的な゚リヌト官僚ず同様、黒田総裁も最高 孊府東京倧孊法孊郚を卒業し、40幎近くに 及ぶ官僚生掻の倧半を倧蔵省、そしおその ほずんどを東京郜心霞ヶ関にある暗い芁塞 のようなビルの䞭で過ごした。 䞀方、 黒田総裁は日本ずいう狭い䞖界から飛 び出し、最初は経枈孊の修士号を取るため にオックスフォヌド倧孊に留孊し、 ノヌベル 経枈孊賞受賞者ゞョンヒックス教授の䞋で 孊んだ。 ヒックス教授は圓時すでに停幎間近 であった。 圌の講矩は聞き応えのあるもので はなかったが、 より芪しみのある個別指導で は、知恵や珟実的なコモンセンス、そしお抜 矀の人脈を孊生達ず共有しおいた。黒田総 裁は次のように回想しおいる。 「[ヒックス教 授は 倧倉有名だったため、 経枈孊の教授だ けでなく、䞭倮銀行の総裁、銀行家、実業家、 政治家などの実務家もセミナヌにきおくれた した。倧孊院生がゲストスピヌカヌず膝を亀 えお意芋亀換し、セミナヌの最埌にはヒック ス教授がごく短い総括を述べたものです。 な かなか面癜いセミナヌでした。理論ず珟実、 理論ず政策のせめぎ合いでしたね」

The experience of being able to discuss 理論ず珟実が合臎する時、時によっおは衝 with top players what happened when theory 突する堎合にどのようになるかずいうこず met, and sometimes clashed with, practice に぀いお䞀流の人ず意芋亀換できた䜓隓 taught Kuroda that, as he put it, “although から、黒田総裁は、本人の蚀葉を借りれば economic theory may provide some insight, 「経枈孊の理論は、それをもずに掞察や枠 some framework, good policies may require 組みができるものではあるが、 優れた政策を something that goes beyond just economic 行うには、 単なる経枈孊の理論や分析を越え theory or analysis - some practical judgement, た䜕か、ある皮の珟実的な刀断や良識が必 some good sense.” ずいうこずを孊んだ。 Kuroda also got international experience 芁なのではないか」 at the IMF in the turbulent mid-1970s after たた、第次石油ショックずブレットン・りッ the first oil shock and collapse of the ズ固定盞堎䜓制厩壊埌で隒然ずしおいた Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange 1970幎代䞭頃に、黒田総裁はIMFで囜際経 4 rates. Although he was the assistant to


Rice is cooked for the Peurade village community while they are rebuilding houses destroyed by the Tsunami. The Japanese Government donated US$ 500 million.

Japan’s executive director at the IMF, and therefore safely still within the Japanese system, he said, “Really, I learned how an international institution can be managed and can function.” In the 1990s Kuroda was the MoF’s point man for the multilateral development banks before becoming director general of the international finance bureau (now called the international bureau) under the ‘charismatic’ Eisuke Sakakibara who was international vice minister and nicknamed “Mr Yen” for his outspoken statements on the currency. Kuroda then took over from Sakakibara and served a record four years as international vice minister and thus Japan’s chief financial “barbarian tamer”. In some ways he lived all his time under the shadow of the flamboyant Sakakibara. Whereas Sakakibara was often outspoken and could sometimes be abrupt and even rude and seemed to love being controversial, Kuroda was always considerate, smiling, polite and careful to the point of bookishness in his responses. Unlike Sakakibara, he went out of his way not to spark speculation about the yen. After stepping down from the vice minister’s job, Kuroda moved a stone’s throw away to the prime minister’s office to be Junichiro Koizumi’s economic adviser. He also had a professorship at Hitotsubashi University. Then he was tapped to take over from Tadao Chino, also a former international vice minister, at the ADB. The move was controversial. Although Chino had served six years as president of the development bank, he had not finished a full term of his own. He was not sick or in ill - health, as far as anyone knows. Bank insiders said that it was simply that Japan’s MoF had decided that it was time to change, so it was time to change. Chino was regarded as a disappointment by many bank insiders, not least because he appeared indecisive and was certainly camera shy and did not relish the public platform. But he was at the helm when the bank made the major change in its strategy to focus on poverty reduction as its priority, and he was personally responsible for persuading Robert Bestani to go to Manila to

rejuvenate the ADB’s private sector effort. On the other hand, some of Kuroda’s friends feared that going to Manila would be a backwater for a man with such global interests. In office so far, he has been kept busy. When he took up the office, Asia was suffering the repercussions of the tsunami and a devastating earthquake then hit Pakistan, showing how vulnerable many of the countries are even in the middle of the greatest economic success story the world has ever seen. Kuroda certainly travels and networks constantly. According to the ADB website, Kuroda made several “state visits” to countries, although in his own speeches he more modestly described them as “official visits”. He has averaged more than 45 speeches a year. As an example of a man in almost perpetual motion, in the first two months of this year (2007), he went to Cebu to meet the heads of government from Asean plus five other neighbouring countries (Australia, China, India, New Zealand, South Korea). Then he was in Davos for the World Economic Forum, visited the UK to deliver a lecture at Cambridge University before he jetted back to touch down in Manila for two days before flying to Vietnam.

隓を積んでいる。IMFでは日本の理事の助 手を務めおいたために日本ずいう組織の 䞭で守られおいたが、黒田総裁は「実際に、 どのようにすれば囜際機関を管理し機胜さ せるこずができるのかを孊びたした」 ず語っ おいる。 1990幎代には、倧蔵省の倚囜間開発銀行 担圓の窓口ずなり、その埌、歯に衣着せな い通貚発蚀から 「ミスタヌ円」の異名をずっ た「カリスマ」財務官把原英資氏の䞋で囜 際金融局珟囜際局の局長を務めた。 その埌、把原財務官の埌を匕き継いで財 務官ずなり、4幎間もの蚘録的な期間、日本 の財務担圓のトップずしお財務ずいう 「野蛮 人」を䜿いこなしおいた。ある意味では、黒 田総裁は華やかな把原氏の黒子に培しお いた。把原氏には、時によっおは無愛想どこ ろか無瀌ずも取られかねない単刀盎入な 発蚀が倚く、論争を奜んでいるようなずころ もあったが、黒田総裁は垞に思いやりに溢 れ、笑顔を絶やさず、瀌儀正しく、なおか぀ 堅苊しくならないように気を぀けお察応し おいた。把原氏ずは異なり、あえお円に関す る憶枬を誘発するこずはしなかった。 財務官の職を蟞した埌、目ず錻の先にある 総理府で小泉玔䞀郎内閣経枈補䜐官に就任 した。 たた、䞀橋倧孊の教授にも就任した。 その埌、財務官を務めた経隓を持぀千野忠 男元ADB総裁の埌任就任を打蚺された。

When Kuroda took up office Asia was suffering the repercussions of the tsunami and a devastating earthquake then hit Pakistan

この亀替劇には賛吊䞡論があった。千野元 総裁は6幎間ADB総裁の地䜍にあったが 任期半ばであった。病気でも䜓調を厩した わけでもないこずは呚知の事実であった。 ADB内郚では、 日本の財務省が亀替の時期 であるず刀断したから代えただけのこずず 蚀われおいた。

What he has achieved is more difficult to say. One member of the ADB staff commented wryly, “The president, who’s that? We never see him. He sits somewhere between the eighth floor (the management floor) and heaven.” In this, Kuroda is unlike James Wolfensohn at the World Bank, who held regular “town hall” meetings at which he answered questions from staff and would frequently surprise them by sitting next to them in the cafeteria.

John Hicks.

特に、優柔䞍断で党くのカメラ嫌いのため に衚に出たがらないこずから、 「千野元総裁 は期埅はずれ」 ずいう芋方が倧勢を占めお いた。 しかし、ADBの「貧困削枛を最優先に しお集䞭的に貧困削枛に取り組む」 ずいう 倧きな戊略転換の舵取りは千野元総裁が 行っおおり、ADBの民間セクタヌに察する取 り組みを掻性化するためにロバヌト・ベス タニRobert Bestani氏を説埗しおマニラ に招いたこずの個人的な責任もあった。

Photo courtesy of the Oxford Mail

© Hes Mundt / OnAsia.com

Kuroda’s path

その䞀方で、黒田総裁の友人からは「これ だけ䞖界に目を向けおいる人物がマニラ に行くずいうのは流れが逆ではないか」 ず 懞念された。就任以来、黒田総裁は倚忙な 日々を送っおいる。就任圓初、 アゞアは接波 ずパキスタンの倧地震の䜙波を被っおい た。そしお、有史以来の経枈的成功の只䞭 にありながら、倚くの囜がその匱さを露呈 しおいた。 黒田総裁は定期的に芖察に出かけ、人脈を 䜜っおいる。 スピヌチの䞭では謙遜しお 「公 匏蚪問」 ず衚珟されおいるが、ADBのホヌム ペヌゞによるず、黒田総裁は䜕床か諞囜を 「 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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ADB in the spotlight

Interviewed in Tokyo, Kuroda was himself quick to don a typical self-effacing Japanese mask. “I have only been at the bank for two years,” he began by saying, before launching into a series of achievements laden with abstract terms, heavy on strategies, action plans, and dialogues. “I think we have made a few changes,” Kuroda continued. “First, we introduced a new medium term strategy, a regional cooperation and integration strategy, a new public communications strategy, new anticorruption and governance action plans. Those policies, strategies and action plans, they direct our activities in developing member countries, lending and non-lending activities as well as policy dialogue and so on and so forth. “It is necessary to adjust our policies and strategies to address changing needs of developing member countries in Asia, but also it is necessary to make our intervention, our policies, our operations more efficient and effective. The whole range of policies, strategies and action plans have been reviewed or improved or newly introduced.” Kuroda had something more specific to boast about when he outlined the second category, finance and lending operations. “We have introduced a number of financial products vis-à-vis developing member countries. We introduced what we call multi(which he pronounced the American way, as ‘multeye’) tranche financial facility, under which the ADB commits itself to provide multi-year project or programme loans to secure our involvement in those countries. We also introduced non-sovereign lending to provinces and municipalities without sovereign guarantees. We introduced a number of credit enhancement products as well. “As a financial institution, as a bank, we diversified, we introduced a number of new financial products so as to make our financial assistance more convenient, more efficient, more effective for developing economies. So policies have been reviewed and changed and our financial instruments have been improved.” Kuroda’s third achievement, he said, was to strengthen the internal structures of the bank: “Of course, in order to influence those

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new policies, strategies and action plans and also to provide new financial products to our developing member countries, our internal structure has to be changed, so we reorganised twice our internal structure and introduced a new human resource strategy and staff performance assessment system and internal reports.” He summed up: “So, policies and strategies, new financial products, internal structure of change, human resources strategies, all these are of course interrelated and all will have impact on our activities in the medium to long run, not just in one year. But already in the last couple of years, particularly last year, we have made significant progress over our financial operations as well as normal lending operations - some meaningful progress has been made, although this is only the start.”

Some of Kuroda’s friends feared that going to Manila would be a backwater

囜賓ずしお蚪問」 しおいる。黒田総裁が幎間 に行うスピヌチは平均45回以䞊である。 じっずしおいるこずのない人物の芋本が黒 田総裁である。今幎2007幎に入っおから 初めのヶ月の間に、セブ島でASEAN諞囜 及びその他近隣ヶ囜オヌストラリア、䞭 囜、むンド、ニュヌゞヌランド、韓囜の政府 銖脳ず䌚談しおいる。その埌もダボスで行 われた䞖界経枈フォヌラムに出垭し、英囜 のケンブリッゞ倧孊での講矩の埌、 ずんが 返りでマニラに2日間滞圚しただけでベト ナムに飛んでいる。 その仕事振りはずおも口では蚀い衚せな い。ADBのある職員は顔をしかめお、 「総 裁誰のこず職員は誰も総裁を芋たこず がありたせん。総裁は8階圹員専甚階 ず 倩囜の間のどこかにいたすよ」 ずコメント しおいた。この点では、定期的に「タりン ホヌル」 ミヌティングを開いお職員からの 質問に答え、カフェテリアで隣に座っお職 員を驚かせるこずも珍しくない䞖界銀行 のゞェヌムズ・りォルフェン゜ンJames Wolfensohn総裁ず黒田総裁は違う。 東京でむンタビュヌを受けた時には、発音 はアメリカ颚でも、控えめな兞型的日本人 の顔になっおいた。 「 ADBに来おからただ 2幎です」 ず前眮きをしおから、抜象的な単 語を随所に䜿い、戊略や行動蚈画、察話を 重芖する䞀連の業瞟に぀いおの話に入っ た。

This language is very Japanese in style, full of words that don’t mean much. However, they echo what Kuroda said to his staff in early 2006: “As we move forward, we must continue to increase our focus and prioritise our efforts to achieve real results on the ground, within a more efficient and solid institutional framework. 「ADBではいく぀かの倉革が行われたず For that, 2006 is the year of consolidation 思いたす。たず、新しい䞭期戊略、地域協力 in terms of staffing and budget. Incremental ・統合戊略、新しい情報公開戊略、新しい こ resource requirements in 2006 will have to 汚職防止・統治行動蚈画を導入したした。 be met exclusively from currently available うした政策や戊略、行動蚈画は、開発途䞊 resources within the approved budget 加盟囜に察するADBの事業、融資掻動や融 envelope. This presents an enormous 資以倖の掻動、政策協議などの指針ずなる challenge for ADB that can only be met by ものです。ADBの政策や戊略をアゞアの開 being more selective, more productive and 発途䞊加盟囜のニヌズの倉化に察応でき more efficient in all endeavours.” るように調敎するこずも必芁です。 しかし、 I tried to change tack to elicit something more personal by asking how Kuroda had それだけでなく、ADBによる介入、ADBの政 changed the ADB and how the bank had 策や業務の効率や効果を䞊げるこずも必 changed him. Pushing this button would have 芁です。政策や戊略、行動蚈画党般に぀い brought a string of specific achievements お、芋盎しや改善、たたは新芏導入が行わ from any Western chief executive, and if it れおいたす」 had been Wolfensohn at the World Bank, he would probably have quickly come close to 2぀めのテヌマである金融・融資業務の説 tears as he recalled seeing African children 明になるず、黒田総裁の話は熱を垯びお具 「ADBでは開発途䞊加盟囜 trekking barefoot to school or the gratitude 䜓的になった。 of a Brazil slum dweller tasting communal に察する数々の金融商品を導入したした。 safe tap water for the first time. いわゆるマルチ・トランシュ金融ファシリテ But, no, Kuroda continued deadpan: “I ィの導入です。 これは、ADB自らが確実にそ think it will take probably several years. の囜に関䞎するように、耇数幎のプロゞェク I have only been there for two years. ト・ロヌンたたはプログラム・ロヌンの提䟛 Probably several more years are required を玄束するものです。たた、州や地方自治 before all necessary changes and reforms are achieved, not only in the bank but also 䜓向けに政府保蚌のいらない非゜ブリン in the field. Because we are a development 融資も導入したした。 その他、数々の信甚 bank because our work is in the field and 補匷商品の導入も行いたした」 not in Manila.” 「ADBは金融機関ずしお、銀行ずしお、倚角 But what difference do you hope to 化を進め、金融支揎を開発途䞊囜にずっお make? Kuroda added: ”Asian economies are growing quite fast. It is good. But they have もっず身近で効率が良く、有効なものにす 4



ADB in the spotlight

るために数々の新しい金融商品を導入した した。そのため、政策の芋盎しや倉曎、金融 商品の改善が行われたした」

© Marc Schlossman / Panos Pictures

黒田総裁の3番目の業瞟であるADBの内郚 構造の匷化に぀いおは、 「そうした新しい政 策や戊略、行動蚈画に圱響を䞎えるずずも に開発途䞊加盟囜に新しい金融商品を提 䟛するには、ADBの内郚構造の倉革が必芁 です。そこで、ADBでは2回にわたっお内郚 構造の再線を行い、新しい人事戊略ず職員 評䟡制床、内郚報告曞を導入したした」 ず語 っおいる。

Kuroda: The Philippine economy is recovering and improving.

a number of challenges. One of them is still remaining poverty. So many Asian people are still living in poverty with 600 million people living on less than one dollar per day. We have to reduce poverty substantially. That is the most important. “Secondly in recent years, although economies are growing quite fast, income inequality is also rising. For thousands of poor people, their living standards are improving and many of them are getting out of absolute poverty, but the income of rich people is rising much faster, so the income disparity is widening and this income inequality is becoming a big issue. Income inequality must be squarely addressed and reduced.

In recent years, although economies are growing quite fast, income inequality is also rising “Thirdly, the environment. Environmental degradation is very serious, particularly in the fast growing countries. Fast growth is necessary but it is not sufficient, particularly with respect to the environment. Environmental improvement and protection is a third vital issue.” Kuroda added that he was looking forward to the 40th annual meeting of the ADB in Kyoto, not so much to look back in nostalgia, but to grasp the challenges facing Asia and the bank. “The Kyoto annual meeting is very important, hopefully

historical, because it is the 40th annual meeting,” he said. “On the one hand in the last 40 years Asian countries have achieved great progress, substantial growth and development, poverty reduction. But on the other hand, as I have said, they face so many challenges, further poverty reduction, reducing income inequality, protecting the environment and even more than that. So I hope that at the 40th anniversary annual meeting in Kyoto, the governors will discuss in a forward-looking manner the future of Asia, the future role of ADB, rather than look back. The long term outlook, long term directions, long term prospects of Asian economies, that should be the agenda.” But the world is changing rapidly and some critics say that the ADB is unnecessary since the world is awash with trillions of dollars of investible funds. And doesn’t Kuroda feel uncomfortable sitting in Manila in the heart of a country that should be among the most prosperous in Asia, but with slums and exports of hundreds of thousands of its people that offer a constant reproach to the development bank? Kuroda responded that the Philippines is beginning to pick up: “The Philippine economy has greatly improved. The inflation rate is now 5-6 percent, growth is 5 to 6 percent, the fiscal deficit is only 1.5 per cent of GDP, the current account surplus is 4-5 percent of GDP. The macroeconomic conditions have greatly improved in the last several years, and also I understand that foreign direct investment inflow to the Philippines has improved. So the Philippine economy is recovering and improving.”

そしお最埌に、 「぀たり、蚀うたでもありたせ んが、政策や戊略、内郚構造の倉革、人事 戊略は党お互いに関係しあっおいるもので あり、いずれも1幎ずいう短期間ではなく䞭 長期にADBの事業に圱響を䞎えるもので す。 しかし、すでにこの2幎ほど、特に昚幎は ADBでは通垞の融資業務だけではなく金 融業務でも目芚しい前進が芋られたした。 ただしこれは始たりにすぎたせん」 ず締めく くった。 この蚀い方は䞭身の薄い蚀葉を矅列した なかなか日本人らしい蚀い方である。 しか し、 こうした蚀葉には、2006幎初頭に黒田 総裁が職員に察しお行った次のような呌び かけが繰り返されおいる。 「 前進する時に は、匕き続きさらに的を絞り、効率的で堅 実な組織の枠組みの䞭で珟堎に珟実的な 結果を残すよう取り組みの優先順䜍を決め おいかなければなりたせん。そのために、 2006幎は職員ず予算を結集する幎です。 2006幎に必芁な経営資源が増えたら、その 分は承認された予算内で珟圚䜿える経営 資源だけで収めなければなりたせん。 これ はADBにずっお倧きな挑戊であり、あらゆる 取り組みにおいお遞択を厳しくし、生産性 ず効率を高めなければ実珟できないこずで す」 切り口を倉えお、 「黒田総裁はどのように ADBを倉えたのか」 「ADBはどのように黒田 総裁を倉えたのか」 ず個人的な質問をしお みた。 このような質問には欧米の最高責任 者は䞀連の具䜓的な䟋を挙げお答えおくれ るであろう。䟋えば、䞖界銀行のりォルフェ ン゜ンWolfensohn総裁であれば、 アフリ カの子䟛たちが裞足で通孊する姿や共同 氎道から初めお安党な氎を飲んだブラゞ ルのスラムの䜏民が感謝する姿を思い出し お今にも涙がこがれそうになるのではない だろうか。 ずころが、黒田総裁は違う。衚情䞀぀倉える こずなく次のように続けた。 「おそらくそれ には䜕幎もかかるこずでしょう。私はただ就 任しおわずか2幎です。ADB内だけでなく珟 堎で必芁な倉革・改革が党お実珟するたで おそらく埌数幎かかるこずでしょう。なぜな らば、ADBは開発銀行であり、ADBの仕事 はマニラにあるのではなく珟堎にあるから です」 4

26

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ADB in the spotlight

He then pointed out that, “The ADB role is different from on the one hand bilateral aid agencies and on the other hand private banks and investors, because we are a multilateral donor, and that means we serve developing countries but from a politically neutral and forward looking (point of view). We aim at making a developing impact rather than profit. Of course, as a bank, we have to be financially sound, but profit is not our objective. Our objective is economic development assistance. As a bank, of course, we have to maintain triple A status. We have to maintain sound financial basis. But our objective is not sound financial basis.”

I found that although the ADB started decentralisation very much later than the World Bank, it has made significant progress towards it What then did he think of the massive billion dollar loan that China’s premier Wen Jiabao made to the Philippines this year, bigger, arranged faster and at lower interest rates than ever the ADB could manage? Kuroda let the barb go whizzing by: “I think that many developing countries that have bilateral trade, investment and foreign aid relationships, seek good relationships with partners, OECD countries and so on. It is quite natural. Every country should carefully study offers made by bilateral donors.” I tried again to get Kuroda to reveal himself and outline the difference he had made. He replied: “As I said we have made good progress over the last few years.

That progress itself is based on the good どのように倉えたいのですか」 ず institutional mechanisms, on the support of 「しかし、 「ア 66 member countries, based on our good の質問に黒田総裁は次のように答えた。 and close relationships with our developing ゞアの経枈は急成長しおいたす。それは良 しかし、いく぀か問題もありた member countries’ governments, all of them いこずです。 built on the last 40 years. I may have had す。 その䞀぀が、今でも貧困が続いおいるず a small portion, but the basic structure いうこずです。 アゞアでは倚くの人が今でも and foundation have been laid down for 貧困にあえぎ、6億人が1日1ドル未満で暮ら 40 years.” しおいたす。貧困を倧幅に枛らさなければ Again I asked how the bank had なりたせん。 それが最重芁事項です」 changed Kuroda: “I found many things quite interesting and some surprising. Before 「第二に、近幎、経枈が急成長を遂げおい coming to Manila, I thought that ADB is not たすが、それず平行しお所埗栌差も広がっ much decentralised because after all the ADB おいたす。貧困局では倧勢の生掻氎準が改 is in Asia, and the major clients are in Asia, 善され、その倚くが絶察的貧困から脱华し unlike the World Bank. The World Bank is ぀぀ありたすが、富裕局の所埗はそれをは in Washington, and the major clients are in Africa, Asia, so far away, so naturally the るかに䞊回る速さで増えおおり、所埗栌差 World Bank has decentralised very much. の拡倧が倧きな問題ずなっおいたす。所埗 I thought that the regional banks had not 栌差にはしっかりず察応しお解消しなけれ decentralised very much. But I found that ばなりたせん」 although the ADB started decentralisation very much later than the World Bank, it 「第䞉は環境です。環境の悪化は、特に急 has made significant progress towards 成長を遂げおいる諞囜では倧倉深刻です。 decentralisation, with offices in all major 急成長は必芁条件ですが、特に環境に぀ borrowing countries and with substantial いお蚀えば満足のいくものではありたせ ん。環境の改善ず保護が3番目の䞍可欠事 delegation of responsibilities.” Kuroda was also quick to duck the 項です」 hot question of whether Japan should automatically appoint the president of 黒 田 総 裁 は 懐 かしい 思 い 出 に浞るた め the Asian Development Bank. After all, if ではなく、アゞアずADBが盎面しおいる課 「京郜で開催される the global financial architecture is being 題を把握するために、 rehabilitated and rewired, shouldn’t the ADBの第40回幎次総䌚を楜しみにしおい ADB’s CEO be the best person for the job たす」 ず付け加えた。 「京郜で開催される幎 and not a Japanese MoF pensioner? Any 次総䌚は40回目であり、倧倉重芁で、歎史 hope that Kuroda, sitting safely in the の節目ずなる総䌚です。 この40幎間でアゞ president’s suite, would be able to advise ア諞囜は倧きな前進、目芚しい成長ず発 on his successor, were dashed.” This is an しかし申し䞊 issue to be discussed and decided by our 展、貧困削枛を実珟したした。 げたように、その䞀方で、さらなる貧困削 shareholders, not me,” he replied. But he did defend the bank against the 枛、所埗栌差の解消、環境保護、その他倚 charge that it is Japan-dominated: “I don’t くの課題にも盎面しおいたす。そこで、京郜 think that Japan has such a dominant で開催される第40回総䌚では、過去を振り 返るのではなく前向きにアゞアの未来や ADBの今埌の圹割に぀いお総務で話し合 っお欲しいず思っおいたす。議題はアゞア 経枈の長期展望、長期の方向性、長期予枬 ずなるはずです」

© Peter Charlesworth / OnAsia.com

しかし、䞖界は急速に倉化しおおり、 「䞖界 には数兆ドルずいう豊富な投資資金があ るのだからADBは必芁ない」 ずいう厳しい 芋方もある。アゞア有数の豊かな囜である はずなのに、 スラムがあり、垞にADBを非難 しおいる倧勢の人々を茞出しおいる囜の䞭 心地マニラにいる黒田総裁は居心地が悪 くないのだろうか

The Philippines should be among the most prosperous countries in Asia.

28

黒田総裁は、 「フィリピンは䞊向き始めおい たす」 ずしたうえで次のように述べた。 「フィ リピンの経枈は倧幅に改善されたした。珟 圚むンフレは56 %、成長率も56、財 政赀字はGDPのわずか1.5%、経垞黒字は GDPの45%ずなっおいたす。マクロ経枈 の状態もこの数幎で倧幅に改善したした。 たた、 フィリピンぞの海倖盎接投資も増えお いるず理解しおいたす。぀たり、 フィリピン経 枈は回埩・改善基調にあるずいうこずです」 4



ADB in the spotlight

© Jenny Matthews / Panos Pictures

そしお、次のように指摘した。 「 ADBの圹割 は、二囜間支揎機関の圹割ずも、民間銀行 や投資家の圹割ずも違いたす。なぜならば、 ADBは倚囜間䟛䞎機関、぀たり開発途䞊囜 のための業務は行いたすが政治的には䞭 立で前向き の芖点だからです。ADBは、利 益を䞊げるこずではなく、開発に圱響を䞎え るこずを目指しおいたす。もちろん、銀行ずし お財政的に健党でなければなりたせんが、 利益が目的ではありたせん。ADBの目的は 経枈発展の支揎をするこずにありたす。銀行 ずしお、 トリプルAを維持しなければならな いこずは蚀うたでもありたせん。財務基盀は 健党に保たなければなりたせん。 しかし、健 党な財務基盀が目的ではありたせん」

Many Asian people are still living in poverty with 600 million surviving on less than one dollar per day.

influence over the ADB. Certainly, the US and Japan are the largest shareholders, each of them holds 16 percent of shares and the third largest is China with 6 percent, then India with slightly less than 6 percent. Japan has only 16 percent and there is no dominant shareholder. “We have 840 or 830 professional staff, and among the professional staff, Japan and the US have the largest share, but compared with their shareholding they are far less. At senior levels, they are fewer. We have so many international staff, from the US, Canada, Europe. We have four vice presidents, one is from America, one from China, one from Laos PDR and one from Germany. So staff representation, particularly at senior level, is particularly diversified.” As he rushed for the lift for his next appointment, Kuroda also parried questions about an Asian Monetary Fund or the creation of a pan-Asian currency - which he was closely involved with when he was in the MoF. Such matters, he said, were “for the IMF.” One long-time observer of the multilateral development banks, who has worked with the World Bank, the IMF and the Asian Development Bank, said that, “Kuroda at least speaks better English than his predecessors.”, adding that he was not trying to damn him with the faintest of praise. “But there is a real problem with the Japanese, particularly in the international organisations. They still behave like Japanese and not as internationalists.” Such failure to adopt international attitudes may make for greater harmony in dealing with Japan, but a development bank for half the world, as the ADB boasted that it is, surely needs someone who can understand and articulate and lead the needs of the half of the world outside Japan. g 30

では、今幎に入っお䞭囜の枩家宝銖盞がフ ィリピンに察しお数十億ドルの借欟を提䟛 した。 これは過去にADBが実珟したものより も巚額で、手続が早く、䜎金利だ。 これに぀ いお黒田総裁はどのように思ったのだろう か この蟛蟣な質問を黒田総裁は次のように かわした。 「貿易や投資、海倖揎助で二囜間 関係を結んでいる倚くの諞囜は、盞手囜や OECD諞囜ずの良奜な関係を求めおいたす。 それはごく自然なこずです。 どの囜も二囜間 揎助の䟛䞎囜からの申し入れは慎重に 怜 蚎すべきです」

任者に぀いお助蚀ができる望みはあるのか ずいう質問をぶ぀けるず、 「それは私ではな く株䞻の皆さんが怜蚎しお決めるこずです」 ずいう答えが返っおきた。 しかし、黒田総裁は「ADBは日本が支配しお いる」 ずいう䞻匵に察しお次のようにADBを 匷く匁護しおいた。 「ADBに察しお日本がそ のように支配的な圱響力を持぀ずは思いた せん。確かに日米はそれぞれ株匏の16%を 保有しおいる2倧株䞻で、以䞋3䜍は6%の䞭 囜、6%匱のむンドず続きたす。 日本は16 %し か保有しおおらず、支配的株䞻ではありた せん。ADBには830840人の専門職がいた す。専門職の占める割合は日米が最も倚い のですが、出資ず比范するずその比率はは るかに䜎いものです。䞊玚職員になるずさら に少なくなりたす。ADBの職員の出身囜は、 アメリカ、カナダ、 ペヌロッパなど実に倚圩 です。副総裁は4人いたすが、出身囜は、 アメ リカ、カナダ、 ラオス、 ドむツです。職員、特に 䞊玚職員の出身囜は様々です」 むンタビュヌが終わり、次の仕事ぞ急ぐ黒田 総裁に察しお、倧蔵省時代に深く関䞎しおい たアゞア金融基金やアゞア共通通貚の実斜 に぀いお質問しおみたが、 「そうしたこずは IMFの仕事」 ずさらりずかわされた。

䞖界銀行、IMF、アゞア開発銀行に勀務した 経隓を持ち倚囜間開発銀行を長幎芳察し ここで再び黒田総裁の本音を聞き、総裁が おいるある人物は、 「 少なくずも、黒田総裁 もたらした倉化に぀いお抂芁を説明しおも の英語力は歎代総裁より高い。皮肉で蚀っ らうこずを詊みた。総裁の答えは次のずおり おいるのではありたせん」 ず述べ、次のよう であった。 「先皋申し䞊げたように、 この数幎 に語った。 「しかし、特に囜際組織では日本 でADBは倧きく前進したした。その前進その 人には本圓に困ったずころがありたす。それ ものは、制床がしっかりしおいたから、加盟 は、囜際人ずしおではなくあくたで日本人ず 66ヵ囜の支揎があったから、そしお開発途 しお振る舞うずいうこずです」 䞊加盟囜の政府ずの密接か぀良奜な関係 確かに、囜際人の考え方を身に付けないほ があったからであり、そのいずれも40幎か うが、日本ずの亀枉は和やかに進むかもし けお築き䞊げおきたものです。私もそのごく れない。 しかし、ADBが自ら暙抜しおいるも 䞀翌を担ったかもしれたせんが、基本ずなる のが「䞖界の半分のための開発銀行」であ 仕組みや基瀎は40幎かけお築き䞊げられ るならば、日本以倖の䞖界の半分のニヌズ たものです」 を理解し、はっきりず䌝え、 リヌドする人物が ここで再びADBによっお黒田総裁がどのよ 必芁であるこずは確実である。■ うに倉わったか尋ねたずころ、次のような答 えが返っおきた。 「倚くの興味深いこず、䞭 には驚くようなこずを発芋したした。マニラ に来る前は、所詮ADBは䞖界銀行ずは違っ おアゞアにあり䞻な䟛䞎先はアゞア諞囜な のだから、それほど分暩化はされおいない だろうず考えおいたした。䞖界銀行はワシン トンにあり、䞻な䟛䞎先は遠く離れたアフリ カやアゞアの諞囜ですので、圓然分暩は倧 倉進んでいたす。地域銀行はそれほど分暩 が進んでいないず考えおいたわけです」。 た た、 「アゞア開発銀行の総裁は日本が惰性 で指名すべきか」 ずいうきわどい質問もうた くかわされおしたった。最終的に、䞖界の金 融構造の埩旧ず関係の再構築が進められお いるのであれば、それを行う最適任者は日 本の財務省を定幎退職した人物ではなく、 ADBの最高責任者ではないのだろうか総 裁宀にどっしりず座っおいる黒田総裁が埌



Programme of events スケゞュヌル THURSDAY, 3 MAY

FRIDAY, 4 MAY

SATURDAY, 5 MAY

8:30 - 6:00 Registration

8:00 - 6:00 Registration Opening of ADB Offices and other meeting services

7:30 - 7:00 Registration

8:00 - 10:00 Open Forum on ADB-CSO Cooperation

10:00 - 12:00 Governors’ Seminar: Facing Asia’s Future: Report of the Eminent Persons Group

11:30 - 2:00 Media Briefing and Media Luncheon

12:00 - 2:00 Sponsored Seminar Institute of International Finance Growth and Globalization: Living with Volatile Private Capital Flows

8:30 - 9:30 Country Presentation - Viet Nam

1:30 - 4:30 Kyoto Day: Kyoto Sense Applying Kyoto Tradition and Innovation to the World

2:00 - 4:00 ADB Seminar - A Borderless Asia: Vision for Regional Integration

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2:00 - 4:00 ADB Seminar Asian Cities: Environmental Management and Financing Challenges

4:00 - 6:00 ADB Seminar - Clean Energy and Environment: Building on Kyoto

4:00 - 6:00 ADB Seminar Emerging Asian Regionalism: Ten Years After the Crisis

5:30 - 6:00 Procedures Committee Meeting

Reception hosted by Kyoto

6:30 Reception hosted by ADB President


Programme of events スケゞュヌル

SUNDAY, 6 MAY

MONDAY, 7 MAY

7:30 - 6:00 Registration

7:30 - 12:00 Registration

8:30 - 9:30 Country Presentation - Pakistan

8:30 - 9:30 Country Presentation - Philippines

10:00 - 11:45 Opening Event and Opening Session of the Board of Governors

9:30 - 11:30 Second Business Session

12:00 Luncheon hosted jointly by the Chair of the Board of Governors and the President of ADB (by invitation only)

10:00 - 12:00 ADBI Seminar Ageing Asia: A New Challenge for the Region

12:00 - 2:00 Sponsored Seminar Standard and Poor’s Trends and Challenges for Financing SMEs in Asia

12:00 - 2:00 Luncheon hosted by the host country (by invitation only)

12:00 - 2:00 Sponsored Seminar JBIC Partnerships for Advancing Asian Bond Markets - Credit and Financial Engineering

12:00 - 2:00 Sponsored Seminar - JBIC Asian-Tailored Technology For Integrated Disaster Risk Management - Sharing Experiences And Future Developments

2:00 - 3:00 Country Presentation - India

2:30 - 4:30 Third Business Session

2:00 - 4:00 ADB Seminar A Global Economy in Transition: Prospects for Investment Returns 2:30 - 5:00 First Business Session 4:00 - 6:00 ADB Seminar Institutional Investors Roundtable: Sustainable Responsible Investment 4:00 - 6:00 Sponsored Seminar - Institute for International Monetary Affairs and Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group Towards Regional Prosperity in Asia - How Can Japan Contribute to Enhancing Regional Financial Markets? 7:00 p.m. Host Finance Minister’s Reception

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5:00 - 6:00 President’s Press Conference




ADB in the spotlight

快 適 な 環 境 から 抜けられないADB

© www.tropix.co.uk (V. and M. Birley)

マニラにあるアゞア開発銀行ADB本店は、 銙枯、䞊海、シンガポヌルなど、掻況で賑わ い、21䞖玀をアゞアの時代ず定めおいるどの 新経枈倧囜でも芋かけるような建物である。

Inside the ADB’s comfort zone The Asian Development Bank headquarters in Manila could have been transplanted from Hong Kong or Shanghai or Singapore or any of the other booming miracle economies that are making the 21st century the era of Asia.

I

nside, cool, air-conditioned people politely greet each other, lifts work smoothly, water is safe to drink, lavatories are clean, and there is a cafeteria crew at the beck and call of staff to serve tea or coffee or cooling refreshments, and appointments with some of the brightest development experts in the world run to time. It is another world, almost surreal when compared with arrival in the tropical heat of the airport and the shuffle through the crowded, sweaty immigration hall, whence this passenger emerged after an hour into a steamy, shabby day filled with braided guards who do nothing, and hassling, jostling people who want you to climb into their taxi or offer you a hotel or other dubious delights. Doing the right thing and queuing for a taxi lands you in a rust bucket with air conditioning that gives off a lot of noise, and air that is warmer than outside. Your taxi bounces over the potholed roads alongside scenery that looks like Latin America transplanted into teeming Africa, filled with signs for girlie bars and entertainment and huge hoardings promising that “Jesus saves”. No holy person has evidently been near these places in a long time. It is not just the slums that you can clearly see, but the haphazard ordinary living conditions, huggermugger housing put together out of flotsam and jetsam, with the fetid smell of their water and sanitation telling you clearly that they are stagnant. Traffic zigzags from one lane to another to steal a few yards in the cacophonous crawling queue. 36

The clear demarcation line between this teeming tide of humanity and the bank, or Fort Apache as it is not so affectionately tagged by one of its inhabitants, is the security gate at which the sign in front of the x-ray machine instructs you to register and check weapons. You also have to register and get a tag for other potentially lethal devices like cameras or tape recorders, although you are allowed to carry them inside with your permit. Throughout my tour of the bank and the surrounding countryside of Asia it was impossible to forget this contrast between the HQ and its surroundings, which seems to sum up a failing, if not a failure, of the bank in its chosen area of development. When it meets for its 40th annual meeting in Kyoto, the ADB would be well advised to do some soul-searching along with the celebrating of its mature middle age. It should address issues beyond mere changes in global and regional patterns of development and look into its own structure and its heart and soul. That means facing questions about the ownership and shareholding and - above all - about the management of the ADB. The key question, and it is appropriate that it should be addressed in Japan’s ancient former capital of Kyoto, is: should a Japanese automatically be appointed president of the ADB at the behest of the Japanese ministry of finance (MoF)? Is it time for a change in the financial architecture to allow candidates, resumés, and even ambitions and manifestos for the job to be assessed before selecting a president?

空調が効いお涌しい内郚では人々が互いに瀌儀正し く挚拶を亀わす。滑らかに䞊䞋する゚レベヌタヌ、安 心しお飲める氎、枅朔なトむレがある。瀟員に呌ばれ ればすぐにお茶やコヌヒヌ、たたは冷たい飲み物を 運んでくるカフェテリアの埓業員が奥に控えおおり、 䞖界でもトップクラスの開発゚キスパヌずのミヌティ ングが時間通りに進められおいる。 空枯に到着しおから、熱垯の蒞し暑さず人蟌みで汗臭 くなった入囜管理ホヌルをのろのろず1時間かけお通 り抜けた埌で、立掟な制服を着蟌んでいるだけで䜕 もしないガヌドマン、 タクシヌに乗せようずする人、ホ テルやさらに怪しい堎所に案内しようずする人などを 掻き分けお、やっずごった返す喧噪の䞭ぞ攟り出され るこずから始たる1日は、ADB本店に入った途端に別 䞖界に倉わった。たるでシュヌルな映画に吞い蟌た れたような感芚である。胡散臭い堎所にはわき目を ふらず、行列に぀いお空枯からタクシヌに乗れば、そ の車はでこがこで、゚アコンは倧きな音を立おお倖よ りも暑い颚を吹き付けおくる。 タクシヌは穎だらけの道を飛び跳ねお行く。道路沿 いの颚景はラテンアメリカを倚産なアフリカに移怍 したようで、若い女の子のいるバヌや嚯楜の看板ず 「む゚スの救枈」を玄束する巚倧な広告であふれお いる。聖者がこの地を長いこず蚪ねおいないのは明 らかである。スラムだけではなく、無蚈画な日垞の生 掻条件、ガラクタや廃棄物で䜜られた乱雑な建物が 目に付く。悪臭は䞊氎も䞋氎も流れおいないこずを語 る。䞍協和音を奏でながらのろのろ進む枋滞の䞭で、 車は数メヌトル先に進むために車線をゞグザグに倉 えお行く。 この溢れかえる人の海ず、ある職員から 「アパッチ砊」 ず有り難くない名前で呌ばれるADBずの間にはっき りず匕かれおいる境界線がセキュリティヌゲヌトであ る。そこに蚭眮されおいるX線怜査装眮の前には、来 蚪者に歊噚の登録ず預け入れを芁求する暙識があ る。カメラやテヌプレコヌダヌも危険物ずしお芋なさ れおいるせいか、登録しおタグを぀けおもらうたでは 内郚に持ち蟌むこずができない。 ADBずそれを取り囲むアゞアの田舎ぞの蚪問を通じ お忘れるこずができないのが、本店ず呚りの颚景ずの コントラストである。 これは、 この銀行が開発のため に遞定した地域で、倱敗ずはいわないたでも成功しお いないこずを端的に衚しおいるように思われる。 京郜での第40回幎次総䌚においお、ADBは成熟した 䞭幎に達したお祝いをするずずもに、そのあり方もじ っくり考えるべきである。ADBは䞖界ず地域開発パタ ヌンの倉化の問題以䞊に、自己の組織構造ず粟神を 怜蚎しなければならない。 それは所有ず株䞻の問題、そしお䜕よりもADBのマネ ゞメントの問題に立ち向かうこずを意味する。日本の 財務省の芁請で日本人が自動的にADBの総裁に遞 出されるこずの぀いおの劥圓性は重芁な問題であり、 これが日本の叀郜京郜で議論されるのは圓然であろ う。候補者や履歎曞、総裁職に察する抱負や公玄を総 裁遞出の前に怜蚎できるよう金融業界のあり方を倉 えるずきではないのか。 たた民間セクタヌの巚倧な資金が流入し、流動性を 持った䜕兆ものドルが䞖界にあふれおいる事実を考 慮するず、ADBのような開発のための銀行にはもっず 長期のニヌズがあるのではないであろうか。たずえ ADBの株䞻の䞭にアメリカや欧州からの地域倖株䞻 がいるずしおも、 さらに歎史のある䞖界銀行が既に存 圚し、党䞖界をカバヌしおいるずいうのに、なぜその䞊 にアゞアに限定した銀行を重耇させようずするのか。

4


ADB’s comfort zone

Whereas the World Bank Group has almost 30 vice presidents or equivalents, the ADB has just four Whatever Nag says, many World Bank staff do regard themselves as a cut above their ADB “country cousins”. Governments in Asia do compare and contrast the two organisations, and some officials will say sotto voce that the ADB comes out lacking in most encounters. One Asian who has spent her whole career at the World Bank, mostly working on Asian countries, is adamant that, “I would NEVER have considered going to the ADB. Apart from some operations specialists, ADB staff are much less good than the World Bank’s. There is much less candle-power, much less polish, much less international experience among ADB professionals compared with those at the World Bank. If you want a career as an economist, the World Bank looks good on your resumé.” Perhaps it is unfair to quote someone who has only had casual encounters with the ADB. But a senior Asian, who knows most of the world’s leading political and financial figures because he has had substantial experience in top jobs in more than one Asian country and has also worked for the ADB and World Bank, says that the Asian bank is severely handicapped in several crucial ways. “Those of us who have worked in the World Bank have always said that the ADB is the poorer cousin. The ADB does not attract the best, partly because of Manila. No one is prepared to say this, but personal security is a problem. Manila’s infrastructure has deteriorated quite a lot, so the best and the brightest of the economists, engineers, don’t really want to work in the city, even though the ADB pay is not bad, especially by Asian standards.

As a very occasional visitor to the ADB ADBの事務総長であるラゞャヌト・ナグRajat Nag氏 who also spent several years working at the は、ADBず䞖界銀行のどちらが開発のための銀行ずし World Bank, I was surprised by the large お優れおおり適切であるかを議論するずいう考えを、 numbers of support staff at the ADB; similar ずっくに賞味期限の切れた叀い話であるず笑い飛ば jobs have been largely abolished at the す。 「䞖界銀行の友人ず䞀緒になるず、私達は今日はど World Bank. If you want a cup of coffee for ちらのやり方で議論しようかず蚀うのです」。ナグ氏は a distinguished visitor at the World Bank, 趣味の良い内装が斜された非垞に広いオフィスで話 you go down to the coffee bar for it; if you をしおいるのであるが、ここはマニラの恵たれない地 区の12家族を収容するのに充分な広さがあろう。 want a letter written, you do it yourself ナグ氏がどう蚀おうず、 䞖界銀行の職員の倚くは自分 unless you are at least a vice president in 達をADBにいる 「田舎者の同業者」 より䞀枚䞊手であ which case a secretary may deign to do it るず考えおいる。アゞア各囜の政府は確かに䞡組織 for you, if you ask nicely. At the ADB, not の比范察照をしおおり、そうなった堎合にADBがだい only are there secretaries chitchatting in たい敗者になるこずをそっず打ち明ける担圓官もい Tagalog at every other desk, but there are る。䞖界銀行で長くアゞア各囜のために働いおきたア 「ADBに行くこずなど考 separate teams of servants to fetch instant ゞア人女性はきっぱりず蚀う。 cups of coffee or tea. In the 2005 annual えたこずもありたせん。特定業務に埓事する䞀郚の専 report, the ADB counts 2,456 staff, of whom 門家達を陀くず、ADB職員は䞖界銀行職員よりもかな ADBの専門家を䞖界銀行の専 only 887 were professionals, meaning that り質が劣っおいたす。 門家ず比范した堎合、実力が䜎く掗緎されおおらず囜 the bank has a high ratio of two support 際経隓が少ないのです。゚コノミストずしおのキャリ staff for each professional. アを望むのであれば、履歎曞には䞖界銀行ず曞かれ The real questions about the structure of おあった方が良く映りたす」 the ADB come at the highest levels. Whereas ADBずはたたにしか関り合ったこずのない人の蚀葉 the World Bank Group has almost 30 vice を匕甚するのが䞍公平であるず蚀われるかも知れ presidents or equivalents, the ADB has just ない。しかし、ADBず䞖界銀行の䞡方で働いたこずが four. Most of the VPs at the World Bank are あり、耇数のアゞア諞囜においお幹郚レベルで手腕 regular career members of the bank staff を振るった長幎の経隓から財政界のほずんどの倧物 who have risen through the ranks. But in ず面識のある叀参の某アゞア人も、ADBはいく぀か の重芁な点で倧きなハンディキャップがあるず語る。 the case of the ADB the vice presidents 「私達の様に䞖界銀行で働いた経隓を持぀者は、 are a strange hybrid group, neither regular 昔からADBのほうが劣っおいるず蚀っおきたした。 career staff, nor part of a dedicated team ADBは最高の人材を匕き぀けたせん。それはマニラ chosen by the president himself. Although に所圚するこずも䞀因ずなっおいたす。誰もこのこず they become senior staff members, they are を口に出そうずしたせんが、身の安党の問題があるの effectively political appointments, chosen です。特にアゞアの氎準からすればADBの絊䞎は決 to satisfy and balance the interests of the しお悪くありたせんが、マニラのむンフラストラクチャ ヌはかなり悪化しおおり、頭脳明晰で優秀な゚コノミ shareholder governments of the bank. ストや゚ンゞニアは実際にはこの郜垂で働きたくな The backgrounds of the four are so いのです」 different that it would be hard to suspect that 䞖界銀行で数幎間働いた経隓があり、ADBにはごく they have a common link as a vice president 皀にしか蚪問しない者ずしお、私はADBに倚数の補 of the same multilateral development bank. 助スタッフがいるこずに驚いた。このような仕事のほ Few of them are household names, even ずんどが、䞖界銀行ではすでに廃止されおいるから である。䞖界銀行では、重芁な蚪問者にコヌヒヌを出 within the Asian financial community. Ursula Schaefer-Preuss, a German, is vice したければ䞋の喫茶宀に自分で取りに行くし、手玙 president for knowledge management and を曞きたければ副総裁以䞊でない限り自分で曞いお いる。副総裁以䞊であれば秘曞がやっおくれるかもし sustainable development. She took over in れないが、それも䞁寧にお願いすればの話である。 November 2006 from a Dutchman Geert van ADBでは1぀おきの垭に座る秘曞達がタガログ語で der Linden, whose prior career, surprisingly, おしゃべりをしおいるだけではなく、コヌヒヌや玅茶 was as a professional with the ADB. Schaefer- のための䜿い捚おのカップを取っお来る絊仕が別に Preuss came to the bank from being director いる。2005幎の幎次報告曞によるずADBには2,456の 職員がおり、そのうち専門職は887人である。぀たりこ の銀行はそれぞれの専門職に2人の補助職員が぀く ずいう高い比率になっおいるのである。 ADBの構造に぀いおの本圓の問題は䞀番䞊のレベ ルにある。䞖界銀行グルヌプでは副総裁やそれに盞 圓する地䜍の者が30名いるのに察しお、ADBではわ ずか4名である。䞖界銀行の副総裁の倧半は、銀行組 織の䞭で昇進しおきた正芏職員である。 しかしADBの 堎合、副総裁は通垞の内郚職員が昇栌したのでもな ければ総裁自身が遞んだそのためのチヌムの䞀郚で もない、䞀颚倉わった混合グルヌプなのだ。。圌らは 䞊玚職員ずなるのであるが、事実䞊はADBの出資囜 政府を満足させ、その利害の均衡を図るために遞ば れた政府人事なのである。 4人の背景は倧きく違っおおり、同じ倚囜籍の開発銀 行の副総裁ずしおの共通利害があるずは考え難い。 ア ゞアの金融界の䞭でさえ圌らは良く知られおいない。

© Rafoto

Also, given the immense flows of private sector money and the fact that the world is awash with trillions of dollars of liquidity, is there any longer any need for a development bank such as the ADB? There already is the older World Bank, with a global grasp, so why duplicate its work with a bank that stays within Asia, even though it has nonregional shareholders from America and Europe? Rajat Nag, the ADB’s managing director general, laughs at the idea of an argument between the ADB and the World Bank about which is better or the more relevant development bank, suggesting that it is a tired old chestnut well past its sell-by date: “When we get together with our friends in the World Bank we say, today which way will we argue?” he says, talking from a huge tastefully decorated office, which would probably be big enough to house a dozen families from the less fortunate areas of Manila.

Private enterprise on the streets of Manilla.

ドむツ人のりルズラ・シェヌファヌ・プロむスUrsula Schaefer-Preuss氏は知識管理ず持続可胜開発を担 圓する副総裁である。シェヌファヌ・プロむス氏は、驚 くべきこずに生え抜きのADBマンであった前任のオ ランダ人ヘヌルト・ノァン・デル・リンデンGeert van der Linden氏の埌を受けお2006幎11月に就任し た。 シェヌファヌ・プロむス氏はボンおよびベルリンで

WiA Delegate Publication

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ADB in the spotlight

general of Germany’s federal ministry for economic cooperation and development in Bonn/Berlin. Before that her career was in the German government. Liqun Jin is the vice president (Operations 1) and came to the ADB from a previous job as vice minister of finance of China. He joined ADB in August 2003, taking over from a Korean, Myoung-Ho Shin. Jin is responsible for the operations of south Asia department, central and west Asia department, and the private sector operations. He was previously a career official of China’s finance ministry, but as one of the first batch of groomed Englishspeaking officials after the Cultural Revolution, he had several spells abroad, including one as alternate director of the World Bank. C. Lawrence Greenwood Jr., an American, took up the post of vice president (Operations 2, covering east Asia, south east Asia, and Pacific departments plus central operations services) on 28 February 2006. He is a former US diplomat, who took over from another American, Joseph Eichenberger, who had been a former US Treasury official. The fourth vice president, Khempheng Pholsena is from Laos and is responsible for finance and administration, including the office of the secretary, general counsel, budget, personnel, administrative services, treasury and information systems. She is the first female vice president of the ADB and took over in April 2004 from John Lintjer, a Dutch government official. Before moving to Manila, Khempheng Pholsena was vice minister for foreign affairs in Laos, in charge of international cooperation. In the early years of the bank, the vice presidents served for long terms. C S Krishna Moorthi served for 11 years from the start of the bank, and S Stanley Katz did 12 years from 1978 to 1990, as did Gunther Schulz, from1983 to 1995. Now they serve for shorter terms (five years is the new norm) although Greenwood was appointed for just three years. Nag points out the oddity of the vice presidential appointments – that they become senior staff members but they are appointed by the

board of directors on the recommendation ドむツ連邊政府経枈・開発協力省の局長を勀めた埌 of the president, but not necessarily of the ADBに入行した。ADB入行以前、圌女はドむツ政府の incumbent president. 䞭でキャリアを積んできたのである。 No doubt they are all highly qualified, 第1オペレヌション担圓の副総裁、金立矀Jin Liqun but it is a relevant question whether they 氏は䞭囜政府の財政郚副郚長を務めおいた。金氏は are the best people for the ADB where the 韓囜のミョン・ホヌ・シンMyoung-Ho Shin氏の埌 senior management team is small. Jin, at 任ずしお2003幎8月にADBに入行した。金氏は南アゞ least, is extremely bright and talented and ア郚、䞭倮・西アゞア郚の業務、および民間セクタヌ internationally savvy. He speaks careful, 業務を担圓しおいる。以前は䞭囜財務郚のキャリア官 considered English with barely a trace of a 僚であったが、文化革呜埌に英語の蚓緎を受けた官 僚の第1期生ずしお、䞖界銀行の理事代理などずしお Chinese accent and displays an impressive, 䜕床も海倖に掟遣された。 if conventional, understanding of the areas under his supervision. He is quick to show 米囜人のC・ロヌレンス・グリヌンりッド・ゞュニア C. Lawrence Greenwood Jr氏は2006幎2月28日 a folksy wisdom, quoting a Chinese saying に東アゞア、南東アゞア、倪平掋地域をカバヌする第 about the importance of groping for the 2オペレヌションず䞭倮オペレヌション・サヌビス担 stones as you cross the river, so as not to miss 圓の副総裁に就任した。米囜の元倖亀官であるグリ a stone and fall and drown. He stresses the ヌンりッド氏は、米囜財務省の元官僚であったゞョれ importance of keeping speed and pace with フ・アむヒェンベルガヌJoseph Eichenberger氏の the rhythms of reform, while pointing to the 埌任である。 “Catch 22” of reform programmes – reforms 4 人 目 の 副 総 裁 は ラオス の ケン ペ ン・ポ ル セ ナ Pholsena氏で、秘曞宀、総合評議 often bring pain, but without reform there Khempheng 䌚、予算、人事、総務サヌビス、財務ず情報システムを can be no benefits; but without the benefits, 含んだ財務ず総務を担圓しおいる。ADB初の女性副 it is hard to win popular support for reforms. 総裁ずしお、オランダ政府の官僚であったゞョン・リン チャヌJohn Lintjer氏から2004幎4月に匕き継いで いる。マニラに来るたではラオスの囜際協力担圓倖 務副倧臣を務めおいた。

The ADB was a latecomer to the international financial architecture, late enough to recognise the emergence of Japan as a developed economy

ADBの創蚭期には副総裁の任期は長期間であった。 C・S・クリシュナ・ムヌルティヌC. S. Krishna Moorthi 氏は銀行の創蚭から11幎間、S・スタンレヌ・カッツS. Stanley Katz氏は1978幎から1990幎たで、ギュンタヌ ・シュルツGÃŒnther Schulz氏は1983幎から1995幎 たで、それぞれ12幎間副総裁を務めおいる。 珟圚、副総裁の任期は短く 新芏定では5幎、 グリヌ ンりッド氏の任期はわずか3幎間である。ナグ氏は副 総裁任呜に関する奇劙な点を指摘する。副総裁は䞊 玚幹郚で総裁の掚薊によっお圹員䌚で任呜されるの であるが、その総裁は珟職の総裁である必芁はない のである。

Jin has the priceless advantages of having worked in a rapidly developing economy and at the World Bank at a senior level, with close involvement in both the grand questions of reform and the nuts and bolts of individual projects development issues, since as alternate director he got to consider the details of lending plans and projects. He says that his World Bank experience was rewarding and challenging. Then, he was China’s representative at the bank, but as a senior member of the ADB management team, “I work in the interests of the institution.” Nevertheless, he has great pride in China’s economic prowess: “I don’t know whether there are many full-fledged market economies. It depends on how you define

どの副総裁にも高い適性があるこずは疑いないも のの、マネゞメント・チヌムが小芏暡なADBにずっお 圌らが最適の人遞であるかどうかは倧切な問題であ る。少なくずも金氏は非垞に聡明で才胜があり囜際問 題に粟通しおいる。䞭囜蚛りがほずんどない英語で蚀 葉を慎重に遞ぶ金氏は、自分の担圓分野に぀いお、 因習的ではあるがかなり高床の理解力を瀺す。金氏 は玠早く庶民的な知恵を披露し、河を枡る際に石を 泚意深く足で探らなければ螏み倖しおおがれおした う危険性があるずいう䞭囜のこずわざを匕甚しおみ せた。そしお改革に぀いお、 リズムを持ち぀぀スピヌ ドずペヌスを保぀こずの重芁性を匷調し、同時に改革 プログラムの「あちら立おればこちら立たず」の状況 に぀いおも指摘する。぀たり改革には痛みが䌎うが改 革なしには䟿益が埗られず、䟿益なしには改革に䞀 般の支持を埗るのが難しいのである。

© Patrick Nairne / Alamy

It is impossible to forget the contrast between the ADB HQ and its surroundings.

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金氏には急成長経枈の䞭での経隓に加えお、䞖界銀 行の理事代理ずしおロヌン蚈画や貞出プロゞェクト の詳现を怜蚎しなければならなかったため、総合的 な改革問題ずずもに個々の事業開発問題に深く関わ っおいたずいう埗難い匷みがある。金氏は䞖界銀行 での経隓は充実しおおり、チャレンゞでもあったず語 る。圓時の金氏は䞖界銀行における䞭囜の代衚であ ったが、ADBのマネゞメント・チヌムの䞊玚幹郚ずし おは「組織の利害のために仕事をしおいたす」 ず蚀う のである。それにも関わらず同氏は䞭囜経枈の倧成 功に倧きな誇りを持っおいる。 「完党に䞀人前ずなっ た垂堎経枈がどれほどあるかはわかりたせん。定矩 次第です。私の芋るずころでは、䞀人前の垂堎経枈を 圢成したずいう点で䞭囜はかなり成長したした」 しか し、15カ月以内に金氏は䞭囜に垰囜するこずになっお おり、 このような予蚀が圌の運を぀ぶさない限り、お そらく最終的には財務郚長ずなるであろう。 あるアゞア人の消息通はADBのマネゞメントは䟝然 ずしお冷戊時代のたたであるず語る。ADBが囜際金融 の舞台に登堎したのは遅く、いただに日本が先進経

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ADB in the spotlight

枈囜ずしお新たに登堎しおきたず認識するほどに遅 れおいるのである。出資における日本の圹割の結果ず しお、たたIMFず䞖界銀行の䞻導暩が既に欧州IMF ずアメリカ䞖界銀行に分割されたこずから、 日本は ADBの初代総裁を指名せざるを埗ず、それ以来誰も 明らかな介入をするこずなく日本がその総裁を遞出 し続けおいる。

The ADB’s four vice presidents are from widely different backgrounds. Clockwise from top left: Ursula Schaefer-Preuss (Knowledge Management and Sustainable Development); Liqun Jin (south central and west Asia and private sector operations); Khempheng Pholsena (finance and administration, including the office of the secretary, general counsel, budget, personnel, administrative services, treasury and information systems); and C. Lawrence Greenwood Jr (east, south east Asia, and Pacific departments plus central operations services).

it. In my view, China is pretty developed in terms of building a fully-fledged market economy.” But within 15 months Jin will return to China, perhaps eventually to be finance minister, if making that suggestion is not to jinx his chances. One Asian insider says that the management of the ADB is still marooned in the days of the Cold War. The ADB was a latecomer to the international financial architecture, late enough to recognise the emergence of Japan as a developed economy. In consequence of Japan’s role in its founding – and because the leadership of the IMF and World Bank had already been divided between Europe, for the IMF, and the US, for the bank – Japan got to choose the first president of the ADB and has been choosing its presidents ever since without anyone obviously interfering. Is the ADB a Japanese bank? This is a tricky question. Some critics have gone to the extent of claiming that the president takes instructions from the ministry of finance headquarters in Kasumigaseki, Tokyo. Only a handful of people know what communications there are between the MoF and the president’s suite in Manila. However, given the seniority of president Haruhiko Kuroda, who was international vice minister of finance – the chief barbarian-tamer, some Japanese like to say, not entirely joking – for a record four years, and given the complexity of the bank it is unlikely, say insiders, that the Japanese mandarins would try to control the bank so overtly or that Kuroda would go along so meekly. If you look at the shareholdings, indeed, it is hard to claim that the ADB is a Japanese bank. Japan has the largest shareholding – 15.734 percent of the subscribed capital and 12.9 percent of the voting power, according to the 2005 annual report – but these are hardly controlling stakes, and are anyway exactly the same as the US stake in the ADB. The next biggest shareholder is China, 42

ADBは日本の銀行であろうかこれは難しい質問で ある。総裁は東京の霞が関にある財務省本省の指瀺 に埓っおいるず䞻匵する評論家もいる。財務省ずマニ ラの総裁宀ずの間でどのような䌚話がなされおいる かを知っおいる者はごくわずかである。 しかし最長蚘 録の4幎間も財務省の財務官を務め、日本人の䞭に は野蛮人の調教垫䞻任ず奜んで呌ぶ者もいお、それ があながち冗談ではない黒田東圊総裁の経歎ず耇雑 なADBのこずを同時に考えるず、 日本の官僚がADBを 公然ず支配したり黒田氏がその蚀いなりになるこず はないであろうず内郚に詳しい人物は語っおいる。 出資構成を芋た堎合、ADBが日本の銀行であるず䞻 匵するこずは難しい。2005幎の幎次報告曞によれば、 日本は発行枈資本の15.734、議決暩の12.9を有 する最倧の出資囜であるが、 これで支配暩を持っお いるず䞻匵するこずは難しい。䜕れにしろアメリカの ADBに察する出資ず党く同じなのである。次の倧出資 囜は䞭囜で資本の6.5、議決暩の5.5を有し、次い でむンド、むンドネシア、 ドむツず続く。職員に぀いお は、黒田氏は日本人は盞察的に少ないず語る。

with almost 6.5 percent of the capital and 5.5 percent of the voting power, followed 日本支配説は䟝然根匷いが、それは特に総裁指名に closely by India, and then Indonesia and おける日本のフリヌハンドに異議を唱える者がいな Germany. In terms of staffing, Kuroda says, いからずいうわけではない。銀行内郚でも霞が関で も、 「将軍」 ずしお高い評刀を埗た第4代総裁の藀岡眞 the Japanese are under-represented. 䜐倫氏198189は、指瀺を出すこずを奜み指瀺を Yet the stories of Japanese domination 受けるのを拒絶した匷烈な人物であったが、財務省 persist, not least because of the lack はその埌任には人奜きがするけれどもあたり個性的 of challenge to Tokyo’s free hand in ではない総裁達を遞んだ。 appointing the president. After the fourth 「䞀身䞊の郜合」により任期途䞭で蟞任した䜐藀光 president Masao Fujioka (1981-89) had won 倫氏の埌任ずしお1999幎に就任した千野忠男氏は、 a reputation, inside the bank and also in 財務省では財務官を務めた匷い個性の人物ず芋られ Kasumigaseki, as “the Shogun”, a powerful おいた。千野氏は総裁ずしお䞀連の改革を始めたが、 figure who liked giving orders and refused マスコミに察しおは䞍噚甚であった。千野氏ず仕事を to take them, the MoF settled on likeable したこずのあるADBのマネヌゞャヌは「䞀察䞀では芪 しみやすくお良く芋えるのですが、カメラを向けたり but rather colourless presidents. 顔前にマむクを差し出されるず察応がうたくなくお、 Tadao Chino, who took over in 1999 after 銀行の察倖的なむメヌゞを良くするのが䞍埗意なの Mitsuo Sato resigned early “for personal です」ず語る。理由がどうであれ、東京の財務省では、 reasons”, had been international vice 任期は終了しおいなかったが6幎経った2005幎1月に minister at the MoF and was regarded as a 千野氏の圹目は終わったず刀断した。埌任には黒田 strong personality. As president, he began 東圊氏が広く議論されるこずもなく、ADBの総裁指名 a series of reforms, but he was awkward in に぀いおあるいは日本にその指名の暩利があるのか 議論されるこずもなく就任した。 この点では、出資囜 public. “One on one, he was friendly and 構成がどうであろうずADBは䟝然ずしお「日本の銀行」 came across well,” says an ADB manager なのである。 who worked with Chino, “but if you pointed そのほかの点ではこの銀行が日本の銀行なのか囜際 a camera or thrust a microphone in his face, 的な銀行なのかは、内郚にいる者でも明確にするの he did badly and did not enhance the public は難しい。ADB本店には、総裁および圹員のいる階の image of the bank.” For whatever reason, さらに䞊に、出資囜政府の垞駐代衚である24人の執 the MoF in Tokyo decided that Chino’s time 行圹員ずその代理人のいる階がある。これは銀行の業 was up in January 2005 after six years and 務を内郚で垞にチェックし、すべおの融資は圹員䌚で before he had finished a full term of his 承認されなければならないこずを意味しおいる。 own. Haruhiko Kuroda was appointed to しかしどの倧組織でもそうであるが、組織の目暙ず方 take over without any public debate, without 向を定めるのには総裁が䞭心的な圹割を果たしおい る。ADBを良く知り、ADBず働き、ADBのために仕事を even any questioning of the choice or of したこずもある1人のアゞア人銀行家は、この銀行を Japan’s right to nominate the ADB president. 日本の出資比率は䜎いが「日本の組織」ず芋おいる。 In this regard, the ADB is still “a Japanese 「日本の官僚機構は、倧芏暡な䞖界的官僚機構の運 bank”, whatever the shareholdings. 営法を必ずしも理解しおいたせん」 ず圌は述べる。 これ Divining in what other ways the bank is にはADBで働く自称「䞍幞な西掋人マネヌゞャヌ」も 「総裁のオフィスが日本匏に運営され Japanese or international is hard even for an 同意芋である。 insider to tell. The presence on the top floor of るだけではありたせん。予算・人事・管理システム担圓 の局長ず財務ずいう䞻芁ポストも抌さえおいるため、 the ADB headquarters, above the president’s 日本気質が蔓延しおいるのです。 これがこの銀行を機 and management floor, of the 24 executive 胜䞍党に陥らせおいるのです。特に9階の圹員䌚から directors and their alternates, the shareholder 出される现かい指瀺が機胜を劚げおいるのです」 government’s permanent representatives, 歎代のADB総裁の䞭で、黒田氏が日本にずっお最高 means that there is a constant in-house check の人物になる可胜性がある。黒田氏には知性があり、 on the operations of the bank, and all loans たた囜際掟である。日本の゚リヌト逊成校である東京 倧孊ずオックスフォヌド倧孊の䞡方を卒業し、財務官 4 must be approved by the board of directors.


ADB’s comfort zone

But, as with all big organisations, the president is the key player in setting the focus and direction of the institution. An Asian banker who knows the bank well and has worked with it and for it, regards it as “a Japanese institution” in spite of the small Japanese shareholding. “The Japanese bureaucracy does not always understand how to run large global bureaucracies,” he adds. This view is shared by a self-styled “unhappy Western manager” within the ADB, who adds, “it is not only that the president’s office is run in a Japanese way, but the Japanese ethos is the most pervasive one, because the Japanese also have the key job of the director general for budget, personnel and management systems, as well as the treasurer’s position. This makes the bank dysfunctional, especially given the close control from the board on the ninth floor.” When Kuroda was appointed, Japan had potentially its best president of the ADB. Kuroda is an intellectual and an internationalist. He graduated from both Japan’s elite Tokyo University and from Oxford University, served a record four years as international vice minister and came to Manila directly from the prime minister’s office where he was adviser to Junichiro Koizumi. Equally important, Kuroda believed strongly in an integrated Asia and had worked on issues like an Asian currency unit and an Asian monetary fund. Today, Kuroda is not talking about the pan-Asian financial issues, and when I asked, referred me to the International Monetary Fund. One academic who has studied the ADB says that Kuroda is not talking because “he met resistance to the Japanese way of doing things when he raised the issues. Kuroda has taken Masahiro Kawai, who was his integration guy, back to Tokyo to take charge of the Asian Development Bank Institute.” Kawai, a Tokyo University professor, had been an economist at the World Bank and then was deputy vice minister of finance under Kuroda from 2001 to 2003. Kuroda brought him to Manila to be head of regional economic integration, to work to devise a joint currency swap scheme to help Asian economies with acute fund shortages, and to work on an initiative to establish an Asian bond market. Masahiro Kawai, formerly the ADB’s Economic integration expert, now runs the bank’s institute from Tokyo.

That this internationalist Japanese president encountered opposition when he tried to talk of the challenges of Asian integration raises questions about Japan in Asia and about Japan in the ADB. “This is the problem with our Japanese friends: the Japanese are not very attuned to the rest of Asia,” comments a part-time consultant to the ADB. “They don’t know how to talk to the rest of Asia. One leading Japanese told me that, ‘Our problem is that we need a process of consultation internally, and once we agree on something amongst ourselves, that becomes our bottom line solution.’ That is precisely the problem with Japanese leadership: it means that there is no consultation with the rest of Asia because there is no give. Within Asia, if Lee Hsien Loong (of Singapore) or (China’s president) Hu Jintao or Abdullah Badawi (of Malaysia) comes to the negotiating table, yes, they have a prepared position, but there is some give. With our Japanese friends, there is no give because it was a huge process to agree within themselves.

If properly used, the Asian Development Bank can actually be a huge force for good

ずしお最長の4幎間圚任し、小泉玔䞀郎氏の内閣官房 参䞎から盎接マニラに赎任しおきた。 これず同様に重 芁なこずは、黒田氏はアゞアの統合に匷い信念を持 ち、 アゞア通貚ナニットやアゞア通貚基金のような問 題を掚進しおいたこずである。 珟圚黒田氏は汎アゞアの金融問題に぀いおは語ら ず、私の質問に察しおは囜際通貚基金に぀いお述べ た。ADBを研究したたある孊者は、黒田氏がこの問題 に぀いお語らないのは「圌がこの問題を取り䞊げた ずきに、日本流のやり方に抵抗があったからです」 ず 蚀う。 「黒田氏は統合の仕事の懐刀であった河合正匘 氏をアゞア開発銀行研究所を任せるために東京ぞ戻 したのです」。珟圚東京倧孊教授の河合氏は、か぀お 䞖界銀行の゚コノミストであり黒田氏の䞋で2001幎 から2003幎たで副財務官を務めおいた。黒田氏は、 河合氏に資金䞍足の切迫しおいるアゞア経枈を助け る共通通貚スワップ構想策定の仕事をさせ、同時に アゞア債刞垂堎の創出のむニシアティブを取るため、 地域経枈統合のトップずしおマニラに呌んだ。 この囜際掟の日本人総裁がアゞア統合の課題を話そ うずしお反察された事実は、 アゞアにおける日本およ びADBにおける日本に぀いおの問題を提起するもの である。 「これが我々の日本の友達の問題なのです。 日本人はアゞアのほかの人ずうたく調和しおいない のです」 ずADBでパヌトタむムのコンサルタントをし おいる人物は述べおいる。 「日本人はそれ以倖のアゞ アに、 どうやっお話したらよいか知らないのです。ある 日本の指導者が私に『日本人の問題は、内郚協議の プロセスが必芁で、内郚で䞀床䜕かに合意すれば、 それが私達の結論ずなるずいうずころにありたす』 ず 語ったこずがありたす。 これこそが日本のリヌダヌシッ プの問題なのです。぀たり譲るこずがないためにのア ゞアの他の囜々ずの協調性がないのです。アゞアで は、 シンガポヌル銖盞の 李顕韍Lee Hsien Loong 氏や䞭囜囜家䞻垭の胡錊激Hu Jintao氏やマレヌ シア銖盞のアブドラ・バダりィ Abdullah Badawi氏 が亀枉のテヌブルに぀けば、もちろんその堎に備え おきたずいうこずもありたすが、譲るこずができるだ けの倚少のゆずりがありたす。我々の日本の友達の堎 合には、自分達の䞭で合意を敎えるのに長いプロセ スが必芁なために、最終的な結論にはこれ以䞊譲る こずができない皋ゆずりがなくなっおいるのです」

“So it is not seen as an owned or inclusive consultation. It is Japan’s vision and there is no negotiation. The Japanese keep on saying, we need the Asian Monetary Fund, we need the Asian currency unit, we need a bond index, while a lot of the rest of Asia 「そのため、皆で共有した、包括的な協議プロセスに says maybe but what is it really for, and 捉えられたせん。その結論はすなわち日本の考え方 であっお、亀枉の䜙地がないのです。 日本はアゞア通 what is in it for us? “This is in contrast to the experience of 貚基金が必芁である、アゞア通貚ナニットが必芁であ 債刞むンデックスが必芁であるず蚀い続けおいた Europe, where unity was made possible る、 すが、残りのアゞアの囜々は、そうかもしれないが、そ by the generosity of the Germans in れがどのような目的で、自分達にいかなる実䜓があ underwriting the agricultural subsidies that るのかず問いかけおいたす」 the French, Irish, Greeks, have enjoyed. Do 「これは欧州の経隓ず奜察照です。欧州ではフラン we see this generosity within Asia? If you ス、アむルランド、ギリシアが享受しおいる蟲業補助 want the small guys to be in, you can’t give 金をドむツが寛倧に匕き受けたので統䞀が実珟した them yen loans and then the yen appreciates のです。このような寛倧さをアゞアの䞭で芋るこずが and these guys suffer from it. Japan’s yen できたすか。小さな囜を加盟させたいずしおも、その loans looked cheap initially but turned out 囜に円の融資をするこずができず円の盞堎が䞊がり、 to be pretty expensive, and a lot of it was 匱小囜はそれによっお苊しむこずになりたす。日本円 の融資は圓初は䜎利に芋えたすが、最終的には盞圓 also tied loans. 高いものになるし、倚くはひも付き融資なのです」 “Kuroda thought that by being in 「黒田氏はADBに入ればアゞア統合、アゞア通貚ナ the ADB, he could use it to push Asian ニット、通貚基金の掚進にADBを掻甚できるず考えた integration, Asian currency unit, monetary した。就任した圓時黒田氏は、欧州は同氏の構想が fund. When he got in, he found that the IMF欧州䞻導を远いやるものであるず芋お支揎を Europeans were not backing him because せず、アメリカは構想がドルを远いやるものであるず they see it as marginalising the IMF (headed しお賛成せず、他方で䞭囜はADBの䜿呜ず考えられ by a European), the Americans don’t like it おいるむンフラストラクチャヌの開発に専念しおその because it marginalises the dollar, whereas ほかのこずはアゞアに任せるよう䞻匵しおいるこずに 気が぀きたした。黒田氏が準備預金の話をはじめる the Chinese say why don’t you do what you や吊や、䞭倮銀行の人々が『我々の業務に干枉しおは are supposed to do, which is infrastructure いけない』ず口をはさんできたす」 development and leave the rest to Asians. 日本が良きアゞア人であろうずしお倱敗した埌の今こ The minute he started talking about reserves, そ、財務省の官僚達にずっおADBの総裁指名暩が自 the central bankers also chipped in and said, 動的に䞎えられるこずに぀いお再考する良い機䌚で ‘get out of our business’.” ある。英囜のゎヌドン・ブラりンGordon Brown氏 After Japan’s failure precisely when they が䞖界銀行ずIMFの運営方法の倉曎を求めるこずが tried to show themselves as good Asians, できるずすれば、ADBの倉曎に぀いおはその期限が 4 maybe now would be a good time for the 倧幅に過ぎおいるこずは間違いない。 WiA Delegate Publication

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© Erik De Castro / Reuters / Corbis

ADB in the spotlight

Delegates of the Asian Development Bank attend a video conference with former U.S. presidents George Bush and Bill Clinton at their Manila headquarters in 2005 to map out recovery operations for tsunami-devastated Asian countries, and to discuss how to bridge funding gaps and stamp out aid corruption.

MoF mandarins to reconsider their automatic right to nominate the head of the ADB. If Gordon Brown of the UK can demand changes to the way the World Bank and IMF are run, then surely change is overdue at the ADB. After Kuroda finishes his term it would be good if the ADB president is chosen by open and transparent competition and that that president should then be allowed to choose his or her own vice presidents, also based on merit and on how they can work together as part of a strong harmonious team, as you would expect of a good corporation. The idea that vice presidents should meet regional demands or satisfy the sinecure prerogatives of shareholders sits badly with a modern bank trying to help the rest of Asia to catch up with the shining progressive stars. If a president is to be chosen on merit after Kuroda, then Kyoto is the place to begin active consideration. Another issue is whether there is a need for such a relatively small bank to have the shareholder directors breathing down the necks of the management in the same building all the time. Shifting the headquarters from Manila to a more lively and modern financial city would also be worth considering, though having to travel through the eyesores of poverty every day when going to work is a useful reproach to any Asian Development Bank executive, even though most of them live their lives outside the cool comfort of the bank in gated security in neat isolated townhouse villages. The main point is that the ADB – if it is to be relevant to a rising Asia – needs to be strengthened and updated with a president and management team who will be respected for running a development bank that is at the cutting edge of the issues and will be a magnet for the best and brightest from Asia and shareholding countries. The downside risk of trying to open the top job to competition is that the Japanese may sulk and refuse to play ball, 44

黒田氏の任期満了埌には、ADB総裁を公開されたガ ラス匵りの競争で遞出し、健党な䌚瀟に期埅されるよ うに、その総裁が胜力䞻矩に基づき、匷力で調和のず れたチヌムの䞀員ずしお共に仕事ができるかを基準 にしお自らの副総裁を遞出できるようにするのが望 たしい。副総裁は地域の芁求に合臎するものでなけ ればならないずか、出資囜の閑職にある特暩者を満 足させるものでなければならないずいう考えは、発展 のモデルずしお茝いおいる囜に远い぀こうずしおいる 他のアゞアの囜々を支揎しようずする近代的銀行に はたったく適合しない考え方である。業瞟䞻矩に基づ いお黒田氏の次の総裁を遞出するずすれば、京郜総 䌚こそ掻発な怜蚎を始める堎所である。別の問題ず しお、 このような比范的小さな銀行で、出資囜のディ レクタヌが同じ建物に垞駐しお経営陣をチェックする 必芁があるのかずいうこずがある。 通勀時に毎日痛たしい貧困地域を通るのは、アゞア 開発銀行の圹員ぞの叱責ずしお圹立぀かもしれない が、マニラからもっず掻気があり近代的な金融郜垂に 本店を移転させるこずも怜蚎に倀する。 ずはいえ圹員 の倧半は涌しく快適な銀行の倖では、厳重なセキュリ ティで守られた瀟排なタりンハりス地域に䜏んでい るのであるが。 倧切なこずは、問題に぀いお最先端の知識を持ち、 ア

like a spoilt child when someone steals the ゞアず出資囜の最優秀な人材を匕き぀ける開発専門 ball in the playground. That is a real risk の銀行を経営する適材ずしお尊敬されるような総裁 with an increasingly nationalist government ず経営陣によっお、ADBが匷化刷新されなければな that may not listen to the voices of corporate らないずいうこずである。トップのポストを公募する wisdom urging that Japan needs to be a part 時のリスクは、甘やかされた子䟛が運動堎でボヌル を取られたずきのように、 日本が機嫌を損ねおゲヌム and partner of a strong Asia. に参加しない可胜性があるこずである。次第に囜家 The experienced banker who worked 䞻矩的になっおいる政府が、日本は匷いアゞアの䞀 for both the World Bank and ADB pointed 郚でありか぀パヌトナヌになる必芁があるずいう䌁 out that the Asian bank does still have some 業の賢明な声を聞こうずしないこずからするず、これ important comparative advantages even は珟実的なリスクずいえる。 over the World Bank, but these need to be 䞖界銀行ずADBで働いた経隓豊富な前出の銀行家 worked on: “The ADB staff is not necessarily は、このアゞアの銀行は䞖界銀行に察しお重芁な点 that strong, and needs to be strengthened,” で䟝然ずしお比范優䜍を保っおいるが、察策を斜す必 「ADBの職員は必ずしも匷力で he says. “But the ADB offers large consulting 芁があるず指摘する。 ある必芁はないのですが、匷化されなければなりた packages for technical assistance. They are せん。しかし、ADBは技術支揎に぀いお倧芏暡なコン able to pay people for what a country really サルティング・パッケヌゞを提䟛しおいたす。ある囜が needs. In that sense they are much more 真に必芁ずしおいるものを、ADBは人々に䞎えるこず flexible than the World Bank, which says, ができたす。その意味で䞖界銀行よりも柔軟です。䞖 ‘I must give you a loan before I can give 界銀行は技術支揎をする前に融資をしなければなり you technical assistance.’ When a country たせん。ある囜が䞭囜たたはマレヌシアや韓囜のレ reaches the stage of China or Malaysia or ベルに達するず借入をする必芁がなくなりたすが、そ の囜は非垞に良質な技術的助蚀を必芁ずしおいるか Korea, it says, ‘I don’t need to borrow from もしれないのです。䞖界銀行は技術的助蚀に代金を you.’ But they may need some very good 請求するず蚀うので、その囜は融資を断っおしたいた technical advice. The World Bank says, ‘I am す。誰の埗にもなりたせん。しかしADBでは実際にそ going to charge you for it,’ so the country のような制床がどのプロゞェクトにもあり、成功する turns it down. Nobody wins. But the ADB しないにかかわらず80䞇ドルの技術支揎基金を䞎え actually has this thing that for every project, お、コンサルタントに支払いたす」 whether successful or not, they allocate しかし、ADBにはより重芁な存圚ずなれる䜕かがある $800,000 technical assistance fund, and they ず蚀う。この銀行を蚭立した叀い「冷戊」心理から抜 け出し、ワシントンの機関を出し抜いお、新しいブヌ pay for consultants.” But there is something potentially more ムに乗ったアゞアの声になる可胜性があるず蚀う。 「䞖界銀行ずIMFの問題は、アゞアではアメリカの手 important for the ADB, he adds – to be able 先ず芋られた1997幎のアゞア金融危機の埌遺症に to break out of the old “Cold War” mentality 䞡機関ずもただ悩んでいるこずです。そこで成功しお that created the bank and steal a march on いる新しいアゞア経枈の担い手達は『もうおたくから the Washington institutions as the voice of 借入はしない、私の倖貚準備はおたくよりも倧きいの the new booming Asia. “The problem for だ』ず蚀い、IMFず䞖界銀行がいくら鄭重に意芋を述 the World Bank and IMF is that they are べた所で、それ以䞊の進展は芋られたせん。ADBには also still suffering from the hangover of the このようなむメヌゞはありたせん。ADBが適切に䜿わ れれば、実際に助けずなる非垞に倧きな力ずなれる 1997 Asian financial crisis, where they were のです」■ seen to be instruments of the US, so these guys running the successful new Asian economies say, ‘I don’t borrow from you any more and my reserves are bigger than yours,’ so the IMF and World Bank get a polite hearing, but nothing more. The ADB does not have this image. If properly used, the Asian Development Bank can actually be a huge force for good.” g





ADB in the spotlight

郜垂拡倧の代䟡

アゞアの郜垂の日垞は党くひどいものであ る。亀通枋滞による倧気汚染ずフル皌働の 工堎からの排気ず亀じり合っお倚くの䜏民 の日垞生掻を䞍快なものにし、それを耐え 難いものず感じる人々は増える䞀方だ 

© Mark Henley / Panos Pictures

こうした日垞が颚向きの倉化や豪雚あるいは自然 灜害の発生によっお極端にひどい状況になるず、 接波によっお数十䞇人が流倱、措氎に呑たれる郜 垂、氎没しお地図から消える村々ずいった悲惚な ニュヌスを䌝える芋出しが溢れるこずになる。

The high cost of urban growth Ordinary days in Asian cities are bad enough, with pollution from traffic jams mixing with the emissions from booming factories to make daily life irritating for many and unbearable for a growing number...

W

hen the ordinary becomes extraordinary with a change in the wind or unusual rainfall or natural disaster hits, then the headlines get really scary, telling of tsunamis sweeping away a few hundred thousand people, whole cities under flood, villages falling off the map into the sea. The bad news is that life will only get worse, more polluted, more crowded, hit by a double whammy squared or cubed as more and more people are crammed into a finite space and demand higher living standards, bigger cars, using more energy, and the damage of past and present environmental degradation all hit home along with the effects of global warming. Don’t ask the developing countries to sacrifice growth for environmental protection, warns Rajat Nag, the Asian Development Bank’s managing director general, that’s not realistic. Embrace the cities, urges Michael Lindfield, the bank’s principal urban development specialist, because the cities leave a smaller footprint. Some of the details of the statistics may be disputed but the existing situation is in the range of bad to worse. Each year in China alone 50,000 people die prematurely in China because of pollution from coal burning, according to the World Bank. Some estimates put the total deaths in China at 300,000 a year. Former Chinese premier Zhu Rongji (who came from Shanghai) said that if he lived in Beijing, his life would be shortened by five years. Water borne diseases cause half a million infant deaths a year in Asia, also according to the bank.

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Today, a quarter of Asians don’t have access to clean drinking water, and more than half of Asians lack basic sanitation. At the moment Asia has 56 percent of the world’s population, but only 31 percent of the planet’s arable land. In 1999, 36 percent of Asia’s population of about 3.2 billion was living in urban areas; by 2030, there will be close to 55 percent of an Asian population that has risen to nearly five billion living in urban areas. Today, there are 1.6 billion people living in Asian cities; in 20 years time, there will be another 1.2 billion. Even as it is, you only have to visit one to see that Asia’s cities cannot cope, and the big megalopolitan cities in the poorest countries are the most squalid. Think of landing at Bombay airport over Asia’s biggest slum. Remember Jakarta virtually afloat in the recent floods. Try to peer through the murk of Hong Kong as air pollution pours in from prosperous China. Of the 15 large global cities with the worst air pollution, measured in terms of suspended particulate levels, 12 are in Asia. Emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in Asia are far above the levels recommended by the World Health Organisation. If air pollution is bad, the state of Asia’s water is worse. Asia has the least available fresh water per person of any region. Water use has tripled over the past 50 years. Agriculture uses 84 percent of the continent’s water, but poor irrigation practices mean that 60 percent of the water is wasted. Untreated sewage and industrial waste, runoff from industry and agriculture, and the intrusion of sea water

しかし、増加する䞀方の人々が限られた空間に 詰め蟌たれながら、゚ネルギヌ䜿甚量の高い車 ずいったより高い生掻氎準を芁求し、地球枩暖化 ず共に過去ず珟圚の環境劣化が実を結ぶず、汚 染や過密の問題がかさみ、二重苊どころか、䞉重 苊、四重苊にもなる。 それでも、開発途䞊囜に察しお環境保護のため に成長を犠牲にするこずを求めおはならないず アゞア開発銀行ADBの事務総長であるラゞャ ット・ナグRajat Nag氏は指摘する。珟実的で はないからである。䞀方、ADBの䞭で郜垂開発 に携わる専門家のマむケル・リンドフィヌルド Michael Lindfield氏は比范的にフットプリン トの小さい郜垂を歓迎すべきだず䞻匵する。 統蚈数倀の䞭には議論の䜙地があるものも芋ら れるが、珟圚の状況は「悪い」から 「悪化」の範囲 に属しおいる。䞖界銀行によれば、石炭の燃焌に よる倧気汚染が原因で、䞭囜だけでも毎幎5侇 人が早死にしおいる。䞭囜の死亡総数を幎30侇 人ずする掚蚈もある。䞊海出身である䞭囜前䞻 垭の朱鎔基Zhu Rongji氏は、 もし北京に䜏ん でいたら寿呜が5幎瞮たっおいただろうず述べお いる。䞖界銀行によれば、 アゞアで氎質が原因の 疟病によっお死亡する幌児の数は50䞇人に及ん でいる。珟圚、アゞアの人口の1/4は枅浄な飲料 氎を利甚するこずができず、たた、半数以䞊が基 本的な衛生状態を䞋回る環境で暮らしおいる。 珟圚、アゞアには䞖界の人口の56が集䞭しお いるが、耕䜜可胜な土地に぀いおは31に過ぎ ない。1999幎、アゞアの総人口玄32億人のうち 36が郜垂郚に居䜏しおいたが、2030幎たでに この割合は55近くになり、50億人匱たで増加 するず予想されおいる。珟圚アゞアの郜垂には 16億人が䜏んでいるが、今埌20幎間で12億人が 加わるこずになる。 珟圚でもアゞアの郜垂は問題に察応できない状 態であり、それを確認するには実際に蚪れおみ るしかない。特に、最貧囜の巚倧郜垂は䞭でも最 も劣悪な状態にある。ボンベむ空枯に着陞する 飛行機から芋えるアゞア最倧のスラムを思い出 しお欲しい。ゞャカルタは最近床々発生した措氎 によっお実質的に氎没しおいるような状態にあ るこずを芚えおいるだろうか。銙枯はブヌムに沞 く䞭囜本土から立ち䞊る倧気汚染物質によっお 霞んでるこずを知っおいるだろうか。浮遊埮粒子 の量で枬定した䞖界䞭で倧気汚染が最もひどい 倧郜垂の䞊䜍15䜍にはアゞアの12郜垂が入っお いる。アゞアにおける二酞化硫黄ず二酞化窒玠 の排出量は䞖界保健機構WHOの掚奚するレ ベルをはるかに超えおいる。 倧気汚染の状況が悪いずすれば、アゞアの氎質 はそれを䞊回る劣悪な状態にある。 アゞアは1人 4


Urban growth

have all combined to lead to a fourfold rise in solids in Asia’s rivers, and these are now four times the world average and 20 times the levels in developed countries. Throw in a few of the depressing dynamics and there is reason to be afraid for health and life in Asia. Population growth is expected to be double or nearly double by 2050 in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Nepal and Pakistan and growth will be very high in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Vietnam. The poorest countries already facing the biggest environmental stress will be under the greatest pressure. Motor vehicle numbers are doubling in Asia every seven years. In the next 20 years, the number of vehicles in China and India will increase fivefold. In India in the year 2000 there were 10 million motor vehicles or one for every 1,000 people. By 2020, it is expected that there will be 57 million vehicles in India (44 for every 1,000 Indians in a population of 1.3 billion) and another 75 million vehicles in China (up from 15 million in 2000). If Chinese and Indians aspire to the same levels of ownership as in today’s United States, three motor vehicles for every four people, there would be a staggering and frightening two billion cars, buses and lorries in China and India, which would be eight times the projected 266 million in the US. The horror story of the statistical projections only gets worse. Energy use in the developed countries will increase by about 29 percent from 2000 to 2020, but in Asia it will grow by 129 percent. China already generates twice as much carbon per unit of gross domestic product as Japan does because of inefficient technologies. Even today when the alarm bells have begun to sound about global warming, China relies extensively on coal and is opening a coal-fired power plant a week, most of them using dirty technology. In some Chinese plants there is equipment installed to make the plants cleaner, but it is not used. “The law says that the equipment must be installed,” says a leading European power equipment maker, “but the law does not say that it must be used, so it is not.” By 2020 China’s coal consumption is expected to be higher than all the industrialised countries of North America, Europe and Asia combined, and China will be the second biggest producer of greenhouse gases after the US.

For all this, Nag is right that the environment can’t hold economic growth hostage - simply because the ministers of China and India have said so. Nag fairly points out that, “poor countries can afford environmental damage even less. Look at the Sunderbans (of Bengal, straddling Bangladesh and India) or east Nepal. The issue is not can we grow at 10 percent without taking care of environment, and is it OK to grow at 9 percent taking care of the environment? I don’t think the issue has to be framed that way. The issue is that we have to grow at 10 percent, because that is the only way we will be able to absorb our hundreds of millions of unemployed, but this 10 percent growth must be done with environmental sustainability.” Nag is also correct that growth without caring for the environment won’t work, any more than taking care of the environment

こうした気が滅入るような環境の悪化を芋る限 り、アゞアの人々の健康ず生呜に぀いお懞念す る理由は充分存圚する。人口の増加に぀いおも、 アフガニスタン、バングラデシュ、カンボゞア、ネ パヌル、パキスタンは2050幎たでに2倍あるいは 2倍近い増加が予想されおおり、たた、むンド、む ンドネシア、マレヌシア、 フィリピン、ベトナムでも 高い増加率が続くこずが芋蟌たれおいる。既に深 刻な環境䞊の問題に盎面しおいる最貧囜は、さ らに倧きな圧力に晒されるこずになる。

アゞアにおける自動車の台数は7幎で倍増する ペヌスで増加しおいる。今埌20幎間で䞭囜ずむ ンドの自動車の台数は5倍に増えるこずが予想 される。むンドでは、2000幎の時点での保有台 数は1000䞇台で、1000人に1台の普及率だっ た。2020幎たでに、 むンドの保有台数は5700䞇台 人口13億で人口1000人あたり44台、䞭囜は 7500䞇台2000幎は1500䞇台に達するものず 予想される。もし䞭囜人ずむンド人が4人圓たり 3台ずいう珟圚の米囜の普及率に迫るペヌスで 車を賌入した堎合、䞡囜合わせお20億台ずいう トラックが溢れるこず without growth will not work. That is the 膚倧な数の乗甚車、バス、 political and economic wisdom, but doing it になり、米囜に぀いお予想されおいる2億6600侇 台の8倍ずなる。 is harder that stating the equation.

The problem is that even if as many as 100 million people make the decision to live simple, vulnerable lives, a billion others are marching the other way wishing for a modern ‘all mod cons’ life

© Rafoto

Rajat Nag, ADB’s managing director general: Don’t ask the developing countries to sacrifice growth for environmental protection.

あたりの利甚可胜な淡氎の量が最も少ない地域 だ。アゞアにおける氎の䜿甚量は過去50幎間で 3倍に増えおいる。蟲業による利甚が84を占め おいるが、灌挑蚭備の効率が悪いため、60は 無駄になっおしたう。産業および蟲業郚門から排 出される汚氎ず海氎の流入の盞乗効果によっお、 アゞアの河川を流れる固圢物は4倍に増加しお おり、䞖界平均を4倍、先進囜の平均を20倍䞊回 るレベルにある。

His colleague Lindfield also points to some gloomy factors. The world has never in its history had to cope with this amount of change at this speed “It has never occurred before in the history of the human race - since in Europe the cities doubled over 200 years, now we are talking of 20 plus years, so the order of magnitude difference is huge” - and it is huge on top of huge existing numbers and with already strained infrastructure and resources. Nevertheless, Lindfield retains his faith in cities: “You can’t from a sensible environmental perspective do anything but put people in cities because while the footprints are large, in the rural areas they are much larger to generate the same kind of lifestyle.” So what does he say to people like Gandhians or to those like the King of Thailand, who advocate a simple sufficiency lifestyle? “Yes, OK, but people want televisions and they want cell phones and they want modern conveniences. Yes, if you are willing to live at a level of income that is substantially low and you live in a mud hut, do not have a television, have a limited water supply that does occasionally get cholera in it and large numbers of people die. “Yes, if you make that decision, and some Aboriginal peoples in Australia have made that decision and they will live in remote areas that are not easily serviced and it shows in health and other indicators - then fine.” But the problem is that even if as many as 100 million people make that

その他の予枬倀も恐ろしいものばかりである。 先進囜の゚ネルギヌ消費は2000幎から2020幎 にかけお玄29増加するず予想されおいるが、 アゞアの予想消費率は129ずなっおいる。䞭囜 は効率の悪い技術を䜿っおいるため、囜内総生 産の原単䜍あたりの炭玠の生成量は日本の2倍 に達しおいる。地球枩暖化に぀いお譊告が高た り぀぀ある珟圚でも䞭囜は石炭に倧きく䟝存し おおり、1週間に1基の割合で皌動させおいる石 炭火力発電所のほずんどが汚染床の高い技術を 採甚しおいる。䞀郚の発電所には公害防止装眮 が蚭眮されおはいるが䜿甚されおいない。欧州 の発電機噚メヌカヌの関係者は指摘する。 「法埋 では公害防止装眮の蚭眮は矩務づけられおい たす。 ずころが䜿甚矩務を芏定しおおらず、埓っお 䜿甚されおいないのです」。2020幎たでに䞭囜 の石炭消費は北米、欧州、アゞアの先進工業囜 における合蚈消費量を超えるものず予想され、 䞭囜は米囜に぀いお2番目の枩暖ガス排出囜ず なる。 それでも、ナグ氏が蚀うずおり、環境問題を理由 に経枈成長を抑制するこずはできない。なぜな ら䞭囜ずむンドの指導者達が「できない」 ず蚀う からである。ナグ氏は次のように公平な指摘を する。 「貧しい囜は環境劣化からもっずたくさん の被害を受けたす。サンダヌバンズバングラデ シュずむンドの間にたたがるベンガル地方にあ る、あるいは東郚ネパヌルを芋おください。問 題は、環境察策を行わずに10の経枈成長をす るこずはできないのか、あるいは9であれば環 境察策を行わなくおもいいのかずいう議論では ありたせん。私はこうした問題の提起をする必芁 はないず考えおいたす。問題は10の成長が必 芁だずいうこずです。それが䜕億人にも䞊る倱業 4

WiA Delegate Publication

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ADB in the spotlight

decision to live simple, vulnerable lives and a billion others are marching the other way wishing for a modern all mod cons life, then it is in vain. Lindfield continues with his argument: “It is more economical and efficient to put people in urban areas. The impact of grouping people together can be minimised, whereas if you try to give them the same standard of living in a decentralised environment the ecological impact is much higher. There are new developments in hydroponics with vertical farms where you can actually have high density agriculture within cities as ways of reducing the ecological footprints. There are economic-industrial parks where people are trying to arrange that the outputs and waste of one industry are the inputs of another.”

Energy use in the developed countries will increase by about 29 percent from 2000 to 2020, but in Asia it will grow by 129 percent The real problem that he pinpoints is not only the scale of the problem and the rapidity with which it is happening, but also the question of political management. “The urban economy and urbanisation has vastly outgrown the jurisdictional boundaries and management capacities of the cities. We are dealing now in the Pearl River delta area with a city region of, effectively, 80 million people, Tokyo-Yokohama 60 million people. These are basically one contiguous urban area with a bit of green in between. Those regions are actually coherent economies and they take their place on the world stage.

“Tokyo itself, not the Tokyo region, is the ninth biggest economy in the world. We just 者を吞収する唯䞀の道だからです。䜆し、10 do not have the management capacity to の成長は環境面での持続性を䌎う必芁がありた think of managing those kinds of activity and す」 inter-relations properly. Tokyo is one thing, ナグ氏はたた、成長がなければ環境察策も行え and then you get to Shanghai and then you ないのず同じく、環境察策を行わない成長も実珟 go to Dhaka, which is almost as big. しないず蚀う。 これは政治的および経枈的なこず “Sometimes you have up to 15 kinds of によく䜿われる蚀葉だが、 「蚀うは易し、行うは難 different local governments all trying to し」なのである。 manage a (city) which is a coherent economic entity but it isn’t a coherent jurisdictional entity ナグ氏の同僚であるリンドフィヌルド氏は別の and there is no entity whose responsibility it 問題も指摘する。これたでの歎史の䞭で䞖界は 「人 is. Even though the MetroManila Development これほど早い倉化に察応したこずがない。 類史䞊初めおです。 欧州の郜垂は200幎間で人 Authority encompasses 17 local governments, the actual metropolitan area of Manila is much 口が倍増したしたが、最近同じような倉化には 20䜙幎しか掛かっおいたせん。スピヌドが10倍 bigger than that already.” しかも、すでに膚倧になった人口ず Part of the problem is “a failure of political も違いたす」 むンフラや資源の逌迫した珟状を出発点ず考え will. In many countries in Asia, decentralisation has gone a long way very quickly. Many るず、倧倉なこずになる。 countries, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, それでも、リンドフィヌルド氏は郜垂の存圚を支 India have passed constitutional amendments 持しおいる。 「環境の芖点から蚀うず、人々を郜垂 which give much power to local governments, に迎え入れるしか手はないのです。なぜなら郜 but which have not provided for any co- 垂地域も倧きいですが、蟲村地域はそれよりも ordinating mechanisms across the local ずっず倧きく、そこで同じようなラむフスタむルを government, so that there is a difficulty, and 確立するのは倧倉だからです」 even if mayors want to they may not be able to get together. In Jakarta the DKE allows the それでは、シンプルラむフを信奉しおいるガンゞ governor a fairly big geographical area that ヌ䞻矩者やタむの囜王のような人達に察しおは 「シンプルラむフ、結構 he can control - but not enough to control 䜕ず反論するのだろうか the upper reaches of the rivers that helped です。䜆し、人々はテレビを欲しがり、携垯電話を to cause the recent flooding. In Bangkok, 欲しがり、近代の利䟿性を求めたす。もし非垞に the local governor has often been from a 少ない所埗で暮らすこずを望むならば、泥ででき different party to the central government and た小屋に䜏み、テレビを持たず、氎資源を限られ that causes friction and co-ordination has not おいるためにコレラに眹っお倚くの人が死んで いく」 been very well done.” Lindfield, accurately, laments, the “lack 「こういう暮らしをするこずを決心した堎合、そ of structures to manage the huge areas れはそれで結構です。たずえば、オヌストラリア that have to be managed, given the huge のアボリゞニの䞭にはこのような暮らしを遞び、 populations, and to provide the context さたざたなサヌビスを享受できない遠隔地に䜏 into which the private sector can come んでいる人達がいたす。その結果は圌らの健康 efficiently.” He notes that there are many やその他の指暙に珟れおいたすがね。しかし問 private sector companies that specialise 題なのは、たずえ1億人皋床の人々がシンプルラ むフを遞択した堎合でも、厳しい暮らしの圱響を 受けやすい人や残りの䜕十億ずいう人々は近代 的で最新鋭の蚭備を備えた生掻を遞ぶこずにな り、効果はありたせん」

© Rafoto

Embrace the cities, urges Michael Lindfield, the bank’s principal urban development specialist, because the cities leave a smaller footprint.

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「人々を郜垂地域に収容したほうがより経枈的 で効率的なのです。集団的な居䜏による圱響を 最小限に抑えるこずができたす。もし分散した環 境で同じ生掻レベルを実珟しようずした堎合、生 態系ぞの圱響はずっず倧きくなりたす。垂盎型の 蟲堎を実珟する氎耕栜培技術が発達しおおり、 生態系ぞの圱響を䜎枛するために郜垂内で高 集積型蟲業を行うこずが可胜なのです。たた、埪 環型工業団地では、ある産業からの生産物ず廃 棄物を他の産業ぞの投入ずしお利甚する動きが 芋られたす」 リンドフィヌルド氏が指摘する本圓の問題は、問 題の芏暡ずその発展の速さだけでなく、行政によ る運営管理の難しさにもある。 「郜垂経枈ず郜垂 化は個々の郜垂の行政䞊の境界線や経営胜力 をはるかに超えおいたす。䞭囜の珠江デルタ地 域には8000䞇人が居䜏しおおり、 たた、東京暪浜 地域の人口は6000䞇人に達しおいたす。 これら は基本的には䞀続きの郜垂地域であり、間にわ ずかな緑があるに過ぎたせん。 これらの地域は 実質的にひず぀の経枈地域を構成し、䞖界的な 地䜍を占めおいたす」 4



ADB in the spotlight

in environmental care and approach government agencies saying, “Boy, have we got a deal for you: we can build you this solid waste plant, build this mass rapid transport.” But this misses the real question – how should these things be managed. The ADB expert advises: “They have to be managed in the context of a plan, a strategic plan, not necessarily a detailed land use plan, but one that has to take into account the economic reality of the city, the social reality of the city and with a vision of where you are going to go in terms of the institutions that you need to manage it.” He admits: “And that is not present.” Lindfield says the challenge is to tap the private sector expertise. “We do need private sector involvement because the development banks and the national governments themselves will never be able to provide the finance for the infrastructure which is required. The technology is there. The question always has to be how you structure the involvement of the private sector in such a way to ensure that you get a good deal out of it. There are many reputable, decent, good companies out there that, provided you structure the deal right from the public sector’s point of view, will do a good job. But the difficulty is this structuring part - which is difficult enough in developed countries.” It is all too easy to get things wrong. He cites the disastrous experience of his native country, Australia: “Sydney has just had a disaster with a cross Sydney tunnel, which failed completely” in contrast to previous good experiences with inner-city freeways. “There were rosy predictions of usage and very unfortunate closing of roads to divert traffic into the tunnel, which made even local residents have to go way out of their way, even when they did not want to use the tunnel. It became a big political football. There was a lot of expertise, transparency, and yet it still fell in a heap.” If experienced Sydney can

A lot of Asian cities are below sea level and with global warming, they will be even more liable to inundation.

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still get it wrong, what hope is there for less 「東京圏ではなく、東京自䜓が䞖界で9番目に倧 experienced, poorer Asia where the structures きな経枈地域です。このような掻動ず盞互関係を are still part of a game of political football? 適切に管理するこずはできたせん。東京の他に Lindfield says: “Once you have urban も、䞊海があり、たた、同じ芏暡のダッカもありた regions of this size, it behoves the national す」 government to start thinking in these terms. A lot of Asian cities are below sea level 「぀の経枈䞻䜓でありながら、぀の行政䞻 and with global warming, they will become 䜓にはなっおいないため統括的な責任を持った even more below sea level, so we need to 組織がない郜垂を、15皮類もの地方政府が運営 start thinking about managing those sorts of しようずしおいる堎合がありたす。たずえば、メト things. It is not as if the technology is not ロマニラ開発庁は17の地方政府を束ねたもの there. I lived in Holland for eight years and ですが、マニラ銖郜圏地域は既にその管理地域 every six months this modest bill of about を䞊回る倧きさずなっおいたす」 $20 came for maintenance of the dykes and 問題のひず぀に「政治的意思の欠劂」がある。 「ア given that my house was two metres below ゞアの倚くの囜では、地方分暩化が非垞に早い sea level, I cheerfully paid that bill.”

The urban economy and urbanisation has vastly outgrown the jurisdictional boundaries and management capacities of the cities.

ペヌスで進行しおいたす。 フィリピン、むンドネシ ア、タむ、むンドを含めた倚くの囜で地方政府に 倧きな暩限を委譲する憲法改正が成立しおいた すが、地方政府にたたがる調敎機胜を敎備しお いないために問題が発生しおおり、垂長たちが 力を結集するこずもできないずいった状況が生 じおいたす。ゞャカルタでは、DKEが知事に察し おかなり倧きな地域に察する行政暩限を䞎えお いたすが、最近の措氎の原因ずなった河川䞊流 地域にたでは及んでいたせん。バンコクでは、知 事が䞭倮政府ずは異なる政党の出身である堎合 が倚く、察立が生じお、䞡者間の調敎が図られお いたせん」

How much time is there? Lindfield responds that, “Time? As you can see with Jakarta, the time is NOW. Now we are really starting to feel the impacts of the lack of management. We see millions and millions of people being リングフィヌルド氏は心から嘆いおいる。 「運営 disrupted and potentially trillions of dollars of しなければならない広い地域を管理するための economic product disrupted because almost 䜓制が敎備されおいないずころに、膚倧な人口 all big Asian cities are on the coast and are を考えるず、民間セクタヌが効率的な圹割を果 really going to be hit. It is a now problem たせるず思うのですが」。そしお、環境関連事業を from the point of view of climate change. It 埗意ずしお、政府機関に察しお「圓瀟では固圢廃 is a now problem from the point of view of 棄物の凊理堎を建蚭できる、あるいは、高速旅客 the cities’ economic product, and it is a now 茞送システムを建蚭できる」ず提案する民間セク problem from the point of view of the social タヌが倚数あるず指摘する。ずころがこれだけで viability of these cities as well.” は、 こうした斜蚭やシステムをどのように管理運 There is a disconnect here. Lindfield stands 営するのかずいう重芁な問題に答えおいるずは by his position on the cities, even though the 蚀えない。 political management of cities in Asia has proved weak, with the politicians fiddling ADBの専門家であるリンドフィヌルド氏は次のよ 「これらの斜蚭やシステムは while their cities don’t burn down, but just うに助蚀しおいる。 get swamped and polluted. “Really,” he says, 蚈画的に、もっず蚀えば戊略的な蚈画ずいう芳点 “we have to be moving people into the cities, から管理運営されるべきです。この蚈画ずいうの otherwise you do not get the productivity は詳现な土地利甚蚈画である必芁はありたせん increase even in the rural areas to alleviate が、郜垂の経枈的な珟実や瀟䌚的な珟実を考慮 the rural areas. If you are going to have higher に入れ、さらに運営の察象ずなる制床に぀いお income in the rural areas, you need higher の方向性を定めたビゞョンを䌎うものでなけれ productivity for the jobs in the rural areas - ばなりたせん」 and that means fewer people because it is just リンドフィヌルド氏によれば、最も難しい課題は an economic fact that if you are going to have 民間セクタヌの専門胜力や技術をいかに取り入 more productivity there will be fewer jobs. れるかずいう点である。 「民間セクタヌの参加は “Our best guesses are that the secondary どうしおも必芁です。なぜなら、各開発銀行も、政 cities will take the brunt of the increase. The 府も、必芁なむンフラのための資金を単独で提 big cities are slowing down in their rate of 䟛するこずができないからです。技術はあるので increase, though they are still growing. We す。問題は、民間セクタヌの参加をどのような圢 think the cities of between half a million にすれば、そこから倧きな恩恵が埗られるように and five million will take the increase.” なるのかずいう点に集玄されたす。倚くの実瞟を He is less worried about the costs of 持぀優良な䌁業が存圚し、公共セクタヌの芳点 managing the urban infrastructure, though から事業を組み立おるこずさえできれば、玠晎ら he points to a funding gap at the moment: しい仕事をしおくれるのです。難しいのはこの組 “ The cost depends on what you are talking み立おずいう郚分です。これは先進囜でも難しい about and how you define it. What we say 問題です」 is that we figure – conservatively - that the requirements for urban infrastructure are ミスは容易に起こる。リンドフィヌルド氏は母囜 $60 billion a year, and of that a maximum オヌストラリアでの惚憺たる倱敗の䟋を挙げた。 of about $30 billion is being supplied from 「シドニヌが最近手掛けたシドニヌ湟暪断トン all sources, that’s us, that’s governments and ネルのプロゞェクトは、それたでの垂内の高速道 4


© UPPA / Photoshot

Urban growth

Former Chinese premier Zhu Rongji (who came from Shanghai) said that if he lived in Beijing, his life would be shortened by five years.

路建蚭の成功䟋ずは察照的に完党な倱敗に終わ りたした。暪断トンネルの利甚状況に぀いお楜芳 的な予想が行われ、 トンネルに亀通を誘導するた めに既存の道路を閉鎖したこずで、付近の䜏民は 迂回を䜙儀なくされるこずになりたしたが、それ でもトンネルを利甚したがらなかったのです。 こ の倱敗は倧きな政治問題ずなりたした。充分な技 術がありたした。透明性もありたした。それでも倱 敗したのです」。経隓豊富なシドニヌでもこうした 倱敗があるずすれば、経隓が少なくお資源も乏し い、 しかも、公共システムの建蚭および運営が䟝 然ずしお政治的なゲヌムずなるアゞアで䜕が期埅 できるのだろうか

お必芁であるずいうこずです。 これが難しいずころ なのです。特定の人を指しお『あなたに責任があ る』 ず蚀っお枈たせるこずはできないのです」

リンドフィヌルド氏が述べおいるように、未来は 郜垂にあり、さたざたな問題を䜎枛するための技 術は存圚する、あるいは、今埌開発されるずいう 議論は確かに正しい。 しかしながら、問題に察凊 するための政治的なビゞョンず意思を䜜り出さ なければならないずいうこずに぀いお、 リングフ ィヌルド氏は楜芳的過ぎるようにも芋える。むン ドの雑誌Down to Earthでは最近、デリヌ垂内を 流れるダムナヌ川をめぐる問題を指摘した蚘事 を「Capital drain」 ず題するカバヌストヌリヌずし リングフィヌルド氏は次のように述べる。 「これぐ お掲茉した。偉倧な川を䞋氎道ぞず倉える結果ず らいの郜垂圏ずなった段階で、政府はこうした点 なった誀った河川管理に぀いおの教蚓ずなる蚘 を考えざるを埗なくなりたす。 アゞアの倚くの郜垂 事である。 これは誀った方向に行く可胜性があっ は海面以䞋のレベルにあり、地球枩暖化ず共に、 た党おの事が誀った方向に行っおしたったずいう 海氎面はさらに䞊昇するこずから、 こうした状況 ケヌスだ。 「 氎質の浄化に向けお1kmあたり5億 ぞの察策を考え始める必芁がありたす。 これはあ 5000䞇ルピヌ1200䞇ドルから7億5000䞇ルピ たかも技術がないかのような状況です。私はオラ ヌの費甚が費やされた埌も、川はこれたで以䞊に ンダに8幎間䜏んでいたしたが、6ヶ月ごずに堀防 疲匊しきっおいる。垂圓局は川を汚泥の流れに倉 の維持管理費ずしお玄20ドルの請求がありたし 貌させる行為を続けおいる」。Down to Earth誌で た。私の家は海面䞋2メヌトルにあるため、喜んで はこのように結論づけおいる。 支払っおいたした」 この蚘事は資金の誀った䜿い方を䌝えおいる。デ どれくらいの時間があるのだろうか 「時間ゞャ リヌから排出される汚氎はダムナヌ川の汚濁負 カルタの䟋を芋れば分かるように、今から行うべ 荷の70を占めおいるが、デリヌに建蚭された凊 きです。今われわれは運営管理の䞍備による圱響 理斜蚭は圓初蚈画されおいた凊理胜力の2.7%に をひしひしず感じ始めおいたす。アゞアの倧郜垂 過ぎなかった。 しかも倚くの䞋氎凊理堎は䞍適切 のほずんどが沿岞にあり、圱響を受けるこずが珟 な堎所に䞍適切な方法で建蚭されおおり、䞋氎道 実的になろうずしおいる今、被害を受けるのは䜕 が敷蚭されおいない䞍法占拠者の居䜏地域から 癟䞇人ずいう人々であり、䜕兆ドルずいう芏暡の 排出される倧量の汚氎を凊理するこずができな 経枈です。 これは気候倉動ずいう芖点からの問題 い。そのうちの1ヶ所では䞋氎の凊理を党く行っお なのです。郜垂の経枈ずいう芖点からの問題であ おらず、その䞀方で未凊理の䞋氎が川に盎接排 り、そしお、郜垂の瀟䌚的な持続性ずいう芖点か 出されおいる。 らの問題なのです」 この蚘事がやりきれないのは、排氎の量が知られ ここにギャップがある。アゞアの郜垂の運営が匱 おいる比范的発達した郜垂で発生しおいるこず 䜓化し、政治家が時間を空費しおいる間に、郜垂 だ。関連する芁因に぀いおは知られおいるにも関 は氎没し、汚染されおいるにも関わらずリンドフ わらず、蚈画担圓者ず政治家は間違った刀断ず決 ィヌルド氏は郜垂を擁護する立堎をずっおいる。 定を行ったこずになる。 「本圓に人々を郜垂に移転させなければなりた デリヌで珟圚の問題に察凊できないずすれば、胜 せん。そうしなければ、地方の生産性ず生掻氎準 力的に限界に達しおいる人口皠密地域で発生す の向䞊を図るこずはできないのです。地方での所 る環境䞊の圧力、そしお、地球枩暖化の脅嚁に察 埗を向䞊させようずする堎合、そこで行われる仕 凊できる可胜性はどれくらいあるのだろう。考え 事に関連した生産性を䞊げる必芁がありたす。 こ るだけでぞっずする話である。■ れは必芁な人間が少なくなるこずを意味したす。 生産性が向䞊するず、雇甚数が少なくなるこずは 経枈的な事実だからです」

private sector loans, everything. In terms of broader requirements the generally quoted figures are $200 to $250 billion. “Who is to blame? It is no one person’s fault. The difficult part of this is that you need partnerships, you need governments, you need the private sector, you need us, you need bilateral donors. That’s the hard part; you can’t point at any one person and say, “You! - you got this wrong.” Lindfield is undoubtedly right that cities are the future, that the technologies are there – or will be there – to mitigate the bad effects. But he may be too optimistic about the problems of creating the political vision and the will to handle the problem. The Indian magazine Down to Earth recently ran a revealing cover story on the Yamuna river, which flows through Delhi, and which the magazine entitled “Capital drain.” It is a story that offers an object lesson in mismanagement of a great river that has been turned into a cesspit. Everything that might have gone wrong, went wrong. “After 550 million rupees ($12 million) to 750 million rupees spent per kilometre on cleaning it up, the river is more spent than ever today. Devotedly, the city continues to faecally transform the river into a vast stream of flowing slime,” the magazine concluded. The story is of money spent in the wrong places - Delhi contributed 70 percent of the pollution load but got only 2.7 percent of the treatment capacity under the original scheme 「われわれが蚀えるこずは、地方からの流入人口 - of sewage plants badly built in the wrong の受け皿ずなるのは䞭芏暡の郜垂だろうずいう places that failed to capture large chunks of こずです。倧郜垂は䟝然ずしお成長は続けおいた faecal matter that came from illegal squatter すが、その成長率は䜎䞋しおいたす。぀たり、人口 colonies unconnected to the sewage system; 50䞇人から500䞇人芏暡の郜垂が受け皿ずなれ of underutilized sewage plants, one of る郜垂であるず考えおいたす」 which does not receive any sewage, while リンドフィヌルド氏は、郜垂むンフラの管理に掛 untreated sewage flows directly to the river. かる費甚に぀いおはあたり心配しおいないが、資 The savage sadness of this story is that 金ギャップに぀いおは次のように指摘しおいる。 this is happening in a relatively sophisticated 「この費甚はそれをどう定矩するかによっお異な city dealing with a documented and known りたす。぀たり、控えめに芋積もっおも、郜垂むン quantity of waste in the present tense. All the フラにかかる費甚は幎間600億ドルに䞊り、その factors in the equation were known, but still うちの最倧300億ドルは政府ず民間のどこからか the planners and the politicians got it wrong. 調達しおくる必芁があるずいうこずなのです。費甚 If Delhi cannot handle its present problems, の範囲をさらに広くするず、䞀般に蚀われおいる what chances are there that it will be able 費甚は2000億ドルから2500億ドルずなりたす。 to handle the pressures of a more intensely populated world where all the systems are こうなったのは誰の責任でしょうか 誰のせい under stress and then there is the threat of でもありたせん。難しいのは、パヌトナヌシップ、 政府、民間セクタヌ、ADB、2囜間の揎助など、すべ global warming? It is a sobering thought. g

WiA Delegate Publication

53


ADB in the spotlight

倉化する䞖界、远 い぀づけるADB

アゞア開発銀行ADBの䞊玚職員の蚀葉 に泚意しお耳を傟けるず、 このずころADBは 垞に掻動しおいるように聞こえるが、 どちら かずいえば「鏡の囜のアリス」に登堎する赀 の女王のようだ。い぀も同じ堎所に留たるた めにアタフタず駆け回っおいる。 成長に次ぐ成長を遂げおいる䞭囜、新星むンドの 登堎、ためらいがちに台頭し぀぀ある他の諞囜、繁 栄の分け前を狙っお奮闘しおいる人口倧囜など、急 速に倉化しおいるアゞア倧陞においおはそれも驚 くべきこずではなく、いずれも新時代ぞの迅速な察 応を詊みるADBに問題を投げかけおいる。 アゞアが倉化する速床は、 「鏡の囜のアリス」に登堎 する赀の女王ず党力で走っおいたのに党く進んで いないこずが分かっお息を切らしおいるアリスずの 出䌚いによく䌌おいる。 ただ少し息切れが残っおい るアリスは蚀った。 「わたくしどもの囜では、ふ぀う はどこかよそにたどり぀くんです――もし今のわた したちみたいに、すごく速く長いこず走っおいたら」

ADB on the move, keeping up with a changing world If you listen too hard to its senior staff, it appears that the Asian Development Bank has recently been continuously in motion, but rather like the Red Queen in Alice through the Looking Glass, always rushing to stay in the same place.

P

erhaps there should be no surprise in this in that the pace of change in the continent, which has seen the rise and rise of China, the arrival of a shining new India, the hesitant emergence of other countries, and the struggles of the mass population countries to get their share of prosperity, all pose problems for the bank in trying to adjust quickly enough to the new times. The speed of change in Asia is represented well by the encounter between the Red Queen and the out of breath Alice, in Alice through the Looking Glass, who has been running hard, but finds she has not moved: ‘Well, in our country,’ said Alice, still panting a little, `you’d generally get to somewhere else - if you ran very fast for a long time, as we’ve been doing.’ `A slow sort of country!’ said the Queen. `Now, here, you see, it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place. If you want to get somewhere else, you must run at least twice as fast as that!’ The ADB in recent years has seen its fair share of changes and reform plans. Previous president Tadao Chino put the bank’s focus on defeating poverty. He also revived the private sector operations by appointing Robert Bestani to take charge of it, and set up a new post with the resounding title of managing director general, above all the other directors general, to co-ordinate and connect the work of the bank. During Chino’s 54

「グズな囜じゃの!」ず女王は答えた。 「ここではだ ね、同じ堎所にずどたるだけで、 もう必死で走らなき ゃいけないんだよ。そしおどっかよそに行く぀もり なら、せめおその倍の速さで走らないずね!」 近幎、ADBは圓然行うべき倉革や改革蚈画を行 っおきた。千野忠男前総裁は貧困撲滅にADBの 焊点を圓おた。たた、ロバヌトベスタニRobert Bestani氏を責任者に指名しお民間セクタヌ事業 を埩掻させるずずもに、ADBの事業を調敎し連結す る事務総長ずいう明確なポストを他の党おの局長 の䞊に新蚭した。千野総裁時代には、加盟諞囜に 海倖駐圚員事務所を蚭ける正匏な政策も採甚され た。黒田東圊新総裁は、就任から2幎間でかなりの 数の調査や戊略、 レビュヌなどを展開しおいる。

time, a formal policy was also adopted to establish resident missions abroad in member countries. In his two years in the ADB自䜓の組織図は䞀颚倉わっおいる。統制を瀺 job, new president Haruhiko Kuroda has let すほずんどの線は総裁から出お4人の副総裁を経 loose a proliferation of studies, strategies, 由するが、業務評䟡局ずコンプラむアンス レビュヌ パネルCRPは理事䌚盎属ずなり、アゞア開発銀 and reviews. The ADB’s own organisational chart has 行研究所ずいうシンクタンク、戊略・政策宀、監査圹 a strange look. The lines go down from the 宀、そしおリスク管理課は総裁盎属ずなっおいる。 president through the four vice presidents, しかし、総裁ず盎接぀ながっおいるもう぀の図圢 except for the operations evaluation がある。それは事務総長の図圢であり、総裁の暪の department and compliance review panel, すぐ䞋にある。぀たり、各副総裁の図圢の䞊の目立 which report directly to the board of directors, った堎所である。 and an assortment of bodies like the think 2006幎12月、ADBの䞭でも有数の経隓者であり、勀 tank which is the Asian Development Bank 続30幎のカナダ人ラゞャットナグRajat Nag氏 Institute, the strategy and policy department, がそのポストに就任した。ナグ氏に぀いおは「気難 the office of the auditor general, and the しくお厳しい」ず衚する職員もいるが、頭脳明晰で risk management unit, where the line runs 歯切れがよく、意欲的な人物である。アむデアが豊 富で、それを次々ず披露するこずもあるが、勀続幎 directly from the president. 数の長い囜内の䞀郚の官僚ずは違っお尊倧ではな But there is another line that stands out い。たた、東南アゞア局や地域統合を担圓し実瞟を and runs from the president to the managing 䞊げおいるこずでも尊敬を集めおいる。職䜍は副総 director general, and the box for the post 裁の䞋ではあるが、管理委員䌚の運営に䞀圹買う actually appears just below, though to the など、匵り巡らされた党おの暩限の䞭心的芁所に side of the president’s box, but directly on いる。 top of those for the vice presidents. Rajat ナグ氏は自分の仕事に぀いお次のように語っおい Nag, a Canadian, who is one of the most る。 「キヌワヌドは連結。組織内を぀なぎ合わせお experienced ADB staff, having worked at いくこずです。この組織の䞭では様々な玠晎らしい the bank for 30 years, took over the post 仕事が行われおいたすし、倧倉志の高い方針が掲 in December 2006. He is bright, articulate, げられ、その方針のために倧勢の優秀な人材が働 and passionate, though some staff find him いおいたす。私はADBの様々な郚分を぀なぎ合わ rather fussy and demanding. Unlike some せるこずが自分の圹割であるず考えおいたす」 long-serving national bureaucrats, he is not 「私の仕事の正匏な定矩は管理委員䌚の運営面 pompous, though he is so brimful of ideas においお総裁をサポヌトするこずですが、結局は that he sometimes overlays them one on top ADBが共通の基本方針の䞋で瞄匵り䞻矩に陥らな 4


ADB on the move

of another. He also commands respect from having successfully been in charge of the south east Asia department and in charge of regional integration. He ranks below the vice presidents, but sits at the centre of all the webs of power, not least in helping run the management committee. Nag says that the “principal word” for his job “is connectivity, connectivity within the organisation. Lots of good things happen within this institution and we have a very ambitious agenda and lots of good people working on the agenda. I see my role as connecting different parts of the bank. “Formally, my job is defined as supporting the president in the running of the management committee, which is basically coordination of the vice presidents, so it is basically a coordinating activity, so that this institution has one agenda and we don’t get into silos. One of the things in any institution is that, almost by necessity, you have specialisations and people have responsibilities and yet we have to work as a whole. Connectivity is the one word which I keep telling myself - that your job is to connect.” He is also taking charge of external relations, regional economic integration, and the risk management unit, which are in a direct line from the president. In some ways Nag is becoming the day-to-day public face of the bank through taking charge of external relations. He correctly says that after 30 years, “I have got to know the institution, got to know the people, got to know what works. I know who should be called for what.” In his view, the Kuroda bank is already being marked by greater selectivity and focus: “Our strategic objective of poverty reduction remains the same, that is the overarching objective. But since Mr Kuroda came I think it is fair to say we have definitely put a lot more attention to regional cooperation and integration.” He cites Kuroda’s determination to achieve

the “three Rs - regional integration, results いように調敎を行っおいく、特に副総裁の調敎をす orientation and relevance.” るこずが基本的な圹割です」 Along with this, the medium term strategy, adopted in May 2006 for the period to 2008, 「どの組織もそうですが、人はそれぞれ自分の専 groups the bank’s lending activities into 門分野や責任範囲を必然的に持っおいながら、そ れでも䞀䜓ずなっお仕事をしなければならないわ three levels: the must do tasks; the should けです」 do, but they can be done in partnership; and 「連結ずいう蚀葉は垞に自分に蚀い聞かせおいる the activities where the bank does not have a comparative advantage and should yield 蚀葉です。仕事は぀ながっおいなければなりたせ them to other bodies. Nag says that health ん」 has dropped to category 2 and airport and たたナグ氏は、総裁盎属の広報宀、地域経枈統合 port developments are category 3, unless a 課、リスク管理課も担圓しおいる。察倖関係を担圓 country wants a small airport as an integral するこずで、ある意味ではADBの顔ずなっおきた。 part of a top priority tourism plan, for 30幎間ADBに勀めた埌で、ナグ氏は圓たり前のよう 「私はADBのこずが分かるようにな example. It’s not that airports and ports are に述べおいる。 not important, he says, but there is sufficient り、職員のこずが分かるようになり、䜕が機胜するか 分かるようになりたした。私には適材適所が分かっ private sector appetite for them in Asia. おいたす」

“Our strategic objective of poverty reduction remains the same, that is the overarching objective” Nag also points to some new innovations, “New products in response to changing demands,” he says. “For example, we have a multi-tranche financing facility under which large infrastructure projects can follow the pace of development of the project. Previously, when we financed a large infrastructure project for the country and approved the loan, once the loan is signed, the clock starts to tick and the country has to pay commitment charges, no matter when the funds are actually disbursed. Sometimes there is at first quite a bit of a gap, because it takes time with the typical S curve. Now, depending on the nature of the project, we can give our clients assurance of the entire amount, but we can approve only the first part of it, which is what they need now, and the second part, with some assurance, but subject to approval of the management and the board being informed, would follow.”

そしお、より進んだ厳遞䞻矩ず焊点の絞り蟌みが すでに特城ずしお衚われおいる黒田総裁のADBに ぀いおは次のように語っおる。 「貧困削枛ずいう ADBの包括的戊略目暙は倉わりたせん。 しかし、黒 田総裁の就任以来、地域の協力ず統合ぞの泚目床 がはるかに増したこずは確かであるず蚀っおもか たわないず思いたす」そしお、 「地域統合regional integration 、結果重芖results orientation、関連 性 relevance ずいう3぀のR」の実珟ずいう黒田総 裁の決意を匕甚しおいる。 それず平行しお、 2006幎5月に採甚された2008幎 たでの䞭期戊略では、貞付業務が「必須業務」 「す べきだが提携しおできる業務」 「ADBに比范優䜍が なく、他の機関に譲った方が良い業務」の3぀のレ ベルに分類されおいる。䟋えば、ナグ氏は「保健は カテゎリヌ2に萜ちたした。たた、最優先順䜍の芳 光蚈画の䞍可欠芁玠ずしお囜が小芏暡の空枯を求 めおいる堎合は別ずしお、空枯枯湟開発はカテゎ リヌ3」 ず蚀い衚しおいる。空枯や枯湟は重芁では ないずいうのではないが、アゞアではこうしたもの に察する民間セクタヌの関心で充分ず蚀う。 そしお、いく぀かの画期的な新商品に぀いおも次 のように指摘しおいる。 「需芁の倉化に察応した 新商品。䟋えば、プロゞェクトの進行に合わせお倧 型むンフラ敎備プロゞェクトが進められるように、 ADBにはマルチトランシェ融資ファシリティヌがあ りたす。以前は、囜の倧型むンフラプロゞェクトに融 資しお貞付を承認する時、借入囜は実際の融資の 実行時期ずは関係なく貞付契玄の締結時を基準ず しお玄定料を払わなければなりたせんでした。時に よっおは兞型的なS字曲線で時間がかかり、圓初倧 きな時間差が出るこずもありたした。今では、 プロゞ ェクトの内容に応じお、借入囜に金額党䜓に぀いお 保蚌を出しながら、圓面必芁ずしおいる最初の借入 分だけをたず承認したす。残りの郚分もほが保蚌さ れおいたすが、その承認は理事䌚ぞの報告ず経営 陣の承認を受ける手順を枈たしおからになりたす」 長い間話題になっおいたもう1぀の革新が、珟地通 貚によるプロゞェクト融資の導入だ。 ADBがむンフラ融資の削枛に取り組んでいるのに もかかわらず、そしお評論家の䞭には「むンフラ融 資は民間セクタヌに任せおも倧䞈倫」 ずいう説があ るにもかかわらず、 ナグ氏の蚀うこの「最先端」の新 しい取り組みにより今でもむンフラはADBの貞付 の 䞭で最も倧きな割合を占めおいる。

The ADB has a multi-tranche financing facility which can follow the pace of development of large infrastructure projects, such as this upgrading of part of the historic Silk Road in Azebaijan.

ナグ氏はアゞアに぀いお民間の開発業者や金融業 者を匕き付ける魅力が異なっおおり、開発段階に雲 泥の差がある囜が集たっおいる耇雑な地域である ず指摘しおいる。そしお、人口2億2,000䞇人、1人圓 たりの囜民所埗1,140ドルのむンドネシアを䟋に挙 げおいる。むンドネシアは魅力の溢れた囜だが、䞀 郚の朜圚的投資家は、経営ずリスクの分担、玛争解 決、土地買収、そしおどこに確実なプロゞェクトがあ るのかずいうこずに䞍安を感じおいる。 4

WiA Delegate Publication

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ADB in the spotlight

© Mark Henley / Panos Pictures

「むンドネシアに倚くのむンフラが必芁なこずは呚 知の事実です。 しかし、 プロゞェクトを芋付けおフィ ゞビリティスタディを実斜する前に、土地の敎備、 適切な叞法や金融のむンフラなど必芁な䜜業がた くさんあるのです。そこで、民間の資金が流れ蟌む 適切な環境を䜜るため、ADBが䞊流で前もっおむン ドネシアのむンフラ改革プログラムロヌンを実斜 しおいるのです」

Indonesia has lots of attractions, but some potential investors are worried about management and risk sharing.

Another innovation, which had been talked about for years, is the introduction of local currency financing for projects. With this new “cutting edge” approach, as Nag calls it, infrastructure remains the biggest slice of the bank’s lending, even though it is trying to shed parts of it, and even though some critics assert that infrastructure can safely be left to the private sector. Nag points out that Asia is a complicated continent with countries at various and very different stages of development, which do not offer the same kind of attraction to developers and bankers from the private sector. He cites the case of Indonesia, population 220 million, per capita income $1,140. Indonesia has lots of attractions, but some potential investors are worried about management and risk sharing, dispute resolution, and land acquisitions, as well as where the bankable projects are.

I don’t think we will become totally infrastructure or totally social sector “Everybody knows that Indonesia needs a lot of infrastructure,” adds Nag, but there is a lot of work needed to prepare the ground, create the proper legal and financial infrastructure, so to speak, before the projects can be found and the feasibility studies evaluated, so the ADB is doing an upfront, upstream Indonesia infrastructure reform programme loan to create the right environment for private funds to go in. Depending on the country, Nag says, private sector developers may even say they have lots of money, but would like the ADB involved for greater comfort and ease in talking to the government - lending the umbrella of the ADB flag, as Robert Bestani puts it - so may prefer a public-private partnership project. Nag says that infrastructure loans the bank 56

囜によっおは、 「 資金は充分にありたすが、ADBさ んが関䞎するず政府ずの折衝はよりスムヌズに、 よ り楜に進みたす」 ず、ロバヌト・ベスタニ氏が唱える 「ADBの旗で守られた融資」説を䞻匵し、官民共同 プロゞェクトを奜む民間セクタヌの開発業者もいる ずナグ氏は指摘する。ADBが行うむンフラ融資は、 「盎接的な1察1の公共セクタヌ融資から、投資や 改革プログラムの再橋枡しや觊媒圹たであらゆる 分野に及んでいたす」 ナグ氏は次のように続けおいる。 「ADBは開発銀行 ですから、教育や保健から手を匕くこずはできたせ んし、手を匕くべきではありたせん。なぜならば、教 育や保健は非垞に倧切なものであり、バランスを 保たなければならないからです。 しかし、むンフラ は地域諞囜が倧倉必芁ずしおいる重芁なものです。 むンフラは成長の䞭心的芁玠ですし、貧困削枛にず っお道路は倧倉重芁なものです。぀たり、二者択䞀 ずいった問題ではないずいうこずです。ADBがこれ からむンフラ䞀蟺倒、あるいは瀟䌚セクタヌ䞀蟺倒 になるずは思いたせん」

makes run a whole gamut “from the direct one to one public sector investments to rebridging or catalysing investment or reform programmes.” He continues: “It is also true that we, as a 「それは、各囜に合わせおADBが策定する戊略に development bank, cannot and should not よりたす。むンドや䞭囜の堎合、ADBの囜別戊略は just get out of education or health, because おそらくむンフラ重芖の貞付になりたすが、カンボ they are very important and there has to be ゞアやラオスのような囜の堎合には、むンフラもさ a balance. But infrastructure is a very key るこずながら瀟䌚セクタヌ重芖になるこずでしょう」 need of our countries. Infrastructure is a そしお次のように䞻匵しおいる。 「むンフラがADBの key ingredient of growth and roads are very 事業の倧倉倧きな郚分を占め、貧困削枛に盎接貢 important to poverty reduction. So it is not 献しおいるこずは間違いありたせん。成長ほど貧困 going to be an either/or. I don’t think we 削枛に圹立぀ものはないずいうこずに異論はない will become totally infrastructure or totally ず思いたす。むンフラは成長の倧倉重芁な芁玠で す。぀たり、むンフラは貧困削枛に確実に貢献する social sector as we move. “It will depend on the strategies that ずいうこずです」いくら立掟な高速道路でも蟲家が 䜜物を運びこめるようなアクセス道路がなければ we design for each country. For in a 意味がない。むンフラが成長に貢献するためには country like India or China, our country その蚭蚈を適切なものにしなければならないこず strategy will probably be leaning more をナグ氏は認めおいる。 towards infrastructure, but in a country like 時代が倉わり、 たさに接波のように䞖界からアゞア Cambodia or Laos it will lean more to the に資金が集たっおくる䞭、ナグ氏は諞囜がその資金 social sector side, although infrastructure の分配にあずかるこずができるようにADBが力を will play a role. “ 貞す必芁がさらに高たっおいるず考えおいる。 「各 He asserts that: “Infrastucture is certainly a 囜を芋るず、その理由は様々ですが、むンドや䞭囜 very big part of our business, and contributes やカンボゞアやラオスでも、ADBは必芁ずされおい directly to poverty reduction. I don’t think たす。むンドや䞭囜はADBからの融資を必芁ずしお there is any debate that growth is the best いるずは思いたせん。むンドや䞭囜には豊富な資 form of poverty reduction. Infrastructure 金や資源があり、30億ドルや50億ドルは簡単に远 is a very important component of growth, 加するこずができたす。むンドや䞭囜などの囜が必 and therefore it follows that infrastructure 芁ずしおいるのは、倖囜のベストプラクティスの知 識や経隓です。私は、ADBは知識の仲介圹ずしお倧 definitely contributes to poverty reduction. ” 倉重芁な圹割を果たしおいるず思いたす」 Nag does admit that infrastructure needs to be properly designed to contribute to growth: 「むンドや䞭囜の察極にある䟋を玹介したしょう。 there is no point in a fine expressway if it カンボゞアやラオス、䞭倮アゞアのような諞囜で does not have good access roads that lets は、ADBは゜フト及び通垞資本財源 OCRの䞡方 の財源ずしお必芁ずされおいたす。これらの諞囜 the farmers get their produce onto it. では、知識面でもADBが必芁ずされおいるずは思 With the changing times, and the veritable いたすが、開発銀行の本来の姿である埓来の財源 tsunami of global funds available in Asia, の運び圹ずしおのADBが必芁ずされおいたす。これ Nag thinks that there is an even more らの極端な諞囜の間に、それが譲蚱的貞付にしろ important need for the bank in helping to OCRにしろ、ADB が持っおくる資金を今でも必芁ず make sure that countries can get a share of しおいる䞀方で、政策改革、政策の枠組み、政策に the money: “If you look at each country, 関する助蚀も必芁ずしおいる䞭所埗囜が党お入り even an India or a China or a Cambodia たす」 or Laos, we are needed in these countries そしお、むンドネシアのむンフラ改革蚈画を䞻な䟋 「成吊は、政府がどのように蚈画 for different reasons. I don’t think India or ずしお挙げおいる。 China needs us for our money. They have を実斜するか、そしおADBがどのように政府ず協力 got enough money, resources, they can するかに倧きく巊右されたす。改革蚈画が成功する 4



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ADB in the spotlight

easily put in another $3 billion or $5 billion. What countries like India and China need is knowledge of best practices, experiences from other places. I think we play a very important knowledge intermediation role. “Let’s take the other extreme: I think that in countries like Cambodia, Laos, central Asia, we are needed for financial resources, both soft and ordinary capital resources [OCR in bank speak]. I think we are needed for knowledge, but there we are needed for the traditional resource transfer paradigm, the mark of the development bank. Then there is the whole spectrum in between, the middle income countries which still need resources that we bring, be it concessional or OCR, but also need the policy reform, the policy framework, the policy advice.”

Infrastructure is a very important component of growth, and definitely contributes to poverty reduction

© Rafoto

He cites the infrastructure reform programme in Indonesia as a key example and admits that: “Success will depend very much on how the government implements the programme and how we work with the government. If that reform programme is successful then ... enough private sector money will come. But the private sector money will not come just because the money is there and the projects are there. Something in between is needed to create a bridge.” Nag is reluctant to criticise the flows, and the ebbs, of private money, though he does let slip that, though the world is awash with liquidity, some places never see a cent of it. “Is money going to all the places it ought to go to?” he muses. “ I take the view that private money always goes to the right place in the sense that private investors have made their judgement call. “They don’t go to Bangladesh, not because there are not enough bankable projects in Bangladesh, but because of other factors which the private sector will assess or because the expectation theory comes in

Nag: Since Mr Kuroda came I think it is fair to say we have definitely put a lot more attention to regional cooperation and integration.

58

as to what they expect to happen in China vis-à-vis what they expect to happen in Bangladesh. “That is where we come in. I think we can moderate the risk perception, so we can say, and we have done this in Bangladesh. We have said to private investors in the power sector that we will work with you to define how the revenues will be collected and you will be paid, how the losses in the system will be managed and paid for and what will be the risk management. Having done all this, the private sector came in with us in a power station. “It has to be a public-private sector partnership. I have heard many times that there is a lot of private sector money... but I don’t see a red cent coming. I don’t hold it against the private sector because they want to know what the risks are. They can deal with risks but the private sector has great difficulty dealing with uncertainty. We help the countries to deal with uncertainties and also define the risks. The exciting thing in Asia is that there is a lot of private sector money and a lot of private sector interest, but it would be a gross leap of faith if we think that it will all get invested - and if it were so we would not have these infrastructure problems in Manila or in Jakarta. It is not getting invested because the private sector investors aren’t convinced that they will make reasonable risk-adjusted returns. We come into play in the intermediation role.” Intermediation in his view extends way beyond providing funds for projects or getting individual projects from the drawing board and onto the ground. It involves things like the bank helping with “... the development of the regional bond market, our working on the local currency financing, our providing of the political risk and the partial credit risk guarantees.” In the case of the Philippines, Nag says, the bank is trying to be the intermediary, offering a political risk guarantee to tempt private sector money into the power sector. He explains: “We are talking in the Philippines about a power sector reform programme. We have seen the improvements made in the government’s revenue collections, we have seen improvements made in privatization processes, we have seen some of the hydropower assets being sold through an open bidding process in the Philippines. So then you say the investment climate has improved. Answer, yes. Has it improved enough? Answer, No. But that is where we come in with our political risk guarantee. What we say to the private sector partners is that this is the reform programme that we are supporting for the public sector and this will do the following. See how it goes and then perhaps you and we can together go into a specific project and we can provide political risk guarantees, so that if something goes awry then you do have cover.” The ADB always has to be aware not only of the different stages of development of the different countries, but also the

ず...民間セクタヌの十分な資金が集たりたす。 しか し、資金や蚈画があるずいうだけでは民間セクタヌ の資金は集たりたせん。䞡者の橋枡しをする䜕かが 必芁なのです」 ナグ氏は民間資金の干満に぀いお批刀するこずは 躊躇しながらも、䞖界はこれだけ流動的な資金に 溢れおいるずいうのに、䞀郚のずころには党くそれ が流れおいっおいないず本音を挏らしおいる。 「果 たしお資金は行くべきずころに行っおいるのでしょ うか私が考えるに、民間の資金は『民間の投資家 が刀断をした』 ずいう意味では垞に適所に行っおい るず思いたす」 「資金がバングラデシュに行かないのは、バングラ デシュに確実に利益をもたらすプロゞェクトがない からではなく、民間セクタヌが評䟡する別の芁因が あるため、あるいは期埅理論がバングラデシュ察䞭 囜ずいった圢で導入されるためです」 「そこでADBの出番です。私は、ADBはリスクの認 識を和らげるこずができるず考えおいたす。バング ラデシュの堎合もそうでした。ADBは、 どのように資 金を集めお投資家に還元するか、システムの損倱 をどのように管理し補填するか、 リスク管理をどの ようにするかに぀いお協力する、 ず電力郚門の民間 投資家に持ちかけたした。その結果、民間セクタヌ はADBの発電所の話に乗っおきたした」 「官民の連携が必芁です。民間には資金が豊富に あるずいう話は再䞉耳にしたすが...その資金が1円 でも投入されるのを芋たこずがありたせん。だから ずいっお民間を責めおいるわけではありたせん。民 間はどのようなリスクがあるか知りたいず思っおい るわけですから。民間はリスクを䜕ずかするこずは できたす。 しかし、䞍確実性に察応するのは倧倉難 しいのです。ADBは䞍確実性に察応できるずずもに リスクを明確にできるよう囜を支揎したす。アゞア で玠晎らしいのは、民間資金が豊富で民間の関心 も高いずいうこずです。 しかし、その資金が党お投資 されるず考えるのは、取らぬ狞の皮算甚ずいえるで しょう。そのように投資されるのなら、マニラやゞャ カルタで起きおいるむンフラの問題は起きないは ずです。投資は行われおいたせん。なぜならば民間 セクタヌの投資家は、 リスクを調敎した䞊で劥圓な 収益が埗られるず確信しおいないからです。そこで ADBが仲介圹ずしお介入するずいうわけです」 「仲介をするこずによっお、プロゞェクトに資金を 提䟛する、あるいは個々のプロゞェクトを机䞊から 珟堎に移しお具䜓化しおいくずいう以䞊の道が開け たす。䟋えば、ADBによる...地域の債刞垂堎の発展 支揎、珟地通貚立お融資の取り組み、政治リスクや 郚分信甚リスクの保蚌などが行われたす」 ナグ氏はADBが仲介圹ずなっお政治リスクの保蚌 を付け、民間セクタヌの資金を電力郚門に匕き寄 せようずしおいるフィリピンの䟋をあげる。 「ADBは フィリピンで電力セクタヌ改革蚈画の話を進めお いたす。フィリピンでは政府による集金状況、民営 化のプロセスに改善が芋られ、公開入札によっお 氎力発電資産の売华が進められおいたす。぀たり、 投資環境が改善されたかずいうず、答えはむ゚スで す。では、十分に改善されたかずいうず、答えはノヌ です。 しかし、だからこそ、ADBが政治リスク保蚌ず いう圢で割っお参入しおいるのです。ADBは民間セ クタヌのパヌトナヌに察しお、 これはADBが公共セ クタヌのために支揎しおいる改革プログラムであ るこず、成り行きを芋お、おそらく貎瀟ず圓行が協力 しお具䜓的プロゞェクトに入るこず、そしおADBが 政治リスク保蚌をしおいるので、䞍枬の事態が生じ おも補償されるこずを説明したす」 ADBは垞に様々な囜の様々な開発段階だけでな く、政情、そしお株䞻や出資者が加盟政府であるず いう事実も認識しおいなければならない。 ナグ氏は こうした状況に぀いお、 「政治に合わせ぀぀政治に 巻き蟌たれず、螊りながら綱枡りをしおいるような もの」 ず述べる。 4


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ADB in the spotlight

© Heldur Netocny / Panos Pictures

そしおこの境界線に぀いお次のように説明しようず する。 「ADBは政情に巻き蟌たれない。 これは肝に 銘じおいたす。 よく蚀うのですが、ADBは非政治的 機関ですが、ADBの出資者は倧倉政治的です。 この 線匕きが難しい。マクロ経枈政策の行方が政情に 邪魔されるようなこずがある堎合は、考え方を明確 にしたり発蚀をしたりしたすが、それ以倖はADBが 自ら政局に関䞎するこずはありたせん」

In the case of the Philippines, the bank is offering a political risk guarantee to tempt private sector money into the power sector.

political environment and the fact that its shareholders and owners are the member governments. This, says Nag, means dancing on a tightrope of being politically tuned in but not getting involved in politics. He tries to explain the demarcation lines: “We do not get involved in political situations, very consciously. As I often say, we are an apolitical institution, but our owners are very political. That is a difficult line. If we find that the politics of the situation are coming in the way of macroeconomic politics, that is when we would take a view or make a statement, but other than that we do not involve ourselves in the political situation.” How then do ADB staff interact with the different governments? Essentially it is a case of recognising the special characteristics of the country, listening to the government and studying its wish list and then using the experience and knowledge of the ADB across Asia and over time to discuss the implications and practical possibilities with the individual government calmly and quietly. Nag asks and answers the question: “Do we have an influence on policy? Yes, we do, but we have an influence on policy not by thumping on the table and saying ‘thou shalt do this’. We have an influence on the government by working with them to define the costs of the policies they are following and the benefits of the reforms that they are talking about. “Indonesia is a case in point, but you can take any number of other countries, Vietnam, India, Bangladesh. We have discussed policy reforms, yes, very difficult reforms such as tariff adjustments, public sector enterprises, restructuring, which basically means they have to lay off people.” Setting up more than 20 resident missions and offices abroad, including in Frankfurt, Tokyo, and Washington, the key centres of developed countries that are the ADB’s important shareholders, has also imposed important changes of view. Liqun Jin, the 60

それでは、 どのようにADBの職員は様々な政府ず察 応するのだろうか?基本的には、その囜の特城を認 識し、政府の発蚀に耳を傟け、その垌望䞀芧を怜蚎 し、 アゞアでADBが積み䞊げた経隓ず知識を駆䜿し おその展望ず実珟可胜性に぀いおそれぞれの政府 ず時間をかけお冷静沈着に話し合うのである。 ナグ氏は次のように自問自答する。 「ADBは政治に 察する圱響力があるのでしょうか? ADBには政治に 察する圱響力がありたす。 しかし、テヌブルをドンド ン叩いお、 『こうしろ』 ずいうような圱響力ではあり たせん。政府ず協力しお、その政府が行っおいる政 策の費甚や話しおいる改革の利益を定矩するずい うこずで政府に察しお圱響力を持぀のです」 「この奜䟋がむンドネシアですが、ベトナム、むン

Chinese who is vice president (operations 1) ド、バングラデシュなど同じような䟋はいくらでも responsible for the South Asia department, ありたす。これたでに関皎調敎、官営䌁業、再線ずい った、基本的には人員削枛をしなければならない Central and West Asia department as well as こずを意味する倧倉難しい政策改革を怜蚎しおき the private sector operations, believes that たした」 the missions help give the bank an important insight on what is really happening in フランクフルト東京、ワシントンをはじめ、ADBの重 芁な株䞻である先進諞囜の䞻芁郜垂に20ヵ所以䞊 member countries. の駐圚員事務所や代衚事務所を蚭眮したこずによ He says: “As the vice president for っお圓行の考え方が必然的に倉わったこずも重芁 operations, it is important to understand the な偎面である。南アゞア局、䞭倮西アゞア局、及び actual situations of countries, in terms of 民間セクタヌ業務担圓で副総裁業務1の金立矀 the macroeconomic policies and the reform Jin Liqun氏は、駐圚員事務所はADBに加盟諞 process, the challenges faced by the country 囜の実際の動きに぀いお重芁な情報をもたらしお in a special way. Some countries have a いるず考えおいる。 very fragile environment, or a very large 金氏はこのように語っおいる。 「業務を担圓する副 population, or some are short of energy, 総裁ずしお、マクロ経枈政策や改革プロセス、盎面 others rich in energy, and we also have しおいる独自の事情など、諞囜の珟状を把握するこ post-conflict countries like Afghanistan, ずは重芁なこずです。 状況が非垞に䞍安定な囜や Nepal and Sri Lanka. We have very different 人口が倧倉倚い囜、゚ネルギヌが䞍足しおいる囜 situations, and the management should be や豊富な囜、さらにはアフガニスタンやネパヌル、 fully aware of the actual situation of all of スリランカのように玛争埌の囜もありたす。 状況は 千差䞇別で、経営陣はADBが関わる党おの囜の珟 the countries we work in. 状を熟知しおいる必芁がありたす」 “Secondly, the programmes of the ADB 「第二に、 こうした囜々でADBが行うプログラムは in these countries have to be monitored 念には念を入れおモニタヌしなければならないず very carefully. After we approve a project, monitoring the supervision of the いうこずです。ADBがプロゞェクトを承認するず、そ の埌そのプロゞェクトの監督状況のモニタヌが重 programme is critical, and this kind of work 芁になりたす。そしおこの皮の仕事を効果的か぀ can be done effectively and efficiently by 効率的にできるのが駐圚員事務所です。ですから、 the resident missions. So we are delegating ADBでは、これらの諞囜の倧半に぀いお駐圚員事 more authority to the resident missions in 務所に委任する暩限を倧きくしおいたす」 most of these countries. 金氏は、本圓の課題は本郚ず駐圚員事務所ずのバ Jin admits that the real challenge is to get ランスを適切に保぀こずにあるこずを認めおいる。 the balance right between the headquarters プロゞェクトの準備から䌚蚈やモニタヌ、貞付の and the resident mission. There are many 実行たで、仕事は様々な分野に広がっおいる。金氏 categories of job assignments from project は、カントリヌオフィスの珟地採甚に぀いおも、本 preparation through accounting, monitoring 郚の専門職員に぀いおも、優秀な人材を採甚しマ and disbursement of funds. He is confident ニラず十分に連絡を取り合えばADBの仕事の質を 「私 that the recruitment of good staff, both 改善するこずができるず確信しおいる。 そしお、 nationals in the country offices and the にずっおは頭痛の皮ではなくチャレンゞです」ず語 professional staff at headquarters, linked by っおいる。 good communications with Manila, will help ナグ氏は長幎にわたりADBの䞭心課題の倉遷をそ the ADB to improve the quality of its work. の目で芋おきた。1960幎代の創蚭期には蟲業が䞭 “I don’t have headaches, I have challenges,” 心だった。1970幎代ず1980幎代には石油、次には 負債ず危機が続いた。アゞアは垞に資本が䞍足し Jin says. 「私が入行し Nag has an advantage in having seen the おいた。ナグ氏は次のように回想する。 た圓初、論議されるのは『このプロゞェクトは技術 changing prime preoccupations of the ADB 的、経枈的、財務的に倧䞈倫なのか』ずいうもので over the years. In the founding years of the した。環境問題から話に入るこずはたずありたせん 1960s agriculture was at the centre. The でしたし、瀟䌚的圱響に぀いおの話もそれほど出 4 1970s and 1980s were years of crisis, first



ADB in the spotlight

© Chris Stowers / Panos Pictures

なかったこずも確かです。 『このプロゞェクトが良い ものであれば、他の問題に぀いおは政府が䜕ずか しおくれる』 ずいう考えだったのです」

Nag: If you provide more electricity and the farmers can pump the water, there will be more agricultural production.

with oil, then with debts. All the time Asia had a shortage of capital. “When I joined the bank, the debate was ‘is this project technically, economically, and financially viable?’,” he recalls. “We were barely starting to talk about environmental issues and were certainly not talking much about the social impact, the idea being that if this project is good, then the government will take care of all the other issues. “The debate now is that the technical, economic, and financial are necessary conditions, but 90 percent of my time as director (general) was spent on environmental, social and the debate has become much more complex as Asia has become more prosperous and our role changed from just being a financier to really being a development body. Countries themselves started to grow not just economically but also in terms of their own (confidence). In the 1980s we would go on mission and we would say something, and the other side except for a few would take this as given. Now, let alone India and China, other countries have a human resource skill and an awareness of the issues that they are willing to make judgements. We as an institution are dealing with much more aware groups of stakeholders in the governments. Then of course there is civil society, which really has put us much more on the straight and narrow, and has become much more demanding of us, which has forced us to be much more demanding of ourselves. Sometimes, Nag almost suggests, there are too many people in the debate with too many forceful opinions. Especially at the stressful time of the annual meeting where everyone comes together, he says, “You cannot go and talk about a project and not know the environmental, social implications. The debate has become much more complex, our agenda has become much more complex, our 62

projects have become much more complex, and of course these are the positives. The flip side is that every project has a bit of this and a bit of that. Our challenge is to make sure that our projects stay focused and we don’t try to cover every possible concern on the back of every possible project, but we look at the country and say how it is doing on gender, ethnic minorities, the disadvantaged groups and that each project does not have to meet every (criterion).” As to critics, he adds, “you have to engage them and engage based on analysis and information. Some you may not convince.” Experience has also shown that some of the old assumptions about development have proved too simple. “For example, agricultural productivity we all thought was just a question of more inputs, more water, more fertiliser, more pesticides,” adds Nag. “Now we have come to a point of not just providing an irrigation system but of managing it. Do you charge for it? Previously, wouldn’t query it. We just said, ‘If you provide more electricity and the farmers can pump the water, there will be more agricultural production,’ except we never talked about charging farmers. Today, it is much more challenging.” And that is without the burning questions of Kyoto, the environment, climate change, governance and regional integration. He sums up how Asia is perceived in 2007: “Overall there is great enthusiasm for Asia. If you take India and China out, then it tends to fall a bit. Our role is to show Asia to the private sector with warts and pimples and all, that these are the problems, this is how we are working on the macroeconomics and this is how it will pan out. Governance is obviously a big issue that our shareholders raise, our private sector investors raise and, interestingly, elements within the countries themselves raise, who know that poor governance is bad for the poor.” g

「珟圚論議されるのは、技術、経枈、財務が必芁な 条件であるこずはさおおき、私の事務総長ずしおの 時間の90%は、環境や瀟䌚的圱響に関するこずに 費やされおいたす。そしお、アゞアが豊かになり、 ADBの圹割が単なる金融機関から本物の開発機 関ぞず移行するに぀れお論議ははるかに耇雑にな っおいたす。囜自䜓も経枈的だけでなく、䜓質的に も成長し自信を持぀ようになりたした。1980幎代、 ADBが掟遣した䜿節団が䜕かを発蚀すれば、ほず んどの盞手偎はそれをそのたた受け取っおいたし た。今では、むンドや䞭囜はいうたでもなく、それ以 倖の囜でもスキルを持った人材があり、問題に察 する認識が発達したため、積極的に刀断する甚意 ができおいたす。機関ずしおADBが察応する政府関 係者の意識もはるかに高くなっおいたす。たた、単 刀盎入にADBに的を絞らせ、ADBに察しおはるか に倚くを求め、ADBが自己に察しおはるかに厳しく ならざるを埗ないようにさせおいる垂民瀟䌚のこ ずも忘れおはなりたせん」 ナグ氏は時々、あたりにも匷い意芋を持っお、あたり のも倚くの人々が議論に参加しおいるず暗瀺しおい るようである。党員が揃う幎次総䌚は特に緊匵する 時である。 「総䌚に参加しおプロゞェクトに぀いお話 し、環境や瀟䌚に察する圱響を知らないではすみ たせん。論議ははるかに耇雑になり、議題もはるか に耇雑になり、ADBのプロゞェクトもはるかに耇雑 になりたした。 これはもちろんプラスの面です。 これ を逆から芋るず、 どのプロゞェクトにも様々な面か ら構成されおいるずいうこずです。ADBの課題はプ ロゞェクトの焊点がぶれないようにするこずです。 考えられる党おのプロゞェクトの裏で、考えられる あらゆる心配事に察凊しようずするのではなく、そ の囜を芋぀めおゞェンダヌや少数民族、恵たれな い局に぀いおどのようになっおいるかを問いかけ るこずです。各プロゞェクトが党おの基準に適合 する必芁はありたせん」。そしお評論家に぀いおは 次のように加えた。 「分析ず情報に基づいお圌等に 実際に仕事をしおもらうこずです。玍埗させるこず ができない䟋もあるかもしれたせん」 ナグ氏はその経隓から、開発に関する旧来の仮定 は単玔すぎるこずが蚌明されたこずも明らかにし た。 「䟋えば、蟲業の生産性は、氎や肥料や蟲薬ずい った加えるものを増やせばよいだけの問題である ずいうのが垞識でした。今では、灌挑蚭備を敎備す るだけではなく、それを管理するずいうずころたで きたした。それに察しお料金の請求はどうなっおい るのか? これたでは、 そうした疑問は出されたせん でした。私たちはただこう蚀っおいたのです。 『電気 の䟛絊量を増やしお、蟲家が氎をポンプでくみ䞊げ られるようになれば、蟲業の生産性は䞊がる』 ず。 蟲家に料金を請求するこずなど䞀切話に出たせん でした。今日でははるかに難しくなっおいたす」。そ しお、それは京郜で協議される環境や気候倉動、ガ バナンス、地域統合ずいった焊眉の問題以倖のも のである。 ナグ氏は2007幎のアゞア展望に぀いお次のように たずめおいる。 「党䜓ずしおアゞアには熱い芖線が 泚がれおいたす。むンドず䞭囜を陀くずやや䞋降気 味です。ADBの圹割は、欠点も含めたありのたたの アゞアを『こういった問題がありたす』 ず民間に玹 介するこずです。 これがADBのマクロ経枈に察する 取り組み方であり、 うたくいく方法でしょう」。ガバナ ンスは、ADBのステヌクホルダヌや民間セクタヌの 投資家が指摘しおいる倧きな問題であるこずは明 らかであるが、興味深いこずは、ガバナンスが貧困 だず貧困局に良くないこずを知っおいる囜自身から も指摘されおるこずである。■


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Japan

女性経枈が日本 の男達を救う

© UPPA / Photoshot

柳沢䌯倫厚生劎働倧臣は珟代日本のアン チヒヌロヌずしお称えられ、 その功瞟にちな んだ賞の授䞎を毎幎行おうずいう意芋も出 おいる。

‘Womenomics’ could rescue Japan’s men Some say that Hakuo Yanagisawa should be hailed as an anti-hero for modern Japanese times, and that an annual award should be instituted in his memory.

T

hose same voices, many of them female, suggest it would also be worthwhile considering the erection of a statue in his honour, though there would be a debate over the material that the statue should be made of. Some might opt for a very cheap and nasty material that would last a long time as a memorial to his stupidity, others that it should be something biodegradable that would waste away in public view. Yanagisawa’s contribution to modern Japanese life in early 2007 was to make an insulting remark towards women that showed how arrogant male politicians can be. In lamenting Japan’s falling birth rate, he described women as “child-bearing machines” and said that since, “the number of women is fixed, the number of childbearing machines or devices is fixed, so all we can do is ask them to do their best per head”. Since he was - and still is - Japan’s minister of health, welfare and labour, he should have understood the need to think before speaking. Ever since then, the world of Japanese politics has been filled with still more hot air, sound, and fury that further testify to the stupidity and arrogance of the men. The opposition protested and boycotted the Diet (parliament). The government took advantage of the absence of the opposition to steamroller through the budget and some controversial legislation. The word that sums up the politicians’ behaviour is “ishiatama” meaning “stone head” or “stone brain”, stupidity with an inflexible attitude.

64

Ishiatama: any politician with a milligram of political sense would have resigned - a few generations ago an offender would have saved his honour by committing seppuku (ritual suicide) - in recognition that, at 71, he was not in tune with the national mood. Any prime minister with self-respect would have sacked the minister and stepped down himself out of respect for the women insulted by the minister he had appointed. Any opposition worth winning government office would not have sulked from parliament, but would have suggested practical policies that might attract women to marry and have families and raise the plummeting birth rate. Even a more prosaic Yanigisawa with a single candle in his brain might have resigned because he had failed to create the environment in which it is easy for women to give birth and bring up children. Yes, there is a problem, but women should be seen as an important part of the solution, not the cause of the problem. The answer according to a leading (woman) economist is womenomics. Japan does have a problem with a falling birth rate, which goes beyond the falling birth rate itself. On present projections, the population of 127 million is likely to decline by 2055 to between 85 and 90 million (and by 2200 Japanese might become a truly endangered race). More alarmingly, even with this figure, which would see Japan at the same size as Germany, the percentage of people aged 65 or over would double to 40

こうした発蚀の倚くは女性からであるが、圌女達 は柳沢氏の圫像建立に぀いおも䞀考の䟡倀があ るず提案しおいる。もっずもその堎合には、玠材を 䜕にするかが議論ずなりそうである。圌の愚かさを 蚘憶にずどめるために、安くお薄汚く、 しかも耐久 性のある材質がいいずいう意芋、あるいは公衆の 面前で腐食しおいくような生物分解性の材質がい いずいう意芋など、いろいろ出おくるこずだろう。柳 沢氏が2007幎初めの珟代日本瀟䌚に行った貢献 ずは、女性に察するある䟮蔑的発蚀を指しおおり、 それは男性の政治家がどれほど傲慢になれるも のかを瀺すものでもあった。日本の出生率が䜎䞋 しおいるこずを嘆く柳沢氏は、女性を「子䟛を産む 機械」にたずえ、 「女性の数は決たっおいる。産む機 械、装眮の数は決たっおいるから、あずは1人頭毎 に頑匵っおもらうしかない」 ず発蚀したのである。 圌は圓時、そしお珟圚もただ日本の健康・犏祉・劎 働を担圓する倧臣であり、そうである以䞊、話す前 に考える必芁ずいうものをきちんず理解しおおくべ きだった。 この発蚀以来、日本の政界は以前にも増しおナン センスず倧隒ぎになり、それがたたその䞖界の男 達の愚昧ず傲慢を立蚌するずいう事態になっおい るのである。野党はこの発蚀に抗議しお、囜䌚をボ むコットしおしたった。そしお政府はこの機を逃さ ずに、予算ず賛吊の分かれおいた法案ずを野党欠 垭䞭に䞀気に通過させたのである。日本語には、 愚かで頭が固く、融通の利かない蚀動をする政治 家達に圓おはたるぎったりの蚀葉がある 「石頭」 。 少しでも垞識のある政治家なら、71歳の老霢では もはや囜民の考え方からずれおいるこずを認識し、 蟞職したに違いない。数䞖代前なら己の名誉を守 るために切腹したかもしれない。 これが「石頭」 ず いわれる所以である。 たた自尊心のある銖盞なら、 このような倧臣はクビにするずずもに自ら蟞任しお 女性に察する配慮を瀺し、倧臣任呜者ずしおの責 任を果たしたであろう。政暩担圓胜力のある野党 であれば、ふおくされお囜䌚を攟棄などせずに、女 性が結婚しお家族を持ちたいず思うような珟実的 政策を打ち出しお、急降䞋しおいる出生率を匕き 䞊げようずしただろう。 仮に想像力のない柳沢氏でさえ、知恵を絞れば女 性が子䟛を産み育おやすい環境を䜜れなかったこ ずに責任をずっお蟞職するこずもできたはずである。 確かに問題は存圚する。 しかし女性はこの問題を 解決するための重芁な鍵であり、原因ずしお捉えら れるべきではない。ある有力な女性゚コノミスト は、答えはりヌマノミクス女性経枈にあるず述べ おいる。 日本は確かに出生率の䜎䞋ずいう問題を抱えお いるが、それは出生率の䜎䞋そのものを超えた 問題なのである。珟圚の予枬どおりに進めば、1億 2700䞇の日本の人口は2055幎たでに8500䞇 9000䞇に瞮小し、 日本人は2200幎たでに絶滅寞前 の民族になる可胜性がある。いずれドむツず同芏 暡になるず芋られおいるこの数倀に加えお、 日本に ずっおさらに憂慮すべきこずは、65歳以䞊の高霢 者人口が倍増しお党䜓の40パヌセントにもなり、 保健・犏祉・幎金のコストが増えお莫倧な負担ずな るずいうこずである。 日本人の平均寿呜が䞖界䞀で あるこずもこの問題をいっそう深刻にしおいる。 4


‘Womenomics’

percent of the population, creating a terrible burden in terms of the costs of health and welfare care and pensions, especially since the Japanese are virtually the longest-lived people on earth. There is a danger of Japan becoming shoshika, a society without children. Especially since the war, Japan has changed dramatically and the social status of women has improved significantly. More than 97 percent of girls go to senior high school and almost 49 percent of young women go to university or higher education, which is a bigger percentage than for men.

Women should be seen as an important part of the solution, not the cause of the problem

少子化が進む日本は、子䟛のいない瀟䌚になる ずいう危険がある。戊埌の日本は劇的な倉化を遂 げ、女性の瀟䌚的地䜍も倧きく向䞊した。珟圚、女 子は97パヌセント以䞊が高校に進孊し、ほが49パ ヌセントが倧孊その他の高等教育機関ぞず進む。 これは男子以䞊の割合である。 䞡性の平等を謳った憲法に埓っお䞀連の法埋が 改正され、法的にも女性は男性ず同等の地䜍を獲 埗した。民法の改正により、む゚日本瀟䌚におい お䌝統的な基本単䜍であった家族制床の法的地 䜍は廃止され、倫ず劻は財産暩、盞続、結婚、子䟛 の逊育に関しお同等になり、教育の機䌚均等や、同 職に぀く男女の賃金の平等が法的に保蚌された。 その結果、倧倚数の女性が仕事に぀くようになっ たのである。1960幎代の高床成長期以前は、働く 女性のほずんどは自営か、もしくは小芏暡な家族 経営事業で雇われるかのいずれかであった。 しか し21䞖玀初頭には2500䞇人以䞊の女性が就劎し、 その玄85パヌセントは䌝統的な家業以倖の仕事 に぀いおいる。 ずころが女性のこうした瀟䌚進出 は、21䞖玀初めの珟圚でもなお、結婚ずいう制床 の前に足止めを食らっおいたのである。 これほど瀟䌚が倧きく倉化したのにも関わらず、 日本はいただに男性優䜍の瀟䌚なのだ。教逊が高 く、経隓ず知性を備えた野心的な女性でさえも、前 に進むこずを阻たれおいるのである。同僚の男性よ り賃金は3割䜎く、男性ほど昇進できず、結婚や出 産の時にはずいうより珟状では、もしも結婚し出 産するのならば、 ず仮定圢でいったほうが適切だ が 、退職ずいう圧力がかけられるのである。 珟圚、女性がこのような状況に抗っお結婚せずに 仕事を続け、芪元で暮らし続けるずいう新しい珟象 が起こっおいる。森喜朗元銖盞はそのような女性 達を 「パラサむト 寄生虫 」 ず呌んで、石頭ぶりを確 蚌しおみせた。結婚した女性達も子䟛は1人か、せ いぜい2人しか望んでいない。 圌女達が結婚や出産を躊躇するのは、男性達の仕 事ず家庭生掻の習慣もたた1぀の障害ずなっおい るからである。諞倖囜の男性ず比范しお、日本人男 性がより勀勉だずは必ずしも蚀えないが、 より長時 間働いおいるこずは確かである。東京の30代男性 の1日の劎働時間は、12時間を超えるずいう答が 3割を䞊回っおいる。圌らは垰宅する頃には疲劎困 憊しおおり、家事をしないこずにかけおは䞖界䞀で ある。日本人男性が家事をする時間は週平均4時 間に過ぎず、 これはアメリカ人男性のわずか4分の 1でしかない。䞀方、 日本人女性は家事に週29時間 も費やしおいる。 このような男女が結婚しお子䟛をもった堎合、女 性が仕事を続けるのはさらに困難ずなる。それに は、子䟛を預ける斜蚭が少ないこずや、家事・育 児を行う倖囜人ヘルパヌの導入に察しお政府が 消極的であるこずが理由ずなっおいる。このため に、日本人女性の7割は結婚を機に氞遠に離職し おしたうのである。経枈協力開発機構OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Developmentの統蚈によるず、欧州では産䌑や 育児䌑暇を含み、3歳以䞋の子䟛を持った女性の 70%以䞊が仕事をしおいるが、日本では28.5%だ けに留たっおいる。

© Rafoto

Women have also gained legal equality with men through a string of laws to update the legal system in accordance with the constitution that upholds the principle of equality between men and women. The Civil Code was reformed to abolish the legal status of the ie (the family system that was the basic unit of traditional Japanese society) to ensure equality of husband and wife in property rights, inheritance, matrimony and child care, and laws were passed to provide equal opportunity to boys and girls in education and give the same wage to men and women doing the same job. As a result, women have entered the workforce in large numbers. Before the rapid growth of the 1960s, most working women were either self-employed or in small family businesses. By the early 21st century, there were more than 25 million women in gainful employment, about 85 percent of whom were not working for traditional family businesses. BUT, even by the early 21st century, many of these advances by woman were halted on the altar of marriage.

In spite of these large social changes, Japan is still a male-dominated society. Well educated, experienced, intelligent and even ambitious women are still held back, paid 30 percent less than their male counterparts, not promoted as men expect to be, and are under pressure to leave the workforce when - or rather, now, if - they marry and have babies. The new thing that is happening is that women are rebelling and deciding to continue working and living at home rather than getting married. A former prime minister Yoshiro Mori even confirmed his ishiatama credentials by calling such women “parasaito (parasites)”. Those who do get married prefer to have a single child, or two at most. The reasons for reluctance to marry and have children also include the working and household habits of men. Japanese men don’t necessarily work harder, but they work longer than their international peers, with more than 30 percent of men in their 30s in Tokyo working more than 12 hours a day. When they come home, often tired out, Japanese men are the laziest in the world in household chores, doing only an average of four hours a week, a quarter of the time that American men spend. Japanese women spend 29 hours a week in household work. If they marry and have children, it is harder still for women to continue working because of limited care centres for children and the reluctance of the government to allow foreign domestic helpers to come to Japan to help with the problem. So, at marriage, 70 percent of Japanese women permanently retire from the labour force. Statistics from the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development show that only 28.5 percent of Japanese women with children aged three or below are working, including those on maternity or child care leave, compared with more than 70 percent in some European countries. As a result of all this, Japan is getting into a huge mess, not just with a shrinking population, but also with a society that is becoming dangerously unbalanced. Japan’s

このようなこずから、 日本は人口が枛っおいるだけ でなく、危険なたでにアンバランスな瀟䌚になり ぀぀あり、非垞に倧きな混乱に陥ろうずしおいる。 2005幎に、日本の出生率は先進囜䞭で最䜎のむ タリアず䞊ぶ1.25に萜ち蟌んだ。人口を維持する ためには、出生率は2.1以䞊でなければならない。 1䞖代前、25歳以䞊の女性は婚期を逃したずいう 意味で「売れ残りのクリスマスケヌキ」などず呌ば れおいたが、珟圚、25歳から29歳の未婚女性は党 䜓の54パヌセントにも䞊っおいる。独身䞖垯も、 1980幎には党䜓の20パヌセント 710䞇䞖垯で あったのが、2000幎には27パヌセント 1290侇侖 4

On present projections, the population of 127 million is likely to decline by 2055 to between 85 and 90 million.

WiA Delegate Publication

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Japan

© Rafoto

垯に増加した。政府は2020幎には34パヌセント 1720䞇䞖垯になるず予枬しおいる。

Following Yanagisawa’s remarks, the opposition protested and boycotted the Diet (parliament).

fertility rate dropped to 1.25 in 2005, vying with Italy for the lowest in the developed world. A fertility rate of 2.1 or higher is necessary to maintain a population. Whereas a woman who was more than 25 a generation ago was regarded as “spoilt Christmas cake” or on the shelf, today the ratio of unmarried women between 25 and 29 has reached 54 percent. The number of single person households has risen from 20 percent in 1980 (7.1 million households) to 27 percent (12.9 million) of all households in 2000, and the government projects that it will be 34 percent (17.2 million) by 2020.

There is a danger of Japan becoming shoshika, a society without children Given a population that is not only declining but remorselessly aging, if Japan wants to maintain its current workforce by the year 2050, it will have to increase the share of immigrants from the current 1 percent of the population to 20 percent, a horrific prospect for a people, especially ishiatama politicians, that has always taken pride in the purity of the Japanese race and kept intruders at bay. There is a possible solution – womenomics. Yanagisawa and his boss prime minister Shinzo Abe should venture down from the lofty heights of the imaginary beautiful Japan that they aspire to create, and have a word with Kathy Matsui about the real world and how to solve real problems. Matsui is a talented American of Japanese descent who has lived in Japan for many years and distinguished herself as an economist to become managing director, chief Japan strategist and co-director of pan Asian investment research for Goldman Sachs Japan. She is also married and has children. She has even given them a catchy new word that will be the name of the policy that can solve the problem of the falling birth rate AND boost the economy. She coined the word “womenomics” to describe the 66

policy that Japan should pursue - encourage women to stay in the workforce, use their skills and promote them while relaxing the immigration policies over domestic help. “Robots can’t raise kids,” says Matsui who had to fight hard to be allowed to employ a Filippina helper. Encouraging women would not only help increase the workforce, says Ms Matsui, but would lift Japan’s growth, as well as raising per capita income by 5.8 percent over the next 20 years. The likelihood is also that consumption would be stimulated in certain industries. It would also make better use of the waste of women’s talents. More than 95 percent of all male university graduates are employed, but only 65 percent of women graduates. Although there has been progress, most employed women do office jobs, and by 2003 women accounted for a mere 9 percent of managerial jobs, compared with 46 percent in the US, 30 percent in the UK and 27 percent in Germany, according to the International Labour Organization. Perhaps it is a sign of progress that at a leading bank I visited 20 years ago, there were five uniformed young women on the top managerial floor whose job was to escort visitors to waiting rooms with a Chagall or other expensive piece of art and they bowed six times, serving the tea kneeling; recently, there were only two women, not wearing uniforms, who bowed twice and served the tea standing. If Japan does not make better use of the hidden 50 percent of Japanese society, it will face an impossible dilemma: to import labour on a huge scale, such that even immigrant-friendly countries have rarely done, as the population declines and the number and percentage of people who are over 65 rises; or to suffer a big drop in living standards with higher and higher taxation to support the aging population. The answer, as always, is to escape between the horns of the dilemma, to encourage women to work and feel comfortable having children and to allow a gentle increase in immigration. It would seem to be a ‘no-brainer’, except for politicians whose brains have been set in stone. g

人口が枛少し、容赊なく高霢化が進む䞭、もし日本 が珟圚の劎働力を2050幎たで維持しようずする ならば、倖囜人劎働者を珟圚の総人口比1パヌセ ントから20パヌセントぞず匕き䞊げなければなら ない。 しかしそれは、 これたで民族的玔粋さを誇り ずし、倖からの䟵入者を寄せ぀けないできた日本 人、特に石頭の政治家達にずっおはたさに戊慄す べき芋通しずいえよう。その解決方法がりヌマノミ クスである。柳沢氏ずその監督者である安倍晋䞉 銖盞は、矎しい囜・日本を創ろうなどずいう雲の䞊 の䞖界から降りおきお、珟実䞖界ず珟実の諞問題 の解決法に぀いおキャシヌ・束井Kathy Matsui 氏の話に耳を傟けるべきだ。才胜豊かな日系ア メリカ人の束井氏は、日本に長く䜏んでいる有 胜な゚コノミストであり、珟圚はGoldman Sachs Japan瀟のマネヌゞング・ディレクタヌチヌフ日 本ストラテゞスト汎アゞア投資調査統括郚長を 務めおいる。たた、圌女は結婚しおおり、子䟛があ る。 問題解決のために束井氏が創った芚えやすい新 語は、出生率問題を解決するず同時に経枈の掻性 化も実珟する政策の呌び名ずなるであろう。 日本の ずるべき政策を、束井氏は「りヌマノミクス」 ずいう 蚀葉で衚珟した。 これは女性が働き続けるこずを 奚励し、女性の技胜を掻甚しお昇進の機䌚も広げ、 その間に家事劎働移民の芏制も緩和しおいこうず いうものである。 「ロボットでは子䟛は育おられた せん」 ず語るマツむ氏は、 フィリピン人ヘルパヌの 雇甚蚱可を埗るために倧奮闘しなければならなか った。 女性の力をもっず䌞ばせば、劎働力増加に぀なが るばかりでなく、囜党䜓の成長率も高たり、1人圓た りの所埗も次の20幎間に5.8パヌセントの割合で 䌞びるだろうず束井氏は述べおいる。特定の産業 では消費も刺激されるこずが考えられる。そしお、 これたで䜿われおこなかった女性の胜力も、 もっず 掻甚されるようになるに違いない。男子倧孊新卒 者の就職率は95パヌセントを超えるのに比べお、 女子のほうはわずか65パヌセントに留たっおい る。 これたでにも進歩はあったものの、働く女性の ほずんどは事務職である。囜際劎働機関の調査で は、2003幎の時点で管理職に぀いおいる女性は日 本では9パヌセントに過ぎず、䞀方米囜は46パヌ セント、英囜30パヌセント、 ドむツ27パヌセントず なっおいた。進歩を瀺すサむンずしお、おそらく次 の事䟋が挙げられる。20幎前にある倧銀行を蚪れ た際、経営者のいる最䞊階には制服を着た5人の 若い女性が控えおおり、蚪問客をシャガヌルや他 の高䟡な名画のある埅合宀ぞ案内するこずを仕事 ずしおいた。そこで圌女達は6床お蟞儀をし、跪い おお茶を出したものだった。 ずころが最近の蚪問 では、そうした女性は2人しかおらず、制服も着ず、 お蟞儀は2床で、お茶も立ったたた出しおいたので ある。 今埌、総人口が枛るなかで65歳以䞊の高霢者の数 ず割合が増える䞀方、囜民の半分が未だに未掻甚 の隠れた存圚ずなっおいる日本は、移民に友奜的 な囜でさえ実斜しないほどの倧芏暡な劎働力茞入 を展開するか、高霢化瀟䌚を支える皎金をどんど ん重くしお生掻氎準を倧幅に匕き䞋げるかずいう ゞレンマに盎面する。その答えは通垞、 ゞレンマの 二極間をすり抜けるような圢で芋぀かるものであ る。女性が働き子䟛も持ちやすいず感じるように支 揎しおいき、同時に倖囜人劎働者も緩やかに増や しおいくずいうこず。それは頭を䜿わずずも分かる 単玔明瞭なこずだ。もっずも、石頭の政治家にはち ょっず難解かもしれないが。■



Japan

Japan Inc.の カワむむ衚情 Japan Inc.ずその䌁業リヌダヌ達を評䟡す る堎合、 日本で最も有力なコヌポレヌト・バ ンクでコヌポレヌト・バンキングを担圓する 䜐藀康博氏の右に出る者は囜内にはいるた い。

© Rafoto

䜐藀氏はみずほコヌポレヌト銀行の圹員であり、 数人しかいない取締圹に収たった。 ここはニッポ ン、䜕癟人もの取締圹が䜕それぞれ癟䞇ドルも皌 いでいるGoldman Sachs瀟やMorgan Stanley瀟 ずは蚳が違う。

The kawaii face of Japan Inc As the person in charge of corporate banking in Japan’s most powerful corporate bank, Yasuhiro Sato has probably the best view in the country of Japan Inc and its corporate leaders.

S

ato is comfortably poised as a board director and one of a handful of managing directors of Mizuho Corporate Bank – this is Japan, not Goldman Sachs or Morgan Stanley with their hundreds of managing directors earning zillions of dollars each. In spite of the vicissitudes of Japan and its economy, he is glad he was born Japanese, and if he had to be born again, he would like to be Japanese. Why? “This is a very good country,” he responds. “The advantage is that Japanese person is the most amicable person in the world. We can talk to everybody. We are not a political race. This is a big advantage. You know the Japanese language “kawaii” (normally translated as “cute”, but Sato himself translates it as “cool and sweet”). This is a big advantage that a Japanese person has. This kawaii concept is accepted in France, US, India and so on. We are very flexible. We can talk to everybody, even an Islamic person. Japanese are the only people who can talk like that; Americans not, English I think not, French, never.” Sato says that Japanese people have one major disadvantage. Speaking in his fluent English, he says it is: “The language and inability to speak English. If you look at India, their ability to speak English is the biggest reason why the Indian economy is coming up. So a US casualty company has a huge call centre in India, and a client makes a call and the call is automatically transferred to India and the staff in India will use different English based on the

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日本ずその経枈が倉遷を蟿っおも、䜐藀氏は日本 人ずしお生たれお良かった、生たれ倉わるずすれ ばたた日本人ずしお生たれたいず䞻匵する。その わけは 「ここは玠晎らしい囜だからです」 ず蚀う。 「最も優れおいる点は、日本人が䞖界䞀友奜的な 人皮であるずいうこずです。我々は誰ずでも話がで きたす。ポリティカルな人皮ではありたせん。 これ がずおも有利ですよ。日本語で『カワむむ』 ずいう 蚀葉があるでしょう」。䜐藀氏は「キュヌト」 ずいう 定蚳ではなく、 「クヌル・アンド・スりィヌト」 ず英蚳 する。 「この可愛さが日本人のずおも有利なずころ なのです。 フランス、米囜、むンド、 どこでも通甚す る抂念です。我々は非垞にフレキシブルな囜民で す。回教埒ずでも、誰ずでも話ができたす。そのよ うに話ができるのは日本人だけではないかずい う気がしたす。アメリカ人にはできない、むギリス 人にもできないだろう、フランス人はたず無理で すね」

person who is calling, southside, eastside, 䞀方、䜐藀氏は日本人には倧きな欠点もあるこず northside. That’s amazing. We Japanese を認める。 「 蚀葉の問題、芁するに英語ができな cannot do that.” い」 ず、流暢な英語で述べる。 「むンドの経枈が成 Now 54, Sato graduated from the elite 長しおいる䞀番倧きな理由は英語力だず思いた Tokyo University, but in economics, not す。䟋えば、米囜の傷害保険䌚瀟がむンドに莫倧 law, which is the favoured discipline of なコヌルセンタヌを持っおいる堎合、お客様から almost all the top tier of bureaucrats. After 電話が掛かっおくるず、それが自動的にむンドに some hesitation he joined Industrial Bank of 回され、むンドの珟地スタッフは南郚颚、東郚颚、 Japan “Exactly 30 years now. My father was 北郚颚など、お客様に合わせた米語を䜿いたす。 in business, with TBS, Tokyo Broadcasting, すごいこずです。我々日本人には到底できたせん」 and at first I thought of being a journalist. I 54歳の䜐藀氏は東倧卒の゚リヌトではあるが、倚 passed the examination to join NHK (Japan’s くの䞀流官僚達ず違っお法孊ではなく経枈孊を専 「しばらく悩んでから、今からちょうど30幎 publicly owned broadcaster), but I changed 攻した。 前に日本興業銀行に入行したした。 父はサラリヌ my mind. The reason is that mass media, sorry to say that, is indirect to the industries. マンでTBS、東京攟送で仕事をしおいたために、僕 も最初はゞャヌナリストになろうず思いたした。 日 I wanted to have a more direct contact and 本攟送協䌚の入瀟詊隓に合栌したしたが、気が倉 to make some contribution. That is why I わりたした。なぜかずいうず、こういう蚀い方は倱 changed my mind. 瀌かもしれたせんが、結局、産業ずは盎接関係が “Why did I join IBJ, rather than the ないず悟ったからです。僕はもっず盎接関係しおい commercial banks, like Fuji Bank or DKB or るずころにいお、自分で貢献したいず考えおいたし Mitsubishi, I thought the business that IBJ た。それで気が倉わったのです」 was doing was very close to the industries 「富士銀行や第䞀勧業銀行、䞉菱銀行ずいった商 and I understood that IBJ created the future 業銀行ではなく、日本興業銀行に入行したのは、 structure of Japanese industry. I wanted to 日本興業銀行が産業に近い掻動を行っおおり、日 help to do that. Government? I don’t like 本の産業の未来を䜜っおいるず分かったからで government officers.” す。その方向で力になりたいず思いたした。政府に At IBJ, he spent half his career in ですかいや、公務員が奜きじゃないので 」 international business and half in domestic 日本興業銀行では、䜐藀氏は職歎の半分を囜際 business. In the international area, he spent 業務で、埌の半分を囜内業務で過ごした。囜際業 half in client business and half setting up the 務の䞭では、半分はクラむアントずの取匕、もう半 strategy. It was a similar split in the domestic 分は戊略の策定に努めおいた。囜内業務でも同 area, half relationship management business, じような分担で、顧客関係管理ず戊略策定が半々 half in planning. Of his international career, であった。囜際業務に埓事しおいる間の海倖生掻 only five years was spent living abroad, in は、ニュヌペヌクで過ごした1983幎88幎の5幎 New York from 1983 to 1988. But after that, 間だけであった。その埌、䜐藀氏は日本興業銀行 Sato became secretary to Yoh Kurosawa, who の頭取、そしお䌚長ずなった黒柀掋氏の秘曞ずな 4


Japan Inc

became president, then chairman of IBJ. “Mr Kurosawa was really an international man, so I was spending 165 days a year travelling with him,” he recalls. When Mizuho was formed five years ago bringing together IBJ, Fuji Bank and Dai-Ichi Kangyo Bank, Sato joined the corporate bank of the group and has had a similar balanced life, two years in the international business to set up strategy and then two years in the domestic relationship business. Asked if he ever had any regrets, Sato replies, “No regrets. No regrets at having become a banker.” No regrets at having joined IBJ? He is silent, almost sucking his teeth before he replies, “Now, no regrets. Ten years ago I may have some. Five years ago I had a big regret at the time of consolidation and the end of IBJ ... when many people left.

At IBJ, Sato spent half his career in international business and half in domestic business So what is the difference between IBJ and Mizuho Corporate Bank? “They are similar but different,” he says. “The difference is the people. In IBJ I should say, every person was the top level, smart, with a sense of humour, everything. We had a really good team. In Mizuho Corporate Bank, relatively speaking, there are many good people, but the culture is different. In IBJ there were just 2,500 people, but in Mizuho Corporate Bank there are 6,000 people. So the new bank is considerably bigger, which means that in IBJ I understood every person. I know them. But in this bank it is different. “In IBJ, everybody graduated from university: 30 percent from Tokyo, 20 percent from Keio, 10 percent from Hitotsubashi, everyone from a top level university. There were only 20 directors, so even coming from

a top university there is no guarantee that った。 「黒柀さんは本圓に囜際的な方だったから、 you would become a director. It meant that 僕は1幎のうち玄165日間䞀緒に旅行しおいたし there was reasonable competition among た」ず振り返る。今から5幎前、日本興業銀行、富士 very high level people, so there was a good 銀行、そしお第䞀勧業銀行の合䜵によりみずほ銀 atmosphere. In this bank the quality of the 行ができたずき、䜐藀氏はみずほグルヌプのコヌ people is wider.” ポレヌト銀行に異動した。囜際郚門で2幎間戊略 Even so he does not regret the merger. を緎っおから囜内の顧客関係管理郚門で2幎間 The combination was a necessary process ず、以前ず同様にバランスの取れたキャリアずなっ for survival. We did not have any choice. た。 In 2002 I was worried. We had big system 悔いはないかずいう質問に、䜐藀氏は「ありたせ trouble, every paper blamed Mizuho, and ん。銀行員ずなっお、悔いはありたせん」ず答える。 the stock price was just 57 yen. Now the では、日本興業銀行に入ったこずに぀いおも悔い stock price is one hundred times bigger. We はないのだろうか暫くためらった埌、 「今はもう have recovered from a very severe situation 悔いはありたせん。10幎前はあったかも知れたせ in 2002; we have come back and now I am ん。5幎前は、合䜵の折に日本興業銀行がなくな り、倚くの人々が去っおいったずきは倧きな悔い very comfortable.” Asked about his aspirations and whether を感じたした」ず述べる。 he thinks he will become president of the それでは、日本興業銀行ずみずほコヌポレヌト銀 「䌌お異なるものです。基本的に違 corporate bank at least, Sato goes coy. He 行の違いずは tries to fob the question off by responding, うのはそこにいる人間です。日本興業銀行では䞀 “We have to be more internationalised and 流の人ばかりでした。頭が切れる、ナヌモアのある globalised, which means the president of this 人達でした。本圓に玠晎らしいチヌムを持っおい bank should be younger, 40 or 45 years old. たした。みずほコヌポレヌト銀行にも優秀な人は We are going to be more globalised and in たくさんいるのですが䌁業䜓質が違いたす。日本 the top five banks in the world. If the new 興業銀行は2500人だけでしたが、みずほコヌポ レヌト銀行には6000人もいたす。 したがっお、新し president is younger than myself, then I have い銀行の方がはるかに倧きいずいうこずです。日 to find another job.” It seems highly unlikely 本興業銀行では僕は各個人のこずを知っお、理解 that Mizuho will change its culture so quickly しおいたした。この銀行では違いたす」 as to entrust someone in his early 50s late 「たた、日本興業銀行では党員䞀流倧孊の出でし alone in his 40s with the top job – or that た。東倧3割、慶應2割、䞀橋1割ずいう具合に。取 the crusty captains of Japan Inc would easily 締圹は20人しかいなかったので䞀流倧孊の卒業 take to such a whippersnapper – so Sato is 生でも取締圹になる保蚌はないですよね。するず clearly covering himself with modesty. 䞀流の人々の䞭でもかなりの競争があり、䞭々良 In government and in some leading い雰囲気でした。新しい銀行の人材にはもっず質 companies in Japan when a vice minister, の幅がありたす」 the top bureaucratic job, or president is それでも、䜐藀氏は合䜵を埌悔しおいない。 「生き chosen, all the people senior to him leave 残るために必芁な手段で、ほかの遞択はありたせ the main company. Sato continues: “There んでした。2002幎は倧倉でした。倧きなシステム・ is the possibility that I can be here even トラブルが起こり、どの新聞もそれをみずほの所 though the president is younger than 為にしたため、株䟡はたったの57円だけでした。 myself, but it is a matter of my personality. 珟圚はその100倍になっおいたす。2002幎の倧ピ I do not want to obey a younger person. I ンチから回埩し、今はずおも萜ち着いおいたす」 may have a possibility to work for another コヌポレヌト銀行の頭取以䞊たで出生するこず company like Morgan Stanley or even など、将来の倢に぀いお聞かれたずき、䜐藀氏は Citibank.” It is a statement of confidence in 照れおしたった。質問を躱そうずしお「圓行は囜 his understanding of Japan that he would 際化、グロヌバル化を掚し進めなければなりたせ ん。そのため、頭取は僕より若い人、4045歳くら consider an American bank. g

いの人が必芁になるず思いたす。 グロヌバル化を 掚進し、䞖界5倧銀行を目指しおいたす。それで、 新しい頭取が僕より幎䞋ずなった堎合、新しい仕 事を探すずきがくるでしょう」 ず答える。最高の職 䜍を50代前半、たしお40代の人に任せるほど、み ずほが急ペヌスでその䜓質を倉えるこずも、たた Japan Inc.の老䞭達がそのような若僧を奜んで受 け入れるこずも考えにくいこずである。䜐藀氏は明 らかに謙遜しおいる。

© Masao Endo / OnAsia.com

Sato graduated in economics from the elite Tokyo University.

日本の政府やいく぀かの倧手䌁業では、副倧臣、 トップ官僚、頭取などが任呜されたずき、その人よ り幎䞊の人々が党員その䞻芁䌚瀟などから退瀟 するずいう慣わしがある。 「頭取が僕より若い人に なったずしおも居残る可胜性はありたすが、性栌 の問題です。僕は自分より若い人からの呜什に埓 いたくありたせん。その堎合、Morgan Stanleyや Citibankのような䌚瀟で職が芋぀かるかも知れた せん」 ず述べる。勀め先の候補者に米囜の銀行の 名前が挙がるずいうこずは、䜐藀氏の日本ぞの理 解に察する自信を物語っおいる。■

WiA Delegate Publication

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Japan

時蚈を戻す安倍 総理

© STR / AFP / Getty Images

たわしを付けた童顔の巚挢がもう䞀人の巚 挢ず睚み合う。

Abe puts the clocks back The chunky, baby faced man wearing only a mawashi – the sumo wrestler’s loincloth – stared fixedly across the ring at another similarly clad giant.

B

etween them in the small circular ring stood a man, wearing a bright floorlength traditional gown and an ornate hat, carrying a fan. As the man in the gown raised his fan to a vertical position, the two men grappled briefly until the baby faced wrestler was spun around and, indignity of indignities, pushed out of the ring from the rear. The crowd, clustered around like a religious congregation, roared their approval and tossed their seat cushions into the ring, a sign of their delight that the yokozuna or grand champion wrestler Asashoryu had been so comprehensively beaten in Japan’s semi-religious national sport of sumo. The fact that the yokozuna was a Mongolian merely added to their joy. That he had been beaten by another Mongolian was a small detail. The sumo contest and the reaction of the crowd seemed somehow symbolic of Japan in the 21st century. The country is still trying to find its identity after recovering so brilliantly from the ashes of war and defeat. It wants to be special but does not know how to blend the past and the future, and, particularly, whether to embrace the world or to pretend that Japan is a unique place apart that foreigners will never comprehend. In some ways the foreigners have had more success at sumo, a sport with 1,500 years of recorded competition and supposedly divine Japanese origins, than in other aspects of making waves in Japan. There is no Japanese yokuzuna in 2007, only Asahoryu.

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土俵䞊の2人の力士の間には、床たでの長い色鮮 やかな盎垂ず烏垜子を身に付けお、軍配を持った 行叞が立っおいる。行叞が軍配を垂盎に䞊げたの を合図に2人の力士が組み合った。そしお間もなく 童顔の巚挢の向きがクルリず倉わり、埌ろから土俵 の倖に抌し出された。屈蟱䞭の屈蟱である。するず、 たるで宗教の集䌚のように土俵を取り囲む芳客が、 「よくやった」ずばかりに倧声をあげ、土俵に座垃 団を投げ入れた。日本の準宗教的囜技、盞撲で暪 綱朝青韍を盞手に倧金星をあげたのを喜んでいる のだ。暪綱がモンゎル人であるこずも芳客の喜びに 茪をかけた。暪綱を砎ったのもモンゎル人であった こずはどうでもいいこずだった。 この盞撲ず芳客の反応は、21䞖玀の日本を象城し おいるようである。日本は、敗戊の焌け跡から芋事 に立ち盎った埌も、自らのアむデンティティを探し 続けおいる。日本は特別でありたいず思いながら も、過去ず未来をどのように融合したらよいのか が分かっおおらず、特に䞖界を受け入れるのかそ れずも「日本は倖囜人には絶察に理解のできない ナニヌクな囜」 ずうそぶくのかを決めかねおいる。 1500幎前から蚘録に残る日本の神事が起源ずされ る盞撲の䞖界は、他ず比べた堎合、ある意味では倖 囜人が䞀石を投じおいる䞖界である。2007幎、暪綱 は朝青韍だけで日本人の暪綱はいない。 2006幎、小泉玔䞀郎前銖盞は、 ゞョヌゞW. ブッシ ュ George W Bush倧統領ず䌚談した埌、 メンフ ィスのグレむスランドにある゚ルビスプレスリヌ Elvis Presley宅を蚪れお小泉氏のアむドルであ る゚ルビスの歌を歌い、華々しく最埌を食っお安倍 普䞉氏に日本の総理倧臣の座を明け枡した。安倍 氏は初の戊埌生たれの銖盞である。日本は぀いに 成人し、21䞖玀には経枈力に匹敵する政治力を発 揮できる成熟した近代囜家ずしおの地䜍を築くもの ず期埅された。 ずころが、その期埅は裏切られ぀぀ ある。その裏切りは、特に日本にずっお危険ず蚀える のではないだろうか。

In 2006, with much fanfare and after a farewell meeting with President George W Bush at which he sang Elvis Presley songs at his idol’s home of Graceland in Memphis, the flamboyant Junichiro Koizumi handed over the job of prime minister of Japan to Shinzo Abe, the first leader to have been born after the war. Japan, it was hoped, was finally coming of age and ready to take its place as a mature but modern country that could pull its political weight 新しいリヌダヌの遞択は幞先が良いように芋えた。 equivalent to its economic power in the 特に、安倍氏は非の打ち所のない政治䞀家の出身 21st century. Now those hopes look like だった。銖盞を祖父に持ち、父は倖盞を務め、癌で 死去しなければ確実に銖盞の座に就いおいただろ being disappointed, perhaps dangerously うず目された人物だった。残念ながら、安倍氏は時 so, especially for Japan. 蚈を巻き戻し、今や䞖界における日本の評刀は危 Choice of the new leader seemed うくなっおいる。さらに悪いこずに、専念すべき政治 auspicious, not least because Abe had the 目暙を誀り、前任者が着手した限定的経枈改革を perfect political pedigree: his grandfather も匱䜓化させかねない様盞である。 「問題は経枈だ was prime minister and his father was よ」ず蚀いたいずころだが、日本の問題はもっず深い foreign minister and would almost certainly ずころにある。 have taken the leadership if he had not died 安倍支持掟は安倍氏に぀いお「超囜粋䞻矩者では of cancer. Unfortunately, Abe has put the ない」ず蚀うが、圌は想像より神話的で魅力的な叀 clocks back and now risks endangering い日本の特城を再珟しようずしお、目先のこずしか Japan’s reputation in the world. More 芋えない囜粋䞻矩者に頌るずいうリスクを冒しおい damagingly, by concentrating on the wrong るのである。安倍氏は「矎しい囜ぞ」ずいう自著の䞭 political targets, he could also wreck the で「矎しい囜」日本に぀いお繰り返し述べ、その「矎 limited economic reforms inaugurated by しい日本」を埩掻させたいずいうこずを折に觊れお 感情的に語っおいる。銖盞ずしおの所信衚明挔説で、 his predecessor. It is tempting to tell him it’s 「私が目指しおいる囜のあり方は、矎しい囜、日本 the economy, stupid, but Japan’s problems です。掻気ず機䌚ず思いやりにあふれ、芏埋の粟神 go deeper than that. を倧切にし、䞖界に開かれおいる囜です」 ず熱を蟌 Abe’s supporters say that he is not めお宣蚀した。さらに安倍氏は「矎しい囜」を次4぀ an ultra-nationalist, but in his quest to の特城を持぀囜であるずした公匏芋解。(i) 文化、 recreate the imagined mythical and magical 䌝統、自然、歎史を倧切にする囜、(ii) 「自由」ず「芏 characteristics of old Japan, he risks relying 埋」を知る、凛りんずした囜 、(iii) 未来に向かっ on short-sighted nationalists. Emotionally, お成長する゚ネルギヌを持ち続ける囜、(iv)䞖界に Abe has talked on many occasions of 信頌され、尊敬され、愛される、リヌダヌシップのあ 4


Abe

his wish to recreate Japan as a “beautiful country”, echoing the words of his book of the same name. In his policy speech as prime minister, he declared impassionately: “The vision I am aiming for is that of ‘a beautiful country, Japan’ - a country filled with vitality, opportunity, and compassion, which cherishes a spirit of self-discipline, and is open to the world.” He went on to identify the “beautiful country” (according to the official account) as possessing the following four attributes: (i) a country that values culture, tradition, history, and nature; (ii) a country underpinned by free society, that respects discipline, and has dignity; (iii) a country that continues to possess the vitality to grow toward the future; and (iv) a country that is trusted, respected, and loved in the world, and which demonstrates leadership. In order to meet these attributes, he stressed that, “With my conviction that a bright future is open before us, I am determined undauntedly to keep the torch of reform burning.” Japan was unique in Asia in the 19th century. It did not succumb to the colonial powers. Thailand was the only other country that stood out and resisted becoming a colony. But whereas Thailand trimmed and played off the powers against each other, Meiji Japan took them on headlong, sent its best students abroad to learn and copy and improve on the ways of the West, so successfully that it proudly became Asia’s first modern industrial power, with hubris enough to imagine that it could challenge the might of the West. After the war, it was largely thanks to its American occupiers’ reconstruction efforts that Japan was able to get on its feet again quickly. Its much vaunted pacifist constitution renouncing war aided by the comforting shade provided by the US nuclear umbrella helped Japan to concentrate on the economy, repairing the damage of the war and learning again, and surpassing again, the rest of the world. But all the time, there has been a quiet nagging problem in the minds of influential Japanese that, however good the war-

renouncing constitution is, it was imposed on Japan by the conquerors, and therefore it is a flawed document that is, some believe, an insult to Japan’s sovereignty. There are faint echoes of this in the views of ordinary Japanese who long to be an ordinary country, no longer scarred by the memories of the war.

© Koichi Yamamoto / OnAsia.com

The sumo contest and the reaction of the crowd seemed somehow symbolic of Japan in the 21st century

Abe’s supporters say that he is not an ultra-nationalist.

る囜。 こうした特城を備えるため、安倍氏は、 「私た ちの前には明るい未来が開けおいるず確信し、私 は革新の火を燃やし続けるず固く決意しおいたす」 ず力説した。 19䞖玀、 日本はアゞアで特異だった。 日本は怍民地 支配に屈しなかった。怍民地になるこずに最埌たで 抵抗した囜は日本以倖にはタむだけだった。 しか し、 タむが意芋をその郜床倉え、列匷同士を察抗さ せお持倫の利を埗ようずしたのに察し、明治の日本 は猛然ず列匷に挑み、西欧に远い付け远い越せず ばかりに最優秀の孊生を海倖留孊させた。そしお、 それが効を奏し、 日本は「西欧の力に察抗できるの ではないか」 ずいう䞍遜な気持を抱くほど立掟なア ゞア初の近代工業囜家になった。 戊埌、日本が短期間で立ち盎ったのは、米囜占領 軍による埩興努力によるずころが倧きかった。日本 が胞を匵っお自慢する戊争攟棄を謳った平和憲法 は、米囜の栞の傘ずいう快適な圱に守られおいた ものであり、その助けがあっおこそ日本は経枈に泚 力し、戊争の傷跡を修埩し、孊び盎し、再び他囜を 凌ぐこずができるようになったのである。

Enter Shinzo Abe, who has a special claim to be concerned about the constitution and Japan’s need to assert its sovereignty, apart from being the first prime minister born in the post-war era. His grandfather, しかし、日本の有力者の心の䞭には「戊争を攟棄 at whose knee the young Abe learned his する憲法がいくら優れた憲法であるずいっおも、占 politics, was Nobusuke Kishi, a close aide 領者に抌し付けられたものである。埓っおこの憲法 to the hanged war leader General Hideki には䞍備があり、それは日本の䞻暩に察する䟵害 Tojo, and himself imprisoned, though never であるず䞀郚では考えられおいる」ずいう問題が静 tried or convicted, as a Class A war criminal. かにくすぶり続けおいた。日本囜民は、戊争の蚘憶 Freed, and rehabilitated into politics after で傷぀くこずのない普通の囜ずなるこずを望んでお the Americans had left, Kishi was one of the り、このようなこずを考えおいる人はほずんどいな leading lights in the foundation of the Liberal い。 Democrat Party (LDP) in 1955, which has 安倍普䞉氏の堎合、戊埌生たれの初の銖盞である ruled Japan ever since, apart from a brief ずいうこずは別ずしお、憲法、そしお日本が䞻暩を䞻 spell in the mid-1990s. The LDP has a well- 匵する必芁性に察しお特別の思い入れがある。幌 won reputation for pragmatism, following い頃の安倍氏がその膝で政治を孊んだ祖父岞䌞 the so-called sanban (three “ban”): jiban (a 介氏は、絞銖刑に凊せられた東条英機倧将の偎近 strong, well-organised constituency), kaban であり、裁刀にかけられたり有眪刀決が出されたり するこずはなかったもののA玚戊犯ずしお投獄され (a briefcase full of money), and kanban た経隓を持぀人物であった。岞氏は、釈攟され、米 (prestigious appointment, particularly on 囜による占領が終わるず政界に埩垰し、1955幎の the cabinet level). Kishi was reputedly adept 自由民䞻党LDP蚭立の立圹者の䞀人ずなった。 at the game of money politics. 以埌、自由民䞻党は1990幎代の短期間を陀いお日 Apart from the potent lingering memory 本の䞎党の座を守っおいる。自由民䞻党は、地盀 of his lessons from grandfather Kishi, Abe 固い遞挙基盀、かばん資金がギッシリ詰たった has also been influenced by the people in the ブリヌフケヌス、看板特に閣僚レベルの高い圹 ruling party and in business who believe that 職ぞの指名のいわゆる䞉バン䞻矩で堂々たる珟 with its current affluence, Japan is in danger 実䞻矩の評刀を埗おいる岞氏は金暩政治を操るの of going soft. Possibly Asashoryhu himself が巧みなこずで評刀だった。 has had a word in the prime minister’s ear 祖父である岞氏から孊んだ教蚓の匷烈な蚘憶が消 since the Mongolian yokozuna has said that えずに残っおいるこずは別ずしおも、安倍氏は「豊か one reason for his sumo success is that, “The になった今、日本は軟匱になる危険がある」ず考え おいる䞎党や実業界の面々の圱響も受けおいる。 Japanese are no good. Japan’s economy 朝青韍関自身の「自分が盞撲で出䞖できたのは日 developed and the people became weaker,” 本人がふがいないから」ずいう蚀葉も銖盞の耳に he told one reporter and explained what he 届いおいるかもしれない。このモンゎル出身の暪 meant by twitching his thumbs to simulate 綱は、 「日本の経枈が発展した分日本人は匱くなっ the sedentary habit of playing electronic た」ず、座りっぱなしでテレビゲヌムに興じる姿を䞡 games. He boasted that his summers spent 手の芪指で真䌌お、そのこずをレポヌタヌに説明し on the steppes of Mongolia, sleeping in a た。圌は、テントで眠り、矊を远い、銬に乗っお過ご tent, herding sheep and riding horses, were したモンゎルの草原の倏が厳しい盞撲に必芁な匷 just the stuff for nurturing the toughness さを育んでくれた、ず誇らしげに語った。 著名な䌁業䞊局郚の䞀郚も同じ考えを持っおいる。 sumo requires. Some prominent business executives その䌚員であるこずがJapan Incの正真正銘の重鎮 share this belief. In a remarkable short であるこずを瀺す、実業界で最も匷力な組織である article in the journal of Keidanren, the 経団連が発行する機関誌に掲茉された泚目すべ most powerful business organisation き短い蚘事で、経団連の勝俣恒久副䌚長は日本人 に喝を入れる必芁性を宣蚀した。勝俣氏は埓業員 whose membership is a veritable Who’s 51,560人を擁し、幎商5兆円以䞊の日本有数の巚倧 Who of the movers and shakers of Japan 䌁業である東京電力の瀟長でもある。勝俣氏は次 Inc, vice chairman Tsunehisa Katsumata のように曞いおいる。 「豊かなラむフスタむルは、肉 declared that Japanese need to toughen 䜓的粟神的に匱い人間を生み出しおいる。良くも up. Katsumata is also president of the giant 悪くも、私たちを過剰に取り巻くパ゜コンやカヌナ utility company Tokyo Electric Power Co, ビなど無数の䟿利な道具のおかげで、今日、暗算や one of the mightiest of Japanese companies 挢字の曞き取り、道順の暗蚘、正しい箞の䜿い方が with 51,560 employees and sales of more できない日本人が倚くなっおいる。このこずは、本 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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来人間に備わっおいる動物的本胜の喪倱を瀺唆し おいるようである。突き詰めるず、日本人の人間ず しおの胜力の『巚倧な空掞化』が起きおいるのであ る 」

© Herbie Knott / Rex Features

「たず、貧しさ、倱敗、悲嘆などの逆境をバネに成 功する人の䟋は倚い。逆境は、匷く生きる力、匱者 を劎わる匷さ、新しいものに挑戊する勇気を䞎えお くれる。蚀い換えるず、逆境は、人間ずしおの玠晎ら しい胜力を備えた『匷い』人を䜜り出すのである」

A key part of the new reforms was to enjoin proper respect for the country, symbolized by the flag & anthem.

than 5 trillion yen. He wrote: Affluent lifestyles are producing an increasing number of physically and mentally weak people. Thanks, or no thanks, to personal computers, car navigation systems, and the myriad other convenient tools that surround us to the point of excess, many Japanese today cannot do mental arithmetic, write kanji characters, remember routes, nor use chopsticks properly. Their inability seems to suggest the loss of brute instincts that are inherent to human beings. In essence, what we are experiencing is a huge ‘hollowing out’ of human abilities among the Japanese.
 “To begin with, people are frequently known to turn their poorness [sic, Keidanren English translation], failures, heartbreaks and other such adversities into success. Trials and tribulations give people the power to live strongly, the strength to care for the weak, and the courage to challenge the new. In other words, they are what create ‘tough’ people with outstanding human capacity.

Party secretary general Hidenao Nakegawa had to appeal to cabinet members to show proper respect to the prime minister Japan today needs more ‘tough’ people. They hold the key to invigorating society, promoting innovations, and bringing economic growth. It is precisely these ‘tough’ people who have the potential to transform Japan into a ‘tough’ nation full of hope.” To Abe and people like this, Japan’s troubles with a nation that is growing soft begin in the schools. So he set to work on an education reform, again to replace the law enacted by the American occupiers. A key part of the new reforms was to enjoin proper respect for the country, symbolized by the flag & anthem, and knowledge of the history of the great country that is Japan. 72

Unfortunately, these are all touchy subjects, especially with teachers, many of whom have leftist views and remember the old Imperial days when the flag and anthem were the very symbols that the militarists hijacked. No matter: Abe rushed to produce a bill that contained both controversial and flawed provisions. At the same time, Abe’s personality came into play. He is a very different man from his predecessor, the maverick, cussed Koizumi. Koizumi was quite happy to take on the whole world in his stubborn way. The prime example was his visits to Yasukuni Shrine (where the souls of 14 convicted A Class war criminals are enshrined along with 2.5 million war dead), which he had never bothered with before he became prime minister, but which he proceeded to visit every year after he took over, never bothering about the fury of China and Korea or the puzzlement of Japan’s allies who could not comprehend the gratuitous way that he threw away the good will towards Japan. But Koizumi understood that Japan’s future was about the economy and with equal stubbornness chose a strong minister from academia to help and set about cleaning up Japan’s massive bad loans, which threatened the stability of the financial system. He then turned to reforming the postal system, which included the world’s biggest bank in terms of assets. Thwarted by the old guard of the LDP, Koizumi threw out the rebels and called a snap election, which consolidated his power, routed the old guard barons, and gave Abe a comfortable majority when he took over. Abe is more of a party man, but having risen to the top early and with relatively little experience of office, he sits uneasily among the LDP barons whom Koizumi had treated with contempt. Internationally, he got off to a better start by going to China and South Korea within days of becoming prime minister, and, insiders say, letting China understand that he would not cause a

「今日の日本は『匷い』人をもっず必芁ずしおいる。 瀟䌚の掻性化、むノベヌションの掚進、経枈成長の 実珟の鍵を握っおいるのはこういう人達である。日 本を垌望に満ちた『匷い』囜に倉えおいく可胜性を 秘めおいるのはたさにこういう 『匷い』人達なので ある」 安倍氏やこうした人達に蚀わせるず、囜の軟匱化が 進んでいる日本の問題は孊校から始たっおいる。そ こで安倍氏はここでも米囜占領軍が制定した法埋 に代わる法埋の制定を目指しお、教育改革に取り組 む決意をしたのであった。新しい改革の目玉は、囜 旗ず囜歌に象城される囜家に察する適床な敬意の 矩務化、そしお偉倧な囜日本の歎史を知るこずであ る。 ずころが、 これらのテヌマはいずれも埮劙であ る。特に、その倚くが巊翌寄りの考え方を持ち、囜旗 や囜歌が軍囜䞻矩者による乗っ取りの象城そのも のであった旧垝囜時代を芚えおいる教垫にずっお なおさらである。 ずもあれ、安倍氏は、異論や欠点 のある条項が盛り蟌たれた法案を急いで提出した。 それず同時に安倍氏の性栌も䜜甚した。圌は䞀匹 狌の倉人である小泉前銖盞ずは党く異なる。小泉 前銖盞は、党おにおいお嬉々ずしお圌なりの頑固な 流儀を貫いた。その奜䟋が250䞇人の戊没者ず䞀 緒に14人のA玚戊犯が祀られおいる靖囜神瀟参 拝である。銖盞就任前にはこだわっおいなかったの に、銖盞に就任しおからは、䞭囜や韓囜の怒り、そし お日本に察する善意を螏みにじるような愚挙を理 解できずに戞惑う同盟囜をよそに毎幎参拝を欠か さないようになった。 しかし、小泉前銖盞は日本の将来は経枈にかかっ おいるこずを理解し、靖囜問題の堎合ず同じ䞀途さ をもっお孊界から匷力な閣僚を指名し、 日本の金融 制床の安定を脅かしおいた巚額の䞍良債暩の凊理 に取り掛からせた。そしお次に、䞖界最倧の資産を 持぀、金融組織も含む郵䟿制床の改革に着手した。 小泉前銖盞は、自由民䞻党の保守掟に阻止される ず反察掟を切り捚おお解散総遞挙に打っお出た。そ しお総力戊で総遞挙を戊い、保守掟の倧物を打ち 砎り、安倍氏に安定倚数を残しお退陣したのであっ た。 それず比べるず安倍氏は党人である。 しかし、 トッ プに䞊り詰めるのが早く、 どちらかず蚀うず執務経 隓が浅いため、小泉前銖盞が錻の先であしらっお いた自民党の倧物の間で居心地悪そうに座っおい る。倖亀面では、銖盞就任から䜕日もしないうちに 䞭囜ず韓囜を歎蚪しお無難なスタヌトを切った。事 情通によれば、 「公蚀はしないが、靖囜を参拝しお 隒ぎを起こすようなこずはしない」 ず䞭囜に理解を しおもらったずいうこずである。安倍氏はこの歎蚪 で、蚪米前に近隣諞囜を歎蚪した祖父岞氏に敬意 も衚しおいたのであった。 しかし、囜内では自民党内の叀参の倧物が匵り巡 らせたくもの糞に匕っかかっおしたっおいる。郵政 造反組の倧半の埩党を認め、匱い内閣を䜜り、政治 的資本を過去の䞍祥事に無駄に䜿っおいる。 「銖盞 に察しおしかるべく敬意を衚するように」 「安倍銖盞 が入宀したら私語を控えお起立するように」 ず自民 党の䞭川秀盎幹事長が閣僚に呌びかけざるをえな かったこずにも銖盞の匱点が衚れおいる。 すぐに銖盞も名を連ねるになった䞀連の閣僚の䞍 祥事も重なり、間もなく安倍氏の支持率は70%ずい う高さから37%に急萜した。柳沢䌯倫厚生劎働倧 臣は女性を「子どもを産む機械」 ず呌び、生産率を 䞊げお䜎迷する日本の人口を増やすよう党力を尜 4


Abe

governor declared that the comfort women were a figment of the imagination and said, “It is very difficult to confirm as a historical fact that the ‘comfort women’ actually existed. A university professor meanwhile dismissed the rape and massacre of Nanjing – when up to 300,000 civilians were killed by Japanese troops in 1937 as a “complete fabrication” of Chinese government propaganda.

fuss by visiting Yasukuni, though he would not formally say so. In making the visits, Abe was also paying homage to grandfather Kishi, who had also toured the neighbouring countries before going to the US. But domestically Abe has become trapped in the old LDP web spun by the old party barons. He meekly readmitted most of the postal rebels to the party, chose a weak cabinet and wasted his political capital on the controversial issues of the past. As a pointer to his weakness, the party secretary general Hidenao Nakegawa had to appeal to cabinet members to show proper respect to the prime minister and to desist from personal chitchat and stand up when Abe came into the room. Soon Abe’s popularity rating was skidding from a high of 70 percent to 37 percent, aided by a series of gaffes by cabinet members in which the prime minister was quick to join in. Health minister Hakuo Yanagisawa called women “baby making machines” and appealed to them to do their best to improve the production rate and lift Japan’s flagging population – for which the opposition boycotted parliament when Abe refused to sack Yanagisawa. Education minister Bunmei Ibuki then referred to the purity of the Yamato race which, he said, had always governed homogeneous Japan. Then Abe sucked himself into a controversy about the so-called “comfort women”, itself an evasive euphemism for 200,000 sex slaves abused by Japan’s Imperial Army before and during the war. “There is no evidence to prove there was coercion,” declared Abe. In the face of protests from across Asia, Abe backtracked and said he stood by the 1993 quasi-apology for Japan’s treatment of the women, some of whom were in their early teens when they were abducted and forced to have sex with Japanese soldiers for up to 20 hours a day. Inside Japan, meanwhile, the whole exculpatory university of the Japanese right wing got to work. Some denied that the military was ever involved in the sex slave trade. Others said the women offered their services voluntarily. A newly elected

© AFP / Getty Images

Japan’s economy and lifestyle would benefit from competition, foreign investment, and reform of the less productive industries

Abe is a very different man from his predecessor, Koizumi.

These swirling controversies were a multiple blow to the authority and reputation of Abe since they exposed his weaknesses as a leader, as a politician and as a human being. Some Japanese asked why Japan had to keep on apologizing for its wartime behaviour, which would have been a good point if Japanese politicians had accepted the facts and moved on, but they have kept returning to the past to try to deny it. Japan’s Sumo Association, although stubborn in many ways – for example in refusing to allow women into the dohyo (ring) because it is sacred, even when the woman was the chief cabinet secretary or local governor who would present the Emperor’s Cup to the winner – recognised that it could not prevent foreign wrestlers from joining the sport. The foreigners have done much to revitalise sumo, which was suffering from inferior Japanese wrestlers, however much the congregation of fans love to hate them. Similarly, Japan’s economy and lifestyle would benefit from competition, foreign investment, and reform of the less productive industries. Immigrants will also be needed as Japan’s population shrinks. Toyota and other successful companies have shown the way, and that Japanese should have no fears about embracing the world and gaining international respect. But politicians have put their heads in the sand and pretended that Japan is a pure Yamato race, defying history and facts. In early 2007, Abe was still pressing on regardless with his task of recreating the beautiful country in his own image. The fact that the opposition was absent, boycotting parliament, did not deter him. He used his majority to pass the education bill and the budget and was planning another bill authorising a referendum to write a new constitution. The problem for Japan is that all these issues are damaging and potentially dangerous diversions from the real issue that Koizumi understood, the economy and the reform of the economy, without which Japan will reach the middle of the 21st century old and grey and possibly with no friends. Abe’s attempts to make Japan a normal country by trying to rewrite or reimagine the past are also dangerous, because they cost him the trust of neighbours whom the country may need. g

くすよう呌びかけた。 これに察し、安倍氏は柳沢倧 臣の解任を拒み、野党は囜䌚審議をボむコットし た。次に、䌊吹文明文郚科孊倧臣による「垞に玔粋 な倧和民族が統治しおきた同質的な日本」 ずいう発 蚀があった。 さらに、安倍氏自らもいわゆる「慰安婊」論争に巻 き蟌たれるこずになった。 「慰安婊」 ずいう蚀い方自 䜓、戊前戊䞭の日本垝囜陞軍に虐埅された20侇 人の匷制売春婊ぞの責任逃れの婉曲的衚珟であ る。安倍氏は「匷制があったこずを瀺す蚌拠はな い」 ず蚀い切った。 しかし、その埌アゞア党土からの 抗議を受けお前蚀を撀回し、 「 䞭には匷制連行さ れ、1日最高20時間も日本兵ずの性行為を匷制され た圓時10代前半の女性もおり、 これらの女性に察 する凊遇に぀いお日本が1993幎に行った䞀応の謝 眪を自分も支持する」 ず語った。䞀方、 日本囜内では 無眪を䞻匵する日本の右翌勢力が立ち䞊がった。 䞭には軍が匷制売春に関わったこずを吊定する者 もいる。 「女性が自発的に売春を行っおいた」 ずい う者もいる。新しく遞出された知事は「慰安婊は想 像が䜜り䞊げた䜜り話である」 ず蚀い切り、 「『慰安 婊』が実圚したずいうこずを歎史的事実ずしお確認 するこずはきわめお難しい」 ず発蚀したのである。 その䞀方で、ある倧孊教授は、 日本軍が民間人最高 30䞇人を殺害した1937幎の南京の匷姊虐殺は、 䞭囜政府のプロパガンダによる 「根も葉もないでっ ち䞊げ」 ず切り捚おた。 こうした䞀連の論争の枊により、 リヌダヌずしお、政 治家ずしお、そしお人間ずしおの安倍氏の匱点が露 呈するこずになり、安倍氏の暩嚁ず評刀にずっおは 打撃ずなった。 日本人の䞭には「日本は戊時䞭の行 為に぀いおなぜい぀たでも謝り続けなければなら ないのか」 ず疑問を呈した人もいた。 この時に日本 の政治家が事実を認めお前に進めばよかったのだ が、圌等は過去に戻っお過去を吊定しようずする努 力を続けおいる。 䟋えば、優勝力士に賜杯を枡す閣僚や知事であっ おも、 「土俵は神聖な堎所であるから女性は土俵に 䞊げない」 ずいう姿勢を貫いおいるなど、様々な面 で頑固な日本盞撲協䌚も、 倖人力士の盞撲参入を 食い止めるこずはできないこずは認めた。倖囜人力 士の悪口を蚀う盞撲ファンがいくら倚くおも、倖囜 人力士は日本人力士が匱いために匱䜓化した盞撲 の掻性化に倧いに貢献しおいる。 同様に、競争や海倖からの投資、生産性の䜎い産 業ぞの改革が行われれば日本の経枈やラむフスタ むルにプラスの圱響が出るだろう。 日本の人口が枛 れば移民の受け入れも必芁になるだろう。 トペタな どの成功䌁業はその手本であり、日本人は䞖界を 受け入れるこず、そしお囜際瀟䌚から尊敬を埗るこ ずに぀いお心配する必芁はないこずを瀺すもので ある。 しかし、政治家は珟実を盎芖せず、歎史ず事実 を吊定し、 「日本は玔粋な倧和民族である」 ずうそぶ いおいる。 2007幎初頭、安倍氏はただ自分のむメヌゞする矎 しい囜づくりずいう仕事を掚し進めおいた。ボむコ ットによる野党䞍圚の囜䌚でも安倍氏を止めるこ ずはできなかった。安倍氏は、過半数祚を盟に教育 法案ず予算を可決させ、新憲法を起草する囜民投 祚を認める法案の蚈画も進めおいた。 日本にずっお 厄介なこずは、 これらの問題が党お有害なものであ り、小泉前銖盞が「これをやらなければ21䞖玀の半 ばに歳をずっお癜髪になった時におそらく友人が 䞀人もいなくなる」 ず理解しおいた経枈ず経枈改革 ずいう本圓の問題から離れおいく危険性があるず いうこずである。たた、 「過去を曞き換えお、たたは 過去を再考しお、 日本を普通の囜にしよう」 ずいう安 倍氏の詊みは、日本が必芁ずしおいる隣人からの 信頌を倱うこずになるものであり、危険なものであ る。■

WiA Delegate Publication

73


Japan

日本経枈 ― ネズミが吠える

© Landov / UPPA / Photoshot

日本経枈は戊埌最長の継続的成長を続け おいる。奜景気は5幎以䞊続いおおり圓面は 腰折れするこずはないず芋られおいる。

Japan’s economy: the roar of a mouse The Japanese economy is enjoying its longest ever post-war period of continuous growth. The good times have been going on for more than five years and are forecast to continue into the foreseeable future.

G

iven a headline like this, it may be a surprise to find that not everyone is happy and that discussions on the economy are full of uncertainties. In the short run there is concern about the yen, about interest rates, about lack of political leadership and, indeed, about whether the deflationary era has really ended; in the medium term, there are issues of hollowing out of the industrial economy, heavy government indebtedness, and of a society that is going grey rapidly. Japanese, according to the United Nations University, have the world’s highest per capita wealth - $181,000 each, far ahead of the second placed Americans on $144,000. More important and troubling, Japan is still the world’s second biggest economy, but has been running on faulty engines for some years and is hardly contributing to global growth, the roar of a mouse rather than of a lion economy. This can be seen in the learned reports of economists. The World Trade Organisation in its trade policy review of Japan in early 2007 declared that: “Japan appears to be extricating itself from deflation
 Downward pressure on prices appears to be easing
” Similarly, the report of a leading international financial company argued that Japan was returning to normal: “The fact is that, having cleaned up the troubled banks, Japan is ready to invest and stop hoarding cash. In addition Japan is poised to experience consumer-driven growth rather than relying almost solely on exports.” Note the tendentious use of words like “appears
 is ready to
 poised to
” But don’t hold your breath. 74

しかし、 こうしたマスコミ報道の䞀方で珟圚の生掻 に満足しおいない人々も倚く、景気の先行きに぀い おは必ずしも楜芳論ばかりではない。短期的には円 盞堎、金利の先行き、政局䞍透明感が懞念材料であ る。加えおデフレ時代も完党に収束しおいないので はないかずいう懞念もある。䞭期的には産業の空掞 化、巚額の財政赀字、瀟䌚の急速な高霢化ずいう問 題を抱えおいる。 囜連倧孊の統蚈によれば、日本人1人圓たりの富は 18侇1000ドルず䞖界第1䜍であり、第2䜍の米囜の氎 準14侇4000ドルを倧きく䞊回っおいる。 しかし、珟圚 でも䞖界第2の経枈芏暡を誇っおいる日本は、 ここ数 幎間は景気の牜匕圹を欠いおいるために䞖界経枈 の成長にはほずんど寄䞎しおいない。虎の経枈ずい うより、ネズミが吠えおいるずいった皋床である。 こうした 芋 方 は æš© 嚁ある調 査 機 関 のレ ポ ヌトで も芋られる。因みに、䞖界貿易機関(World Trade Organisation) は2007幎初めに発衚した日本の察倖 貿易政策に関する芁玄の䞭で、 「日本経枈はデフレ から脱华し぀぀あり物䟡䞋抌し圧力も和らいでいる ようである」 ず結論付けおいる。同様に、某倧手囜際 金融機関のレポヌトでも 「日本の銀行は䞍良債暩凊 理が枈み、資金を内に貯め眮くのではなく投資に振 り向けるこずができる態勢になった。曎に、茞出䟝存 型経枈から個人消費䞻導型経枈に移行できる段階 に来おいる」 ず指摘し、日本経枈が正垞な姿に戻り ぀぀あるず論じおいる。 しかし、いずれも 「 ようであ る」、 「 態勢になった」、 「 段階に来おいる」 ずいう ように断定的な衚珟を避けおおり、日本経枈の先行 きに぀いおは、やや慎重な芋方を厩しおいない点に 泚目したい。

The damage that was done by the era of no growth after the bubble of the 1980s exploded was considerable. Deloitte Research in 2007 estimated that: “If Japan had grown at a normal rate, its people would be about 25 percent better off than they are 1980幎代のバブル厩壊埌に続いた景気の長期䜎迷 によっお砎壊された富の倧きさは、無芖できないも today.” The Deloitte report, published as のがある。Deloitte Research瀟の2007幎のレポヌト part of its Global Economics Outlook, took では、 「日本が安定的な経枈成長を遂げおいれば実 an optimistic view, forecasting that “Japan’s 際よりも玄25%より豊かになっおいたであろう」ず詊 economic evolution will be a critical 算しおいる。Deloitte Research瀟が「䞖界経枈展望」 component in easing the global imbalance.” の䞀郚ずしお発衚したレポヌトだが、この䞭で「日本 Yet today, Japan’s “normal” economic の経枈成長は䞖界的な囜際収支䞍均衡の緩和に重 growth rate is in the 2 to 2.2 percent range, 芁な圹割を果たすだろう」ず楜芳的な芋方を打ち出 しおいる。 しかし、今日の日本の「正垞な」経枈成長率 a far cry from the old double digit days. は幎2%から2.2%皋床で、過去に達成した2桁代の成 More worrying, it is still lopsided and there 長には遠く及ばない。より懞念されるのは、日本が今 should be real fears that Japan’s still half- 以っお財政健党化が進んでおらず、途半ばの構造改 reformed and inward looking economy 革ず内向きの䜓質ゆえに経枈が期埅成長率を䞋回 will not only underperform but will add to り、䞖界的な囜際収支䞍均衡を悪化させる恐れも充 分ににあるずいう点である。 problems of global imbalances. For an interesting inside perspective I 日本経枈の内郚の声を聞くために、戊埌の経枈埩興 talked to Yasuhiro Sato, who is managing を支えた旧日本興行銀行が母䜓になっおいるみず director and head of corporate at Mizuho ほコヌポレヌト銀行法人郚の郚長である䜐藀康博 Corporate Bank, which incorporates Industrial 氏に話を䌺った。日本の銀行が䞍良債暩凊理を終え Bank of Japan (IBJ), the powerhouse behind 財務䜓質が改善しお再び利益を蚈䞊するようになっ た、 ずいう点に぀いおは芋解が䞀臎した。䜐藀氏は Japan’s post-war recovery. He agrees that the 「ここ数幎、日本の銀行はそこそこの利益を䞊げお clean-up of Japan’s banking system and the きたした。2007幎も奜業瞟が期埅できるのではない endemic bad loans has been accomplished かず思いたす」ず語っおいる。ただ、 「業瞟が回埩した and the banks have returned to profits. “So far のは、䞻ずしお䞍良債暩が枛った結果です。コア事業 we Japanese banks have enjoyed reasonable の利益に぀いおは、安定しおはいたすが急成長しお profits for a couple of years and we may be はいたせん。囜内需芁が充分に䌞びないからです。 able to have a good year in 2007 as well,” 埓っお事業機䌚を求めお倖に出ざるを埗ない状況 he says. But he cautions that, “This is mainly です。これは銀行業界に限ったこずではなく、日本䌁 業党般に蚀えるこずです」 ず囜内経枈に぀いおは慎 because of the decrease of bad loans. If I 重な芋方をしおいる。 have to talk of core business profits, they 日本経枈にようやく゚ンゞンが掛かり、䞖界経枈の are just stable and not growing rapidly. The 牜匕圹になるのではないかず期埅されおいるが、䜐 4 reason is that the Japanese domestic market


Japanese economy

There is concern about the yen, about interest rates, about lack of political leadership and, indeed, about whether the deflationary era has really ended Mizuho’s head of corporate banking does not seem to share the optimism of the learned economists that domestic consumption is finally picking up. He studies the issue and agrees that, “The key issue is going to be individual consumption, now the capital expenditure of the economy has been growing well and exports are also growing.” But he is doubtful still: “The only remaining thing is consumption, which is not growing. The biggest reason is that corporations’, companies’, enterprises’ profits are really, really good, but the ratio of the companies’ profits going into the employees’ pockets is really small, so salaries are not growing. Even if the corporate profit is growing rapidly, they do not pay this to the employees, but to the stockholders. That is why individuals cannot spend more.” As 2007 has gone on, the evidence has been gathering that not enough is being done to stimulate consumption. In mid-March leading companies such as Toyota Motor, Honda, Sharp, NEC and Fujitsu announced wage rises, but smaller than unions had hoped. Mizuho Research Institute sniffed and declared that they would provide a tiny boost for consumption, “but the impact will probably be limited.” In late February Toshihiko Fukui, the governor of Bank of Japan, was also sanguine about the prospects of wage increases boosting consumption. “Though employment is rising steadily, we consider it’s hard to expect rapid wage increases, given that companies are being exposed to severe competition in global markets,” the central

bank chief said. “Consumer spending will 藀氏は「将来の成長を謳歌できるのは囜際垂堎で成 probably increase at an extremely moderate 功しおいる䌁業だけです。これは間違いありたせん」 pace. That’s the best we can expect now.” ず付蚀しおいる。 しかし、戊埌最長ずいう62ヵ月に及 Yet companies are doing well, a fact that ぶ継続的成長が続いおいるずいうこずは朜圚需芁は spurred the Nikkei 225 stock market index to 実態以䞊にあるのではないだろうか。 reach 18,200 in late February and the Topix to 「おっしゃる通りです。しかし、ご承知のように成長 top 1,800 before falling back when Shanghai’s 率はせいぜい0.5%から1%皋床です。成長しおはい sneeze unsettled the world. (The Nikkei is still るのですがほんの僅かなのです (ほずんど接觊する well below the record 39,000 level of the end of くらいにたで芪指ず人差し指を近づけお埮小である 1989). But companies are using their profits to こずを匷調した)。成長しおいるずいうよりはむしろ安 build upgrade investment and build new plants. 定しおいる、ず蚀った方がいいでしょう。1980幎代は Fujio Mitarai, chairman of Canon who became 確かに急成長したした。圓時の成長率は幎平均5%、 6%の氎準でした」 chairman of Keidanren, Japan’s most powerful business group, commented that the extent 䜐藀氏は、囜内の消費がようやく戻っおきたずいう専 門家の楜芳論には組しないようである。 「蚭備投資 of the business recovery differed between は順調に䌞びおおり茞出も奜調ですから埌は個人 companies and, “Some companies, even if their 消費次第なのです」ず同様の芋解を瀺しおいるが、た profits are improving, may have to use most of だ懐疑的である。 「たさにその個人消費が䌞びおい the profits to expand capital investment.” ないのです。䌁業収益は倧きく䌞びおいるのですが、 Japan’s economy is still only half- 埓業員の賃金に回す郚分が非垞に僅かなために所 reformed. One of the supposed virtues 埗が䌞びおいないのです。䌁業は倧幅増益の堎合で of the old Japan Inc was its “lifetime” も、埓業員の絊䞎匕き䞊げに応じるのではなく、株䞻 employment system, whereby workers ぞの配圓を増やしおいたす。個人消費が䌞びないの はそのためです」。 committed themselves to one company for life in return for their loyalty. In good times, 事実、2007幎も時の経過ず共に消費を刺激する材料 the Japanese system produced loyal, flexible に乏しいこずが明らかになり぀぀ある。 3月半ばには トペタ自動車、ホンダ、 シャヌプ、NEC、富士通ずいった employees who were more productive and 䌁業が賃䞊げには応じたが、劎組の芁求額を䞋回っ more adaptable to technological changes in た。この䌁業偎の回答を芋お、みずほ総合研究所で their jobs than were American or European は個人消費を若干刺激するだろうが「圱響は限定的 workers. An executive of a big company だろう」ず刀断しおいる。日銀総裁の犏井俊圊氏も2月 「雇甚は埐々に改善しおいたすが、䌁 who had reached the end of his promotion 埌半の時点で、 at the main company would be sent to a 業がグロヌバルで厳しい競争を匷いられおいたすの subsidiary. Someone who became a director で、賃金の倧幅な䌞びは期埅しにくいず考えたす。消 珟 of a big company like Mitsubishi Corporation, 費の䌞びは非垞に緩やかなものになるでしょう。 圚ではそれ以䞊は望めたせん」 ず述べ、賃金䞊昇が the giant trading company, would be 個人消費を刺激する可胜性は䜎いず刀断しおいる。 guaranteed his salary until the age of 70, その䞀方で、䌁業業瞟は奜調な䌞びを芋せおおり、 and a managing director would be on the 䞊海垂堎の急萜で連れ安する前の2月埌半には日経 payroll until 75, and in return he would pass 平均が1侇8200円 台を、 トピックスは1800台の高倀 over to Mitsubishi any earnings he made in を付ける堎面もあった。(日経平均は1989幎末に付 his retirement job. But lifetime employment けた史䞊最高倀3侇9000円台を未だに倧きく䞋回っ was not enjoyed by everyone, and in 1990 おいる)しかし、䌁業は利益を蚭備曎新ず新しい生産 about 20 percent of all Japan’s workers were 蚭備の建蚭に圓おおいる。日本経枈界で最も倧きな 圱響力を持぀経団連の䌚長になったキャノンの䌚 temporary or employed on contracts. The downside to hiring what the Japanese 長、埡手掗富士倫氏は䌁業収益の回埩は䞀様ではな く、 「業瞟が䌞びおいる䌁業でも蚭備投資を優先せ call sei-shain or regular employees is that it ざるを埗ないずころもある」ずコメントしおいる。 limits a company’s ability to adjust labour 䞀旊入瀟した costs. When the economy was growing 日本の構造改革はただ途半ばである。 䌁業に忠誠を尜くし、定幎退職するたで勀め䞊げる fast, this lack of flexibility was not much ずいう終身雇甚制床が昔のJapan Inc.の匷みず考え of a problem. But as the era of nil to low られおきた。奜景気のずきには、終身雇甚制床は米囜 growth became the norm, the inability to や欧州の劎働者よりも生産性が高く、技術的な進歩 reduce labour costs over the business cycle に察する適応性の高い、忠実で柔軟な劎働者の確保 became a severe liability, and companies に貢献した。倧䌁業で圹員たで登り぀めるず、今床は began to hire more workers outside the 子䌚瀟のポストを䞎えられる。䞉菱商事のような倧䌁 lifetime system. By 2006, according to the 業になるず、本瀟で圹員たで登り぀めた者は70歳た で、瀟長は75歳たで定幎退職埌も絊䞎が保蚌されお いる。 しかし、終身雇甚はもはや圓たり前ではなくな っおいる。既に1990幎には、日本の党劎働人口の玄 20%はパヌトあるいは契玄瀟員で占められおいる。

© Rafoto

is not growing satisfactorily, so we have to find business opportunities not in this country, but overseas. This is true not just of banking, but of companies generally.” In spite of the hopes that Japan’s economic engines may finally be tuned up and that it may be able to lift the world, Sato adds: “The companies which can be successful in the international market are the only ones that can enjoy future growth. That’s for sure.” But surely, after this record 62 months of continuous growth, longer than any other period since the war, Japan must be healthier than that? “Yes,” Sato agrees, “but as you know, the growth percentage is 1 per cent, 0.5 percent. It is growing but is very small growth, tiny (and he pinches his thumb and index finger together to show little daylight). I should say that it is stable rather than it is growing. Of course, in the 1980s we were enjoying growth, really. At that time the annual growth was on average more than 5 percent, 6 percent.”

Sato: Japanese banks have enjoyed reasonable profits for a couple of years and we may have a good year in 2007 as well.

日本でいう正瀟員あるいは正芏埓業員の雇甚に関 する問題は、䌁業による劎働コストの調敎を難しく するずいう点である。劎働コストを柔軟に調敎でき ないずいうのは高床成長期にはあたり問題にならな かったが、れロあるいは䜎成長が圓たり前の時代に は䌁業にずっお倧倉な負担になっおきた。そこで䌁 業は正瀟員の採甚を枛らしおパヌトや契玄瀟員の採 甚を増やしおいったのである。厚生劎働省の統蚈に よれば、2006幎には劎働者の3人に1人は契玄瀟員 かパヌトの非正芏瀟員である。埡手掗氏が䌚長を勀 めるキャノンでは非正芏瀟員の割合が党埓業員の 70%にものがっおいる。雇甚圢態を柔軟にしたこず で䌁業は競争力を付けたが、劎働者の賃䞊げは抑え られた。

WiA Delegate Publication

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Japan

© Fumi Sato / OnAsia.com

぀たり䌝統的な日本の終身雇甚制床は厩れたずい うこずである。終身雇甚制床は劎働垂堎を硬盎化さ せ、欧米の瀟䌚で芋たような䌁業ず埓業員双方の柔 軟な察応を難しくしおいる。䌁業偎では短期間で劎 働コストの削枛ができず、劎働者は簡単に䌚瀟を移 るこずができない。欧米では転職はごく普通のこず だが、 日本ではトペタの瀟員がホンダに、みずほ銀行 の瀟員が東京䞉菱に移る、 ずいうようなこずはたず考 えられない。䞀方、 日本のパヌトタむマヌや契玄瀟員 は、正瀟員や欧米の契玄瀟員ほど身分が保蚌されお いない。

In mid-March leading companies such as Toyota Motor, Honda, Sharp, NEC and Fujitsu announced wage rises, but smaller than unions had hoped.

labour ministry, one worker in three was on a contract or temporary or part-time - and at Mitarai’s Canon 70 percent of the workers are non-regulars. This has given flexibility to companies, but reduces the workers’ ability to achieve higher wages. It also means that Japan has a lopsided employment regime. The lifetime system creates more rigidity on both sides than is experienced in the West: on the employer’s ability to cut costs quickly and the worker’s ability to move jobs – since it would be unthinkable for a Japanese to move from Toyota to Honda or from Mizuho Bank to Mitsubishi, though such job-hopping is common in the US or Europe. On the other hand, Japan’s contract and part-time workers don’t enjoy the job security of their lifetime colleagues or their counterparts in the West.

As 2007 has gone on, the evidence has been gathering that not enough is being done to stimulate consumption There is another important way in which Japan’s economy is badly skewed. A recent McKinsey study found that those Japanese industries that had been subjected to the cold bath of international competition, principally automobiles, consumer electronics, machine tools and steel, had superb productivity, at least 20 percent superior to the global competition. However, the tried and tested industries account for only 10 percent of gross domestic product. The other 90 percent of industries and service providers serving the domestic market and still largely protected from foreign competition, have productivity levels more than 60 percent below their counterparts in the US. However, in the 2007 environment, increased labour flexibility has given the employers the upper hand and freedom to plough their newly found profits back into 76

capital investment rather than handing them out to workers. The ending of tax rebates introduced in 1999 to encourage consumption will also impose a dampening impact of 1.1 trillion yen according to government figures. Thus there is still a question mark over whether consumption will rise. Increased investment and low pay rises threatened to lock Japan into a vicious circle that could damage its relations with the rest of the world. One of the most hotly debated issues in early 2007 was whether the Bank of Japan should raise interest rates. In January ministers urged against a rise on the grounds that an interest rate rise might discourage consumption and hold back economic growth. When the bank kept rates on hold, there were grumbles that it had caved in to political pressure. However, the next month the central bank voted 8-1 to raise rates by 25 basis points (0.25 percent), with deputy governor Kazumasa Iwata the dissenter. The weak outlook for core consumer prices, which were barely rising, explains Iwata’s opposition since he had consistently said that low interest rates are necessary until the bank can foresee core inflation rising to about 1 percent. Politicians remained largely silent, although Hidenao Nakagawa, secretary general of the ruling Liberal Democratic Party joined economic and fiscal policy minister Hiroko Ota in saying that the Bank of Japan would take responsibility for the consequences of a rate increase, a sort of chilly attempt to transfer responsibility for any economic slowdown from the politicians to the central bank. There was something almost surreal about the debate, taking place in isolation from any consideration of Japan’s position in a global world. For heaven’s sake, it is tempting to say, even after the rate rise, Japan had gone from 0.25 percent to 0.5 percent, that’s from virtually nothing to nearly nothing. Where in the world is Japan living when the US federal funds rate is 5.25 percent and the prime rate is 8.25 percent? But for a country that had rates

日本の経枈にずっおの倧きな懞念材料はこれだけ ではない。最近のMcKinsey瀟の調査にでは、囜際垂 堎で厳しい競争に晒された日本の自動車、家電、機 械工具、鉄鋌ずいった業界は、囜際氎準を少なくずも 20%䞊回る高い生産性を達成しおいるず報告されお いるが、 こうした囜際競争を勝ち抜いた産業は囜内 総生産の僅か10%を占めるに過ぎない。残り90%を 占める産業のサヌビス業は囜内垂堎に留たっおお り、未だにその倧郚分が倖資ずの競争から守られお いる。 こうした業界は米囜ず比范するず60%以䞊も生 産性が䜎いのである。 しかし、劎働垂堎の匟力性が向䞊した2007幎の環 境では、優勢ずなった雇甚䞻は新しく出来た利益を 劎働者に還元せず蚭備投資に回すずいう自由が䞎 えられおいる。政府の詊算では、景気刺激を狙っお 1999幎に導入された定率枛皎が廃止になったこず により囜民の皎負担が1兆1000億円増える。 これも個 人消費の䌞びに期埅できない理由である。 積極的な蚭備投資ず賃金増の抑制は日本経枈を悪 埪環に陥れ、海倖ずの摩擊を惹き起こしかねない。 2007幎の初めには日銀は金利を匕き䞊げるべきか どうか、 ずいうこずが倧きな議論を呌んだ。1月の時 点では利䞊げは消費を抑え景気を冷やす、 ずいうこ ずで閣僚が反察し、実際に日銀が利䞊げを芋送るず、 政治的圧力に屈したずの批刀が広がった。 しかし、 日銀は翌月には8察1で25ベヌシス(0.25%)の 利䞊げに螏み切った。唯䞀反察したのは岩田䞀政副 総裁である。コアの消費者物䟡はほずんど䞊昇しお おらず先行きも軟調ずいう刀断からである。岩田氏 は䞀貫しお、 コアのむンフレ率が1%皋床に䞊昇する ず芋通せるようになるたでは䜎金利政策が必芁であ るず䞻匵しおいる。政治家のほずんどはコメントを避 けたが、䞎党自民党幹事長の䞭川秀盎氏ず経枈財政 担圓盞の倧田匘子氏は、 日銀は利䞊げの責任を取る 必芁がある、 ず景気が腰折れした堎合の責任を日銀 に抌し付けるかのような発蚀をしおいる。 利䞊げを巡る議論にグロヌバルな芖点が欠けお いるのは信じ難いこずである。金利を0.25%から 0.5%に匕き䞊げたずころで䞀䜓どんな圱響がある ずいうのか、実質れロからほがれロに倉わった皋床 のこずではないか、 ず蚀いたくなる。2006幎7月たで の5幎間、金利をれロに据え眮いた囜にずっおは僅 かな利䞊げでも倧きな決断ではあったこずは理解 できるが、米囜のFFレヌトが5.25%、 プラむムレヌト が8.25% ずいうこずを党く考えなくおもいいのだろう か。ただ、 日銀が利䞊げ決定に際し、䜎金利政策の長 期化は過剰投資ず資産バブルを招く可胜性もあるず 譊告したのは興味深い。 たた 、0 . 5 % の æ°Ž 準 は ナ ヌロ圏 の 3 . 7 5 %、英 囜 の 5.25%ず范べおもただ遥かに䜎く、 この金利差が䞖界 経枈における日本の䜓質を匕き続き歪めおいる。朜 圚的に最も倧きなリスクは、日本の超䜎金利がいわ ゆる円のキャリヌトレヌドを加速させ、巚倧な芏暡 になっおいるこずである。キャリヌトレヌドはデリバ ティブでレバレッゞが掛かっおいるため総額が芋え ない。 日銀も囜際決枈銀行もその芏暡は掎んでいな いが、倧雑把な掚定でも実額は1兆ドルを䞊回るず みられおいる。 円のキャリヌトレヌドずいうのはごく単玔な投資手 法で、最も基本的なのは実質れロの金利で円を調達 し、 これをドルに換えお米短期債を賌入し玄3%の利 回りを狙う、 ずいうものである。日本のれロ金利政策 は2006幎7月たで続いたが、その間に運甚差益を狙 ったヘッゞファンド、生呜保険䌚瀟、投資信蚗䌚瀟に よる円のキャリヌトレヌドが数兆ドルに膚れ䞊がっ

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Japanese economy

© UPPA / Photoshot

of zero for five years until July 2006, it was clearly a big deal. Interestingly, in making the rate hike, the central bank warned that prolonging a low interest rate policy could spur overinvestment and asset bubbles. But Japan’s rates at 0.50 percent are still way below those in the US or Europe – 3.75 in euroland and 5.25 in the UK – and continue to have a distorting impact on Japan’s place in the world economy. Potentially most dangerous is that rates close to zero have encouraged the massive growth in the so-called yen carry trade. Estimates of the sums in the carry trade are masked by leverage through the use of derivatives, and neither the Bank of Japan nor the Bank for International Settlements has a figure for the net sum involved. However, guestimates for the naked exposure range upwards from a trillion US dollars. The yen carry mechanism works simply: at its most basic it is to borrow yen at virtually zero rates, and then to purchase US treasuries at about a 3 percent interest rate gain net. Since the business has gone on for years, ever since Japan started to lower interest rates to the zero that prevailed for five years until July 2006, there are literally trillions of dollars worth of yen carry trade positions scattered amongst hedge funds, insurance companies, and mutual funds. The result is that the effects of an unwinding of the yen carry trade are unknown, but are sure to be very negative. There would be implications for the US and its borrowing requirement to pay for massive debts as US treasuries become less attractive. There would also be the risk of meltdowns in stock markets, real estate values and all sorts of other markets, which have benefited from the liquidity poured in through cheap yen. Fukui of the Bank of Japan commented: ``We’re aware that extremely distorted movements in the financial market, including the yen-carry trade, could eventually have a negative impact on the economy,’’ but he added that the decision to put rates up was focused more on the economy than the potential effect of the carry trade.

Toshihiko Fukui, the governor of Bank of Japan, was sanguine about the prospects of wage increases boosting consumption.

The other impact of Japan’s low interest rates on the rest of the world is through the foreign exchange markets. Even after the February rate hike, the yen actually weakened against the US dollar, because markets had already discounted the effect of the rise. The Japanese currency dropped to 122 against the greenback before rising in March to 116 or so. Even at these levels, the major Japanese manufacturers are laughing all the way to the bank.

おいる。円キャリヌトレヌドが䞀挙に解消に向かった ずきの圱響は蚈り知れないが、䞖界経枈には間違い なく悪圱響を及がすだろう。 たず、米囜債の魅力が薄 れれば米囜は巚額の財政赀字を手圓おできなくな る可胜性もあり、長期金利の䞊昇を招く。円安を通じ た過剰流動性に支えられおきた株匏、䞍動産他、あ らゆる盞堎の連鎖的暎萜もあり埗る。

The government’s intervening hand is still strong and is clearly visible

日本の䜎金利は為替垂堎を通じおも䞖界に圱響を 䞎えおいる。2月の利䞊げ埌も円は察米ドルで䞋げ おいる。垂堎が既に利䞊げを織り蟌んでいたためで ある。䞀時は122円台たで円安が進む局面もあった。 3月には116円皋床たで戻したが、 この氎準でも日本 の倧手メヌカヌは笑いが止たらない。

日銀の犏井総裁は、 「円キャリヌトレヌドなどで垂堎 が極端に歪められおおり、 これが経枈に悪圱響を及 がす可胜性を承知しおはいる」 ず語っおはいるが、利 䞊げはキャリヌトレヌドの圱響よりは囜内経枈ぞの 圱響を優先した結果であるずいう。

Sato of Mizuho adds that companies みずほコヌポレヌト銀行の䜐藀氏は次のように語っ are nervous about the yen and predicts おいる。 「䌁業は為替に神経質になっおおり、茞出は that, “Exports are good but will be slowing 奜調だが今埌は䌞び悩むでしょう。既に為替差益は down. The yen ratio has been declining and 枛っおきおおり、おそらく今幎は欧米から円安に察す probably this year the US and Europe will る批刀が匷たり、茞出にブレヌキが掛かるずみられ attack the yen price, and exports will be たす。為替盞堎はドル円の取匕ばかりではなく察円 でのナヌロ、人民元曎には韓囜りオンの盞堎も泚芖 under pressure. The currency issue is rather しなければなりたせん。ドル円の盞堎に限れば米囜 complex because the dollar-yen position is の政局も若干の懞念材料です。ブッシュ政暩、䞎党共 not the only one. We have to think the euro 和党は2006幎11月の䞭間遞挙で民䞻党に砎れたし against the yen, the renminbi against the yen, た。ずいうこずは今埌ブッシュ政暩が内向きになりア even the Korean won. If I am talking only ゞア通貚安を叩いおくる可胜性が高たるずいうこず about the dollar against the yen, we are a little です。特に人民元がやり玉に挙げられ䞭囜政府は人 bit worried about the political situation in the 民元の切り䞊げを芁求されるでしょう。そうなるず円 United States. Bush lost the congressional も自動的に察ドルで䞊昇したす。たず先に円が反発 するずいう可胜性もありたす。もう1぀の材料は米囜 elections in November 2006, which means の景気動向です。近い将来、米囜の景気枛速芳が匷 that the American politicians will look at the たれば、かなりドルが売られアゞア通貚が買われる domestic situation and the government will でしょう。これも円の反発に繋がりたす。今幎は円高 easily attack the Asian currencies especially 材料が倚いず蚀えたす」 the renminbi, which means that the Chinese 䜐藀氏は経枈、財政、垂堎のあらゆるデヌタを分析 government will have to let the renminbi しお、日本の倧手茞出䌁業にずっおの結論を述べた。 appreciate, which means that automatically 「日本の茞出関連䌁業にずっおは110円台が競争力 the yen will also increase. Another possibility を分ける氎準です。東芝、日立、トペタずいった埗意 is that the yen increases first. The other factor 先の倧䌁業は110円台を想定しおいたすので、珟圚 is the US economy. If the US economy will のドル円レヌトは茞出に远い颚でメヌカヌは倧喜び です」 show us a set of weak figures in the near 「最近は米囜ばかりでなく欧州の心配もしなければ future, many sums of money will go into Asian currencies and that will also lead to なりたせん。ナヌロ高が進んでいたすので円は安過 ぎるずいう䞍満が聞かれたす。欧州の声も聞かなけ yen increase. So there are many reasons why ればならないのです。そればかりではありたせん。䟋 the yen will increase this year.” えば、䞉星Samsung瀟、LG瀟ずいった韓囜䌁業は Having gone through all the parameters, 電子補品を米囜に茞出しお日本䌁業ず競争しおいた economic, financial, and political, Sato gave すが、円は察りオンでも安くなっおいたすので韓囜 the bottom line position for big Japanese からも円安批刀を济びたす。欧米の䌁業だけでなく exporters: “Having said all this, I should アゞアの䌁業も敵に回しおいるずいうこずです」 say that 110 is the critical figure. As far as 䜐藀氏は21䞖玀の日本経枈は政局動向からも目が the conversation with our clients, the very 離せないず考えおおり、安郚晋䞉新銖盞が就任盎埌 big corporations, suggests, Toshiba, Hitachi, に䞭囜を蚪問し関係修埩に努めた点を評䟡しおい 「䞭囜ずの関係改善は倧きな成果です。経枈界に Toyota and so on, their internal figure is る。 ずっおも倧倉いいニュヌスです」 ず語り、みずほコヌ 110. Now at current rates to the dollar, they ポレヌト銀行の新支店開蚭蚱可が䞋りたこずにも觊 are enjoying it, very very happy. れた。 これは䜕ヵ月も前から申請しおいたものである “These days we do not only have to take が、北京での安倍銖盞ず胡錊激Hu Jintao囜家䞻垭 care of the US government, but now Europe. ずの䌚談埌、僅か2週間で決たったずいう。 The euro price has been increasing and 日䞭関係改善の奜圱響は銀行の䞀支店の開蚭に留 they are unhappy, saying that the yen has たらない。䜐藀氏は「日䞭関係は倧きく改善したし become too weak. So we have to listen to た。䞭囜で展開しおいる倚くの日系䌁業もこの恩恵 the European countries. But more than that, を受けおいたす。以前は䞭囜の生産拠点をむンド、ビ for instance, Korean companies like Samsung ルマ曎にはマレヌシアに移すこずを真剣に考えおい and LG, they are producing electronic goods た䌁業もありたしたが、今ではこれを棚䞊げにしたし and they export to the US and compete with た。日䞭関係は将来も良奜だず思いたす。䞭囜は囜 内垂堎を日系䌁業にも開攟するずいう期埅を持っお Japanese companies, so the yen price has いたす」ず語っおいる。 been decreasing even against the Korean ただ、安倍銖盞が、14人のA 玚戊犯を含めた250侇 currency, so they are now complaining. So の戊没者を祀った靖囜神瀟を参拝した堎合は、状況 there are many enemies, the US, Europe and が䞀倉するこずも圓然あり埗る。䜐藀氏もそうなれば 4 even Asian companies.” WiA Delegate Publication

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Japan

日䞭の友奜な関係は「吹き飛んでしたう」 ず、 これに 同意しおいるが、安倍銖盞は䞭囜政府ずアゞア的な 解決に合意した、 ず刀断しおいる。 「安倍銖盞は靖囜 参拝はしない、 ずは蚀っおいたせん。 この問題に぀い おは䌚談で䜕も蚀及しおいない、 ず蚀っおいたす。裏 を返せば日䞭政府間で安倍銖盞は靖囜参拝をしな いずいうこずで合意があった、 ずいうこずです。銖盞が 靖囜神瀟を参拝するこずはあり埗たせん。私達はそ のように解釈しおいたす。䜕も意倖なこずはありたせ ん。安倍銖盞の靖囜参拝はないずいうこずです。靖囜 問題が日䞭関係に氎を差すこずはもうありたせん。 ア ゞア的な解決を芋たのです」

© Koichi Kamoshida / Getty Images

日本は䞀連の構造改革を進めたが、倚くの日本通が 指摘するように、米囜や英囜のような開攟された垂 堎にはなっおいない。 ずりわけ、サッチャヌ政暩時代 の英囜で起こったような産業の空掞化は政治家も産 業界も芋過ごすはずがない。

Sato: Abe will not go to Yasukuni [as did his predecessor, Koizumi]. It will NEVER happen.

Japan’s economic world of the 21st century is also very politically charged, as Sato admits. He is happy that new prime minister Shinzo Abe patched up relations with China by visiting Beijing within days of taking over. “The change in relationships has been substantial, and this has also been very good for business world like ourselves,” adds Sato, saying that his bank got permission to open a new branch, which it had been seeking for months, only a matter of two weeks after Abe shook President Hu Jintao’s hand in Beijing. The pleasant repercussions go beyond a single bank branch. “The relationship between China and Japan has been substantially improved,” continues Sato. “Many Japanese companies received this trend. Before that, some of them were seriously thinking of converting and moving factories from China to India, Burma and even Malaysia, but they stopped that. We are thinking that relationships between Japan and China will be good in the future. Now Japanese companies are expecting that the Chinese domestic market will open.” Of course, all could be risked if Abe visits the controversial Yasukuni Shrine where the spirits of 2.5 million Japanese war dead, including 14 convicted Class A war criminals, are enshrined. Then the good relationship will be “GONE,” agrees Sato, emphasising the word. But he thinks Abe has reached a good Asian solution with the Chinese. “Abe is not saying he will not go. He is saying he is not saying anything. This means there is an agreement between the Chinese government and the Japanese government that he will not go there. Definitely he will not go. We understand that. There is no big surprise here. He will not go to Yasukuni. It will NEVER happen. It is an Asian solution.” 78

囜は䟝然ずしお䜕かに぀けお介入し、それを明瀺 的なかたちで瀺す。むンドの埌発医薬品メヌカヌ、 Ranbaxy瀟の最高顧問兌取締圹副䌚長であるブラむ アン・テンペスト Brian Tempest氏は、 日本では政 府の政策、指導で倧手医薬品メヌカヌの合䜵が既に 実珟しおいるず指摘しおいる。テンペスト氏によるず、 日本政府がそのような産業の海倖移転、 たたは産業 内での倧量解雇を蚱すはずがないこずは明らかで ある。 日本では産業界、経枈界も補造業の保護ず雇甚の確 保に熱心である。自らは基瀎的な生産事業で䞭囜、 アゞアの安い劎働力ず土地を利甚しおも、自囜にお ける産業の空掞化ずいったような事態は蚱容できな いのである。生産拠点の海倖流出に関する詳しい情 報を知り埗る立堎にある、みずほコヌポレヌト銀行 の䜐藀氏は次のように語っおいる。 「業界によっお差 がありたす。゚レクトロニクスメヌカヌに぀いおは玄 30%から40%が䞭囜に生産拠点を移したした。䞭囜 事業の収益貢献床はこれより若干䜎くなっおいたす。 これに察し、自動車業界は遥かに䜎い氎準に留たっ おいたす。 ただかなりの補造業が日本に残っおいるず いうこずです」

Even after the first burst of economic reforms, Japan is not a free market along the lines of the US or UK, as most people who know Japan will tell you. In particular, neither at political nor at the industrial level, will the country allow the hollowing out of industry, as happened in Margaret Thatcher’s UK. The government’s intervening hand is still strong and is clearly visible. Brian Tempest, 「日本で補造業のスキルがどの皋床重芁芖されお chief mentor and executive vice chairman of いるかずいうこずを分かり易く説明したす。䟋えば、日 Ranbaxy, the Indian generic drugs maker, said 立に100人の技術者がいたずしたす。50人は日本に、 䞭囜に20人、米囜に10人、英囜に3人から5人、タむ that the mergers of Japan’s big drugs makers に5人配眮する、ずいう具合になるでしょう。補造業は was already occurring after the government 量ではなく質で勝負しなければなりたせん。日系䌁 had given its encouragement and advice. 業は生産拠点を䞭囜に移したずしおも、重芁な技術 Tempest said that for anyone who knew たでは移転せず囜内に留めおおきたす。䞖界最倧の Japan it was unimaginable to think that the 液晶パネルメヌカヌ、シャヌプがいい䟋です。同瀟は government would allow the loss of such an 非垞に重芁な技術は囜内に残しおおり、䞭囜にも移 転しおいたせん。 これがメヌカヌの生き残り手段で industry or even big job losses But industrialists and bankers are keenly す。䞀旊䞭囜に技術移転したすず、䞭囜人は同じ補品 を1幎以内に造りあげお䞖界䞭に茞出したす。技術は determined to protect plants and jobs in 日本に残しおおかなければならないのです。同時に Japan, let alone anything as radical as an 垞に新しい技術を産み出しお行かなければなりたせ industrial hollowing out, even as they take ん。日本にずっおは技術力が党おです」 advantage of cheaper labour and land in 䜐藀氏は「䞀郚の分野で米囜をリヌドしおいるナノ China and Asia for basic production. Sato テクノロゞヌ、ロボット、長寿呜化技術、生化孊等を of Mizuho is in a good position to estimate 有望な産業ず芋おいたす。日本のメヌカヌ、産業は the shift of production offshore, and he 20幎埌も盞圓の実力を備えおいるでしょう。これは自 says, “It depends on the industry. If you 信を持っお蚀えたす」ず語っおいる。 are talking about electronics manufacturers, しかし優秀な技術にも匱点がある。䜐藀氏はこのよ 「日本の技術は非垞に競争力があり they have shifted about 30-40 percent of うに考えおいる。 their production to China, and on a profit たす。これは日本にずっおは良くもあり悪くもある。消 basis it is a bit lower. If you are talking 費者が小型で、デザむンの優れたものを敢えお求め about the automobile industry, the figure is ないむンドず䞀郚の䞭東垂堎では、䞭囜メヌカヌが 倧量に補品を販売しおいたす。カメラにしろコンピュ much, much lower. There is still substantial ヌタにしろ、基本的な機胜さえ備えおいれば人々は manufacturing capacity in Japan. 倀段の安いものを求めるのです。補品がスマヌト、ビ “Let me put it this way in terms of [the ュヌティフル、コンパクトである必芁はなくベヌシッ importance of] manufacturing skill in Japan, クなマシンが求められおいるのです。こういう垂堎で take Hitachi, if Hitachi has 100 expertise, in は䞭囜メヌカヌに勝぀こずはできたせん」 Japan 50, China they have 20, in the US 10, 「トペタは珟地の垂堎に合わせた察応を考えおいた in the UK 5 or 3, in Thailand 5. When we す。高玚車のレクサスやハむブリッド車は非垞に人 talk about manufacturing, we should not 気がありたすが、これらの高機胜車皮は欧米で売っ argue about the volume, the quality is more おいたす。むンド、アフリカ垂堎では高玚車ではなく important. Even if the Japanese company 䜎䟡栌の小型車に泚力する、ずいう別の戊略が求め 4


Japanese economy

will transfer manufacturing capacity to China, they will not transfer the technology, but keep the important technology in this country. A good example is Sharp, which is the world’s biggest manufacturer of flat panel display screens, and they are keeping the very important key technology in this country, never transferring it to China. That is what we have to do. Once we transfer this technology to China, within one year they will make this same product and export it all over the world. We have to keep this technology in this country. We have to create much more updated technology. That is the only way we can survive.” He sees the key industries as “nanotechnology, robot technology, lifetime technology, biochemical technology, where we are heading US companies in certain areas. If we are talking 20 years from now on, Japanese manufacturers and industry will still have substantial power in the world, I can say with confidence.” Still, there is a downside, Sato thinks: “The technology in this country is really really strong. This is good for us but this is bad for us. Talking about India and some Middle Eastern markets, Chinese manufacturers are selling really huge numbers of products in these markets because they do not want to have the very tiny and beautiful products. They want to have the simple and cheap ones, like cameras or PC’s. They do not want to have smart and beautiful and compact ones. They want to have the machine itself. China is really strong in these things.

When we talk about manufacturing, we should not argue about the volume, the quality is more important “Toyota is thinking about these things. In the luxury Lexus or hybrid car they are very strong, but these cars are sold in the US or Europe with high level functions. They have to set up a strategy as to how to sell their cars into India and Africa – in which case, Toyota has to have a different idea to manufacture a small car, no luxury car, with cheap cost. This is the new challenge for Toyota. [Markets like Africa or China] don’t want to have Lexus or hybrid technology. They want a small car with good technology. Toyota so far does not have this kind of car, which is why Chinese or even Korean car will be exporting to these countries. If Toyota can succeed in manufacturing a small car with good technology, cheap, then Toyota is going to be the really number 1 car manufacturer in the world.” In 2007 as a sign of the times, Toyota Motor will almost certainly overtake General Motors as the world’s biggest vehicle making company. This is in terms of car sales, where Toyota expects to sell a record 9.34 million vehicles, a 6 percent rise. General Motors sold 9.2 million in 2006, and expects 2007

sales in the US, by far its biggest market, to be flat. In profits, Toyota long ago passed the US carmakers and is sometimes known as Toyota Bank because of a run in record profits, which will probably be around $13 billion in the 2006-07 year. Even after more than five years of growth, Japan was desperately turning to unlikely quarters for a boost to the economy. Some economists and businesses have high hopes of the dankai no sedai, which literally means big group generation, but which has come to be used for the baby boomers. Some economists say it refers only to people born in 1947 to 1949, although others extend the generation to 1955. There are up to seven million of them with $2 trillion in their savings accounts, and they begin to retire in 2007, with bonuses and severance pay totalling another $500 billion for the ones retiring between 2007 and 2009. They all have their houses paid for and their children have left home. They have pensions sufficient to live comfortably on in retirement, so the question is what they will do with the windfall, “probably not put it in a bank account paying a rate of interest with more zeros than a kamikaze squadron or leave it to their 1.2 grandchildren,” joked one magazine columnist. Some economists predict a 0.5 percent annual boost from baby boomer spending alone. Sato predicts they will splash out on new Lexus cars and giant flat screen televisions, although if they are too big they will not fit into tiny Japanese homes. But the optimists may be wrong, according to some of the popular Japanese magazines, which have asked the intentions of the imminent retirees: the favourite prospects for retirement include taking ukulele lessons or practicing hula dancing or going on round the world tours or retiring to Hawaii or Sarawak (Thailand has gone out of favour since the recent unrest and political uncertainty). None of these will do much for the Japanese economy. The favoured parts of the world might be happier, but these are not the shinjinrui (new generation people). Those are a generation later and chose to have fun, marry late, and not care about having children. The baby boomers are the last of the conservatives who have a reputation for scrimping and saving rather than spending. There is a serious point here with big implications for Japan. The retirement of the dankai no sedai is a milestone in the greying of Japan. In 1990, one in eight Japanese was aged 65 or over, the highest proportion in the world. By 2025, it is likely to be one in four, and by 2050, four in every 10. For a government that already has a pile of debts that amounts to 170 percent of GDP, the highest in the world, it presents an uncomfortable prospect. That is why Shinzo Abe and his colleagues should be thinking ahead of how to manage a Japan with fewer people and more old folks, rather than harking back to the past for their ideas of a beautiful Japan. g

られたす。 これはトペタにずっおの新しいチャレンゞ です。[アフリカや䞭囜の垂堎は]レクサスやハむブリ ッド車を求めおいたせん。そこそこの技術の小型車 で充分です。 トペタはこれたでこうした垂堎で求めら れおいる車皮を生産しおいないので、䞭囜車、 さらに は韓囜車が茞出を䌞ばすでしょう。 トペタが優れた性 胜の小型車を䜎䟡栌で投入できるようになれば、真 に䞖界でナンバヌワンの自動車メヌカヌずなるこず でしょう」。 これが䜐藀氏の芋解である。 時 代 の すう勢 に 合 わ せお、2 0 0 7 幎 に はトペタが General Motors瀟を䞊回り䞖界䞀のメヌカヌになる のはほが確実である。販売台数に関しお、 トペタの販 売台数は前幎を6%䞊回る934䞇台に達する芋蟌み である。General Motors瀟の2006幎の販売台数は 920䞇台で、2007幎は同瀟の最倧の垂堎である米囜 での実瞟が前幎䞊みに留たる芋蟌みである。 トペタ は利益では米囜のメヌカヌを遥か前に抜き去っお 史䞊最高益を曎新しおいるこずからトペタバンクず呌 ばれるこずもあり、2006-07幎は玄130億ドルの利益 を蚈䞊するず芋られおいる。 経枈成長が5幎以䞊続いたものの、日本では今埌の 発展のために、珍しいものに望みを掛けおいる。゚ コノミストや実業界の䞭には団塊の䞖代、即ちベビ ヌブヌマヌに倧きな期埅を寄せる向きもある。団塊 の䞖代を1947幎から1949幎に生たれた䞖代に限定 する゚コノミストがいるが、1955幎たでに生たれた 䞖代を含める堎合もある。 この䞖代の人口は700侇 人にのがり、貯蓄総額は2兆ドルに達する。これに 2007幎から2009幎に定幎退職を迎える人達のボ ヌナス、退職金の5000億ドルが加わる。䜏宅ロヌン を党お払い終わり、子䟛達は家を出た䞖代である。 定幎退職埌は豊かな生掻を送れるだけの幎金もあ る。 この䜙裕のある䞖代は蓄えをどうするのであろう か某雑誌のコラムには「神颚特攻隊よりれロの数 が倚い金利しか付かないのに銀行に預けおおいた り、1.2人の孫に残すずいうこずはおそらくないだろ う」 ず冗談っぜく曞かれおいるが。 ベビヌブヌマヌの消費だけで成長率が0.5%抌し䞊 げられるずいう予想もある。䜐藀氏は新型レクサス や倧型液晶テレビが売れるず芋おいる。ただ、あたり 倧き過ぎるテレビは日本の狭い家には収たらないか もしれないが。 しかし、 こうした楜芳的なシナリオ通りにならない可 胜性もある。 ずいうのは、䞀郚の有力な雑誌が定幎 を間近に控えた人達を察象にした定幎退職埌にど のような生掻を望むかずいう質問には、 りクレレのレ ッスンを受けたい、 フラダンスを習いたい、あるいは 䞖界䞀呚のツアヌに参加したい、ハワむたたはサラ ワクで過ごしたい、 ずいった回答が寄せられおいる のである(タむは最近の政情䞍安から人気が䜎䞋し た)。 これではほずんど日本経枈に貢献しない。ハワむ やサラワクにずっおはいい話しかも知れないが、圌ら は自分達の楜しみを優先する、晩婚で、子䟛のこずは 心配しないずいう新人類ではない。新人類は次の䞖 代である。ベビヌブヌマヌは消費するよりは質玠な 生掻を奜む、最埌の保守的な䞖代である。 ここに日本経枈にずっお深刻な問題が朜んでいる。 団塊の䞖代の定幎退職は日本瀟䌚の高霢化の本栌 化を意味する。1990幎の時点で既に日本人の8人に 1人は65歳以䞊で、䞖界で最も高霢化が進んでいた が、2025幎にはこれが4人に1人、2050幎には10人に 4人の割合に増える。 この急速な高霢化を前に、囜内 総生産の170%ずいう䞖界最倧の財政赀字を抱える 日本は安閑ずしおはいられないのである。安倍銖盞 はじめ政府関係者は、矎しい囜造りなどずいう郷愁 を誘うような理念を掲げおいる堎合ではなく、少子 高霢化瀟䌚をどう切り盛りしお行くのかを今のうちに 真剣に考えなければならないのである。■

WiA Delegate Publication

79


Focus on finance

モビりス ― 安息なき新興囜 垂堎のカリスマ 1997幎、マヌク・モビりス Mark Mobius 氏は投資ファンドで140億ドルを運甚しおい た。 そしおアゞア金融危機の勃発。通貚は混 乱に陥り 

© Rafoto

株匏垂堎は䞋萜しお、モビりス氏が運甚す る投資の時䟡額は100億米ドルにたで枛 少。カリスマを気取っおいたモビりスもこ れで終わりだず䞀郚でささやかれた。第䞀 人者ずしお君臚しおいたずはいえ、あれほど の読み違いをした以䞊、その座を远われる のは圓然だずいうわけである。60歳を越え、 確かに匕退の朮時であった。

Mobius, restless guru of emerging markets Mark Mobius was in charge of $14 billion in investment funds back in 1997. Then came the Asian financial crisis that sent currencies into turmoil....

W

ith stock markets sinking, Mobius found that the value of the investments in his hands had plummeted to US$10 billion. Some critics crowed that the high profile, high-flying Mobius was finished. After all, they said, a guru who got it so badly wrong should be toppled from his throne and put out to grass. At 60 plus, it was surely time for him to retire. Today, at the age of 70, Mobius has the answer to his critics. The value of the investments he manages as chief investment officer of Templeton Asset Management is $32 billion and he also looks after another $3 billion in Indian dedicated funds. Early in 2007, he is still bullish about emerging markets, especially the major Asian markets, even though some pundits were pulling out two years ago fearing that the great bull run must be coming to an end. “Some of my colleagues in the industry two years ago were saying, ‘it’s over and we are not accepting any more money from our investors.’ So you can see what they missed,” says Mobius in a matter of fact way. 80

He acknowledges that the bull market has been strong and long and that global growth is under pressure. But he points out that the economies of major emerging markets like China and India are growing strongly and the fundamentals, valuations, price-earnings ratios, price to book value, yields, are still good and there are still cheap stocks ready for picking. He is optimistic that a number of leading governments are putting in place policies that will create a virtuous circle of growth and prosperity fuelling still more growth, all of which is good for stock markets. Mobius is still literally flying high using the Gulfstream jet that used to belong to the jeweller to the King of Saudi Arabia. By stripping out the fittings and reducing the weight, Mobius jokes, “we got 15 minutes extra flying time.” He often needs it because his regular schedule includes Latin America, Russia and South Africa, as well as all points in Asia. He wistfully says that sometimes he prefers flying on commercial aircraft since

そしお今、70歳になったモビりス氏が批刀 にたじろぐこずはない。Templeton Asset Management瀟の最高投資責任者CIO ず しお同氏が管理する投資の時䟡額は320億 ドルに達し、むンドの特定目的ファンドでさ らに30億ドルを運甚しおいる。 2007幎に入っおも、同氏は新興囜垂堎、 ずく に䞻芁アゞア垂堎に関しお匷気の芋方を厩 しおいない。 しかし、䞀郚の専門家は、匷い 䞊げ盞堎が終わりに近づいおいるのは確実 ずの芋方から、2幎前に撀退し始めおいる。 「 2幎前には 『もう終わりだ。 これ以䞊投資家の 委蚗は受けない』 ずいう同業者もいたした。 そのためにどれほど損をしたかはご芧のず おり」 ずモビりス氏は率盎に語っおいる。 匷気垂堎は勢いを倱っおおらず、䞖界成長 は圧力䞋にあるずいうのが同氏の芋方であ る。その䞀方でモビりス氏は、䞭囜やむンド のような䞻芁゚マヌゞング垂堎の経枈は 堅調に成長しおおり、ファンダメンタルズ、 バリュ゚ヌション、株䟡収益率、株䟡玔資産 倍率、利回りなどは䟝然ずしお奜調で、割安 銘柄には事欠かないず指摘する。 たた、成長ず繁栄の奜埪環を生み出しお成 長をさらに刺激するような政策を䞻芁囜政 府の倚くが導入し぀぀あり、そのすべおが 株匏垂堎にずっお奜たしいずいう楜芳的な 芋方をしおいる。 カリスマ に ふさわしく、モビりス氏 は か ぀おサりゞアラビア囜王が所有しおいた Gulfstream瀟のビゞネスゞェットで飛び回 っおいる。備品をはぎ取っお機䜓を軜くし たために「飛行時間が15分䌞びた」 ず冗談 たじりに語っおいるが、定期的な出匵先に 䞭南米、ロシア、南アフリカ、 さらにはアゞア の䞻芁囜すべおが含たれおいるため、それ が必芁になるこずも少なくない。 4


Mobius

switching to cash, “because when people give you money, assuming that you are not a fortune teller, you have to get it invested, even though the market has gone up by 200 percent, provided the valuations are there and there is some value and that you are not buying some crazy stuff that is selling at very unusual multiples. “The best example of that was during the dotcom boom when the measure of the viability of the company was its socalled burn rate, that is, how fast it was burning money, that was supposed to be a good sign.

たたには航空䌚瀟の飛行機を利甚したい のだず真顔で語るモビりス氏。そうすれば、 仕事に取りかかる前に食事をしお、映画を 芳お、 リラックスするこずができる。ビゞネス ゞェットには、乗客に手厚くサヌビスしおく れるフラむトアテンダントは同乗しおいな い。 ずはいえ、プラむベヌトゞェットには民 間航空機にはない柔軟さがある。最近、プ ラむベヌトゞェットでベトナムから銙枯に 飛んだずき、航空䌚瀟を利甚した同僚より も早く到着したそうである。 おなじみのきれいに犿げ䞊がった頭。数幎 前ず比べるず、顔の染みがいくらか増え、発 蚀はより慎重になり、機関銃の連射䞊であ ったスピヌドも和らいでいる。 しかし、寄る 幎波ずいう蚀葉ずは無瞁のごずく、モビりス 氏はトレヌニングゞムの゚アロバむクから 本物の自転車に乗り換え、䌑暇にはベトナ ムでツヌリングを楜しんだ。

Mobius acknowledges that the bull market has been strong and long and that global growth is under pressure

再び台湟に飛び立぀前に、1997幎以降の 教蚓に぀いおたずねた。 「孊んだ教蚓のひ ず぀は、゚マヌゞング垂堎では匷気垂堎が 匱気垂堎よりも長く続くずいうこず」 ずモビ りス氏は語る。 「比率で蚀えば、匱気垂堎が 䞋降するよりも匷気垂堎の䞊昇の方が倧き い。 この教蚓を繰返し肝に銘じおおかなけ ればなりたせん。投資家もたた孊び盎す必 芁がありたす。ファンドが奜調で垂堎が高 倀のずきに資金を預け、萜ち蟌んだずきに 資金を匕き揚げるずいうのがよくあるパタ ヌンだからです」

“When you get into that kind of crazy analysis, you know that it is time to exit. But generally speaking, we are likely to be fully invested, provided that we can find reasonable markets. So the lesson is to stay invested and invest more when the markets are down because of the tremendous growth of emerging markets which have seen double the rate of growth rates of the developed country markets - and they are accelerating. That is the interesting and exciting thing that is happening now, we are seeing accelerating growth, particularly in the largest countries like China and India.” With the advantage of having reclaimed his throne as the guru of emerging markets,

モビりス氏は叀い栌蚀を繰り返す。 「 䞋萜 時は買いの奜機。売りではなく買い。䞊昇 時は䞊げ盞堎で売りず心埗よ」 もちろん、 これは投資家も心しおおくべきア ドバむスである。 しかし、䜕十億も運甚しお いるモビりス氏のようなファンド・マネゞャ ヌにずっお、党郚売っおキャッシュに換える ずいうような安易な莅沢は蚱されない。 「 資金を預けられた以䞊、未来が芋通せる占 い垫でもないかぎり、たずえ垂堎がすでに 200䞊昇しおいたずしおも、それを投資し なければならない」からである。 「ただし、バ リュ゚ヌションが存圚しお、倚少のバリュヌ があるこず、売りが殺到しおいるクズに手を 出さないこずが前提になる。

© South China Morning Post / Corbis Sygma

there is time to eat, watch a film and unwind before getting down to work - there are no flights attendants on the Gulfstream to pamper the passengers. But the private jet affords flexibility that commercial airlines don’t. Recently he flew in to Hong Kong from Vietnam on the Gulfstream ahead of a colleague who had set off earlier on a commercial flight. Still as bald as an egg, his face bears a few more blotches and his speech and opinions are more measured and less rapid machine gun fire than I remember from a few years back. But he energetically tries to keep the years at bay and he moved from a regular exercise bike in the gym to a real bicycle tour of Vietnam over the holidays. Before jetting off again to Taiwan, he reflects on some of the lessons of 1997 and afterwards. He says: “One of the lessons we learned is that in emerging markets bull markets last longer than bear markets. Bull markets go up in percentage terms more than bear markets go down. This is a lesson that we have to continuously re-learn and our investors have to re-learn - since there is a tendency for people to give us money when we are up and the markets are high and take money away when it is at the low point.” Mobius repeats an old adage: “The lesson is that when things are down, it is a great time to buy, and you should be buying, not selling, and when things are up, you should be willing to sell into strength.” That is sound advice for the investor, of course. However, a fund manager like Mobius looking after billions does not have the easy luxury of selling everything and

In 1997, Mobius found that the value of the investments in his hands had plummeted to US$10 billion.

「その最たる䟋がドットコム・ブヌムのずき でした。䌁業の存続力のバロメヌタヌがい わゆるバヌンレヌトだった時代です。お金 を燃やす速さを競い、それが評䟡ポむント になっおいたした。 こういった類の垞軌を逞 した分析がはびこり始めたら、もう匕き時 だず分かりたす。 しかし、䞀般的に蚀えば、 フ ァンドにずっおはフル・むンベストメントが 原則。ただし、合理的な垂堎を芋出せるこず が条件です。そこで孊んだのは、垂堎が萜 ち蟌んだずきにステむ・むンベステッド、も 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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Mobius makes a partial defence of his investments in 1997: “Interestingly enough, we were calling it in the sense that we were finding that stocks were getting expensive in 1997 and we were reducing our purchases and increasing our sales of securities. So I think that that says something about the methodology we use. Sure, with hindsight, it would have been great if we had been 50 percent in cash or 100 percent in cash, but there is no way anyone would reach that, but we were increasing our cash levels at that time. Of course, the most that a fund manager of the size of funds we manage, could be invested in cash would be 15-20 percent.” As of early 2007, adds Mobius, “We are now fully invested. We can still find opportunities. The other lesson of course is to be diversified. That is a lesson which we knew from the beginning. You have to be diversified globally. We had done a number of studies that showed that no one market is the best -performing year after year. In fact in the last 20 years there are only two markets that were best-performing in the 20 year periods. Hong Kong was one and I think Russia was the other. “This tells you that you cannot stay in one place. You have got to be diversified.” Of the money he manages, about 40 percent is invested in Asia, with the rest spread between Eastern Europe, Russia, South Africa and Latin America. Within Asia, Mobius says, Korea is the biggest market, followed by Greater China, meaning China and Hong Kong, Thailand and India.

“We are reducing weight in India because it has got very expensive,” he notes. “India is a great market, but we cannot justify some of these companies that are selling at 30 or 40 times earnings. There are some exceptions like oil companies, which in India are unusual. In India if oil prices go up, oil company prices go down and vice versa because there is a subsidy. So the Indian oil companies are a hedge against oil prices.”

っず投資するずいうこず。゚マヌゞング垂堎 の成長は驚異的で、先進囜垂堎の成長率 の2倍。それがさらに加速しおいたす。そん な面癜い゚キサむティングな状況が今起き おいたす。 ずくに䞭囜やむンドのような巚倧 囜家で成長が加速しおいるのです」 新興囜垂堎のカリスマの座を取り戻したモ ビりス氏は、1997幎圓時の投資運甚に぀ いおも倱地回埩を図っおいる。 「興味深い経隓ずしお、芋えおはいたずい うか、1997幎に株䟡が高くなりすぎおいた ので有䟡蚌刞の買い入れを枛らし、売华を 増やしおいたわけです。そのこずがファンド の方法論に぀いお䜕かヒントになるような 気もしたす。実際、あずから考えおみれば、 50ずか100をキャッシュにしおおけば よかったのですが、誰であれ、そこたでは無 理ずいうもの。それでも圓時、わが瀟はキャ ッシュ・レベルを埐々に䞊げおいたした。も ちろん、わが瀟が管理するような芏暡のフ ァンド・マネゞャヌがキャッシュで運甚でき るのは、せいぜい1520でしょう」

North Korea is part of Korea and eventually the two will be reunited, and when that happens the per capita income of Korea will nosedive How does he justify still counting Korea as an emerging market when it is a member of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, the club of rich industrial nations? He says: “I look at it this way, North Korea is part of Korea and eventually the two will be reunited, and when that happens the per capita income of Korea will nosedive.” In spite of the coup in Thailand, Mobius retains faith in the country: “We are not running away; we are adding. I lived in Thailand for a while and discovered that the Thais above all are a very practical people. They are quite fair and flexible, as you can see from the way that the central

2007幎始めの時点で、 「今はフル・むンベス トメント」だずいうモビりス氏。 「もっずチャ ンスを芋出すこずができたす。もう぀の 教蚓は、いうたでもなく、分散ずいうこず。 こ れは投資の基本ずもいえる教蚓です。 グロ ヌバルに分散させなければならない。数倚 くの調査を実斜しお分かったのは、䜕幎も 持続する優良垂堎など存圚しないずいうこ ずです。実際、過去20幎を振り返っお、その 間ずっず優良であり続けた垂堎は぀しか ありたせん。぀は銙枯、私の考えでは、も う぀はロシアです。 このこずから分かるよ うに、カ所にずどたっおいおはいけたせ ん。分散が必芁だずいうこずです」

© Chris Stowers / Panos Pictures

モビりス氏が運甚する資金の40はアゞ アに投資されおおり、残りの投資先は東欧、 ロシア、南アフリカ、䞭南米に分散しおい る。モビりス氏によれば、 アゞアでは韓囜が 最倧の垂堎で、䞭華圏䞭囜ず銙枯、 タむ、 むンドがそれに続く。

Mobius: In India if oil prices go up, oil company prices go down and vice versa because there is a subsidy.

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「今はむンドの比重を䞋げおいたす。高倀 になりすぎたためです」 ず同氏は説明する。 「むンドは玠晎らしい垂堎ですが、株䟡が 収益の30倍から40倍ずいうような䞀郚の䌁 業には劥圓性が認められたせん。石油䌚瀟 のような䟋倖もありたすが、 これはむンドで は特別な存圚です。むンドでは、石油䟡栌 が䞊がるず石油䌚瀟の株䟡が䞋がり、その 逆も同様。政府の補助金があるからです。 ぀たり、むンドの石油䌚瀟は石油䟡栌に察 するヘッゞになるずいうわけです」 豊かな先進工業囜からなる経枈協力開発 機構OECDOrganization for Economic Cooperation and Developmentの加盟 4


© Chen Hai Wen / CTP / Redlink

Mobius

Mobius believes that China’s education system is superior.

bank changed its mind quite quickly, making concessions to its policy that foreign investors would have to keep 30 percent of their funds locked up for a year when the bank realised the outcry and the potential damage it would do to the stock market.” As to why Thailand is attractive, Mobius says: “It is a combination of things. The stocks are reasonably priced, bargain territory. The managements of these companies are rather good. And the productivity is quite high. We have investments in a few electronics firms and they are doing very well, well run, Thai workers are very good, and there is quite a difference in productivity between Thai workers or Philippine or Malaysia, so you get better results, and that is why companies go there.” China, of course, is the Asian land of so many opportunities, and Mobius is still impressed by the potential, declaring, “The thing about China is that it is a blank sheet of paper. There is so much to be done. We have an investment in China Gas and they were worrying about dividends and I said, ‘Don’t worry about dividends; Sign up as many cities as you can to supply gas. Once you have a city signed up, then you have the opportunities. There are so many opportunities like that in so many different fields. It is a huge country and there is so much to be done that I am so excited. You name the area, there is the potential.” China, he admits, still lags in one essential area: “The single most important differential factor between emerging markets and the developed countries is the law and the rule of law. China is still struggling with that. In commercial areas it is much easier for them to reform than in political areas, so they have made an awful lot of progress, but yes, there are still challenges to ensure that there is the rule of law in commerce and trade. Quite a lot of progress has come about as a result of China’s membership of the WTO.”

Mobius is less concerned than others about the possible damage of freeing the 囜である韓囜を未だに新興囜垂堎ず芋な renminbi, which would then rise. The rulers す理由に぀いお、モビりス氏は次のように 「私の芋方によれば、北朝鮮は in Beijing, he suggests, should be more self- 語っおいる。 confident. “It is amazing what they have done 韓囜の䞀郚であっお、最終的には統䞀され with the economy,” he comments, “very well る。そうなったずきに韓囜の囜民1人圓たり done. They have adopted the best ideas の所埗は飛躍的に䌞びたす」 from all over the world and they have done it in a very systematic and controlled way. It 囜内でクヌデタヌが起きたにもかかわら is quite remarkable. The problem with the ず、モビりス氏のタむぞの信頌は倉わらな 「 逃げ出すどころか、远加しおいるずこ export business is the currency level. They い。 should have allowed the currency to move, ろです。私はタむにしばらく䜏んでいお、囜 to encourage their exporters to move into 民性が非垞にプラクティカルであるずいう ずおも公平で柔軟 higher value added products. They are now こずを特に感じたした。 producing some very high-tech products and 性があり、䞭倮銀行の方針転換の速さにも increasingly you are going to see that. One それが衚れおいたす。倖囜の投資家は所有 of the reasons why their imports from Japan ファンドの30を1幎間凍結しなければな and Korea are so large is precisely that. They らないずいう方針に぀いお、非難を受け止 are importing hi-tech equipment that allows め、株匏垂堎に損害を及がしかねないこず them to make products of better quality and を認識し、ただちに譲歩したのです」 lower cost and with lower labour input. Renminbi appreciation would accelerate タむが魅力的な理由に぀いお、モビりス氏 ず説明 that process. However, I can understand the は「いく぀かが組み合わさったもの」 「株䟡は合理的な氎準にあっお、割安 government’s fear that it might create too する。 much labour unrest.” 株が豊富。それらの䌁業の経営は思う以䞊 As to the comparison between China and に良奜。生産性はきわめお高い。゚レクトロ India that every other person seems to be ニクス䌁業数瀟に投資しおいたすが、非垞 making, Mobius comes down on China’s side に業瞟が良く、経営も問題ありたせん。 ã‚¿ã‚€ because of its efficiency. He says that, “Both の劎働者は優秀で、タむ、フィリピン、マレ are big countries with huge populations ヌシアず比べたずきに、その生産性の違い to provide tremendous opportunities for は非垞に倧きく、それがより良い結果をも consumer products, so there are many たらしたす。䌁業がタむに進出するのはそ many opportunities for them to be very のためです」 big consumer markets. The difference between China and India is that China is もちろん、䞭囜は倚くのビゞネスチャンス very controlled with a single government があるアゞアの倧囜である。モビりス氏は、 over the whole country and thereby they 今でもその朜圚力を高く評䟡し、 「䞭囜ずい can force implementation of policy from the うのは、いわば癜玙の状態」 ず衚珟しおいる。 centre, admittedly with some flexibility, but 「手぀かずのずころが非垞に倚い。投資先 it is very difficult for an individual province の぀であるChina Gas瀟では、配圓に぀ to oppose. Whereas in the case of India いお心配しおいたので、 『配圓のこずなど気 the individual states have a great deal of にするな。できるだけ倚くの郜垂ずガス䟛 leeway to oppose strictures from the central 絊の契玄を結べばいい』 ずアドバむスした government and that creates a great deal of した。぀の郜垂ず契玄を結べば、そこで problems in creating a market.” ビゞネスチャンスを぀かめたす。そのよう In addition, he believes that China’s education system is superior since there are な機䌚があちこちにころがっおいるわけで common standards for the whole country す。巚倧な囜ですから、手぀かずのずころが and education is in the same written 非垞に倚く、たさに腕が鳎るずいう感じで どの分野でもいい。 どこにでも将来性が language and with Putonghua increasingly す。 ありたす」 becoming the common spoken language for the whole country. On the other hand, India モビりス氏も認めおいるように、䞭囜には has different state governments, different 基本的な分野での遅れがある。 「新興囜垂 languages and is still riven by caste issues. 堎ず先進囜の違いずしお真っ先に取り䞊げ India also, he suggests, needs to take lessons from China in infrastructure, which られるべきものが法埋および法の支配ずい has benefited from privatisation. India, うこずです。䞭囜は、ただこの問題から脱华 he adds, needs “very strong reforms in できおいたせん。商業分野の改革は政治分 the central government to implement a 野よりもはるかに容易で、飛躍的な前進を clear federal system with clear lines and 遂げおいたすが、通商分野に぀いお、法の strong implemenation of national projects, 支配を確立するために解決すべき難題が highways, railroads etc, so that money does 残っおいるのは事実です。䞭囜の䞖界貿易 not get frittered away. Things get done in 機関WTOWorld Trade Organization 加盟は数々の進展をもたらしたした」 China more quickly and effectively.” 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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Focus on finance It is clear that Mobius is not a great believer in India’s democratic advantage. He admits, “I am not so keen on populist democracies because they create chaos in many cases. On the other hand, I am not in favour of dictatorships. I would say I prefer benevolent dictatorships.” But he then concedes that it is a legitimate question as to whether benevolence can be a selfsustaining characteristic of any dictatorship. He continues: “Singapore is a model, which has proved so far, so good.” He sympathises with nationalism, but cautions, “Nationalism is fine, but use it in a proper way, allowing foreigners to come in to exploit and turn assets to productive use. This is a competitive world and there is no way that they can hide or get away from that, so the right thing is to prepare for it.”

The market economy theory has been implemented by governments around the world He cites the vital catalytic role that foreign investment can play, using Taiwan as an example: “Ironically, the foreign investors provide an example to the local investors, and we have seen that in Taiwan. As a result of a lot of investors coming into hi-tech areas allowed that technology to be transferred to Taiwanese, who are now competing globally. “A company like Acer is a good example of that. They learned how to produce, market and do research from foreign investors. Globally, the market economy theory has been implemented by governments around the world. They realise that the market economic model is very good. The second thing that has happened is that they realise that if they want to implement their objectives properly, they need investment, they need capital, and they want to move at a pace they would like, they have to get extra capital from outside their country. “So it becomes somewhat of a contest between countries to attract capital. To win they need to put in place policies that make capital feel safe. At the top of that there is the rule of law. That development that is happening round the world, the global economy, call it globalisation if you like, whatever you will, that has driven the growth, this adoption of a market economic model and the contest for capital. That is going to continue for some time - because it works. The end of ideology has been caused by this development.” g 84

人民元が自由化によっお䞊昇した堎合に打 私はポピュリズム民䞻䞻矩の信奉者ではあ 撃を受けるのではないかずいう倚くの芋方 りたせん。倚くの堎合、それが混乱のもずだ に察し、モビりス氏はその問題をさほど憂慮 からです。だからずいっお、独裁䜓制を支持 しおいない。䞭囜の指導者はもっず自信をも するわけでもありたせん。私が奜適ず考え っおいるずいうのが同氏の掚察である。 「経 るのは、高埳な独裁䜓制ずいうべきもので 枈に関する䞭囜政府のお手䞊みは芋事で玠 す」。そう語りながらも、同氏は、高埳さが独 晎らしい実瞟を䞊げおいたす。䞖界䞭の先 裁䜓制それ自䜓の特質ずしお持続しえるか 䟋ず比べお最善のプランを遞択したす。それ ずいう問題があるこずを認めおいる。さらに を非垞にシステマティックに、 うたくコントロ モビりス氏は、 「その぀のモデルがシンガ ヌルしながら進めおきたした。 たさに驚異的 ポヌルです。 これたでの実瞟は申し分ない」 です。茞出ビゞネスに぀いおの問題は通貚 ず評䟡する。 氎準です。通貚を倉動可胜にしお、囜内の茞 出業者がより付加䟡倀の高い補品を手掛け 同氏は囜家䞻矩に共感を瀺すず同時に、次 「囜家䞻矩は肯定し るように促すべきでした。今の䞭囜は高床 のように譊告しおいる。 たす。 ただし、 そのやり方が問題です。 倖囜 なハむテク補品を生産しおおり、䞖界の認識 人を受け入れお資産の生産的な掻甚を認 も倉わり぀぀ありたす。 日本や韓囜からの茞 この競争的な䞖界に 入が非垞に倚い理由の぀がたさにこれで めるようにしなければ。 あっお、 どの囜もそこから隠れたり、 逃げたり す。 より高品質で䜎䟡栌の補品をより少ない するこずはできたせん。 倧事なのは、 それに 劎働投入量で補造するために、ハむテク機 備えるこずです」 噚を茞入しおいるのです。人民元の䞊昇は、 そのプロセスを加速させるこずになりたす。 同氏は台湟を䟋に挙げ、倖囜からの投資が ずはいえ、それに䌎う劎働䞍安の過剰な高 果たす觊媒的圹割の重芁性にも觊れおいる。 たりを政府が恐れおいるのは理解できたす」 「皮肉にも、倖囜の投資家が囜内の投資家

必ず持ち出される䞭囜ずむンドの比范に぀ に手本を瀺すこずになりたす。実際にそうな いお、モビりス氏は胜率のよさを理由に䞭 っおいるのが台湟です。倚くの投資家がハ 囜有利ず芋おいる。 「どちらも倧囜で巚倧な むテク分野に参入し、その技術を台湟に移 人口を抱え、消費者補品に関しおありあた 転できるようにした結果、今では台湟が䞖 るほどのビゞネスチャンスがありたす。぀た 界的な競争力を埗おいたす。Acer瀟のよう り、䞡囜が非垞に倧きな消費者垂堎になる な䌁業がその奜䟋です。生産、マヌケティン リサヌチの方法をAcer瀟は倖囜の投資 機䌚がいくらでもあるずいうこずです。䞭囜 グ、 家から孊んだのです。 グロヌバルな動きずし ずむンドの違いずしお、䞭囜は単䞀政府で囜 おは、 垂堎経枈論を䞖界䞭の政府が導入し 党䜓をうたく統治しおおり、政策の実斜に関 これは垂堎経枈モデルがすぐれ しお䞭倮が匷制力をもっおいたす。倚少の おいたす。 おいるずいう認識があるからこそです。 もう 柔軟性はあるにしおも、個別の省が反察す ぀の倉化ずしお、 目暙を十分に達成した るこずは䞍可胜に近い。むンドの堎合は、各 州に倧きな自由裁量があり、䞭倮政府の芏 ければ、投資が必芁であり資本が必芁だず 制に反察するこずができたす。それが垂堎創 いうこず、実珟のペヌスを速めたければ、囜 倖からさらに倚くの資本を調達しなければ 出の倧きな問題ずなっおいたす」 ならないずいうこずが理解されおきおいた たた、䞭囜の教育システムは優秀だずいう す。その結果、各囜間で倚少なりずも資本の のがモビりス氏の考えである。党囜レベル 争奪戊が生じるこずになりたす。 これに勝぀ で共通基準が定められおおり、同じ曞き蚀 ためには、資本を安心させる政策を敎備す 葉で教育がなされ、プヌトンファ 普通話 る必芁がありたす。その最䞊䜍に䜍眮する が党囜共通の話し蚀葉になり぀぀あるずい のが法の支配です。 このような動きが䞖界 うのがその理由である。䞀方、むンドには耇 䞭で進行しおいる、それが䞖界経枈です。 グ 数の州政府があっお、蚀語が異なり、䟝然ず ロヌバル化ず蚀っおもいいでしょう。呌び方 しおカヌストの問題に悩たされおいる。 はずもあれ、それが成長の原動力になっお いたす。垂堎経枈モデルの採甚、そしお資本 むンフラに関しおも、䞭囜では民営化によっ の争奪戊です。 しばらくはこの状況が続きそ お成果を䞊げおおり、むンドはそこから孊ぶ うです。 うたくいっおいる以䞊は。 このような 必芁があるずモビりス氏は蚀う。さらに、む 進展がむデオロギヌの終焉をもたらしおい ンドは「䞭倮政府の匷力な改革」を通じお「 るのです」■ 明確な連邊制を導入し、お金が無駄に䜿わ れるこずがないよう、囜家プロゞェクト、高速 道路、鉄道などを明確な方針に基づいお匷 力に掚進するこず」が必芁だず提蚀しおいる。 「䞭囜では、物事がもっず迅速に効率よく凊 理されたす」 モビりス氏がむンドの民䞻䜓制をずくにプ ラスず考えおいないこずは明らかである。 「


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䞭囜䌁業の䞊堎 は銙枯に軍配が 䞊がる

© Mike Kemp / Corbis

銙枯蚌刞取匕所のハンセン指数は2006幎 に新高倀を付けた。䌁業の新芏株匏公開に よる資金調達額もロンドンには及ばなかっ たが、巚倧なニュヌペヌク垂堎を䞊回り䞖 界第の芏暡ずなった。

Hong Kong, China’s stock market of choice Hong Kong set a new record in 2006: it was the second biggest market in the world for companies seeking to raise funds through initial public offerings, and it came ahead of mighty New York, but it could not beat London as the global market of choice.

T

he publication of the figures – showing that the New York market had raised $33.6 billion and Hong Kong HK$342.2 billion, or $44 billion, but London had still come top with IPOs worth $48.9 billion – produced at least two cheers in the financial centre of the city, which has been a Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China since the UK relinquished control over its colony in mid-1997. More thoughtful members of the government joined a few cynics in saying that there were special circumstances and that Hong Kong has a long way to go before it can aspire to be in the same global IPO league as London or New York. David Li Kwok-po, chairman of Bank of East Asia, a member of Hong Kong’s legislative council (legco) for the finance constituency, and convenor of a government focus group on financial services, points to the relative modesty of Hong Kong’s success: “Although we have had some success in attracting initial public offerings to our stock exchange in recent years, market capitalisation and turnover are still relatively modest by global standards. Furthermore, we are behind other financial centres as a bond trading centre, as a currency futures centre, as a commodities future centre, and more.” Jake van der Kamp, a columnist for the leading English daily newspaper the South China

86

Morning Post, offers a more cynical spin to the IPO record, saying, “All I see here is a one-legged stool.” Li was himself being modest on Hong Kong’s behalf, in that its stock exchange has always been a small part of its attractions in its claim to be the world’s third or fourth biggest international financial centre after London, New York and, arguably, Tokyo. As an international financial hub in the widest sense, the IPO achievement took Hong Kong further ahead of other rivals for its Asian crown. The special circumstances of the 2006 IPO record can easily be seen on the quickest examination of the actual IPOs. Just two giant offerings accounted for more than half the total or HK$211 billion. They were by Industrial and Commercial Bank of China, the country’s biggest bank, which raised $21.9 billion with a historic dual listing in Hong Kong and Shanghai, and by Bank of China. Indeed, 90 percent of the record IPOs were by Chinese companies that were deterred from listing at home because of the limitations of China’s markets and inhibited from going to New York by the tough and costly measures enjoined by the SarbanesOxley anti-fraud law. The two big bank offerings made the difference between 2006 and Hong Kong’s previous 2005 IPO record of HKS191.5 billion.

具䜓的にはニュヌペヌク垂堎での新芏公開額が 336億米ドル、銙枯の芏暡はこれを䞊回る3422億 銙枯ドル440米億ドルに達した。䞖界最倧はロン ドンの489億米ドルだったが、1997幎幎倮に英囜 が䞭囜に返還しお以来、䞭囜の特別行政区SAR ず しお䜍眮付けられおきた銙枯にずっおは史䞊最高 倀ず新芏公開額の曎新は倧きな成果であった。 しかし、垂堎が掻況に沞いたのは特殊事情による もので、ロンドンやニュヌペヌクのようなグロヌバ ルな新芏公開垂堎ず肩を䞊べるようになるのはた だかなりの先のこずだずいう䞀郚関係者の冷静な 芋方もある。東亜銀行䌚長で銙枯立法䌚legco の議員でもあり、金融サヌビス業のあり方を議論す る政府のフォヌカスグルヌプの議長を務める李囜 宝David Li Kwok-po氏は、 「ここ数幎は新芏公開 誘臎でそれなりの成功を収めたしたが、時䟡総額、 売買高ではグロヌバルなスタンダヌドには及びた せん。他の金融センタヌに比べお債刞垂堎他、為 替先物、商品先物ずいった垂堎も育成されおいた せん」 ず銙枯の成功がそれほど手攟しで喜べるも のではないこずを指摘しおいる。有力英字玙である South China Morning Postのコラムニスト、 ゞェヌ ク・ノァン・デル・カンプJake van der Kamp氏は 皮肉を蟌め、新芏公開の新蚘録は「足が本しか ない怅子のようなものだ」 ず評しおいる。 李氏自身は銙枯を代衚しお、銙枯蚌刞取匕所は垞 にロンドン、ニュヌペヌクあるいは東京に次ぐ䞖界 第3䜍、第4䜍の囜際金融センタヌを目指しおいるず 控え目に語っおいる。新芏公開芏暡の蚘録塗り替え は、最も広い意味での囜際的な金融ビゞネスのハ ブずしお銙枯のアゞア垂堎での地䜍を䞍動のもの にしおいるが、2006幎の新芏公開蚘録が特殊事情 によるものであるこずはその䞭身を䞀瞥するだけ で刀明する。新芏公開䌁業のうち2瀟の資金調達額 が2110億銙枯ドルにのがり、 これだけで党䜓の5割 以䞊を占めおいるのである。 この2瀟は銙枯ず䞊海 の䞡垂堎に同時䞊堎するずいう快挙を成し遂げ、 219億ドルの資金を調達した䞭囜最倧の銀行、䞭囜 工商銀行ず䞭囜銀行である。新芏公開を果たした 䞭囜䌁業の9割は䞭囜本土では資金調達に限界が あり、ニュヌペヌク垂堎では䞍正䌚蚈防止を狙った サヌベンス・オクスリヌ法の厳しい䞊堎芏準を満た すのが難しくコストも掛かるために銙枯を遞んだ ずいうのが実態である。2倧銀行の䞊堎がなければ 2005幎の新芏公開蚘録である1915億銙枯ドルが 砎られるこずはなかったのである。 PricewaterhouseCoopers瀟では2007幎の銙枯垂 堎における新芏公開は玄1500億銙枯ドル200億 米ドル匱 ず予想しおいる。銙枯蚌刞取匕所の行政 総裁である呚文耀Paul Chow氏は銙枯では倧 型の新芏䞊堎蚈画がなく、䞭囜䌁業がこれたで以 䞊に囜内垂堎での䞊堎の機䌚を窺っおいるため、 2007幎には本土が銙枯を抜く可胜性もあるず考え おいる。囜内蚌刞垂堎の改革が進んでいるのず、人 民元の切り䞊げが芁因ずしお挙げられる。銙枯ドル が察米ドルで7.8のレヌトに固定されおいるのに察 し2007幎には人民元が 察米ドルでこのレベルを超 える局面もあり銙枯ドルに盞察的に先安芳がある。 4


Hong Kong

For 2007, PricewaterhouseCoopers predicts that Hong Kong’s IPO total will be lower, at about HK$150 billion or slightly less than $20 billion. Paul Chow, the chief executive of Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing, even thinks it is possible that China itself will surpass Hong Kong in 2007, thanks to the twin facts that there are no large-scale Chinese offerings planned for the SAR and that Chinese firms are increasingly looking at the domestic market because of stock market reforms and the appreciation of the renminbi, which in 2007 went through the 7.8 mark against the US dollar and thus became stronger than the Hong Kong dollar, pegged at 7.8 against the greenback. Nevertheless, there was plenty of back patting in Hong Kong after the IPO record. Joseph Yam, chief executive of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority, in his weekly on-line column, wrote that: “With global financial markets awash with liquidity, wherever there is a new supply of quality financial instruments in a market of international standing, attracting international investment funds is not a problem. There seems no longer to be any need, for example, to organise primary or secondary listing in Europe and America in order to attract investment funds from those areas. International road shows are of course still essential to stimulate investor interest, but advanced information technology is increasingly making this easier. So I hope these large IPOs serve to consolidate the status of Hong Kong as the preferred IPO for Mainland enterprises.” A similar sentiment was echoed by Frederick Ma, Hong Kong’s secretary for financial services and the treasury, who said that: “If China becomes a large economy rivalling the US, then Hong Kong will grow to the extent of New York and London.” Even David Li’s focus group seeks to, in his words, establish Hong Kong “as an international financial centre of global significance within China.” Li expresses confidence that: “This policy direction is not only important for Hong Kong’s own economic development; it is strategically important for China’s long-term development as well
 We believe that Hong Kong has the infrastructure, the transparent legal and

David Li Kwok-po: Hong Kong’s market capitalisation and turnover are still relatively modest by global standards.

regulatory environment, and the market depth to contribute in these areas for the それでも銙枯垂堎関係者は新芏䞊堎の新蚘録を 称え合った。銙枯金融管理局の総裁である任志剛 benefit of the entire mainland economy.” Joseph Yam氏は自身の週刊ブログで、 「䞖界的 There is of course both inconsistency and tension in these ambitions – does Hong な過剰流動性のなか、䞖界的に名の知れた䌁業で あればどこで䞊堎しようず資金調達には党く困らな Kong want to be an INTERNATIONAL い。もはや資金調達のために欧州、米囜での䞀次 centre or the leading centre of China? For 䞊堎、二次䞊堎を目指す必芁はないかのようであ the moment, it hopes to be both. Chinese る。投資家の関心を喚起するには今でも囜際的な markets are smaller, dominated by the giant ロヌドショヌを敢行する必芁があるが、ITの進歩で enterprises that are still state owned and 情報の拡散は日に日に容易になっおいる。倧䌁業 are not as well regulated as Hong Kong, in の新芏公開の成功に倣っお、本土の䌁業が銙枯で spite of the recent improvements to the law. の䞊堎を優先すれば銙枯の地䜍を確固たるものに Most important, China’s legal system is still するこずができる」ずコメントしおいる。 dominated by the edicts of the Communist 驙 枯 の 財 経 事 務 及 び 庫 務 局 局 長である銬 時 亚 「䞭囜経枈が米囜ず肩を䞊 Party rulers, whereas Hong Kong has the Frederick Ma氏も、 vital backing of more than a century of the べるくらいの芏暡になれば銙枯もニュヌペヌク、ロ rule of law that it enjoyed under British ンドン䞊みの垂堎に成長するだろう」ず楜芳的に語 rule. The rule of law is the foundation っおいる。やや慎重な李囜宝氏のフォヌカスグルヌ プは、同氏の蚀葉を借りれば銙枯を「䞭囜内での囜 stone, but Hong Kong’s advantages include 際金融センタヌにする」こずを目指しおいる。李氏は a whole skyscraper of financial history, 「この政策は銙枯自身の経枈発展にずっお重芁な bankers and investment bankers, lawyers, ばかりでなく、䞭囜の長期的な発展にずっおも戊略 accountants and professional experts from 的に重芁です。銙枯はむンフラが敎備されおおり、 all over the world, using a plethora of good 透明床の高い法制床、芏制環境、垂堎の厚みが本 communications, well established practice, a 土経枈の発展に貢献するでしょう」ず自信のほどを relatively free press – though the new rulers 語っおいる。 have shown a tendency to prefer applause こうした意欲的な姿勢のなかにも、銙枯は「囜際」 to open comment. Even if China can resolve 金融センタヌを目指すのか、それずも䞭囜の䞻芁 the capitalist and socialist tensions within 金融センタヌを目指すのか、ずいう矛盟ず緊匵が隠 its own system, it will probably be at least せない。目䞋のずころはその䞡方の達成を望んでい a decade before Shanghai has its financial るようである。これに察し、䞭囜本土の垂堎は芏暡 architecture in place and a generation before が小さく未だに囜有の倧䌁業が垂堎を占有しおお り、最近になっお法制床の改善は芋られるが銙枯 the legal framework can be trusted.

There seems no longer to be any need to organise primary or secondary listing in Europe and America However, Hong Kong should be well aware of the wise words of the late (Lord) Lawrence Kadoorie, who lived in Shanghai and Hong Kong before the war, and in Hong Kong after the war, where he was head of China Light and Power and of the Peninsula Hotel group among other companies. He noted that whenever Hong Kong and Shanghai had been together on the same footing, Shanghai was always the more international and sophisticated city, whereas Hong Kong was a country cousin. In the 1930s, Kadoorie told me, Shanghai was like London to Hong Kong’s “snobby and provincial Hastings.” Even as it is, some international brokers say that Hong Kong is already too dependent on the big Chinese state companies. In January 2007, for example, according to Bloomberg, eight of the top ten companies listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange by market capitalisation were mainland giants; the two exceptions were the now London headquartered HSBC in third place and Manulife of Canada in ninth place. David Li is aware that Hong Kong needs to build on its advantages: “The window of opportunity to establish Hong Kong as an international financial centre of global

ほどには芏制が敎備されおいない。曎に重芁なの は、䞭囜の法制床は珟圚も共産党の党綱領に基づ く勅什が根幹を成しおいるが、銙枯では英囜の怍 民地䞋で100幎以䞊に亘っお醞成された法制床が 根付いおいるずいう点である。法制床の確立は党お の基瀎であるが、金融垂堎ずしおの歎史の厚みに 加えお、䞀般の銀行家、投資銀行家、匁護士、䌚蚈士 等の専門家が䞖界䞭から集たっおおり、関係者間 の意思疎通も良奜で、法芏制の適甚や執行でも充 分な積み䞊げがあり、比范的マスコミにも衚珟の自 由が䞎えられおいるずいった点が銙枯の優䜍性で ある。ただ、本土の新しい指導者局は忌憚のない意 芋衚明を歓迎する姿勢を芋せおはいる。䞭囜が自 囜の制床内に資本䞻矩ず瀟䌚䞻矩の䞊存を均衡さ せるこずができたずしおも、䞊海の金融むンフラ敎 備に少なくずも10幎、法芏制の枠組みに察する信 頌の確立に䞀䞖代は掛かるだろう。

しかし、戊前を䞊海、銙枯で過ごし、戊埌は銙枯で 䞭華電力やペニンシュラホテル・グルヌプの䌚頭を 勀めた故ロヌレンス・カドヌリヌ卿Lord Lawrence Kadoorieの「銙枯ず䞊海が肩を䞊べたずきは垞に 䞊海が囜際的な掗緎された郜垂であり、銙枯はそ の姉効郜垂ずいう䜍眮付けだった」 ずいう指摘を心 に留めおおくべきだろう。李氏によれば、 カドヌリヌ 卿は1930幎代の䞊海はロンドンに比し、銙枯は「気 取った田舎のヘむスティングズのような存圚」だっ たず語っおいたそうである。 既に本土の囜有倧䌁業なくしお今日の銙枯はあり 埗ない状況になっおいる。䟋えば、Bloomberg瀟に よれば2007幎1月の時点で銙枯蚌刞取匕所に䞊 堎されおいる時䟡総額䞊䜍10瀟のうち8瀟が本土 の倧䌁業である。残り2瀟はロンドンを拠点ずする HSBC銀行ずカナダのManulife瀟で、時䟡総額では それぞれ3䜍、9䜍ずなっおいる。 李囜宝氏は銙枯の珟圚の優䜍を匷化する必芁があ るず考えおおり、 「銙枯を囜際金融センタヌずしお確 立するチャンスがい぀たでもあるわけではない。今 行動しなければ惰性が蔓延し、海倖の確立された 金融センタヌに事業機䌚を奪われるだろう」 ず語っ おいる。 4

WiA Delegate Publication

87


Focus on finance

Andy Xie lost his job as Morgan Stanley’s chief Asia economist after he wrote an internal e-mail stingingly critical of Singapore.

significance will not remain open forever. If we do not act now, inertia will set in, and business will gravitate to established financial centres overseas,” he says. His study group proposed a twin ‘macro & micro’ approach to enhance Hong Kong’s role. Its starting point was that the two financial systems of Hong Kong and China “should establish a complementary, co-operative, and interactive relationship. From a practical perspective, the Mainland can make better use of the financial system of the HKSAR in helping to enhance financial intermediation efficiency and to implement financial reform
 The Focus Group is of the view that, as the international financial centre of the country, the HKSAR has the responsibility to assist in ensuring the country’s economic and financial stability and in strengthening the country’s resilience to risks.” It suggested a raft of items in an “action agenda”, including development of renminbi and commodities futures markets; increasing use of the Chinese currency, increasing Hong Kong’s involvement in financial services on the mainland; opening more channels to improve the outward mobility of mainland investors and fund raisers; and allowing financial instruments issued in Hong Kong to be marketed on the mainland. Another study group dealing with professional services suggested the establishment of “greater China law firms” whose members would be able to practice simultaneously on the mainland and in Hong Kong. One problem with this approach is that it sees markets as directed and even led by the nose by governments. It is in line with Chinese thinking and was happily adopted by Chief Executive Donald Tsang, re-elected in March 2007 to a five year term by a select group of fewer than 800 carefully filtered and chosen electors representing the 7 million people of Hong Kong, whom Beijing dare not entrust with the vote. Tsang wants Hong Kong to dovetail its plans to fit China’s 11th five year plan. This idea also carries echoes of Singapore, historically reviled by Hong Kong people as a “nanny state” where the 88

government rules with a tight hand, even to the extent of easing a 12 year ban on chewing gum in 2004, but only provided that it is sugarless and tooth-whitening and backed by a doctor’s prescription. In its claims to be “an international financial centre”, Hong Kong never counted its stock market as an important feature. In the 1980s, some brokers joked that gambling in Hong Kong was forbidden, except for at the horse racecourse and on the stock market. Since those days Hong Kong regulators have brought the market into line with the best international standards. Thanks now to the listing of the Chinese companies, the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has jumped to sixth place in the world with market capitalisation of about $2 trillion, well below the fourth and fifth placed London Stock Exchange and Euronext, each just below $4 trillion, and only a tenth of the size of the New York Stock Exchange. This rise and rise of the Hong Kong market has also far outpaced Singapore, where market capitalisation is still below $400 billion. Hong Kong’s claims to be an international financial centre rested on two platforms: that Tokyo, though it has a far bigger stock market (capitalisation about $4.8 trillion), in all financial aspects is preoccupied with Japanese matters rather than being international; and that Hong Kong has all the features of a global centre in terms of banking and investment banking, foreign exchange and gold trading, funds under management, with all the backing of professional practice and staff that give it the essential critical mass and an important time-slot in the 24hour trading day. Its role as fund raiser and partner of China has made Hong Kong even more attractive on the international map, although foreign bankers warn that the SAR has to walk a tightrope and tame the Chinese tiger, or it may be swallowed whole.

Hong Kong has more than 130 banks, including more than 70 of the world’s top 100 banks Singapore is traditionally Hong Kong’s only rival as a regional and international financial centre. The markets of Korea, India, Malaysia, and Thailand have their own attractions for investors, but are essentially national markets. All the financial statistics show that Hong Kong is pulling ahead of Singapore. Funds under management in Hong Kong are close to $600 billion, against below $500 billion in Singapore. Hong Kong has more than 130 banks, including more than 70 of the world’s top 100 banks, plus another 40 restricted banks and 85 bank representative offices. Singapore has only five local banks but another 110 with full bank licences that have limitations on the number of their local branches. In terms of the numbers of companies, Hong Kong registered 73,360 in 2005, Singapore only 19,500.

李氏䞻宰の研究グルヌプは銙枯の圹割を匷化する ために、 「マクロずミクロ」の2本立おのアプロヌチ を提唱しおいる。たず基本には、銙枯ず䞭囜の2぀ の金融制床を「盞互補完的、協力的、曎に盞互に圱 響し合う関係にするずいう考え方がある。実利的な 芳点に立おば、本土は銙枯の金融制床をうたく掻甚 しお金融仲介の効率を䞊げ、制床改革に取り組むこ ずができる。銙枯は䞭囜の囜際金融センタヌずしお 囜の経枈及び金融垂堎の安定ず、金融䞍安に察す る抵抗力の匷化に寄䞎する責任を担う」 ずいうのが フォヌカスグルヌプの考え方である。 同グルヌプはこれに向けた「行動蚈画」の䞭に、人 民元の先物及び商品先物垂堎を敎備する、人民元 の流動性を高める、本土の金融サヌビスに銙枯が 関䞎できる郚分を増やす、本土の投資家よる海倖 投資ず本土䌁業の海倖における資金調達のチャン ネルを増やす、銙枯で組成された金融商品の本土 でのマヌケティングを可胜にする、 ずいった䞀連の 提案を盛り蟌んでいる。 匁護士協䌚等ずの調敎を進めおいる別の研究グル ヌプは「統合䞭囜匁護士協䌚」を蚭立し、䌚員は本 土でも銙枯でも業務を営むこずができるようにする こずを提案しおいる。 ただ、 このアプロヌチは、垂堎は政府の思惑次第で どの様にも誘導できるものだず捉えおいる点が問 題である。 これは䞭囜政府の基本的な姿勢に沿っ たものであり、2007幎3月に銙枯特別行政区の長官 に再遞された曜蔭暩Donald Tsang氏もこれを快 く受け入れた。任期が5幎のこの長官職は、700侇 の銙枯垂民のなかから慎重に遞別された800人未 満の遞挙委員により遞出されるもので、䞭倮政府に は民䞻的な普通遞挙を導入する気は毛頭ない。曜 氏は銙枯の政策を䞭囜の第11次五カ幎蚈画に沿 ったものにしたい考えである。 これは銙枯垂民が以 前から 「過保護囜家」 ず揶揄しおいるシンガポヌル の政策ず盞通ずるものがある。暩嚁䞻矩的なシン ガポヌル政府は、2004幎に12幎振りにチュヌむン ガムを解犁したが、シュガヌレスで歯を癜くする効 果があり、歯科医の凊方箋があるものに限るずいう 䜆し曞きが付いおいる。 以前、銙枯は「囜際金融センタヌ」であるず䞻匵し ながらも、蚌刞取匕所を重芁な芁玠ずしお認識しお いなかった。1980幎代には、蚌刞䌚瀟の間で、銙枯 ではギャンブルが犁止されおいるが競銬ず株は公 認されおいるずいう冗談が飛び亀っおいたほどで ある。以来、銙枯は蚌刞垂堎改革を進め、最高の囜 際レベルにたで匕き䞊げた。銙枯蚌刞取匕所は䞭 囜䌁業の䞊堎誘臎に成功し、時䟡総額が玄2兆米ド ルず䞖界第6䜍の芏暡になった。時䟡総額がいずれ も4兆米ドル匱のロンドン蚌刞取匕所やナヌロネ クストには及ばず、ニュヌペヌク蚌刞取匕所の僅か 10分の1ずいう芏暡ではあるが、4000億ドル匱のシ ンガポヌルには倧きな差を付けおいる。 銙枯が囜際的な金融センタヌに成長した背景には 2぀の芁因が挙げられる。぀は時䟡総額では遥か に倧きな東京4兆8000億米ドルが、金融に関し おは囜際的な展開を目指さず、専ら囜内の問題に 捉われお盞察的に囜際的な地䜍が䜎䞋したこずが 指摘できる。もう1぀は䞀般銀行業務、投資銀行業 務、倖囜為替取匕、金の売買、資産運甚ずいった囜 際的な金融センタヌずしおの芁件が備わっおおり、 こうした実務を支える専門家及びスタッフにも困ら ないずいう点が挙げられる。時差の関係で1日24時 間の取匕も可胜だずいう地理的な優䜍性も無芖で きない。䞭囜䌁業の資金調達に係わるパヌトナヌず しおの圹割が、銙枯の囜際的な地䜍を䞀局高めた こずは疑いがない。ただ、䞀郚の倖資系銀行家の䞭 には、銙枯は垞に北京のお䌺いを立おながら手な ずけお行かなければならない、さもなければ呑み 蟌たれおしたうず譊告する向きもある。 アゞアの囜際的な金融センタヌずしおは埓来からシ ンガポヌルが唯䞀のラむバルである。 韓囜、 むンド、 マ レヌシア、 タむの垂堎もそれぞれに投資家にずっお魅 力があるが、 本質的に皆囜内垂堎に目が向いおいる。 4


Hong Kong

The dynamic, of course, is constantly changing and the Singapore government is doing its best to promote new business. The country’s modern founding father Lee Kwan Yew, who holds the post of minister mentor in his son Lee Hsien Loong’s government, said that Singapore’s old model needed upgrading. “Just being clean, green, efficient and cost-effective (Lee senior’s legacy) is not enough. You’ve also got to be innovative, creative, entrepreneurial,” Lee said in 2005. That’s the problem, says Andy Xie, who lost his job as Morgan Stanley’s chief Asia economist after he wrote an internal e-mail stingingly critical of Singapore. Xie believes there are contradictions between a strong government and a strong private sector and that entrepreneurs cannot be created by government fiat.

Singapore is traditionally Hong Kong’s only rival as a regional and international financial centre Hong Kong also has to take care to avoid China’s suffocating embrace in a literal sense. Increasing pollution blown into Hong Kong from booming factories in the Pearl River estuary, many of them owned by Hong Kong companies, is beginning to take its toll on rising international executives, especially those with young children. In 2006, air pollution in central Hong Kong was “very high” or “severe” on 41 days, double the number in 2000. The local press is beginning to feature articles about young executives leaving for the sake of their children’s health. Singapore is the favourite alternative place, with its reputation for being clean and green and healthy, thanks to stern government policies. It is more difficult for Hong Kong to order China to clean up its act. The movement of leaving executives is, nonetheless, no more than a trickle and has done nothing to stem the rise of Hong Kong rents. By 2007 office space in Hong Kong was costing double the equivalent in Singapore. One symbolic example was the International Financial Centre tower 2, a huge phallic skyscraper right on Finance Street on the waterfront. IFC2 is home to both the local IMF office and the Hong Kong Monetary Authority, whose chief executive sits on the top (88th) floor, a lucky number in Cantonese (since 8 or baat is a homonym for prosperity). When the building opened three years ago the Financial Times wrapped 50 floors of the building in an advertisement in its trademark pink paper, making the world’s largest advertisement in a building where the FT was tenant. By 2007, rents had risen so high that the FT could no longer afford them. The benchmark rent in IFC2 was HK$105 ($13.5) per square foot per month. Hong Kong has to beware that success brings its own problems.

40 Largest Stocks by Market Capitalisation (In billions of Hong Kong dollars) Industrial & Commercial Bank of China - $1,720.49 PetroChina - $1,713.23 HSBC Holdings - $1,654.82 China Mobile - $1,411.83 Bank of China - $1,175.62 China Life Insurance - $1,114.84 China Construction Bank - $1,074.01 Sinopec Corp - $769.91 Manulife Financial - $404.27 Bank of Communications - $392.54 China Shenhua Energy - $364.51 Hutchison Whampoa - $342.78 China Telecom - $317.25 Standard Chartered - $315.76 CNOOC - $290.30 Sun Hung Kai Properties - $249.18 China Merchants Bank - $245.62 Cheung Kong Holdings - $244.12 Ping An Insurance Group of China - $230.77 Bank of China (Hong Kong) Holdings - $225.73 Hang Seng Bank - $215.27 Foxconn International Holdings - $171.45 CLP Holdings - $140.52 Swire Pacific - $136.98 China Communications Construction - $128.69 China Unicom - $127.27 China Netcom - $121.84 MTR Corporation - $116.24 Esprit Holdings - $98.82 Hong Kong & China Gas - $96.29 Henderson Land Development - $94.99 Hong Kong Exchanges and Clearing - $94.60 Huaneng Power International - $90.30 Hutchison Telecommunications International - $89.84 Hang Lung Properties - $88.23 Sino Land - $87.78 Cathay Pacific Airways - $84.21 Aluminium Corp of China - $84.08 Air China - $84.02 Li & Fung - $82.17 Source: Bloomberg Data updated on 20 January 2007 © Dieter Telemans / Panos Pictures

今やどの統蚈資料を芋おも銙枯がシンガポヌル を䞊回っおいる。因みに、銙枯で運甚されおいるフ ァンドの総額は6000億米ドルに䞊るのに察し、シ ンガポヌルは5000億米ドル未満である。銙枯には 130を超える銀行が拠点を構え、䞖界の䞊䜍100行 のうち70行以䞊が進出しおいる。これに加えお限 定免蚱銀行が40行、代衚事務所を蚭けおいる銀行 が85行ある。シンガポヌルには地堎の銀行が5行 しかないが、支店数に制限が課されおいる 「フルバ ンク」ラむセンスなどを持っおいる銀行は110行あ る。登録䌁業数で芋るず、2005幎は銙枯に73,360瀟 が登録されおいるが、シンガポヌルではこれが 19,500瀟に過ぎない。 もちろん実態は垞に倉化しおおり、シンガポヌル政 府は新興産業の育成に力を入れおいる。 息子の李 顯韍Lee Hsien Loong珟銖盞を陰で支えおいる 同囜の建囜の父李光耀Lee Kwan Yew氏も、 シン ガポヌルは「ただ枅朔で環境に優しい、胜率が良く おコスト効率が高いリヌ元銖盞の遺産だけでは 囜際競争に取り残される。革新的、創造的であり、新 しい分野を積極的に開拓しお行かなければならな い」 ず旧来の政治モデルの改倉が必芁なこずを蚎え おいる。 瀟内メヌルでシンガポヌルの政策を厳しく批刀し たこずでMorgan Stanley瀟のアゞア倪平掋郚門䞻 垭゚コノミストの職を解かれた謝國忠Andy Xie 氏は、たさにそこが問題なのだず指摘しおいる。謝 氏は、暩嚁䞻矩的な政府の䞋では掻力溢れる民間 郚門は育たない、䌁業家は政府の䞀声で誕生する ものではない、 ず䞻匵を曲げおいない。 銙枯は䞭囜の圱響が匷たるなかで窒息しないよ うに気を぀けおいなければならない。 これは政治 的な意味においおではなく、珠江河口域に建蚭 された工堎から出る排ガスにより、銙枯の倧気汚 染が深刻になっおいるためである。これらの工堎 の倚くは銙枯䌁業がオヌナヌになっおいるが、特 に幌少の子䟛を持぀経営者は公害察策に動き出 しおいる。2006幎は、銙枯䞭心郚の倧気汚染床が 「非垞に高い」あるいは「深刻」ずいう譊告の出さ れた日が41日もあり、2000幎の倍のレベルになっ おいる。地元のマスコミでは、子䟛の健康を考えお 銙枯を脱出する若手経営者家族の話しが取り䞊げ られおいる。第1の移䜏先は、政府の有無を蚀わせ ぬ政策のお蔭で、 クリヌンでグリヌン、 しかもヘル シヌな環境の敎ったシンガポヌルである。銙枯が 䞭囜に公害察策を迫るのは遥かに難しい。 しかし、銙枯脱出組はほんの䞀握りであり、高隰す る䞍動産垂況に氎を差すほどではない。2007幎に は、銙枯のオフィス賃貞料はシンガポヌルの倍に なっおいる。 りオヌタヌフロントのファむナンス・ス トリヌトにそびえる巚倧な高局ビル、囜際金融セン タヌの第2タワヌが象城的な䟋である。 このビルに は囜際通貚基金IMFの銙枯支郚、銙枯金融管理 局が入っおいる。金融管理局総裁のオフィスは瞁起 をか぀いで最䞊階の88階にある広東語で8は繁 栄を意味する発ず同音異矩。Financial Times玙も テナントになっおいたこのビルが3幎前にオヌプン されたずきには、 トレヌドマヌクであるピンクの新 聞玙でビルの50階たでを包むずいう䞖界最倧芏暡 のビル内広告を敢行したこずで芪しみを感じるが、 2007幎には高隰する賃貞料を払えず、退去を䜙儀 なくされおいる。 因みに、 このビルの月間賃貞料は 1平方フィヌト105銙枯ドル13.5米ドルがベンチ マヌクになっおいる。銙枯は自らの成功がもたらす 問題を認識しおおく必芁がある。 著者はマクドナルド店の䞊にある狭い䞀宀で銙枯 初のFinancial Times玙支局を開蚭した経隓があ る。■

The author opened the FT’s first office in Hong Kong, a tiny room above a McDonald’s. g

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Regional overviews

䞭囜の揎助に賛成 西偎の䞀流玙の䞭では、囜際瀟䌚の䞭で幅 を利かせおいる䞭囜に぀いお、匷匕すぎるず の芋方がある。

© Eye Ubiquitous / Hutchison NMR

これらの評論家は原材料を枇望しおいるため に、あるいは単に倧物ルヌキヌの存圚を囜際的 にアピヌルしたいために、䞭囜は今たでの䌝統 的な瀌儀正しいやり方を台無しにしお暎れる非 垞に危険な乱暎者のようであるず芋おいる。その 理由は、䞭囜が欧米そしお日本や䞖界銀行、 アゞ ア開発銀行ADBでさえもも係わり合いになる こずを避けるような堎所に資金を泚ぎ蟌み、倧量 殺戮や人暩䟵害の眪を犯しおいる腐敗政暩や独 裁者に石油ず匕き換えに金や歊噚を枡しおいる ためである。䞭囜政府は、スヌダン、チャド、アン ゎラ、 アルゞェリア、 ナむゞェリア、ベネズ゚ラなど の諞囜ず緊密な貿易関係たたは揎助関係を確立 しおいる。

Chinese aid wins support There is a view in some respectable and highly respected parts of the Western press that China is beginning to make its presence felt in the world rather too forcefully...

S

uch observers see China as a rogue elephant on the rampage, trampling over the traditional polite ways of doing things in its hunger for raw materials or, maybe, just to let the rest of the world know that there is a new and powerful beast on the block. China, according to these accounts, is pouring money into places where the US, Europeans, even Japanese, the World Bank and Asian Development Bank fear to tread, giving money and weapons to corrupt regimes and dictators who are guilty of genocide or human rights violations in return for oil. Sudan, Chad, Angola, Algeria, Nigeria, Venezuela are among the countries with which Beijing has established a close trade or aid relationship. So it is something of a surprise to hear David Dollar, the American who is the Beijing-based World Bank country director for China, respond with an immediate, flat and emphatic, “NO” when asked if he is worried about Chinese economic aid. He not only encourages the Chinese aid, but looks forward to the World Bank cooperating with China on projects. “I am totally positive,” about Chinese aid, Dollar says, almost cheering. Indeed, he exudes such enthusiasm for the Chinese aid effort that I wondered if it was mere naivety or whether in his apparently ingenuous confidence he was

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ingeniously trying to encourage the Chinese to do better and warning them against the waste of time, energy, and resources in dealing with some of the rogue regimes. One of the strongest blasts against China’s aid came in a New York Times article in February 2007 by Moises Naim, the respected editor in chief of Foreign Policy magazine. “It is development assistance that is non-democratic in origin and nontransparent in practice, and its effect is typically to stifle real progress while hurting ordinary citizens,” claimed Naim about the Chinese aid money. He accepted that Western and even World Bank aid had a history of political manipulation and corruption, but since 1990 such aid had greatly been cleaned up with the help of pressure from the media and from nongovernmental organisations. Naim put China in the same league as other cash-rich states like Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela which he described as, “rogue donors (that) offer to underwrite a world that is more corrupt, chaotic, and authoritarian.” He cited a World Bank $5 billion project to bring efficiency and end crippling corruption on Nigeria’s railways through the entry of the private sector, which was about to be signed when China came along and offered $9 billion to rebuild the rail network, “no bids, no conditions and no need to reform.”

そのため、䞭囜の経枈揎助に぀いお憂慮しおい るのではずいう質問に察しお、䞖界銀行の䞭囜 担圓局長である北京圚䜏の米囜人デビッド・ダ ラヌDavid Dollar氏が「ノヌ」 ず即座にきっぱ り吊定したのには驚いた。ダラヌ氏は䞭囜の揎 助を奚励するばかりでなく、䞖界銀行がプロゞェ クトで䞭囜ず協力するこずを期埅しおいるず述べ おいる。䞭囜の揎助に぀いお「100賛成しおい たす」 ず語るダラヌ氏は、ほずんど拍手喝采しお いる。 実際には、䞭囜の揎助協力に぀いおダラヌ氏が これほどの熱意を瀺すのは、単なる認識の甘さ によるものなのかどうか刀断しかねる。無邪気な 自信があるようにも芋え、玔粋な気持から䞭囜 政府にもっずうたくやるようにアドバむスしようず し、ならず者囜家ずの取匕に時間ず゚ネルギヌ や資源を浪費しないように譊告しおいるずいうこ ずかもしれない。 䞭囜の揎助に察しおは匷い非難の声があり、 Foreign Policy誌の線集長ずしお名高いモむセス ・ナむムMoises Naim氏が2007幎2月に曞い たNew York Times玙の蚘事もその䞀぀である。 䞭囜の揎助金に぀いおナむム氏は、 「これは原 点からしお非民䞻䞻矩的で、実斜の䞭身も䞍透 明な開発支揎であり、その成果は、ほずんどの堎 合、真の発展を抑圧する䞀方で䞀般垂民に害を なすものでしかありたせん」 ず批刀しおいる。 欧米の揎助には政治的操䜜や腐敗の歎史があ り、䞖界銀行の支揎でさえもそれず無瞁ではな いこずはナむム氏も認めおいるが、1990幎以降、 メディアおよび非政府組織からの圧力を背景に 倧々的な浄化が行われおきた。ナむム氏は、同じ く資金力があるむラン、サりゞアラビア、ベネズ ゚ラなどの諞囜を「腐敗、混乱、独裁䞻矩のはび こる䞖界の埌ろ楯ずなる悪埳スポンサヌ」 ず呌 び、その仲間に䞭囜を入れおいる。 ナむム氏が具䜓䟋ずしお挙げるのは、腐敗がは びこるナむゞェリアの鉄道を民間䌁業の参入に よっお効率化し、腐敗を䞀掃しようずした䞖界銀 行の50億ドルのプロゞェクトである。そのプロゞ ェクトの調印目前に䞭囜が珟れお、鉄道網の再 構築のために「入札なし、無条件、改革は䞍芁」 で90億ドルを提䟛した。䞖界銀行で調印亀枉を 行っおいたナむム氏の友人は荷物をたずめお空 枯に向かったずいうこずである。 䞭囜が急速な経枈成長を支えるのに必芁な原材 料を豊富に䟛絊できる囜々、 ずくにアフリカ諞囜 に目を぀けお、揎助ず貿易の䞡方を増倧させお いるのは確かな事実である。党䜓ずしおアフリカ 4


China

Naim added that his World Bank friend who had been negotiating the deal packed his bags and went to the airport. It is certainly true that China has been stepping up both aid and trade, with a keen eye on countries, especially in Africa, that have good supplies of raw materials that China needs to fuel its rapid economic growth. Altogether China’s two-way trade with Africa has jumped to $50 billion a year, its aid is running at about $3 billion a year, and its foreign direct investment was $1.2 billion in 2005, but is likely to grow as more Chinese companies open up offices and factories in Africa. China’s close ties with Sudan with its supplies of light, sweet crude oil has attracted most attention, not least because of Beijing’s blocking of UN attempts to condemn Sudan for atrocities in Darfur. But China also has strong links with Angola where it has provided a $2 billion package deal to build railways, roads, schools, hospitals, and offices and lay a fibre-optic network and provide training for Angolan telecommunications workers. Angola provides an example of how careful and well-prepared China’s approach is, and how it has thought of the needs of the developing country. In January 2007 China’s oil giant CNOOC announced it would take a 45 percent stake in an offshore oil field in Nigeria for $2.27 billion. In a string of countries, including Burundi, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Sudan, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, China has provided arms supplies totalling more than a billion dollars. Supporters of China say that Africa’s record 5.2 percent economic growth in 2005 was greatly helped by China’s investment, especially since Chinese companies build quality projects cheaply. Opponents say that the Chinese aid effectively offers

governments a soft option and they postpone essential reforms. However, US governments, whatever their colour, can hardly throw stones when they have aided places like Egypt, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. China’s ambitions in Africa could certainly not be termed colonialist in the classic sense, nor has Beijing asked for military bases. After the aftermath of the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, China’s insistence on a principle of “mutual non-interference in domestic affairs” looks easier to defend in spite of the unsavoury nature of some of the regimes it is supporting. And while Beijing’s aid is certainly not for philanthropic purposes, the Chinese leaders have shown a willingness to listen to complaints, for example in agreeing to voluntary restraints after South Africa complained about a “tsunami” of textiles from China and in criticising owners’ labour practices in Zambia when workers rioted at Chinese-owned mines.

Photo courtesy of World Bank

Supporters of China say that Africa’s record 5.2 percent economic growth in 2005 was greatly helped by China’s investment

David Dollar, the Beijing-based World Bank country director for China.

Even so, it is quite a surprise to find the World Bank’s David Dollar so bullish about China’s growing economic aid: “I am totally positive about it, quite seriously, for a variety of reasons,” he says. “I think the Chinese experience is a very positive one for other countries to learn from. Every country really is different and other developing countries have to take these lessons and think which of them apply, but it is very positive to have this success story coming out of the developing world. The Chinese are very good at building infrastructure and the whole range of useful things. “I read that they already finance more infrastructure investment in Africa than all the OECD donors combined, and I am inclined to believe that, because while there is quite a bit of OECD aid for Africa, it has largely gotten out of infrastructure and it is either generalised budget support or in the social sectors, all of which is important, but if you don’t have roads, power and water supply, it is pretty hard to run an economy. The Chinese companies already win more competitive World Bank civil works contracts in Africa than companies from any other country,” he points out. As he warms to his theme, Dollar uses words like “happy” and “thrilled” to describe his attitude to the prospects of the Chinese financing World Bank projects. He is realistic enough to point out that aid and strings are often tied together: “It is not accurate to say that Chinese aid or anyone’s aid comes with no strings attached. That sounds very nice, but just think it through. First of all there is still a handful

ずの双方向貿易は幎間500億ドルにたで急増し、 揎助額は幎間玄30億ドル、2005幎の察倖投資は 12億ドルに達しおいる。 より倚くの䞭囜䌁業がア フリカにオフィスや工堎を開蚭するのに䌎っお、 その金額はさらに増倧するはずである。 ダルフヌルでの残虐行為に察する囜連非難決 議を䞭囜が阻止したこずもあっお、軜質スむヌト 原油の䟛絊囜であるスヌダンず䞭囜の芪密な関 係がずくに泚目を集めおいる。その䞀方で、䞭囜 はアンゎラずの関係も匷化し、鉄道、道路、孊校、 病院、オフィスビルの建蚭、光ファむバヌ網の敷 蚭、およびアンゎラの電気通信劎働者のための 教育蚓緎を目的ずした20億ドルの揎助パッケヌ ゞを䟛䞎しおいる。 このアンゎラ揎助は、䞭囜の アプロヌチが入念か぀甚意呚到で、開発途䞊囜 のニヌズに配慮しおいるこずを瀺す䞀䟋である。 2007幎1月、䞭囜の巚倧石油䌚瀟の䞭囜海掋石 油総公叞CNOOCChina National Offshore Oil Corporationは、 ナむゞェリア海底油田の暩 益の45を22億7000䞇ドルで獲埗するず発衚 した。 ブルンゞ、赀道ギニア、゚チオピア、゚リトリ ア、 スヌダン、 タンザニア、ゞンバブ゚などの諞囜 に察しお、䞭囜は総額10億ドル以䞊の歊噚䟛䞎 を行っおいる。 䞭囜の擁護者は、2005幎にアフリカが5.2ずい う蚘録的な経枈成長を遂げたのは䞭囜の投資 によるずころが倧きく、 ずくに䞭囜䌁業が高品質 プロゞェクトを安䟡に建蚭しおいるためであるず 評䟡しおいる。それに反察しお、䞭囜の揎助は、 各囜政府に安易な遞択肢を䞎えるこずになり、そ れによっお本質的な改革が先延ばしされおいる ずいう批刀もある。 しかし、歎代の米囜政府は、そ の䞻矩に関係なく、゚ゞプト、パキスタン、サりゞ アラビアなどに揎助しおきおおり、非難できる立 堎にはない。 䞭囜がアフリカに野心を抱いおいるずいっおも、 これは叀兞的な意味での怍民地䞻矩ではなく、 軍事基地を芁求したこずもない。サダム・フセむ ン政暩の転芆ずいう事態を経お、 「盞互内政䞍干 枉」の原則遵守ずいう䞭囜の姿勢は、支揎先に いわゆる悪埳囜家が含たれおいるにもかかわら ず、以前より説埗力があるように思われる。 たた、 確かに䞭囜の揎助が慈善目的でないずしおも、 䞭囜政府は積極的に苊情に耳を傟けようずする 態床を瀺しおいる。たずえば、䞭囜からの繊維補 品の「接波」に察する南アフリカの抗議を受けお 自䞻芏制に同意し、ザンビアの劎働者が䞭囜䌁 業所有の鉱山で暎動を起こしたずきは、その䌚 瀟の劎働慣行を批刀した。 このような背景があるにせよ、増倧する䞭囜の 経枈揎助に぀いお䞖界銀行のデビッド・ダラヌ 氏がこれほど積極的に賛成しおいるのはたさに 驚きである。 「100賛成ずいうのは、さたざたな 理由によるもので、たったくの本心です」 ず同氏 は語っおいる。 「䞭囜の揎助は非垞にポゞティブ な経隓だずいうのが私の芋方です。他の囜はそ こから孊ぶこずができたす。 どの囜も実情が異な り、他の開発途䞊囜はこれらの教蚓を生かすず ずもに、 どれが自分に圓おはたるか考えなけれ ばなりたせん。 ずはいえ、 このサクセス・ストヌリ ヌが途䞊囜から出おきおいるのは非垞にうれし い傟向です。䞭囜人は、むンフラの建蚭ずか、実 甚的なもの党般を非垞に埗意ずしおいたす。ア フリカに察する䞭囜のむンフラ投資は、すでに OECDの揎助囜すべおの合蚈を䞊回っおいるず いう蚘事を読みたした。これは圓然ずも思えた す。OECDのアフリカ揎助が巚額でも、その倧郚 分はむンフラに回されず、䞀般化された予算支 揎か瀟䌚セクタヌの揎助ずなっおいるからです。 いずれも重芁だずはいえ、道路、電気、氎道など がないずしたら、経枈運甚は容易ではありたせ 4

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Regional overviews

if the Chinese give aid to countries that are relatively well governed like Uganda and Tanzania, then this assistance will have a good result. “I am not going to say much about Sudan. I am not an expert there, and I have to be careful about naming countries, but I will state the principle that there are countries in Africa where the economic governance is quite poor -- and I can say as a factual matter that the World Bank does not give any financial assistance to Zimbabwe, and that is based on our assessment that assistance to Zimbabwe is not going to be well used and generate economic benefits. So if the Chinese ask me what I think about

ん。䞖界銀行によるアフリカの競争入札土朚工 事では、䞭囜䌁業が他囜䌁業よりも倚くの契玄 をすでに勝ち取っおいたす」 ずダラヌ氏は指摘し おいる。 話に熱が入るに぀れお 「喜ばしい」 ずか「倧歓迎」 ずいうような蚀葉が出おくるほど、 ダラヌ氏は䞭 囜の資金揎助による䞖界銀行プロゞェクトの展 望に぀いお前向きの考えを持っおいる。 そしお、珟実問題ずしお、揎助がひも付きになり がちだず指摘するこずも忘れない。 「䞭囜の揎助 に限らず、誰かの揎助がたったくひも付きでな いず蚀えばうそになりたす。聞こえのいい話です が、 よく考えおみおください。第䞀に、アフリカに は少数ながらただ䞭囜を承認しおいない囜があ り、それらの囜に䞭囜は揎助を䞎えおいたせん。 さらに、 䞭囜の揎助はすべお抱き合わせで、 自 囜の建蚭䌚瀟に工事させるこずを求めおいたす。 倚くのむンフラ・プロゞェクトでは、それが問題に なるこずはありたせん。䞭囜䌁業が埗意ずしおい る分野ですから。 しかし、ひも付きでないず蚀う こずはできたせん」

China’s two-way trade with Africa has jumped to $50 billion a year, its aid is running at about $3 billion a year

ダラヌ氏は、䞭囜人がずくに気前が良いわけで はないこずも付け加えおいる。 「私が非公匏に知 っおいる非垞に具䜓的なプロゞェクトの䟋です が、耇数のプロゞェクトがそれぞれの囜で怜蚎さ れおいたずき、䞭囜人が『この氎力プラントに぀ いおどう思うかずいうので芋おみるず、請求金額 が䜎すぎる。 それでは負債を返枈できないだろう ず蚀っおやった』 ず話すのを耳にしたこずがあり たす。 これは『この氎力プラントの融資を求める のならば、負債を返枈できるだけの料金を請求 すべき』 ずいう䞖界銀行の蚀い方ずそっくりです。 䞭囜人は費甚回収にずおも熱心です。囜内のむ ンフラが芋事に敎備されおいるのは、利甚者が 代䟡を支払うものず基本的に考えられおいるか らです。有料道路のキロ数は䞖界のどの囜よりも 長い。融資を短期間で返枈したいず考えるため に料金が高すぎるずいうケヌスもありたす」

Zimbabwe, my friendly advice would be my prediction that it is not going to generate much value. I wish them well because nobody will be happier than me to find out that I am wrong.” He cautions about accepting criticisms coming from the West: “The whole Western reaction seems kinda bizarre. It is not like the Western donors have had a lot of success in Africa. If the Chinese can go into Zimbabwe and generate good measurable results and if at the end of the day poverty is reduced and kids go to school... My prediction is that anyone who gives aid to Zimbabwe in the current environment is not likely to see much result from the aid, but as a social scientist I am willing to accept that I might

ダラヌ氏は䞭囜を批刀するこずに及び腰で、 スヌ ダンやナむゞェリアに぀いおの議論も、自分が知 らない囜だからずいう理由で避けおいる。その䞀 方で、揎助効果を最倧限に高めるためにはどう すればいいかずいうこずに぀いお、将来の基瀎ず なるべき倚数の調査を自ら実斜しおいる。 ダラヌ 氏が提瀺する結論は、おそらくは䞭囜政府ぞの 提案でもあり、揎助金を差し出すビロヌドの手 袋に忍ばせたハガネの手觊りを隠さない方がい いずいうものである。

© Stuart Freedman / Panos Pictures

of countries in Africa that don’t recognize the PRC; they don’t give aid to them. Then, (China’s aid) is all tied: they want their own construction companies to do it, and for a lot of infrastructure projects, that’s going to be fine because those Chinese companies are good at it, but you can’t say that that comes with no strings attached.” Dollar adds that the Chinese don’t generally give too much away: “I am informally aware of some very specific projects that have been discussed in different parts of the world, where I have heard the Chinese say, ‘Well they asked us to look at this hydro plant, but we told them the price they are charging is not high enough; it’s never going to service the loan.’ So they sound just like the World Bank, saying, ‘You want us to finance this hydro plant -- you have got to charge a price that is going to service the loan.’ “The Chinese are very big on cost recovery. This country has wonderful infrastructure because by and large they expect the users to pay for it. It’s got more kilometres of toll roads than any other country in the world. In some cases the tolls are too high because they want to repay the loan quickly.” Dollar is reluctant to criticise China and backs away from discussing either Sudan or Nigeria on the ground that he does not know either country. Instead he points out that he previously did a number of seminal studies on what made aid most effective. He offers his conclusions, perhaps as a suggestion to Beijing that it should show a hint of steel underneath the velvet glove offering its aid dollars. “My basic model of the world is that the effectiveness of the aid primarily depends on the institutions and policies in the recipient countries, so my prediction in Africa is that

China has strong links with Angola where it has provided a $2 billion package deal to build railways, roads, schools, hospitals, and offices.

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「揎助の効果は受け手偎の囜内機構ず政策に 倧きく巊右されるずいうのが私の考える䞖界の 基本モデルです。そこでアフリカに぀いお予枬す れば、 りガンダやタンザニアのように統治が比范 的うたくいっおいる囜に䞭囜が揎助を䞎えるの なら、その支揎は良奜な結果をもたらすはずで す。スヌダンに぀いおは発蚀を控えたす。そこの 専門家ではありたせんし、囜名を挙げるのは慎 重にしなければ。ただ、原則論ずしお蚀えるのは、 アフリカには経枈ガバナンスがきわめお貧匱な 囜があるずいうこずです。実際問題ずしお、䞖界銀 行はゞンバブ゚に金融支揎をたったく䞎えおい たせん。 これは、支揎が有効に掻甚されお経枈的 利益を生み出すこずにはならないずいう評䟡に 基づいた刀断です。そのため、もし䞭囜からゞン バブ゚に぀いおどう思うかず尋ねられたずした ら、奜意的なアドバむスずしお、さほどの䟡倀は 芋蟌めないずいう自分の予枬を述べるしかあり たせん。できれば成功しおほしい。予枬を裏切る 結果にいちばん喜ぶのは私自身ですから」 西偎諞囜からの批刀に察しおは慎重さが必芁で あるずダラヌ氏は述べおいる。 「西偎の反応はど 4



Regional overviews

© Martin Adler / Panos Pictures

れも奇劙ずいうか。西偎の揎助囜がアフリカで倧 成功を収めおいるわけではないのです。もしも 䞭囜がゞンバブ゚に進出しお目に芋える成果を 䞊げたずしたら、もしも最終的に貧困が枛っお子 䟛たちが孊校に通うようになったずしたら。珟圚 の環境でゞンバブ゚に誰が揎助を䞎えおも、さ ほどの成果は期埅できないずいうのが私の予想 です。 しかし、瀟䌚科孊者ずしおは、それが間違い ならむしろ結構なこずず考えおいたす。䞭囜が進 出するこずによっお物事がうたく運ぶのなら、そ れは玠晎らしいこずです」

In a string of countries, including Burundi, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia (pictured) and Eritrea, Sudan, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, China has provided arms supplies totalling more than a billion dollars.

be wrong, and if the Chinese can go in and make things work, that’s great.” Dollar also attacks the received wisdom that the Chinese are able to lock in scarce supplies of essential commodities: “I am very sceptical about this whole story. Most of these are traded commodities. Suppose that somehow the Chinese manage to extract and buy oil from Sudan, that just frees up space in the world market for the US to buy it from someone else. Also there is geography, so my understanding is that Venezuela still sells most of its oil to the United States. The US and China are the two big users of petroleum. If China gets its supply in one place, in a well-functioning market, it means that the US gets supplies from another place.

Dollar also attacks the received wisdom that the Chinese are able to lock in scarce supplies of essential commodities “So the only thing it can mean is that somehow the Chinese are getting a below market price. I am sceptical about that, that they could do that or that they would even want to do that - because if they could somehow get a below market price, they are basically ripping off the other country. Most of these countries are smart enough that they are not going to sign deals to get ripped off; and frankly the Chinese are politically savvy and they know that it is not in their interest to pay below market price.” 94

Chinese aid has obviously created such a good impression in Washington that, Dollar adds, the World Bank, “is trying to build a collaborative relationship with the Chinese Ex-Im Bank. We have already had some training workshops in our offices here to allow the Chinese to learn about our environmental safeguards and our procurement policies to protect against corruption. This is purely educational: we are introducing what the World Bank does, (saying to the Chinese) ‘that when you build up a big assistance programme in Africa or Mongolia - I am also country director for Mongolia - you may want to learn from our experience’.” Potential collaboration between the World Bank and China may mean cofinancing of projects, Dollar says: “My view is that if the World Bank has been developing some infrastructure projects and the Chinese want to step in and finance those, we should be thrilled, because it has got to be good for the country. As I said, they are winning a lot of the competitive contracts, so if we have a project at an advanced stage with a good feasibility study, good socio-economic analysis and environmental assessment, and the Chinese Ex-Im Bank wants to step in and finance it, my view is that that’s great.” As to some World Bank officials feeling miffed about losing an about-to-be-signed contract to the Chinese, Dollar brushes that aside. “It is natural that individual staff might feel a little possessive about things they have developed, but that is not in a client’s interest.” g

ダラヌ氏は、䟛絊の乏しい重芁産品が䞭囜によ っお囲い蟌たれおしたうずいう䞀般的な芋方に も異議を唱える。 「どうしたらそんな話になるの でしょうか。その倧郚分は貿易財です。たずえば、 䞭囜が䜕らかの方法でスヌダンの石油を採掘し 賌入できたずしお、その分だけ䞖界垂堎に空き が生たれるわけですから、 アメリカは別の囜から 石油を買えばいいのです。地理的問題もありた す。ベネズ゚ラは今でも自囜の石油のほずんど をアメリカに売っおいるのではないでしょうか。 アメリカず䞭囜は石油の二倧消費囜です。正しく 機胜しおいる垂堎の取匕で、䞭囜があるずころか ら調達すれば、 アメリカは別のずころから調達す るこずになりたす。そこで問題になりえるのは、唯 䞀、䞭囜が垂堎以䞋の䟡栌で調達するずいう堎 合です。 これも疑わしい。それが可胜であるずは 思えたせん。そもそも䞭囜がそれを望むかどう か。仮に垂堎以䞋の䟡栌で調達できたずしおも、 それは基本的に盞手囜からの収奪ずいうこずに なりたす。倧郚分の盞手囜は、自分が収奪される 取匕に眲名するほど愚かではありたせん。実際 のずころ、䞭囜人は政治的な垞識に長けおいお、 垂堎以䞋の䟡栌で取匕するこずが自分の利益に ならないずいうこずを知っおいたす」 ダラヌ氏によれば、䞭囜の揎助が米囜政府内に 奜印象を生み出しおいるのは明らかで、䞖界銀 行は「䞭囜茞出入銀行ずの協力関係を構築しよ うずしおいる」 ず芋られおいる。 「環境保党察策や 腐敗防止のための調達政策に぀いお䞭囜が孊 べるように、䞖界銀行はすでに北京事務所でト レヌニング・ワヌクショップを実斜しおいたす。 こ れは玔粋に教育的なもので、䞖界銀行の仕事を 玹介しおいたす。私はモンゎル担圓局長でもあ るため、䞭囜がアフリカたたはモンゎルの倧芏 暡支揎蚈画を策定するずきに我々の経隓が圹に 立぀のではないかずいうこずです」 䞖界銀行ず䞭囜の協力によるプロゞェクトぞの 共同出資ずいうこずもありえるずしお、ダラヌ氏 は次のように語っおいる。 「これは私の芋解です が、䞖界銀行がむンフラ・プロゞェクトを開発しお いる段階で、䞭囜が参加を垌望しお資金提䟛を 申し出たずすれば、倧歓迎するでしょう。察象囜 にずっお悪い話であるはずがないのですから。 先ほど觊れたしたが、䞭囜は倚くの競争契玄を 勝ち取っおいたす。 ですから、 プロゞェクトが進行 し、十分な予備調査ず十分な瀟䌚経枈的分析、そ しお環境アセスメントが実斜された段階で䞭囜 茞出入銀行が参加ず資金提䟛を申し出たずすれ ば、私ずしおは倧賛成です」 䞀郚の䞖界銀行の職員が眲名盎前の契玄を䞭 囜に奪われお腹立たしく感じおいるこずに぀い お、 ダラヌ氏はそれを無意味ず切り捚おる。 「自分 が準備した物事に぀いお職員が倚少の独占意識 をも぀のは圓然ずしおも、それがクラむアントの 利益になるわけではありたせん」■



Regional overviews

䞭囜瀟䌚䞻 矩垂堎経枈

© Rafoto

今幎3月の初頭、䞭囜は䞖界に倧きな氎し ぶき、 もしくは特倧玚のくしゃみを济びせた。 それたで蚘録的高倀を曎新しおきた䞊海株 匏垂堎が1日で9パヌセントも暎萜し、 そこか らドミノ珟象のように䞖界の株䟡が䞋がり だしたのである。

China: socialist market economy China hit the world with a big splash, or perhaps a giant sneeze, in early March, this year when the previously record-breaking Shanghai stock market tumbled by 9 percent in a single day and set off falls like dominoes all round the world.

L

ondon, New York, Sydney, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore and round again, all markets fell sharply, and investors wondered if this was a case of financial avian influenza starting in Shanghai. The Chinese official who said that when Shanghai goes down with a fever, the rest of the world sneezes was probably more accurate since as Jonathan Anderson, chief economist for Asia at UBS, correctly commented: “When you think of the Shanghai market, it’s best to think of it as another continent or even another planet.” Nevertheless, the nervous chain reaction was a sign that China has come of age in the global economy and what happens in Beijing or Shanghai or Guangzhou has to be watched carefully in New York, Washington, London, Brussels, and Tokyo. It does not take long to marvel at the immense progress that China has made since Deng Xiaoping daringly opened the doors to the outside world almost 30 years ago. Back in 1980, the only traffic on the main avenues of the capital were thousands of sit-up-and-beg bicycles, a few overcrowded buses and the occasional official limousine majestically sweeping past the solid Communist style blocks of flats and wretched huggermugger hutongs where the

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ロンドン、ニュヌペヌク、シドニヌ、東京、銙枯、シン ガポヌル、そしおもう䞀巡り、党䞖界の株匏垂堎が 急萜し、投資家達は䞊海を発生地ずする鳥むンフ ル゚ンザの蔓延のような事態が金融界に起こっお いるのかず銖をひねった。おそらく䞊海が高熱を出 せば䞖界はくしゃみをするず語った䞭囜高官のほ うが正しいだろう。なぜなら、UBS瀟の銖垭アゞア ゚コノミスト、ゞョナサン・アンダヌ゜ンJonathan Anderson氏が的確にコメントしたように、 「䞊海 垂堎に぀いおは、1぀の倧陞、 たたは1぀の惑星ずし お考えるのが最適」だからである。 ずはいえ、 この緊 迫した連鎖反応が瀺したずおり、今や䞭囜はグロヌ バル経枈における䞀員ずしお成長したのであり、北 京や䞊海や広州で起こっおいる出来事を、ニュヌペ ヌク、ワシントン、ロンドン、 ブリュッセル、東京は泚 意しお芋守っおいく必芁がある。 鄧小平Deng Xiaoping氏が玄30幎前に門戞開 攟を敢行しお以来、䞭囜が実珟しおきた倧きな進 歩は、たさに考えるたでもないほどの驚異である。 1980幎を思い起こせば、銖郜の䞻だった街路を通 る亀通機関ずいえば、䜕千もの立ち乗り自転車ずほ んの数台の満員バスくらいしかなく、共産圏特有の 堅固なアパヌト矀や惚めに荒廃した貧民街の胡同 の傍を、政府関係者のリムゞンが時折厳かに走り 去っおいくばかりであった。䞊海垂南京路のある店 先では人々が矀がり、ショヌケヌスにある金補の莅 沢な眮物のいく぀かに感嘆ず溜息の声をあげおい たのが印象的であった。 ずころが今日、北京䞭心郚にわずかに残る胡同地

poor Chinese lived. On Shanghai’s Nanjing 区はいかにも奇劙な歎史的遺物ずなり、すぐ傍に Road I remember seeing crowds clustered はそのスラム的たたずたいず党く察照的に、ありず round a shop window which had a couple あらゆる高玚ファッションブランドを扱う商業ビル of gold figurines on display “ooohing” and が茝かんばかりに建ち䞊んでいいるのである。玫犁 城の近く、か぀おは自転車ず粗末な商店がひしめく “aaahing” at such luxury. Today, the few remaining hutongs in 通りであった王府井も、珟圚はデザむナヌショップ the centre of Beijing are an historic oddity があふれ、芳光ガむドでは「北京のシャンれリれ通 and look distinctly slummy alongside the り」ず呌称されるほどである。街路を占領しおいた 自転車も、倚皮倚様な䞖界敵高玚車に道をゆずっ sparkling palaces to commerce with all the おしたった。 luxury fashion brands you can think of. Wangfujing, a street close to the Forbidden しかしこれらのこずは党お、䞭囜内郚で起きた奇跡 のほんの衚面的な珟れに過ぎない。それは、安物 City that teemed with bicycles and small のプラスチック玩具からコンピュヌタの郚品にいた scruffy shops, is now called “the Champs るあらゆる皮類の補造工堎を蚭眮しようず銙枯や Elysées of Beijing” in tourist guides, thanks その他の倖囜人投資家が急速に入り蟌み、䞭囜が to the proliferation of shining designer 「䞖界の工堎」ず呌ばれるほどになったこずであ stores. The bicycles, previously rulers of the る。たた、桁の成長が30幎間近くにわたっお続い road, have been pushed to the side to make た結果、䞭囜の郜垂は䞖界で最も汚染された土地 になっおしたった。 way for a display of the world’s best cars. But this is only the external sign of 同じく重芁なこずは、䞭囜の䞭間局が消費を拡倧し China’s internal miracle that has seen Hong 始めたため、か぀おは壮倧な神話でしかなかった Kong and foreign investors rushing to set 10億人垂堎ずしおの䞭囜が぀いに珟実ずなるかも up factories making everything from cheap 知れないのである。䞖界銀行䞭囜およびモンゎル plastic toys to computer parts that have 局のデビッド・ダラヌDavid Dollar氏は、2007幎 「予枬 given the country the title of “workshop of は圓たり幎になりそうだずの芋蟌みにふれ、 the world”. Double-digit growth for almost では、2007幎に䞭囜は茞入の䌞びに関しお初めお 米囜を抜き、䞖界垂堎における新芏需芁の最倧の three decades has also made Chinese cities 源になるず考えられおいたす」ず蚀う。 the most polluted on earth. Equally significant, the great myth of 倚くの銀行はすでに、この重芁な進展に぀いお認 識しおいる。HSBC銀行が実斜した、銙枯、 ゜りル、䞊 China as the market of a billion people may 海、東京等アゞア6郜垂を察象にした貯蓄ず消費パ 4 finally be turning into fact as the Chinese


© Rafoto

China

Dollar: I don’t think that economists can really predict the future.

middle classes begin to spend. David Dollar, World Bank country director for China and Mongolia, says that 2007 is likely to be a banner year: “We predict that 2007 will be the first year when the increase in China’s imports will be greater than the increase in US imports, so that China is the largest source of new demand in the world market.” Bankers have already noticed the important breakthrough. HSBC conducted a survey of saving and spending patterns in six Asian cities, including Hong Kong, Seoul, Shanghai and Tokyo, and discovered the highest propensity to spend was in Shanghai. Yasuhiro Sato, managing director of Mizuho Corporate Bank, says that, “Five years ago Japanese companies went into the Chinese market because we enjoyed cheap wages, but now we are opening factories and even offices in China because of the huge market. In Shanghai, a huge number of people earn big salaries, and in many families the wife also works. They are already starting to buy cars and TVs and spend a lot of money.

“So in certain areas, like Shanghai, Dalian and others, not entire China yet, this market タヌンの調査では、最も匷い消費傟向を瀺したの is growing substantially. Take Shiseido, the は䞊海であった。たた、みずほコヌポレヌト銀行垞 「5幎前 cosmetics company, they are selling many, 務取締圹の䜐藀康博氏は次のように語る。 の日本䌁業は、賃金の安さを求めお䞭囜垂堎に進 many products in China. If we take only the 出したしたが、珟圚は䞭囜の巚倧垂堎を目圓おに Shanghai market, it is the same as the entire 工堎や事務所を蚭眮するようになっおいたす。䞊海 Japanese market. If the women in Shanghai にはきわめお倚くの高額所埗者がおり、たた、倚く city started to use lipstick, it is the same as の䞖垯は共働きです。圌らはすでに車やテレビを all the women in Japan, including young 賌入し、掻発に消費するようになっおいたす] girls and babies. It is a huge market and 「したがっお、今はただ䞭囜党䜓ではないにしお growing. Japanese companies understand も、䞊海や倧連などの特定の地域では垂堎は倧き that and are starting to open many sales く拡倧しおいるのです。䟋ずしお、化粧品䌚瀟の offices. 7-eleven, the convenience store, is 資生堂は、䞭囜で非垞に倚くの補品を販売しおい たす。䞊海垂堎だけでも、 日本垂堎党䜓に匹敵する opening more than a thousand branches.” Dollar, who speaks Putonghua (Mandarin) 芏暡をもちたす。もし䞊海垂の女性が口玅を぀ける is one of the fans of the country’s economic ようになれば、それは、日本で子䟛や赀ん坊を含む progress and is relaxed about the stock 党女性が口玅を぀けるのず同じこずになるのです。 それはもう巚倧な垂堎であり、 これが成長しおいる market drop, which he views as “basically わけです。そうしたこずを日本䌁業はよく理解しお good because stock prices had got a little おり、䞭囜に倚数の営業所を開蚭するようになっお bit overblown, and there was some of that いたす。コンビニ゚ンスストアのセブンむレブンも、 irrational exuberance that Alan Greenspan 1000店を超える店舗を開いおいたす」 used to talk about in the United States. 䞭囜普通話北京語を話すダラヌ氏は䞭囜経枈 Markets go up and down, and it is very の成長を喜ぶ人であるが、今回の株䟡の䞋萜 important that Chinese people understand に぀いおは楜芳的である。圌はそれを、 「基本的に that these prices go up and down and the 良いこずです。なぜなら、株䟡は少々高倀を぀け stock market doesn’t just go up. 過ぎおいたしたし、アラン・グリヌンスパンAlan “The basic growth trends here are very Greenspan氏が米囜で蚀っおいたような『非合理 positive, but there are all kinds of risks. な熱狂』ずいうものも確かにありたしたから。垂堎 This may be boring, but I don’t think that は倉動するものです。盞堎ずは䞊䞋するもので、株 economists can really predict the future. We 䟡も䞊がるばかりではないず䞭囜人が理解するの have projections but we are pretty careful は、倧倉重芁なこずです] to say that these are really under plausible 「基本的な成長傟向は倧倉ポゞティブです。しか scenarios and there are a lot of unexpected し、やはり様々なリスクもありたす。こう蚀っおしたう things that can happen. We are projecting a ず぀たらないかもしれたせんが、゚コノミストが将 来を本圓に予枬できるかずいえば、そうは思いたせ minor slowdown in Chinese growth in 2007 ん。確かに予枬倀を出すこずはできたすが、それら to 9.6 percent.” The World Bank forecast はあくたで、今埌起こりそうなシナリオを前提ずしお is happily in the middle of most forecasts いるずいうこずに泚意しなければなりたせん。予想 that range narrowly between 8.8 and 10.9 倖の出来事が起こる可胜性は倚いにあるのです。 percent. 2007幎には䞭囜の成長率はやや䞋がっお9.6パヌ Economists generally say that the セントになるず予枬されおいたす」。䞖界銀行の予 fundamentals are good for strong Chinese 枬は、倧方の予枬が8.8から10.9パヌセントの間を growth, meaning continuing rapid 小さく掚移するなかで、ちょうどその䞭間倀をずっ productivity gains; an inflow of labour おいる。 from the countryside to the cities; healthy 倚くの゚コノミストは、䞭囜の力匷い成長には有利 な基瀎的条件が揃っおいるず蚀う。぀たり、生産性 は匕き続き急速に䞊昇しおおり、劎働力は地方から 郜垂に流入し続け、むンフラ投資は堅調で郜垂郚 の過密化を防いでいる。そしお、䞭囜は䞖界経枈ぞ の統合をいっそう進めおいるのである。 ダラヌ氏は さらに、倖囜人の倚くは北京や䞊海に匷い印象を 受けるけれども、 「䞭囜の倧郜垂集䞭の皋床は、私 が思い぀く他の囜ず比べおもずっず小さいもので す。䞭囜には生産掻動の掻発な倧郜垂が数倚くあ り、 どこかの郜垂だけでGDP囜内総生産のほ ずんどを生み出しおいるわけではないのです。過密 問題もそこたで深刻なわけではありたせん」

「出皌ぎ劎働者も、出身地のある省内で移動する 傟向が匷くありたす。 したがっお䞭囜には、劎働力 の移入により人口が300䞇や500䞇に激増したずい う無名の郜垂がいく぀もあるのです」

Wangfujing, is now called “the Champs Elysées of Beijing” in tourist guides, thanks to the proliferation of shining designer stores.

© Rafoto

おそらく䞀番の驚きは、䞭囜が比范的スムヌズに 成長を続け、予想されおいたような危機が䜕も起こ っおいないこずであろう。䟋えば、1990幎代埌半に 倚くの゚コノミストが恐れおいたのは、肥倧した囜 営䌁業の倧量解雇の圱響であった。 しかし劎働者 達は成長する経枈のなかで新しい職を芋぀けおい ったのである。 ダラヌ氏の指摘では、倚くの研究が明らかにしお いるように、 「45歳より䞊の劎働者は就職難や䜎賃 金、もしくは早期退職ず貧しい幎金暮らしを匷いら れおおり、その意味では、軜芖しおはならない困難 4

WiA Delegate Publication

97


Regional overviews

が確かに存圚したす。 しかし、45歳未満であった劎 働者のほずんどは民間セクタヌに転職し、所埗も䞊 昇したした」

© Rafoto

U B S 瀟 のゞョナサン・アンダヌ゜ンJ o n a t h a n Anderson氏は、䞭囜の経枈発展に関する長倧か ぀綿密な分析を行うなかで、 「䞭囜経枈に぀いお説 明するのは、盲人ず象のたずえ話にも䌌おいる」 ず 認めた。互いに矛盟した特質があるためである。 し かし圌によれば、珟圚のように発展した䞭囜は、 「根 本的には、囜家誘導で倚少倉則性をそなえた垂堎 経枈であっお、倖面だけ垂堎があるような䌝統的瀟 䌚䞻矩䜓制ではありたせん。そしお、マスコミがな んず蚀おうず、䞭囜経枈は決しお厩壊に向かっおな どいない、 ずアンダヌ゜ン氏は匷調する。䞭囜政府 所有の経枈の芏暡は䟝然ずしお他のどのアゞアの 囜よりも倧きく、劎働力は党䜓の6パヌセントを雇 甚するにずどたるが、囜内総生産の28パヌセント、 生産的資産の半分以䞊を占めおいるのである。 しか し非垞に賢明にも、政府は垂堎原理を導入しお囜 営䌁業をコントロヌルするようになったのである。

Bicycles, previously rulers of the road, have been pushed to the side to make way for cars.

infrastructure investment keeping the cities from getting too congested; and China’s increasing integration with the world economy. Dollar adds that although most foreigners are impressed by Beijing and Shanghai, “China has much less concentration in a few big cities than any other economy that I can think of. You have lots of major cities in China that are significant producers, so you don’t have any one city producing too much of GDP and the congestion problems are not too serious. “Migrants also tend to migrate within their own province, so China has cities that you and I have never heard of that have grown significantly in population by migration to three to five million people.” Perhaps the biggest surprise is that China has continued to grow relatively smoothly without any of the crises that were predicted. In the late 1990s, for example, many economists were fearful of the effects of mass shedding of labour by the bloated state enterprises. But workers have found new jobs in the growing economy. Dollar comments that various studies show that “workers who are older than 45 have had trouble finding work or have had to take a lower wage or premature retirement on quite a modest pension, so there is some real hardship that I would not want to minimise. But the workers who were under 45 have mostly moved into the private sector at higher wages.” Jonathan Anderson of UBS in a long and thoughtful analysis of China’s economic development admits that “describing China’s economy can resemble the tale of the blind men and the elephant” because of the contradictory evidence. But he sees China today as having evolved to “a 98

fundamentally market economy with stateinduced distortions, rather than a traditional socialist system with a market veneer. And despite what you might read in the press, the economy is NOT (his italics) heading for disaster. Anderson says the government still owns more of the economy than any other Asian economy, accounting for 28 percent of gross domestic product, more than half of productive assets, though only 6 percent of the workforce. But, very cleverly, the government has employed market forces to control the state sector.

China’s “uneasy house between socialism and capitalism
 is a system of Leninist corporatism – and it is this that is breaking down” Some of China’s risks are also clear. Dollar points to China’s large trade surplus now running at a rolling $200 billion a year: “It doesn’t make much sense for China to be a big net exporter of capital. They are excited that their firms are starting to invest overseas, which is great, but I see more foreign investor interest in China than I see potential outflow from China.” Trade imbalances could also produce a sharper than expected contraction in the US. Dollar notes that, “China is not THAT dependant on the US market, but the US market is important, so there will be some drop-off in the growth of Chinese exports and some Chinese firms will not be expanding as quickly, they may have problems servicing their loans, and that will have a ripple effect.” It could also pose the

䞭囜の抱えるリスクも明らかにある。ダラヌ氏が 指摘するのは䞭囜の貿易黒字の拡倧で、珟圚は幎 2000億ドルにも達しおいる。 「資本の玔茞出囜ずし お拡倧するこずは、䞭囜にずっおあたり意味があり たせん。䞭囜人は自囜の䌁業が海倖投資を始めた ず喜んでいたす。確かにそれはいいのですが、朜圚 的に芋お倖囜からの察䞭投資額のほうが、䞭囜の 海倖投資額よりも倧きいず考えられるのです」 貿易の䞍均衡は、米囜の景気埌退を予想以䞊に急 激な圢で匕き起こす可胜性もある。 ダラヌ氏が蚀う ように、 「䞭囜は米囜垂堎にそれほどひどく䟝存し おいるわけではありたせんが、米囜垂堎が重芁であ るのは確かです。そのため、䞭囜の茞出の䌞びにも ある皋床の萜ち蟌みが珟れるでしょうし、䞀郚の䞭 囜䌁業は成長の速床を緩め、債務凊理に問題を抱 えるずころも出おくるでしょう。そこから連鎖反応も 起きるず考えられたす」。䞀郚の゚コノミストが䞭囜 の経枈的奇跡における匱点ずずらえる金融システ ムにずっおも、 それは詊緎ずなるかもしれない。 ダラヌ氏は、 「䟝然ずしお匱い金融システム」が倧き な理由ずなっお、䞭囜は通貚の倉動盞堎制に移行 できないのだず蚀う。 「今、通貚を倉動盞堎制にす るこずはずおもできたせん。資本勘定の完党自由化 に察応できるだけの基盀的な金融制床があるずは 思えないからです。 これたでにも、金融システムが 匱いたた資本勘定を自由化し、財政危機に陥った 発展途䞊囜は数倚くありたす」 しかし、 どれほど匱ければ、匱いずいえるのか。その 答えには時間ずショックが必芁であるずダラヌ氏は 蚀う。 「金融システムの改革がどれほど実質的に進 んできたのかは、なにか深刻なショックを受けるた では分からないず思いたす。その時になっお始め お、䞭囜の銀行の融資手続きは本圓に改善されお きたかどうか、 たたどれほどの䞍良債暩が急増しお いるのかが明らかになるでしょう」 賢明な䞭囜政府は倧銀行の統制に際しお、株匏䞊 堎管理や海倖の倧銀行による株匏保有䞭囜の 4倧銀行のうち3行がこれにあたる、 たた倖郚専門 家立ち入りによる䞍良債暩凊理の促進ずいった、他 の囜営䌁業に察しお甚いた垂堎技術のいく぀かを 採甚した。 ダラヌ氏には䞭囜普通話を話すこずがで きるほか、゚コノミストである、開発銀行員であるず いう3぀のメリットがあり、䞭囜の銀行で珟圚働い おいる数名の倖囜人専門家ずも芪しいが、それで も銀行の真の実情に぀いおはよく分からないず蚀 う。 「ポゞティブな事柄もいく぀か生じおはいるの ですが、 これらの銀行のある業務領域の䞭で融資 掻動の党䜓を倖囜人投資家は把握しきれおいない 郚分がかなりあるのです。それはある意味で仕方 のないこずです。銀行のなかには、䜕千もの支店に 数䞇人の埓業員を抱えおいるようなずころもあるか らです」。それでも倖囜人投資家は恐れをなしお逃 げ出したり、 ダラヌ氏に慰めを求めたりはしおいな い。 4


China

analysis, mortgage-backed securities. At the moment, while the economy is doing well, companies are managing to get bank loans – predominantly the main source in a still developing financial system. A World Bank random survey in 120 cities of 12,400 manufacturing concerns showed that more than half of the lending from the banking system goes to majority privately owned companies. Directed lending to state enterprises and guanxi (connections) inspired lending still happens but with less intensity. But the real crunch will be when there is a crisis or contraction to see who suffers first, the well connected or the well managed companies.

crucible test for China’s financial system, which some economists see as the weak spot in the country’s economic miracle. Dollar says that the “still weak financial system” is a major reason why China is reluctant to let its currency float freely: “I would not let it float now because I don’t think that they have the underlying financial institutions to manage a fully liberalised capital account. A lot of developing countries have had financial crises when they have liberalised the capital account, with a still weak financial system.” But how weak is weak? Dollar says that only time and a shock will tell: “We will only find out how much real reform there has been in the financial system when there is some serious shock. That is when you find out - have these Chinese banks reformed their lending practises and how many nonperfoming loans develop quickly.” The Chinese government has also cleverly tried to apply some of the same market techniques used on the other state enterprises to try to discipline the big banks, with stock market listings, shareholdings by big international banks (in three of China’s big four) and the intrusion of outside experts to hasten the cleanup. Dollar has the triple advantage of being a Putonghua speaker, an economist and a development banker – and he is also a friend of some of the foreign experts now working in the banks – and he still admits that he does not know the truth of the banks’ situation. “There are some positive things happening,” he says, “but there are whole parts of the operations of these banks where the foreign investing partners are not fully aware of all the lending activity. It is kind of inevitable because some of these banks have thousands of branches and hundreds of thousands of employees.” But the foreigners are not running away in horror or crying on Dollar’s shoulder. Chinese banks’ lending practices are still conservative and traditional, focussed on collateral based lending, whereas banks in the West have developed a whole array of lending products, for example, lending against receivables, small scale loans without collateral based on cash flow

© UPPA / Photoshot

Workers who are older than 45 have had trouble finding work or have had to take a lower wage

Finance Minister Jin Renqing said in March that a new agency would seek to “maximise the profits” for China’s foreign exchange reserves of more than $1 trillion.

䞭囜の銀行はただ担保ベヌスの貞付を䞭心ずし た䌝統的な慎重掟融資業務を行っおいるので、欧 米の銀行が売掛債暩担保融資やキャッシュフロヌ 分析を基にした無担保の小口貞付、モヌゲヌゞ蚌 刞ずいった数々の融資商品を開発しおきたのずは 察照的である。奜景気の珟圚、䌁業が頌みずしお いる銀行融資は、いただ発展途䞊の金融システム のなかで圧倒的に重芁な資金源である。䞖界銀 行が120の郜垂で12,400の補造䌁業を察象にラン ダムに行った調査では、銀行融資の過半数が公共 株䞻が半分未満の䌁業に察しお行われおいるこず が瀺された。囜営䌁業に察する融資統制や、関係 guanxiコネに基づく貞付も今なお行われおい るが、以前ほどではない。 しかし、垂堎瞮小や恐慌 が発生したずきに、運営がしっかりした䌚瀟ず関係 がたくさんある䌚瀟のどちらが先に被害を受ける かが本圓の分かれ目である。 䞭囜の蚌刞取匕所が懞念材料になっおいるのはこ のためである。 ずきどき違う星にいるようにみえる が、近代経枈の䞭で金融仲介機関ずしお機胜させ なければならない。䞊海は今でもどちらかずいえば 賭博堎のようなずころであり、そこでは囜が銀行家 で投資家は隙されやすいカモのようなものである。 実際に、小さな蚌刞䌚瀟だず、人民服を着た盞堎垫 達がうろ぀いおいるのを目にするこずもある。䞊堎 䌚瀟のほずんどは囜営䌁業である。䞊海はロンドン やニュヌペヌクや銙枯ずは違っお、䌚瀟が業瞟を䞊 げお利益を出し蚌刞取匕の基準を満たせば䞊堎の 機䌚を぀かめるずいうものではなく、たた、投資家 の刀断が䌚瀟の適切な目論芋曞をもずに行われお いるずいうのでもない。䞭囜の取匕所ではさらに、 囜営䌁業でも取埗に苊劎する政府蚈画郚門の蚱可 が必芁であるずいう官僚的障害があるため、䜕瀟 かの倧䌁業はかえっお海倖で䞊堎しおいる。銀行融 資は短期貞付金であり、成長䞭の䌁業は株匏垂堎 が提䟛できるより長期的な資金を求めおいる。もち ろん適切に芏制された株匏垂堎であれば、決定暩 は個人投資家に委ねられ、決定をコントロヌルす る囜家暩力は瞮小される。 これは䞭囜にずっお重倧 な問題になるかもしれない。 たた、䞭囜には債暩垂 堎は存圚しない。政府はこれを䜜る玄束をしおいる ものの、 ここでもたた官僚が暩限を手攟そうずしな いのである。

This is why there should be worries about the Chinese stock markets. They need to be brought in from outer space to play a role in the financial intermediation of a modern economy. Shanghai is still more like a gambling casino with the state as the banker and the punters gullible potential suckers. In some of the small brokerages you can actually see the punters wandering round in traditional Chinese pyjamas. The quoted companies are mainly state enterprises. Shanghai is not like London or New York or Hong Kong, where good performance and profits, and meeting the stock exchange’s standards, will lead to the opportunity of a listing, and investors can judge whether 倖囜人投資家も、䞭囜の有力な機関投資家も、䞭 they want to put their money in based on 囜の株匏垂堎ではなんの圹割も果たしおいない。 the appropriate prospectus. The Chinese 倖囜人の参入は「有資栌機関投資家」プログラムず markets have the extra bureaucratic hurdle 呌ばれる耇雑で制限的な制床によっお阻たれおい of needing the approval of a planning るうえ、䞭囜本土の蚌刞取匕所で倖囜人投資家が agency, which has proved stingy with its 人民元建おの株匏を賌入するこずも犁じられおい permissions even to state companies, so る。䞭囜囜内にはカルパヌスCalpers = California that several big ones have listed abroad Public Employees’ Retirement Systemや欧米 instead. Bank lending is short-term money, の倧芏暡な幎金基金にあたるものはなく、圓然、 垂堎の健党化に貢献するりォヌレン・バフェット and growing companies need access to Warren Buffet氏のような倧投資家もいない。こう longer term funds, which a stock market can したこずから䞊海垂堎の䞋萜は、株䟡高隰を懞念 offer. Of course, a properly regulated stock する政府が盞堎垫達に「䞊がるものは必ず䞋がる」 market also leaves decisions in the hands of ずいう教蚓を叩き蟌むように手先に指瀺を䞎えた private investors and reduces the power of ずいう陰謀説、たたは䞀郚のプレヌダヌが3000を the state to control all the decisions, which 垂堎のマゞックナンバヌず決めお売り始めたのが may be a critical problem for China. China 連鎖反応を呌んだずいうヘマ説などに぀いお、議 also lacks a corporate bond market, though 論が起こるのも䞍思議ではない。 the government has promised that it will もちろん、それでも倖囜のベンチャヌ投資資金は 「ベンチャヌ投 develop one, and again, the bureaucrats are 䞭囜から目を離さない。ダラヌ氏は、 資資金は投資目的で䞭囜垂堎をぶら぀いおいたす reluctant to give up control. Neither foreigners nor big Chinese が、撀退方法に぀いおは悩んでいたす」ず指摘する。 institutional investors play a role in the 「掻力ある民間䌁業ぞの長期的なベンチャヌ投資 Chinese stock markets. The foreigners are をいかに実珟しおいくか、それがここでの本圓の問 題なのです」 held at bay by a convoluted and limiting scheme called the Qualified Institutional たずえ「䞖界の工堎」ずいうのが虚構的な衚珟で Investor programme, and China does not あるにしおも、䞭囜は倉化し続けおいる。䟋えば、 2005幎ず2006幎には、無限に利甚可胜ず考えられ allow overseas investors to purchase Yuan- おいた安䟡な劎働力が぀いに枯枇し始めた。ここ dominated shares trading on the mainland で再び、䞖界銀行のデビッド・ダラヌ氏は、オブザ exchanges. Nor is there any Chinese ヌバヌずしおの有利な立堎から次のように語る。4 domestic equivalent of Calpers or the big WiA Delegate Publication

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Regional overviews

「過去数幎の間に䞭囜の補造業ず䞀般の劎働者の 賃金が急䞊昇したした。東海岞から内陞ぞず安䟡 な劎働力を求めお工堎が移動しおいくずいうか぀ おの時代は、今や終焉を迎え぀぀ありたす。それは 圓然予想できるこずで、非垞に健党な発展でもある わけです。人々の生掻氎準は向䞊し、䞭囜の競争力 も補造業党䜓の䞭での最底蟺の䜍眮から次第に浮 䞊しようずしおいたす。そのため䞭囜は、衣料品や 靎、電気補品郚品ずいった分野での比范優䜍性を 倱い぀぀ありたす。䞭囜の賃金はベトナムやバング ラディシュよりもおそらく3倍は高いために、そうい った囜からの郚品の茞入を増やしおいたす」

© Rafoto

「個々の産業を説埗するのは難しいでしょうが、あ らゆる分野で競争力を維持しおいく必芁はありた せん。党䜓的な貿易黒字が問題ずなっおいる以䞊、 すべおの分野で競争力があれば、逆に為替レヌト に問題があるこずを瀺す。賃金の䞊昇はこの問題に 察凊するための䞀぀の芁玠だずいえたす」

The few remaining hutongs (slums) in the centre of Beijing are an historic oddity and look distinctly slummy alongside the sparkling palaces to commerce.

pension funds of the West, let alone a Warren Buffet, which act to keep markets honest. So it is not surprising to hear disputes as to whether the Shanghai market fell because of a conspiracy – the government decided that it had gone too high and instructed its minions to teach the punters that what goes up can go down – or a cock-up – some players decided that 3,000 was a magic market number and began to sell, setting off a chain reaction. Of course, none of this has stopped foreign venture capital funds from looking at China, and Dollar notes that, “There are venture capital funds wandering around China interested in investing, but they are worried about what their exit strategy is.” He adds that, “getting long-term risk capital to the dynamic private firms, that is a real issue here.”

The government faces popular pressures that it is not easy for any prospering country to rein in Even as the fabled “workshop of the world” China is changing, and one of the things that began to occur in 2005 and 2006 was the drying up of the seemingly endless supply of cheap labour. Again, the World Bank’s David Dollar is in a good position to observe and he notes that: “In the last few years there has been a sharp increase in manufacturing wages and just ordinary worker wages in China. The days (of factories moving from the east coast to the hinterland in search of cheaper labour) are gradually ending. It is what you would expect, and that’s a very healthy development, making people’s lives better and also pushing China out of its competitiveness at the low end of the manufacturing scale. So China is losing its comparative advantage in garments, footwear, the low end of electronics and 100

成功はたた、新たな課題を生み出すものである。経 枈ブヌムによる公害の拡倧は、 この囜を蚪れる誰 もが顔や肺で実感できるほど、明癜な問題ずなっお いる。デビッド・ダラヌ氏はこれに察しおは穏健な 芋解を瀺し、䞭囜が自己本䜍に考えおも汚染の浄 化は身のためであるず力説する。 「過去20幎間に䞭 囜のほずんどの郜垂は、倧気汚染を改善しおきたし た。1986幎は、粒子状物質による倧気汚染や石炭 燃焌による煀塵はかなりひどいものでした。 しかし 煀塵から生ずる医療経費は、囜党䜓ではっきりず劇 的に瞮小したした。 ずはいえ、状況は䟝然ずしおひど いものです。倧気䞭に浮遊する粒子状物質に関し お最悪の状態にあるずされる䞖界30郜垂のうちの 20が䞭囜の郜垂なのです」

is increasingly importing components from Vietnam and Bangladesh because wages in China are maybe three times higher than in Vietnam or Bangladesh. “It may be hard to convince each industry, but you don’t want to be competitive in everything. The overall trade surplus is a problem, so if you are competitive in everything, that’s a real signal that your 䞖界銀行は、倧気ず氎の汚染による健康被害にか かるGDPコストに぀いお画期的な研究を実斜しお exchange rate is not appropriate. The wage いる。結果はただ出おいないが、ダラヌ氏はこのよ rise is one factor in the adjustment . うに述べおいる。 「質的な結論を䞀蚀で蚀うなら、 コ Success inevitably breeds new challenges. ストは甚倧だずいうこず、そしお、倧気ず氎の汚染を The pollution created by the booming 枛らす察策を講じるこずは䞭囜自身の利益に倧き economy is one obvious problem that hits く貢献するずいうこずです。䞖界的な環境問題はひ any visitor in the face and lungs. David ずたず脇においお、環境浄化のための技術を掻甚 Dollar takes a gentle approach, urging that a すれば、それは䞭囜の利益になるのです。倚くの堎 cleanup is in China’s self interest. He asserts 合、必芁な蚭備はすでに蚭眮されおいたす。単に䜿 that, “in most Chinese cities the air pollution われおいないだけです。そうした蚭備を皌動させる has improved over the past 20 years. In 1986 のに若干の費甚はかかりたすが、犏祉面で党䜓的 にプラスの効果がもたらされるでしょう。人々は長 particulates in the air and the grime through 生きしお病気で寝蟌む日数も枛り、呌吞噚系疟患も the use of coal were pretty appalling. The 枛少し、ずいったようにです。私達が䞊海ず重慶で health cost comes from the particulates and 行った先駆的な調査によれば、人々はきれいな空 that has declined in China, measurably and 気ず氎のためにはコストを負担しおもかたわない dramatically, but it is still bad. China still ず考えおいたす」。䞭囜が倧気浄化に着手しおも、地 has 20 of the 30 worst cities in the world in 球枩暖化の問題は䞖界䞭が取り組むべき課題ずし お䟝然ずしお残されおいる。 terms of suspended particulates.” The World Bank is doing a path-breaking 䞭囜のもう䞀぀の課題は、金融制床改革を実斜し、 study to calculate the GDP costs of air and それを法的な枠組みでしっかりず芏制するこずで water pollution on health. Results are not ある。その目的は単に銀行の貞付を敎理しおいず in but, Dollar says, “The qualitative punch れ蚪れる景気埌退に備え、そこで䞍可避的に発生 line is that the costs are serious and that it is する䞍良債暩に぀いおもきちんず凊理できるよう very much in China’s private interest to take にするずいうこずばかりではない。アゞア開発銀行 measures to reduce air and water pollution. ADB総裁の黒田東圊氏は、そのために必芁な 任務ず時間に぀いおは自信を持っおいる。 しかし、 Ignore the global issues for the moment, it 金融セクタヌをはじめ、䞭囜の垂堎経枈化の進展 would be in China’s interest to use cleaner に関しおはアンダヌ゜ン氏ほど楜芳的ではない黒 technologies. In many cases the equipment 田氏は、今幎ケンブリッゞで行った講挔の䞭で「䞭 has been installed. It is just not used. It is 囜の囜営銀行は非効率なたたで、巚額な䞍良債暩 going to cost a little bit more to use the を抱える危険性がありたす」ず述べおいる。 「䞭囜が equipment, but it will have an overall positive WTO䞖界貿易機関に加盟するためには、金融垂 welfare effect. People will live longer and 堎を開攟しお倖囜人が参入できるようにする必芁 have fewer sick days, respiratory illnesses, がありたす。それは明らかに、非効率な囜営銀行に and things like that. Our pioneering surveys ずっお難題ずなりたす。これらの銀行はこれたで以 in Shanghai and Chongqing show people 䞊に䌁業統治改革を実斜し、経営効率を高め、資産 内容を改善しなければなりたせん。 たた、銀行の資 are willing to pay for cleaner air and cleaner 産内容を倧きく決定しおいる囜営䌁業に぀いおも、 water.” Cleaning up the air still largely leaves 匕き続き改革を斜しおいくこずが必芁ずなりたしょ the challenge of greenhouse gases for the う。さらに垂堎経枈のための芏制改革ず、有胜な人 4 rest of the world to cope with.


China

English language instruction. China could 材のいる独立した匷い叞法制床に裏付けられた法 emerge as a base for IT and business 䜓系を構築するこずも求められたす。埌者の実珟に process offshoring but, unless the country は䞀䞖代かかる可胜性がありたす」 addresses its looming labour shortage now, the global ambitions of Chinese companies äž­ 囜 は 次 の 発 展 段 階 に 向 かう準 備 が 敎っおい ないずいう意芋がすでに出始めおいる。䞭囜に will probably be stymied.” 優秀な倧孊卒業者が十分に存圚するかどうか、 Of course, massive foreign investment, McKinsey瀟が最近調査を行った。それには次のよ estimated at $630 billion in 20 years, has うに報告されおいる。 「MGI瀟の最新調査が明らか given China an industrial base, but much にしたように、倧孊卒業生の数は倚いものの、付加 of its output is foreign driven, unlike India. 䟡倀の高い職に必芁なスキルを備えた者はそのう China needs to encourage internationally ちのわずかでしかない。このため人材獲埗競争が competitive, home grown entrepreneurs 激化しおいる」 outside the state sector. This, of course, 「䞭囜では、倧孊の出資圢態の倉曎、産業のニヌ means improving the financial and legal ズに合わせたカリキュラムの改革、そしお英語教育 system, and also relaxing the grip of の改善によっお、卒業生の資質を向䞊させる長期 government. In 2007 the famous MG car 蚈画が必芁である。䞭囜はIT産業や業務凊理のオ marque was reborn in China, becoming フショアリングの基盀ずしお発展するこずができた。 a product of China’s state owned Nanjing しかし、迫りくる劎働力䞍足問題に盎ちに察凊しな ければ、䞭囜䌁業の䞖界進出の倢はおそらく挫折 Automobiles. を䜙儀なくされるであろう」

Another challenge is to upgrade the financial system, and back it with a regulatory and legal regime, not merely to ensure that the banks’ lending is cleaned up and can withstand an economic slowdown that will inevitably happen and inevitably cause some loans to be non-performing. Asian Development Bank president Haruhiko Kuroda is sanguine about the task and the length of time it will take. He is less optimistic than Anderson about the progress towards a market economy, especially where the financial sector is concerned: “China’s state owned banks remain inefficient, with potentials for high levels of non-performing loans,” he said in a speech at Cambridge this year. “China’s accession to the WTO requires that it open its banking market to foreign participation. This poses clear challenges for these inefficient state banks, which must do more to improve corporate governance, management efficiency, and asset quality. This will also require continued reform of China’s state owned enterprises, which largely determine banks’ asset quality. A further requirement is regulatory reform for a market economy and the development of a legal system with a competent, independent, and powerful judiciary. The latter may take a generation to develop.” Some commentators have already begun to say that China is not ready for the next stage in its evolution. McKinsey recently questioned whether China was producing sufficient numbers of well-qualified graduates. “While university graduates are plentiful, new MGI research shows that only a small proportion of them have the skills required for jobs further up the value chain—and competition for these graduates is becoming fierce,” reported McKinsey. “China must undertake a long-term effort to raise the quality of its graduates by changing the way it finances its universities, revamping curriculums to meet the needs of industry, and improving the quality of

© Landov / UPPA / Photoshot

China still has 20 of the 30 worst cities in the world in terms of suspended particulates

Stephen Roach, chief economist of Morgan Stanley: The contradictions of a blended economy that tries to be state and market driven have produced one that has become seriously unbalanced.

Stephen Roach, chief economist of Morgan Stanley, asserts that the contradictions of a blended economy that tries to be state and market driven have produced an economy that has become seriously unbalanced. By Morgan Stanley’s estimates, in 2006 fixed asset investment exceeded 45 percent of Chinese GDP, “a record for any major economy in the world. Japan’s investment ratio in the 1960s, the period of maximum rebuilding from the destruction of World War II, never exceeded 34 percent of GDP. China’s annual growth in fixed asset investment has averaged 26 percent over the past four years. Should the investment boom continue at this pace, the odds of capacity excesses and a deflationary endgame will only increase.” Although administrative edicts helped to slow investment growth, bank lending went the other way, and the Shanghai stock market was one of the beneficiaries, riding to records until someone got a fever. Even though China is not a democracy, and the Communist rulers don’t expect it to be ready for a hundred years – shorthand for never – the government faces popular pressures that it is not easy for any prospering country to rein in. But the Chinese rulers try. In early 2007 a document was circulating enjoining greater transparency in government – but its contents were top secret. Nevertheless, premier Wen Jiabao in his long opening address to the National People’s Congress acknowledged the growing gap between China’s rich and poor and said that bridging it was a government priority. Only days after the premier had spoken, unrest involving 20,000 people broke out in Zhushan in Hunan, central China. Riot police were forced to back

確かに䞭囜は、20幎間で掚蚈6300億ドルにも及ぶ 巚額の倖囜投資を埗お産業基盀を築いおきたが、 その生産の倧郚分は倖囜䌁業がリヌドしおきたも のである。 ここがむンドずは違うずころである。䞭囜 は、囜際競争力を持぀自前の䌁業を囜営䌁業ずし おではなく育成しおいく必芁がある。もちろんその ためには、金融および法制床の改善や政府の芏制 緩和も進めおいかなければならない。2007幎に有 名な自動車ブランドMGが䞭囜で囜営䌁業の南京 汜車の補品ずしお生たれ倉わった。 Morgan Stanley瀟のチヌプコノミスト、 スティヌ ブン・ロヌチStephen Roach氏は、囜家統制ず 垂堎原理を䞡立させようずする混合経枈の矛盟の ために、䞭囜経枈は深刻なたでにバランスを倱い ぀぀あるず断蚀する。Morgan Stanley瀟の掚定で は、2006幎に䞭囜の固定資産投資はGDP囜民総 生産を45パヌセント超過しおいた。 「これは䞖界 のどんな経枈倧囜であっおも、蚘録的な数倀です。 1960幎代の日本は、第二次䞖界倧戊埌の壊滅状態 から最倧限に埩興が進んだ時代でしたが、その時 でさえ、投資比率はGDPの34パヌセントを超えるこ ずはありたせんでした。䞭囜の固定資産投資の幎 間成長率は、過去4幎間にわたっお平均26パヌセン トにもなっおいたす。仮にこのペヌスで投資ブヌム が続けば、生産胜力の超過でデフレの危機に陥る 芋蟌みは高たる䞀方でしょう」。政府の通達で投資 拡倧の速床は匱たったものの、銀行の貞付は別の 方向ぞず向かい、䞊海の株匏垂堎がその恩恵を受 けお蚘録的に倀を䞊げおいった。それは誰かが高 熱に冒されるたで続いたのである。 たずえ䞭囜が民䞻䞻矩囜家ではないにしおも、た た、共産䞻矩の支配者達がこの先100幎は民䞻䞻 矩を採甚しない぀もりであっおも芁するに、決し お採甚しない、それでも政府はどのような繁栄囜 家であっおも統制しがたいほどの民衆の圧力に盎 面しおいる。 しかし䞭囜の支配者達も努力はしお いる。2007幎の初めにある文曞が政府内で回芧さ れ、透明性が拡倧しおいるこずを瀺した。もっずも、 その文曞の内容は極秘である。 ずはいえ、銖盞の枩家宝Wen Jiabao氏は、党囜 人民代衚倧䌚開䌚匏の長い挔説のなかで䞭囜の 貧富の差が拡倧しおいるこずを認め、その解消は政 府にずっおの優先事項であるず述べた。そのわずか 数日埌、䞭囜䞭倮郚にある湖南省竹山で2䞇人芏暡 の暎動が発生した。機動隊が民衆の前で退华を匷 いられるほどの激しさであったが、圓局が報道管制 を匷いたために、バス運賃の倀䞊げに反察するこ の暎動は発衚されなかった。 民 衆 の 抗 è­° の 察 象 に なっお いるもの の äž­ に 、 2006幎に蚘録的芏暡の1兆ドルに達した埌も毎月 200億ドルに近いペヌスで増え続けおいる、膚倧に 膚れ䞊がった䞭囜の倖貚準備高があった。 この倖 貚のほずんどは米ドル建おの金融商品であったた 4

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め、察ドルの為替レヌトを匕き䞋げない限り、 これ を他の通貚に亀換するこずは䞭囜にずっお容易な らない課題であった。䞭囜で批刀する偎は、蚌刞垂 堎や䞍動産に投資するなど、利益率をあげる措眮 を芁求したが、倖貚準備を守っおいる䞭倮銀行や 政府の圹人達が超保守的なため、考えも及ばない こずである。 䞭囜からの回答は、倖貚準備高のかなりの郚分蚈 画から数か月たっおもその額は囜家機密であった がおそらく2000億から2500億ドルず掚定されるを ある投資機関に投入するずいうものであった。

© Rafoto

3月に、財務倧臣の金人慶Jin Renqing氏はこの 新しい機関が倖貚準備高の「利益の最倧化」を远求 するであろうず語った。 しかし、 この機関がい぀公匏 に発足するのかに関しおは、䞭囜政府は明らかにし おいない。

Dollar: It is very important that Chinese people understand that stock market prices can go down as well as up.

down before the masses, but the authorities imposed a news blackout on the protests against bus fare rises. Among the targets of popular pressure was the growing pile of China’s foreign exchange reserves, which topped a record $1 trillion in 2006 and were still growing at close to $20 billion a month. Much of the money was in US dollar instruments, and China could not easily diversify into other currencies without swamping the exchange rates against it. Chinese critics demanded that the money should earn better returns, for example by investing in the stock market or real estate, something that central bankers and government officials, who are the ultra-conservative guardians of the

We will only find out how much real reform there has been in the financial system when there is some serious shock reserves, traditionally will not do. China’s answer is to detach a large chunk of reserves, probably $200-250 billion, but after months of planning the amount was a state secret, and put it into an investment corporation. The new agency will seek to “maximise the profits’’ of the reserves, Finance Minister Jin Renqing said in March, but Chinese officials declined to say when the agency would formally start. Some outside economists say that, for all China’s success, it is on a collision course between the historical inheritance and the needs of the future. British economist Will Hutton, chief executive of the Work Foundation, says that China’s “uneasy house between socialism and capitalism
 is a system of Leninist corporatism – and it is this that is breaking down.” He draws attention to the “absurdity” of China lending to the US, through the current account surplus, which is then turned into purchases of US treasuries and other dollar instruments. “The 102

䞭囜の成功にずっお、歎史的な遺産ず将来のニヌズ ずの間で衝突が起こるのは避けられない、 ず考える 倖郚の゚コノミストもいる。英囜の゚コノミストで、 Work Foundation瀟の最高責任者であるりィル・ハ ットン Will Hutton氏は、 「䞭囜における瀟䌚䞻矩 ず資本䞻矩の䞍安定な劥協は 、 レヌニン的コヌ ポラティズムの぀ですが、 これこそが今厩壊しよ うずしおいたす」 ず蚀う。ハットン氏は、経垞黒字の 圢で䞭囜が米囜に察する貞し手ずなっおいながら、 米囜債やその他のドル建おの金融商品の賌入に資 産をあおおいるずう 「䞍条理」に泚意を促す。 「䞭囜 共産党は儒教型垝囜システムが犯しおきた間違い を繰り返しおいたす 。䞭囜の垂堎や資産、テクノ ロゞヌはいただに18䞖玀の氎準にずどたっおいた すが、それは倚元䞻矩政治・経枈的暩力センタヌ の耇数性、ケむパビリティ 人暩、教育、私有財産 制、そしお正圓化説明責任、粟密な調査、衚珟の 自由 ずいう䞉぀の重芁な芁玠が欠けおいるため です」

Chinese Communist Party is repeating the mistakes of the Confucian imperial system
 China had markets, property and technology in the 18th century; it fell behind because it lacked the ‘trinity’ of pluralism (multiple centres of political and economic power), capabilities (rights, education and private ownership) and justification (accountability, scrutiny, free expression).” China’s intriguing tussle between capitalism and socialism was given a new twist in March 2007 as China’s so called 䞭囜における資本䞻矩ず瀟䌚䞻矩の間の興味深い 小競り合いは、2007幎3月に新たな展開を芋せた。 rubberstamp parliament, the National 䞭囜のいわゆる圢匏承認議䌚である党囜人民代衚 People’s Congress, wrapped up session 倧䌚が䌚期を締めくくっお私有財産暩を認める画 and passed a landmark law to provide 期的な法埋を成立させたのである。䞭囜日報の報 private property rights. The China Daily 道によれば、 「2007幎10月1日斜行予定の党247条 reported that: “The 247-article law, which からなるこの法埋は、 『囜家、団䜓、個人の財産暩は is due to come into effect as of October 法埋の保護を受け、いかなる組織、個人もこれを䟵 1, 2007,stipulates that ‘the property of the 犯しおはならない』ず芏定しおいる」。これは14幎の state, the collective, the individual and 蚎議を費やしお成立したものであるが、䞀郚の筋 other obligees is protected by law, and no 金入り共産䞻矩者はなお䞍満であり、䞭囜が共産 units or individuals may infringe upon it’.” 䞻矩の぀の原理を砎っお私的財産暩を認めおし たったこずを毛沢東䞻垭も墓の䞭で嘆いおいるは It had taken 14 years of debate, and still ずだず発蚀しおいた。 some die-hard Communists were muttering that Chairman Mao Zedong must be turning 倧䌚閉䌚にあたっお枩銖盞は、腐敗が䞀因ずなっお in his grave that China had overturned one 所埗栌差が拡倧しおおり、䞭囜蟲村地域の調和を 危ぶんでいるずいうこずも認めおいる。もっずも枩 of the key principles of Communism, and 氏の衚珟は次のように、より儀瀌的なものであった。 permitted individual property rights. 「珟圚の優先課題は、教育の機䌚均等を掚進し、 In closing the meeting, premier Wen also 進歩的な雇甚政策を実斜し、所埗栌差を狭めお瀟 admitted that growing differences in income, 䌚的安党のネットワヌクを構築しおいくこずにあり exacerbated by corruption, were posing たす」。腐敗の拡倧に぀いおは、 「暩力の過床の集䞭 threats to the harmony of rural China. Wen ず、効果的で適切な自制ず取り締たりの欠劂」が原 put it more diplomatically and said: “The 因であるず非難し、この課題に優先的に取り組んで priorities now are promoting equality in いくこずを玄束した。 education opportunities, adopting progressive このように、共産䞻矩者ず呌ばれる支配者達が資 employment policies, narrowing income gaps 本䞻矩の基瀎原理である財産所有暩を承認するこ and building social security networks.” He ずで自分達に察する支持の䜎䞋に歯止めをかけよ blamed the increase in corruption on an “over- うずした。しかし、そのような反感が瀟䌚䞻矩的統 concentration of power without effective and 制䞋で垂堎経枈を打ちたおようずしたこずから発生 したものだったずは、なんずも皮肉なものである。■ proper restraint and oversight”, and promised to address the issue as a priority. The irony was that the so-called Communist rulers had adopted a key principle of capitalism, property ownership, to try to shore up their sagging popularity, antipathy that had been unleashed by their attempts to set up a market economy under socialist control. g



Regional overviews

賛吊䞡論が枊巻 くむンドのSEZ マハラゞャ颚の堂々たるカむれル髭を蓄 え、 タヌバンを着甚した裞足の男達が床に 座り蟌み、自分達に提瀺されおいる話が千 茉䞀遇のチャンスなのか、それずも生掻の 糧ず父祖䌝来から受け継がれおきた神聖 な遺産を倱うおそれのあるものなのか思 案しおいた。 ブクブク音の出る氎たばこを回し飲みし ながらじっず考え蟌んでいる。手䜜りの玠 朎なチャッパルサンダルから高性胜の スポヌツシュヌズたで、男達の履物がブ ルヌのビニヌルシヌトを囲むようにきち んず䞊んでいる。 この男達は、ハリダナ州政府ず組んだ䌁業 グルヌプRelianceから土地を求められお いる蟲民である。Relianceは、4000億ルピ ヌ玄90億ドルを投資しお、むンドの銖郜 ニュヌデリヌからわずか65kmのずころに 25,000゚ヌカヌの経枈特区(SEZ) を建蚭 しようずいう。

© Rafoto

SEZずいう新しいコンセプトの賛成掟は、 「 これによりむンドは近代経枈倧囜ぞの道 を突進できたす」 ず述べおいる。 ずころが 反察掟は、 「これは囜内の蟲業を砎壊する だけでなく、今でさえも貧しい数癟䞇の蟲 業経営者や小䜜人の生掻を台無しにし、 むンドの魂の奥底にある神聖なものに背 くこずになりたす」 ず䞻匵しおいる。

India’s SEZs court controversy Men wearing turbans and sporting maharajah-style handlebar moustaches sat barefoot on the floor while they pondered whether the offer they were being tempted with was the chance of a lifetime or the potential loss of their livelihood and of their historic sacred inheritance.

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hey passed round a hubble-bubble water tobacco pipe and sucked thoughtfully. Their shoes, from simple homemade chappals (sandals) to high-performance athletic shoes, sat patiently by the edge of the blue vinyl mat. The men are farmers whose land the Reliance industrial group in cooperation with the Haryana state government wants in order to invest 400 billion rupee (about $9 billion) to build a 25,000 acres special economic zone (SEZ) just 65 kilometres 104

from India’s capital New Delhi. Supporters of the new concept of SEZs say that they will allow India to go on a quick march towards becoming a modernised economic power. Opponents argue that the zones will not only destroy the country’s agriculture, but will also betray something sacred deep in the soul of India as well as ruining the lives of millions of already poor farmers and peasants. In addition, opponents say that the government is effectively creating latter-day

さらに反察掟は、 「政府は事実䞊近代版君 䞻制の州を䜜ろうずしおいたす。䌁業ずい う新しいマハラゞャが治安譊察軍を抱え た独自の王囜を築き、 この治安譊察軍が か぀おは民䞻的であった土地の新しい法 埋になりたす」 ず述べおいる。 これは党おどこか遠くで起きおいる、 どち らかずいえば珟実離れした話のようであ った。デリヌの衛星郜垂ずしお急発展し、 ホテルが1泊300ドルから400 ドルもする グルガオンに荷物を満茉した倧型トラッ クが蜟音を響かせお入っおいく。そこから ほんの目ず錻の先にある、 ここハリダナ州 ゞャッゞャルの村にはのどかな牧歌的颚 景が䞀面に広がっおいる。ここではただ 20䞖玀が続いおいる。村はずれにはコカ コヌラやペプシを売っおいる売店。 牛のいななきや鶏の声、気取っお歩く孔 雀が時々䞊げる甲高い鳎き声など、目に 芋えるもの、耳に聞こえるものはむンドそ のものである。貧しい地方の家は泥ず藁 でできおいるが、 ここの家は倧半がレンガ 4


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princely states, new corporate maharajahs who will have their own kingdoms with security and police forces who will be the new law in a once democratic land. It all seemed rather surreal out in the countryside. Here in a village in Jhajjar district in Haryana hardly a stone’s throw from the laden lorries roaring into Delhi’s rapidly developing satellite city of Gurgaon, where hotel rooms run at $300-400 a night, the landscape is predominantly gentle pastoral. The 20th century is still filtering through. Stalls selling Coca-Cola and Pepsi are on the fringe of the village. The sights and sounds are those of the country, the lowing of cattle, chickens clucking, the occasional screech of a strutting peacock. Houses are predominantly build of brick and stone rather than the mud and thatch of poorer rural areas. Several more prosperous farmers just outside the village have ranch-style houses set in fields that are nicely irrigated and green with crops. The school, with its imposing gateway opening into a big mud field, sits proudly in the middle of a street of baked mud whose potholes ensure a drunken ride even in a four-wheeled drive vehicle. The school field also doubles as a community gathering place where the

ず石でできおいる。村のすぐ倖偎にある、 どちらかず蚀えば豊かな蟲家ではきちん ず灌挑工事が行われ、䜜物の緑に芆われ た田畑に囲たれお牧堎颚の家が建っおい る。四茪駆動の車でも倧揺れに揺れるよ うな泥レンガ造りの穎だらけの通りには 䞭ほどに立掟な門があり、その向こうには 広々ずした土の校庭を備えた孊校が堂々 ず建っおいる。

farmers, all men, meet. It also overlooks the street where there are two wells, the main source of the domestic water supply. All afternoon, women come with their pitchers to hand-pump water into them and carry them home on their heads for cooking the family meal and washing the clothes. The wells are also a meeting and chatting place for the women who linger longer than necessary after they have filled their pitchers to catch up on the gossip. All around, children flit mischievously, watching, listening to the arguments of their elders carefully. They are well fed and clothed and have shoes on their feet, which is not always the case either in the squatter areas of the big cities or in the rural areas. They almost all say they go to school, but hesitate to show off their writing skills. Altogether, say the opponents of the Reliance-Haryana scheme, more than 200,000 people risk being displaced if the SEZ goes ahead as planned, a bird sanctuary will be disturbed and a dental training institute opened in 2003 with 200 chairs for treatment, free of charge to the villagers of the whole area, may have to close for lack of patients on whom the students can train. Vandana Shiva, a physicist, self-styled eco-feminist and campaigner against the

校庭は蟲民の男達が集たる地域の集䌚堎 にもなっおいる。そこからは家庭甚氎の䞻 な氎源ずなっおいる2぀の井戞がある通り も芋枡せる。午埌の間䞭、家族の食事の支 床や掗濯のために手こぎポンプで氎を汲 み䞊げ、氎差しを頭に乗せお家に運ぶ女 達が井戞を蚪れおいる。井戞は、女性達の 井戞端䌚議の堎所でもあり、女性達は氎 を汲み終わっおもなかなか垰ろうずせず に噂話に花を咲かせる。 その回りでは、子䟛達がはしゃぎ回り、倧人 達を芳察しその話に聞き耳を立おおいる。 子䟛達は色艶が良く身なりもきちんずしお いる。 倧郜垂の䞍法占拠地域や地方では垞 にこうずは限らない。ほずんど党員が孊校 に行っおいるず答えるが、文字を曞いお芋 せるこずはなかなか恥ずかしいようである。 Relianceずハリダナ州の蚈画の反察掟は、 「SEZの蚈画が進められれば党䜓で20侇 人以䞊が土地を終われ、鳥類保護区が砎 壊されたす。又、地域党䜓の村人を無料 で治療するために蚺療台200台を揃えお 2003幎に開蚭された歯科研修所も、患者 がいなくなっお孊生の研修ができなくな るために閉鎖せざるを埗ないかもしれた せん」 ず述べおいる。

Palaniappan Chidambaram, said he was, “Not against SEZs as such, I am against the proliferation of SEZs.”

© Landov / UPPA / Photoshot

自称゚コフェミニストで、 グロヌバラむれ ヌションずいう悪魔に反察する掻動をしお いる物理孊者のバンダナ・シバVandana Shiva氏は、SEZを「䌁業による土地のハ むゞャック」 ず非難しおいる。バンダナ氏の 䞻匵の基本は、神聖なものである土地は、 普通の商品のように䞀番高い入札額を瀺 した入札者に売られるずいうような扱い をされるべきものではなく、それは倧䌁業 に察しおであればなおさらである、 ずいう ものである。 バンダナ氏は、 「土地は人間の生蚈の基本 ずなるものです」 ず述べおいる。 「人間が生 蚈を立お、長幎生存するための神聖なトラ ストです。土地ずいうものは、投機的融資 の䞻導により垂堎で勝手に売買できる商 品ではありたせん。そのようなこずをすれ ば䌁業が資本を出しお零现蟲家から土地 を取り䞊げ、新しいザミンダヌル地䞻に なるこずを認めるこずになりたす。土地ず は、 その土地を耕し、手入れし、面倒を芋る 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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evils of globalisation, damns what she calls the “corporate hijack of land” by the SEZs. The basis of her call is that land is sacred and should not be treated as a normal commodity to be sold to the highest bidder, and especially not to big corporations.

Ahluwalia pushes aside the fear that farmers may be tempted by large sums of money for their land and then squander it on drink or conspicuous spending “Land is the basis of our sustenance,” she says. “It is a sacred trust for human sustenance and long-term survival. Land is not a commodity which can be bought and sold at will in a market driven by speculative finance, which allows corporate capital to dispossess small peasants of their land and become the new zamindars (landlords). Land must belong to those who till it, tend it and nurse it, and for whom it is a source of sustenance, and not to those for whom it is a means of accumulating wealth and speculative gain, or object of luxury resort and idle pastime.” It is a measure of the rapid pace of change taking place in India that hardly was the ink dry on the signatures and seals needed for passing the SEZ act than a host

of applications were made, and by early 2007 the government had approved nearly 400 zones and received proposals from state governments for 300 more. Some Indian state governments, including Haryana, which borders Delhi, Maharashtra, which includes Bombay, and Marxist-led West Bengal, which includes Calcutta, are planning as many as 20 SEZs in their territories. Previously, India had eight export processing zones, a modest average 200 acres in size, with about 800 individual units within all of them combined; all of these have been converted into SEZs. But the new SEZs are of a different scale entirely. The idea goes back to the year 2000 when India’s commerce minister came away highly impressed by China’s special economic zones and vowed to let hundreds of similar flowers bloom in India (even though China has only six, much bigger zones, and they were set up in the immediate context of Deng Xiaoping’s careful opening of the door to capitalism and the West using contiguity to Hong Kong and isolation from the rest of China as the basis of the original four). India’s SEZs are supposed to be of a minimum of 1,000 hectares and will be blessed with a wide range of tax and other concessions, including income tax exemption for a block of 10 years in 15, exemption from duties on the import and procurement of goods for the development or maintenance of the zone, and they will be open to foreign investors. Foreign investors

者、そしおその土地から生蚈を埗おいる者 に垰属すべきものであり、土地を蓄財の手 段ずし、土地から投機的利益を埗る者、莅 沢な保逊地や退屈しのぎを目的ずする者 に垰属すべきものではないのです」 SEZ法が早急に可決され、次々ず申請が 行われたこずは、むンドにおける急速な 倉化の進行を物語っおいる。2007幎初頭 たでには、䞭倮政府は州政府から出され た特区申請を400件近く承認し、その他に 300件以䞊の申し蟌みを受けおいる。デリ ヌに隣接するハリダナ州、ボンベむのある マハラシュトラ州、カルカッタがあり、マル クス䞻矩が支配する西ベンガル州などの 䞀郚の州政府では、州内で20ものSEZ蚈 画が進められおいる。 それたでむンドには平均200゚ヌカヌずい う比范的小芏暡の茞出加工区が8぀あり、 その加工区党䜓で玄800の工堎があった が、その党おがSEZに倉換された。 しかし、新しいSEZはスケヌルが党く違う。 SEZ構想は、むンドの商務盞が䞭囜の経枈 特区に倧きな感銘を受け、むンドでも同じ ような成功䟋を䜕癟も䜜るこずを誓った 2000幎たで遡る。ただし、䞭囜にははるか に倧芏暡な特区が6ヵ所あるのみであり、 䞭囜で最初に創られた4ヵ所の特区は、銙 枯ず隣接しおおり他の地方からは孀立し おいるこずを利甚しお資本䞻矩ず西偎諞 囜に門戞を開攟するずいう鄧小平Deng Xiaoping氏の慎重な解攟政策の盎接の 延長線䞊で蚭眮されたものであった。

© Rafoto

最䜎1000ヘクタヌルの芏暡をも぀むンド のSEZは、15幎のうち10幎間は法人皎の 免陀、特区の発展ず維持のための商品の 茞入や調達に察する関皎免陀など様々な 皎制優遇策が敎備されおおり、倖囜人投 資家も参加できる予定である。堎合によっ おは、倖囜人投資家がSEZ内に䜏宅や教 育、医療、嚯楜斜蚭を備えた町を䜜るこず もできる。䞭囜ではSEZの土地は今でも囜 有であるこずを指摘しおいるシバ氏を特 に苛立たせおいるのはこの点である。

Ahluwalia does not endorse the idea that farmers may be tempted to accept large sums of money for their land and then squander it on drink or conspicuous spending.

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民䞻䞻矩の囜むンドでは、SEZ建蚭の申 請が行われるず同時に、建蚭蚈画反察掟 が集結し始めた。ハリダナ州では蟲民が RelianceのSEZに反察し、むンドの東郚沿 岞ではむスラム教埒の蟲民がSEZ甚の土 地の接収を阻止するためにバリケヌドを 築き道路を掘り起こした。Relianceに察し おはマハラシュトラ州でも、そしお西ベン ガル州のサリム・グルヌプからも反察運動 が起きた。SEZプロゞェクトではないが、 タ タ自動車の西ベンガル州シングヌル工堎 建蚭蚈画の反察運動もただ続いおいる。 4


India

will be allowed to develop townships within the SEZs with residential, educational, health care and recreational facilities on a case by case basis. This particularly riles Vandana Shiva, who points out that in China the government continues to own the land on which the SEZs are based. This being democratic India, no sooner were the applications made to set up the SEZs than the protests also began to gather against the plans. Farmers protested against Reliance in Haryana and Muslim farmers on India’s eastern coast set up barricades and dug up roads to prevent their land being taken over for an SEZ. Reliance also faced opposition in Maharashtra and so did Indonesia’s Salim group in West Bengal. Tata Motors still faces protests against its plans to build a plant at Singur in West Bengal, even though this is not an SEZ project. Some cabinet ministers began to have second thoughts. The reformist finance minister Palaniappan Chidambaram, said in a January 2007 interview with the Indian Express newspaper that he was, “Not against SEZs as such, I am against the proliferation of SEZs.” He also warned about land takeovers: “There is a sacred bond that binds the tiller with the land,” he added. “If you want to snap that bond, then do so with great caution ... It is a minefield.” Finance ministry officials also fear that they could lose $20 billion in revenue, especially if industrialists relocate their factories from outside to inside SEZs. Ranguram Rajah, who was then the chief economist at the International Monetary Fund, also warned last year that SEZs would lead to more investment, but a lot less revenue for the government, and richer bureaucrats, their bank accounts fattened by the inevitable corruption opportunities. Montek Singh Ahluwalia, deputy chairman of the Planning Commission, a confidante of prime minister Manmohan Singh, tried to provide an economic perspective on the idea of SEZs. He laughed at the expression “latter-day princely states”: “It is a wonderfully Indian thing to say. One good thing about being a democracy is that these are the things that people can say.” He outlined the reasoning for the creation of the SEZ act that took effect from early 2006: “The real logic behind the SEZs was that we need to create segments of really high quality infrastructure. With the lowering of tax rates and all the rest of it, mere duty-free type of access to imports is not the most important thing if you are trying to attract the sort of investment which is capable of producing high quality goods. What you need is to provide a quality of infrastructure that will make the producing unit competitive.

“If that is the object, it can’t be done across the country as a whole. Any effort to do it on a very broad base requires massive development of public infrastructure -and it is very difficult to use public money for that purpose.” Ahluwalia notes that politically it would be hard to put large sums of public money into building supermodern infrastructure at the expense of neglecting the fetid slums of Bombay. “The logic was that the private sector would do it and they will take the risk and it will be their money,” Ahluwalia continues. “All that you have to do is to notify the area as an SEZ so that enough of them will come and provide some basic road connectivity. And I think that has a certain appeal.” In terms of connectivity, indeed, the intended Haryana SEZ shows the keen eye of Reliance. In spite of the rural atmosphere there are two expressways to Gurgaon and Delhi as well as a railway line with container depot, all within a few kilometres. Ahluwalia brushes aside loss of revenue as of lesser importance, saying that tax or lack of it, “is not in my view very important. If the finance minister let it go through, fine, and if, after a couple of hundred SEZs, he shuts it off, that is also fine.”

Opponents argue that the zones will not only destroy the country’s agriculture, but will also betray something sacred deep in the soul of India But Ahluwalia concedes that land and the way that it is acquired is an issue. As he talks it through, it is clear the issue is already a hot political potato -- though Ahluwalia comes to the planning job, which has cabinet rank, from senior bureaucratic positions and is not an avowed politician. He also disregards, at least from an experienced economist’s macro-economic point of view, the idea that SEZs pose a danger to India’s food security, saying that the loss of good agricultural land would be insignificant, tiny compared to the ranges of productivity of Indian farmland, and “the productivity increase of land is overwhelmingly the most important contributor to food security. “The problem is the land acquisition issue. There are SEZs where guys just go and negotiate a purchase of land. Newspapers say Mukesh Ambani (of Reliance) is paying ten times (normal market prices). That’s fine. Market transactions, I don’t think they pose a problem.”

閣 僚 の 䞭で は 芋 盎し論も出 始 め た。改 革掟のパラニアッパン・チダムバラム Palaniappan Chidambaram財務盞は、 2007幎1月にむンディアン・゚クスプレス 玙の取材に察しお 「私はSEZ自䜓に反察し おいるわけではなく、SEZが広がるこずに 反察しおいるのです」 ず答えおいる。 たた、 同財務盞は土地の買収に぀いお次のよう に譊鐘を鳎らしおいる。 「耕䜜者ず土地に は神聖な絆がありたす。その絆を切りたい のなら、 よほど慎重に行わなければ そこ はたるで地雷原のようであるからです」。 財務省の担圓官も、䌁業が工堎を他の地 域からSEZ内に移転するこずになった堎合 は特に、歳入が200億ドル枛る可胜性があ るこずを懞念しおいる。 昚 幎、圓 時 囜 際 通 貚基金IMFの䞻垭 ゚コノミストだったラングラム・ラゞャ Ranguram Rajah氏も、 「SEZによっお投資 は増えるだろうが、政府の収入が枛るずず もに、圓然汚職のきっかけも生たれるた め、官僚が私腹を肥やし、官僚の銀行口座 が膚れ䞊がるこずになりたす」 ず譊告した。 マンモハン・シンManmohan Singh銖 盞の腹心であるモンテック・シン・アヌル ワリア Montek Singh Ahluwalia政府蚈 画委員䌚副委員長はSEZ構想の経枈展望 を瀺そうずした。そしお、 「近代版君䞻制の 州」 ずいう衚珟を次のように笑い飛ばした。 「そこがむンドの良いずころですよ。民䞻 䞻矩の良いずころは、囜民がそのようなこ ずを口に出しお蚀えるずいうこずです」 アヌルワリア氏は、幎初頭に斜行された SEZ法誕生の背景を次のように説明しお いる。「SEZ建蚭の本音は、本圓に質の良 いむンフラが敎備された堎所を建蚭する こずが必芁であったずいうこずです。枛皎 その他色々ありたすが、高品質商品の生 産が可胜な投資を誘臎しようずする時に 最も倧切なこずは、茞入に察しお単なる免 皎のような取り組みをするこずではありた せん。必芁なのは、工堎に競争力を持たせ るような質の高いむンフラを敎備するこず です。それを目的ずした堎合、党囜芏暡で 行うわけにはいきたせん。広く実斜しよう ずすれば、倧芏暡な公共むンフラが必芁 であり、そのために公的資金を投じるのは きわめお難しいこずです」。 アヌルワリア氏 は、悪臭挂うボンベむのスラムを攟っおお いお、超近代的なむンフラ建蚭に巚額の 公的資金を投じるのは政治的に難しいこ ずであるず指摘しおいる。 アヌルワリア氏は次のように続ける。 「民 間が行い、民間の資金なのだから民間が リスクを負う、 ずいう理屈です。぀たり、あ る地域をSEZに指定さえすれば、倚くの民 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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Regional overviews

間䌁業がそこに集たり、基本的な道路網 を敎備しおくれるだろうずいう芋方です ね。魅力のあるやり方でしょう」 亀通網ずいえば、予定されおいるハリダナ SEZはすでにReliance瀟の熱い泚目を济 びた暡様である。ハリダナSEZの堎所は田 舎ですが、数キロ以内にグルガオンずデリ ヌに通じる高速道路が2本ずコンテナ車庫 付きの鉄道が1本走っおいる。

© Rafoto

アヌルワリア氏は皎収枛に぀いおは「そ れほど心配はありたせん」 ず䞀蹎し、次の ように語っおいる。 「皎収や皎収枛はそれ ほど重芁ではありたせん。財務盞がやる ず蚀うのであれば、それは結構。数癟の SEZが実珟しおから止めるず蚀うのであれ ば、それも結構」

The wells are also a meeting place for the women, who linger longer than necessary after they have filled their pitchers to catch up on gossip.

Ahluwalia is clearly a skilled economist who knows his way through the bureaucratic maze, and his fine Oxford-educated mind understands the economic consequences of the issues. He raises the interesting question of what is in the farmer’s best interests, and whether a farmer knows what is best for him. He pushes aside the fear that farmers may be tempted by large sums of money for their land and then squander it on drink or conspicuous spending and only then realise they have blown their inheritance. But he does raise the question of whether some of the protestors against SEZs are trying to perpetuate the caste system by keeping the farmers as farmers, rather than offering them or their children the opportunity of leaving the land to become workers in a Reliance or other factory, or computer programmers, or possibly even economists who would understand what is really at stake. Suppose, Ahluwalia suggests, Mukesh Ambani is prepared to pay large sums of money for farmland, and then the state government - which is responsible for land says that, no, you can only buy infertile land at half the price, then is the farmer jumping up and down for joy? “I know,” adds Ahluwalia, “that in Punjab and in Andhra Pradesh farmers are very happy that the value of their land has shot up to numbers that they could not imagine. Obviously, this is a bit imaginary in that the values are high only because very small amounts are being purchased. If everybody tried to sell the land, it wouldn’t be so.” 108

As regards consensual sales, he believes, “There is a lot of complexity, but I think it is broadly manageable.” In his view the real problem is when farmers are effectively forced to sell their land for the SEZ, especially if the state government is a partner in the enterprise that is building it. “The fundamental issue of principle, which I think that the government has recognised, is should you use the right of whatever these lawyers call ‘eminent domain’ to acquire land the way you do for a road when you are actually trying to build an industrial operation?” If land is being acquired to build a road, he says, “at least there is the feeling that if the state (acquires land for a road) it did it for a very widely disbursed flow of benefits. The benefits of a road accrue to huge numbers of people, mostly unidentified. It is very different from acquiring my land and converting it to a hotel and giving it to somebody who runs a major hotel chain because then I feel and I feel forever that it was taken away from me and given to this guy and what is its price now?” The solution, he suggests, is all the land acquired for SEZs should be consensually determined with the market price being set on it. “I don’t think that an SEZ or an industrial park or a hotel complex can be called a public purpose. “There is no doubt that there is a lot of concern in the country. Part of the problem is that because the land market is so distorted, land development is not very easy in the established cities, so a lot of the demand

しかし、土地ず土地の取埗方法が問題で あるこずは認めおいる。話が進むに぀れ お、問題がすでに厄介な政治問題になっ おいるこずは明らかである。アヌルワリア 氏は高玚官僚から閣僚玚の蚈画担圓にな ったが、公然たる政治家ではない。 たた、SEZがむンドの食糧安党保障を脅か すずいう考え方を、経隓豊かな経枈孊者の マクロ経枈的芳点から吊定し、次のように 述べおいる。 「むンドの蟲地をそ生産性ず 比范した堎合、蟲業に適した土地を倱うこ ずは些现なこずで重芁ではありたせん。食 糧安党保障にずっおは土地の生産性の向 䞊が䜕よりも絶察に倧切な芁因です。問題 は土地の取埗に぀いおです。ただ担圓者 が行っお土地の買収亀枉を行うSEZもあり たす。新聞によるず、 Reliance瀟のムケシ ュ・アムバニMukesh Ambani代衚は盞 堎の10倍を出しおいるず報じられおいた す。それも結構。私は、垂堎の取匕が問題 を匕き起こすずは思いたせん」 アヌルワリア氏は明らかに凄腕の゚コノ ミストであり、官僚機構ずいう迷宮を迷わ ずに進む術を知っおいる。 たた、 オックスフ ォヌドで教育を受けお磚き抜かれた知性 は、その問題によっお経枈にどのような結 果がもたらされるのかに぀いおも理解し おいる。そしお、 「䜕が蟲民にずっお最も利 益になるか」そしお「䜕が蟲民にずっお最 も利益になるかを蟲民は知っおいるか」 ず いう興味深い質問を投げかけおいる。 しか し、 「蟲民は巚額の土地代金に目がくらむ かもしれないこず」そしお「埗られた巚額 の金を酒や掟手な消費に浪費し、その時 になっおやっず自分の遺産を䜿い果たし たこずに気付くかもしれないこず」に぀い おの怖さを考慮しおいない。 それどころか䜕ず 「䞀郚のSEZ反察掟は、 土地を手攟しおRelianceなどの工堎の劎 4


India

for real estate development gets pushed into more peripheral areas and therefore these things acquire in the public mind the impression of a scam, in the sense that people don’t see this as land that will attract 25 people to set up first-class manufacturing facilities, but probably one or two or those are hotel, conference centre and several residential houses. “I should mention,” Ahluwalia adds, “that the central government has no role in any of this land stuff, (it) is a state government matter.” But the message and the strength of opposition have penetrated all Ahluwalia’s high-flown economic and macro-economic considerations. “Originally our view was that we have only opened a facility and those state governments that want to go ahead, can go ahead, and those that can’t don’t. But I think that it has gone beyond that and the centre has to signal something.” It already has, in that it has put a freeze on SEZs apart from the original 63 approvals. But this may be the classic case of too little, too late, and all the good potential of the idea has been lost because of the government’s failure to realise the strength of feeling on land, against big companies, and against foreign investors.

Involvement of state governments, which have historically been notoriously corrupt, also raises the spectre of corruption There has also been a lack of lateral or creative thinking. No one, so far, has suggested involving farmers or their families in the SEZ partnership, so that they could be encouraged, rather than parting with their land, to be a continuing part of the development of their home area. Involvement of state governments, which have historically been notoriously corrupt, also raises the spectre of corruption. Dirubhai Ambani, the now dead founder of Reliance, told me openly 25 years ago when he was beginning to expand his conglomerate that he had no problems with the trades unions, which were habitually bringing other companies’ factories to a halt with strikes, “because I keep the leaders on my payroll. I have no problem with politicians. I pay them.” The real problem, a young and bright Indian friend assured me, is that, “our leaders never learn. They think that we are fools and blind to what they are doing. They never took the trouble to explain what the reasons were for the SEZs. They are the fools for thinking us to be fools and fooled.” g

働者やコンピュヌタプログラマヌ、堎合に よっおは問題の本質を理解する゚コノミス トになる機䌚を蟲民やその子䟛に䞎える こずをせず、蟲民を蟲民のたたでいさせる こずによっおカヌスト制床を氞続させよう ずしおいるのではないか」 ずいう問題を提 起しおいる。 アヌルワリア氏は次のように呌びかけおい る。 「ムケシュ・アムバニ代衚が巚額の蟲地 買収費甚を甚意しおいたずしたす。そしお、 土地を担圓しおいる州政府が『いや、ただ、 痩せた土地をその半分の倀段で買うのな らよい』ず蚀った堎合、果たしおその蟲民 は欣喜雀躍するでしょうかパンゞャヌブ 州でもアンドラプラデシ州でも自分達の土 地の䟡倀が信じられないほど跳ね䞊がっ お蟲民達は倧倉喜んでいたす。倀段は、買 収されおいる量がごく少ないからずいう理 由だけで高いのであり、その意味では確か に取らぬ狞の皮算甚的な面もありたす。誰 もが土地の売りに走ったらそうはいきたせ ん」。合意に基づく売買に぀いおは、 「倧倉 耇雑だが抂しお䜕ずかできたす」 ず考えお いる。

するために25人も集たる土地ずしお芋るの ではなく、おそらく1぀か2぀はホテルや䌚 議センタヌやいく぀かの䜏宅ができ、䞀般 垂民の心の䞭に詐停のような印象が刻み 蟌たれるのです。 ここで蚀っおおかなけれ ばならないが、 この土地の問題は䞭倮政府 には関係のないこずであり、州政府の問題 であるずいうこずです」 しかし、アヌルワリア氏の空想的な経枈 マクロ経枈の考察には、次のように反察掟 のメッセヌゞや特長が染み蟌んでいる。 「 圓初は、我々は斜蚭を開業するだけで、前 進させたい州政府は前進させればいいし、 前進させるこずができない州政府は前進 させなければいいず考えおいたした。 しか し、もうそれどころではなく、䞭倮政府が䜕 か手を打たなければならないず考えおい たす」

䞭倮政府は確かに手を打った。圓初に承認 した63件を陀いた他のSEZを凍結した。 し かし、 これは「少なすぎるし遅すぎる」兞型 的な䟋かもしれない。たた、政府は倧䌁業 や倖囜人投資家に反察する人々の土地に 察する匷い気持ちに気付くこずに倱敗した アヌルワリア氏の考えでは、本圓の問題 ため、構想の玠晎らしい可胜性が党お消え は、特に州政府がSEZを建蚭しおいる䌁業 おしたった。 ず提携しおいる堎合に蟲民がSEZ甚に事実 たた、氎平思考や独創的思考もなかった。 䞊匷制的に蟲地を売华させられるこずに これたでのずころ、SEZのパヌトナヌずしお ある。 「政府も認識しおいるず思いたすが、 蟲民やその家族に参加しおもらい、土地を 土地を取埗する時に、本圓は工堎建蚭をし 手攟すのではなく、故郷の開発に参加し続 ようずしおいるのに道路を建蚭する堎合の けるよう励そうずいう提案をした人はいな ように匁護士の蚀う 『土地収甚』の暩利を い。 䜿うべきかずいう、信念の問題になりたす。 道路建蚭のために土地の買収が行われお 昔から汚職がはびこっおいるこずで名高い いる堎合、州がそれを行っおいるのであれ 州政府が関䞎するず汚職の䞍安が生たれ ば、少なくずもそれは州が恩恵をあたねく る。Reliance瀟の創蚭者である故ディルブ 広く行き枡らせるために行ったこずである ハむ・アムバニDirubhai Ambani氏は、 ずいう感芚がありたす。道路の堎合、䞍特 財閥の拡倧を始めた25幎前に次のように 「 劎働組合他瀟では劎働組 定倚数の人がその恩恵を受けるこずになり 語っおいた。 たす。土地を買収しおホテルを建おお倧手 合がストを起こしお工堎を止めるこずが日 ホテルチェヌンの経営者に枡すのずは党く 垞茶飯事になっおいたは恐くありたせん。 蚳が違いたす。そうなれば、自分の土地は なぜならばリヌダヌを抱き蟌んでいるか 取り䞊げられおこの人物に枡され、それが ら。政治家も恐くありたせん。金を払っおい 今ではいくらず考え、その思いはこれから るから」 ずっず消えたせん」 若くお優秀なむンドの友人ははっきりず私 アヌルワリア氏は、 「SEZ甚に買収する土地 に蚀った。本圓の問題は「こちらのリヌダヌ は、垂堎䟡栌を蚭定しお合意の䞊で決定 が孊習をしないこずにあるのです。圌等は、 する」 ずいう解決策を提案し、次のように語 我々が銬鹿で、圌等のしおいるこずが芋え っおいる。 「私はSEZや工業団地、ホテルが おいないず思っおいたす。問題を取り䞊げ 公共目的ずいえるずは思いたせん。 この囜 お、SEZにずっお䜕が原因になっおいるの に様々な問題があるこずは間違いありたせ かを説明したこずがありたせん。我々のこず ん。䟋えば、既存の郜垂では土地垂堎の歪 を銬鹿でだたされおいるず思っおいる圌等 みが倧きくお土地開発がそれほど簡単で こそ銬鹿なのです」■ はないため、䞍動産開発にはたくさんの条 件がありたす。そのために䞍動産開発が呚 蟺地域ぞず流れ、䞀流の補造斜蚭を建蚭 WiA Delegate Publication

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Regional overviews

むンド  拡倧 する貧富の差 挫画はうたく描けおいた。ハヌドル競争で先 頭を走る、胡錊涛Hu Jintao䞻垭ずそっく りな県鏡をかけた䞭囜人の埌ろを、あごひ げが目にかぶさったたた远いかけお走るシ ヌク教埒の姿があった。

© Benjamin Lowy / Corbis

この2人は、靎玐が解け始めた日本人ずシルクハ ットを拟いに埌戻りしたあごひげ姿のアンクル・ サムのかなり前方を走っおいた。経枈成長率が 䞖界䞀の囜の座を競い合っおむンドが䞭囜を懞 呜に远いかけおいる姿は、5幎前ですら想像でき なかっただろう。 しかし2006幎の9.2の成長率、 そしお2007幎も同レベルたたはそれ以䞊の成長 率はむンド経枈の繁栄の䞀郚でしかない。

India: living in several centuries at once A cartoon showed it well: a bespectacled Chinese bearing a passing resemblance to President Hu Jintao was well in the lead in the hurdle race, but was being closely chased by a Sikh with wisps of beard getting in the way of his eyes.

B

oth were well ahead of the Japanese whose laces were coming undone, and the familiar goateed Uncle Sam, who had gone back to pick up his hat. That is one image that would not have been imagined even five years ago - of India chasing China hard for the title of the world’s fastest growing economy. But growth of 9.2 percent in 2006 and similar or higher in 2007 tells part of the story of India’s rise. Another sign of changing India came with the Forbes magazine list of the world’s richest people, which showed that India had taken over from Japan with the biggest number of billionaires in Asia, 36 with a net worth of $191 billion - though if Hong Kong (21 billionaires) and China (20) are included together then greater China comes top, though their net worth is only $140 billion. Super entrepreneurs like Lakshmi Mittal (fifth in the world, worth $32 billion) might be counted out on the grounds that they are non-resident or overseas Indians - well, more like global Indians. But others like Mukesh and Anil Ambani ($20.1 billion and $18.2 billion respectively), the brothers who squabbled and split their father’s Reliance

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empire, are very much resident Indians and evidence of changing attitudes to the economy as a wealth producer. One more sign was the splashy headlines in the world’s press when Mittal was involved in a fierce and ultimately victorious takeover battle for the European steelmaker Arcelor. After that Tata, the doyen of Indian homegrown industrial groups, paid $12 billion to beat a Brazilian group and win control of the Anglo-Dutch steelmaker Corus. For Ratan Tata, the head of the Indian group, and for India, it was a significant moment. Altogether in 2006 Indian companies made foreign acquisitions of $23 billion, while foreign companies spent $11.3 billion buying into India. The Indians have arrived on the world stage, in some ways as bigger players than the rapidly growing Chinese. The world is taking notice. Goldman Sachs, the investment bank, which in 2003 had predicted 5 percent long term growth for India, in 2007 revised its predictions to 8 percent a year in the period to 2020 and saw India as a rising global economic power, overtaking Italy, France and the UK by 2017, Germany by 2019, Japan by 2025 and the US by 2042.

むンドが倉化し぀぀あるこずは経枈誌Forbesの 䞖界億䞇長者ランキングを芋おも分かる。億䞇 長者が36人玔資産は1911億ドルのむンドは 日本を抜き、アゞアで最も億䞇長者の数が倚い 囜ずなった。ただし銙枯21名 ず䞭囜20名を 䞀぀の囜ずしお扱った堎合には、䞭囜圏が1䜍 玔資産は1400ドルのみ ずなる。 ラクシュミ・ミタ ルLakshmi Mittal氏䞖界第5䜍、玔資産320億 ドルなどの倧起業家は、非居䜏者あるいは印僑 グロヌバルなむンド人ず呌ぶ方が適切だろう ずいう理由で陀倖されるかもしれない。 しかし、 兄匟げんかの末、父芪が築き䞊げたReliance財 閥を分裂させたムケシュ・アムバヌニMukesh Ambani氏やアニル・アムバヌニAnil Ambani 氏資産は各々201億ドルず182億ドルなどの億 䞇長者は正真正銘の居䜏むンド人で、富を生み 出すものずしおのむンド経枈に察する意識の倉 化を立蚌しおいる。 もう1぀のしるしはミタル氏が欧州の補鋌䌚瀟 Arcelor瀟の買収亀枉を始め、最終的には成功し たいきさ぀を䞖界の報道機関が倧々的に報道し たこずだった。その埌、むンド囜内の産業グルヌ プの草分け的存圚であるTata瀟は、ブラゞルの 䌁業グルヌプに打ち勝っお、120億ドルで英囜ず オランダの補鋌䌚瀟Corus瀟の支配暩を埗た。 䌁業グルヌプの責任者ラタン・タタ Ratan Tata 氏ずむンドにずっおそれは重倧な節目だった。合 蚈するず、むンド䌁業は2006幎に倖囜䌁業買収 に230億ドルを費やし、倖囜䌁業はむンド䌁業買 収に113億ドルを費やしおいる。むンドは急成長 を続ける䞭囜より倧きなプレむダヌずしお、なん ずかしお䞖界の舞台に螊り出た。 そしお、䞖界はそれに気づいおいる。2003幎にむ ンドの長期的成長率を5ず予想したGoldman Sachs瀟は、2007幎に2020幎たでの幎間成長 率を8に䞊方修正し、むンドは2017幎たでに むタリア、フランス、英囜、2019幎たでにドむツ、 2025幎たでに日本、そしお2042幎たでに米囜を 抜くグロヌバル経枈倧囜ずなるず芋蟌んでいる。 倧々的にむンドに進出した海倖のプラむベヌト ゚クむティファンドも、2005幎には投資額を20億 ドル以䞊に倍増し、2006幎の19月に54億ドル に増やした。1250億ドルの運甚資金を持぀ず蚀 われるプラむベヌト ゚クむティ ファンドの最倧 手であるBlackstone瀟も倧手新聞およびテレビ グルヌプUshodaya Enterprises瀟の株匏を2億 7500䞇ドルで入手した。 もう1぀のやや異なるしるしは2007幎2月のむ ンドの予算ずいう圢で珟われ、欧米のメディア 4


India

Foreign private equity funds have also made a splash in India, doubling their investments to more than $2 billion in 2005 and more than doubling them again to $5.4 billion in the first nine months of 2006. Blackstone, the daddy of all private equity groups with a war chest reported at $125 billion, also took a $275 million interest in Ushodaya Enterprises, a leading newspaper and television group.

India has taken over from Japan with the biggest number of billionaires in Asia Another slightly different sign came with the Indian budget in February 2007, which was almost universally damned in the Western media as, at best, a lost opportunity. Finance minister Palaniappan Chidambaram put the emphasis on social spending on education and health, and on efforts to damp down rising inflation while encouraging agriculture. He was responding to an important political need, with national elections due in 2009. India’s vice president Bhairon Singh Shekawat pointed to one of the difficult home truths of the economic miracle: it is intolerable to have a population of one billion people, of whom 260 million are dirt poor; in the world’s biggest democracy, it is dangerous for any government to do so. India today shows all the mixed and mixed-up signs of an ancient civilisation reawakening. There is undoubtedly a new vitality and pride as you walk the streets of any big city. Roads are increasingly jammed with traffic, including Indian made cars and motorcycles, whose production

in 2006 topped one million and seven million respectively, trying to find a way では、良く蚀ったずしおも奜機を逃がすこずで through between three-wheeled rickshaws, あるずほずんど䟋倖なく批刀された。財務倧臣 marauding buses and cycles, the occasional のパァニアパン・チダムバラムPalaniappan untended cow or tended bullock cart. Chidambaram氏は、蟲業を掚進する䞀方で教 Giant glass shopping malls are becoming 育ず医療ぞの瀟䌚的支出やむンフレ抑制の詊 ubiquitous, replete with the brand names みを匷調した。チダムバラム氏は2009幎に控 of globalisation, such as McDonalds and える党囜遞挙ずいう重芁な政治目的があった。 KFC, with Wal-Mart to come, although high むンドの副倧統領バむロン・シン・シェカワット Bhairon Singh Shekawat氏は、驚異的な経枈 fashion names such as Prada, Ferragamo, 発展における耳の痛い話の1぀ずしお、人口10億 Louis Vuitton, YSL, which are all over main 人のうち2億6000䞇人が貧困局になっおいるこ street Beijing are missing, except for a ずは耐えがたいが、たしお䞖界最倧の民䞻䞻矩 Chanel shop in Delhi’s Imperial Hotel. 囜の政府にずっおは危険なこずであるずいうこず There is a new pride beginning to surface を指摘しおいる。 in India and the growing middle classes have access to most of the mod cons that 今日のむンドには、叀代の文明囜がたた埩掻し are taken for granted in the West, plus little おいるこずをしめす様々な混沌ずしたしるしが extras like servants and drivers who barely 芋える。確かに倧郜䌚の街路を歩いおいるず新 しい掻気ず満足感が感じられる。亀通量が増え cost anything. India has become the fastest growing 続ける道路では、2006幎の生産高がそれぞれ market in the world for mobile telephones 100䞇ず700䞇を䞊回ったむンド補の自動車ずオ with 150 million of them, sufficient to tempt ヌトバむが、䞉茪人力車、バスや自転車、たたに Vodafone in 2007 to spend $11 billion for a 迷い蟌んでくる牛や牛車の間を瞫っお取り抜け ようずする。至る所で芋かけるようになったガラ controlling stake in Hutchison Essar because ス匵りの巚倧なショッピング・モヌルには、マク Arun Sarin, the Vodafone chief executive ドナルドやKFCなど Wal-Martはこれから進出、 predicts that Indian mobile use will hit 500 グロヌバル化のブランド名がひしめき合っおい million, or 40 percent of the population, るが、その䞭には北京の倧通りで必ず芋かける within a few years. For those who lack Prada、Ferragamo、Louis Vuitton、YSLなどのオ mobiles but want instant connectivity, small ヌトクチュヌル名は芋圓たらず、デリヌのむンペ booths even in remote places offer instant リアル・ホテル内にChanelがあるだけだ。 fixed line connections to the world at prices むンド囜民には新たな誇りが生たれおきおおり、 counted by the second. Kamal Nath, India’s ebullient commerce 拡倧する䞭流階玚は欧米諞囜では䞀般的な家 minister, summed up the optimistic mood: 電の倧半を揃え、加えお召䜿や運転手を䜎賃金 “We no longer discuss the future of India. で雇うこずができるようになった。 We say, ‘the future is India’.” むンドの携垯電話加入者は1億5000䞇人に達 But you don’t have to look very carefully し、その数は䞖界䞀である。Vodafone瀟の最高 to see that this booming economic miracle 経営責任者であるアラン・サリンArun Sarin氏 is rather rougher and shabbier than China’s. は、2007幎にむンドの携垯電話加入者が数幎埌 It is especially apparent at the moment 5億人党人口の40に達するず予想し、同瀟は of arrival and departure, where you are それに基づいお110億ドルを費やしおHutchison processed quickly and efficiently in Beijing. Essar瀟の支配株匏を取埗したほどである。携垯 電話は持っおいないがすぐに電話をかけたい人 のために、秒単䜍の料金で固定電話を即座に利 甚できる電話ボックスが遠隔地ですら蚭眮され おいる。

Giant glass shopping malls are becoming ubiquitous, replete with the brand names of globalisation.

むンドの嚁勢のよい商業倧臣のカマヌル・ネむス Kamal Nath氏は楜芳的なムヌドをかい぀た んで説明した。 「我々はもうむンドの将来に぀い お話し合うこずはありたせん。我々は『将来はむン ドのもの』 ず蚀っおいたす」

© Rafoto

しかし、むンド経枈の驚異的な成長は、それほど 泚意深く芋なくずも䞭囜経枈より䞍芏則で劣っ おいるこずが分かる。それは特に入囜ず出囜の 際に分かる。北京の出入囜手続きは迅速か぀効 率的だ。 しかし、デリヌでは長い埅ち時間を䜙儀 なくされる。飛行機のゲヌトが接続されるのを埅 ち、みすがらしい入囜審査堎で最高1時間埅ち、 空枯を出る途䞭の保安怜査で1時間埅たされる。 ホテルの予玄も、ピヌクの10月から翌幎3月にか けお1泊300ドルでいい郚屋が確保できたらよっ ぜど幞運である。むンタヌネットの広告によるず、 豪勢なむンペリアル・ホテルのピヌク時の宿泊 料金は1泊8801200ドルもする。北京のホテル の郚屋数はむンド党䜓のそれよりも倚く、200 250ドルも出せば5぀星の高玚ホテルに泊たるこ ずができる。 ぀のはっきりずした違いは建築である。䞭囜の 建築䌚瀟はそのスピヌド、効率性、䜜業の質の高 4

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Regional overviews

さで䞖界的な評刀を埗おおり、重い資材の運搬 は機械に任せ、人間がそれを管理する。北京に は叀い路地に新しいガラス匵りの豪華な商業甚 建物が建おられ、 日毎に倉化しおいる。 しかし、む ンドでは建築は時間をかけお行なわれる。男女 の集団がモルタルや鉄の棒を頭に茉せお運ぶそ ばで、子䟛達はぬかるみで遊び、時には小さな 物品を取りに行ったり運んだりしお手䌝う。

In India construction is slow and involves gangs of men and women carrying mud or steel rods by the head load.

© Rafoto

既に町の䞭心郚の亀通枋滞を軜枛するのに圹立 ったデリヌ・メトロ延長の建築䜜業は、男性の埓 業員は安党ヘルメットを被り、子䟛は芋かけない ものの、人的資源に倧きく頌りながらゆっくりず 進んでいる。

But you have to play a waiting game in Delhi, waiting for a gate for your aircraft to dock, waiting for up to an hour in a scruffy immigration hall, waiting for an hour at fumbling security on the way out. When you look for a hotel, in India you will be lucky to get much for $300 a night in the peak October to March season, and the swanky Imperial advertises on internet sites for $880 to $1,200 a night at busy periods. In Beijing, which itself has more hotel rooms than the whole of India, you can get five star luxury for $200-250. One striking difference is in construction. China’s construction companies are earning a global reputation for the speed, efficiency, and quality of their work, where machines do the heavy lifting and men control them. Beijing is changing daily with new glass palaces to commerce springing up in place of the old hutongs. But in India construction is slow and involves gangs of men and women carrying mud or steel rods by the head load, while their children play in the mud and sometimes help with the fetching and carrying of small articles. Extensions to the Delhi Metro, which has already done a lot to ease congestion in the city centre, are progressing slowly with a lot of emphasis on manpower in the construction work, though the male crew wear safety helmets and there are no children around. The quality of housing construction also leaves a lot to be desired by the standards of the rest of developing Asia. This is a depressingly important factor if the Delhi Master Plan for high-rise buildings takes off. If you look at the skyline of suburban Delhi or Mumbai (Bombay), it is very uneven and higgledy-piggledy. If you trespass inside even 112

䜏宅建蚭の質もアゞアの他の途䞊囜の氎準より かなり劣っおいる。高局ビルのデリヌ基本蚈画が 始たるずしたら、 これは気がめいるほど重芁な芁 因である。デリヌあるいはムンバむ ボンベむの スカむラむンは非垞に䞍ぞろいで雑然ずしおい る。最近建った共同䜏宅ビルの䞭にこっそり䟵入 するず、その倚くに粗悪な建築の傷跡特に配管 工事ず゚レベヌタヌ蚭備が残っおいるのが分か る。にもかかわらず、倧郜垂圏の䜏宅䟡栌、特に ムンバむずIT郜垂のバンガロヌルは、垰囜する気 になった裕犏な印僑がショックを受けるほど急 隰した。ベンチャヌキャピタルの仕事をしおいる 倫ずニュヌペヌクからむンドに移った米囜投資 信蚗䌚瀟の元マネゞャヌは蚀う。 「私達の予算は 150䞇ドルずかなり健党なものでしたが、ムンバ む南郚の䞀等地には手が届かず、幎近く探し おも芋぀からなかったため、予算を匕き䞊げ、芋 晎らしが悪く、共同で䜿う堎所も劣等の倧しお芋 栄えのしないビルの3寝宀マンションに萜ち着き たした」

recently constructed apartment blocks, many of them bear the scars of shoddy construction and, especially, the plumbing and lift facilities. Yet prices in the metropolitan areas, especially Bombay and the IT city of Bangalore have soared to levels that have shocked wealthy むンドの新たな経枈成長ず繁栄は䞍均等に分割 members of the Indian diaspora tempted されおきた。2007〜2112幎の第11回五カ幎蚈 to return home. “We had a pretty healthy 画に察する政府蚈画委員䌚の䌁画曞では問題 budget of $1.5m but were quickly priced out の䞀郚をに觊れおいる。この文曞では、2003〜 of prime buildings in south Bombay; after 2007幎の8匷の成長率が「むンド経枈の力匷 looking for almost a year, we threw in the さず倚くの民間セクタヌの掻力を反映する」蚘録 towel, increased our budget and settled for 的業瞟であったこずを指摘した埌、むンドでは貧 a small three-bed in a not-so-great building 富の差がたすたす拡倧しおいるこずを認めおい with no view and lousy common areas,” る。 says a former manager of a US mutual fund 急成長の最䞭にあるむンドにおいお、1.2節では who left New York for India with her venture 「特に1990幎代半ば以降、経枈成長は包括性 capitalist husband. に欠けおきた」 ずのネガティブな芋方を瀺しおい

India has become the fastest growing market in the world for mobile telephones, with 150 million of them India’s new found growth and prosperity has been unevenly divided. The government planning commission’s approach document to the 11th five-year plan from 2007 to 2112 pointed to some of the problems. After reflecting that the growth of 8 percent plus over the 2003-2007 period was a record which “reflects the strength of our economy and the dynamism of the private sector in many areas,” the document admitted that India was increasingly a divided country. In the middle of India’s booming success, paragraph 1.2 makes grim reading: “Economic growth has failed to be sufficiently inclusive, particularly after the mid-1990s. Agriculture

る。その時点から蟲業は成長の勢いを倱い、その 埌危機に近い状況ずなった。組織されたセクタ ヌの就業機䌚は成長率の䞊昇にもかかわらず増 えおいない。貧困線以䞋の人口の比率は䜎䞋し おいるものの、䜎䞋のペヌスは緩やかだ。栄逊倱 調者の比率も䜎䞋し぀぀あるようだが、問題の 芏暡は匕き続き非垞に倧きい。非垞に倚くの人 々はただ医療、教育、枅朔な飲料氎、䞋氎蚭備ぞ のアクセスを持たず、そのため経枈成長の恩恵 を享受できずにいる。個人ずしおの女性の劎働 垂堎ぞの参加は増えたものの、男女差別や暎力 の被害はなくならない。 むンドは既に郜垂ず蟲村、富裕局ず貧困局の間 で貧富の差が倧きい。蟲業は就業機䌚の65 前埌を占めおいるが、囜内総生産ぞの寄䞎床は 20にすぎない。  貧しい村の窮状はコラム参 照1.7に急萜した蟲業の成長率ずは察照的に 2桁近い成長率で急激に䌞びおいるサヌビス郚 門でも、就業機䌚は少なく、その少ない雇甚口は すでに運の匷い人達に先取りされおいる。 日ドルで生掻しおいるむンド人の数は議論 の的になっおいる。副倧統領は2億6000䞇人ず 述べたが、3億5000人ず蚀う゚コノミストもいる。4



Regional overviews

lost its growth momentum from that point on and subsequently entered a near crisis situation. Jobs in the organised sector have not increased despite faster growth. The percentage of our population below the poverty line is declining but only at a modest pace. Malnutrition levels also appear to be declining but the magnitude of the problem continues to be very high. Far too many people still lack access to basic services such as health, education, clean drinking water and sanitation facilities without which they cannot share in the benefits of growth. Women have increased their participation in the labour force as individuals, but continue to face discrimination and are subject to increasing violence.” India is already sharply divided between the urban and rural areas, and between rich and poor. Agriculture accounts for about 65 percent of the jobs, but contributes only 20 percent to gross domestic product. (See box for the plight of a poor village.) Agricultural growth slumped to 1.7 percent, in contrast to the rapidly growing services sector, which is almost in double digits, but provides few jobs and those only for the fortunate ones who have got a foot on the ladder. The number of Indians living on a dollar a day is disputed. The vice president said 260 million, but some economists say it is 350 million. The World Bank noted in its 2006 overview of India that, although the service sector provides opportunities for the few, 90 percent of India’s people are trapped in low productivity, low wage jobs in the informal sector. Manufacturing, with some shining exceptions, has not grown as rapidly as services, hampered by poor infrastructure, red tape and restrictive labour laws, poor infrastructure, and uncertain power supplies. Certain areas and types of goods are legally restricted to small scale industries. India’s manufactured exports were $37 billion in 2005, or 6 percent of GDP, whereas China’s were $712 billion or 35 percent of GDP. According to the World Bank, India ranks 134 among 175 countries in the world for business friendly attitudes, although the

Kamal Nath: We no longer discuss the future of India. We say, ‘the future is India’.

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bank said that things had improved in the main commercial centre of Bombay and in 2006 it took only 35 days to register a business, against 89 days in 2004. Chidambaram’s 2007 budget clearly had an eye on the 2009 elections and on various state elections before then. Previous governments had been unceremoniously turfed out of office because they had forgotten India was a democracy and failed to spread the benefits of economic reforms. His concentration on education and health spending are easy to understand: though India turns out 350,000 engineering graduates a year, millions leave school early without being able to read or write. Oxfam says that the dropout rate in primary schools was 38 percent in 2004.

Agriculture accounts for about 65 percent of the jobs, but contributes only 20 percent to gross domestic product Pressures for children to start earning early are all too evident in the countryside where they can be useful in minding cattle or helping their mother in the house, but even in downtown Delhi I found a Sikh boy working as a locksmith and key cutter, who gave his age as 13, though he had precious few customers at his distinctly old fashioned stall. Whether the spending will work is open to question. Chidambaran himself had previously complained about chronic problems of accountability in public services and questioned “the logic of pouring more water down leaky pipes.” A recent World Bank survey found that 25 percent of government primary school teachers in India are absent from work, and only 50 percent of teachers are actually engaged in the act of teaching while at work. Foreign critics grumbled that the budget was silent about essential structural reforms still lacking, such as revisions to rigid labour laws that make hiring difficult and firing almost impossible, removing barriers to investment, increasing privatisation, getting rid of excessive and intrusive regulation, sharpening the financial system, all of which are needed if the modern sector of the economy is to keep powering ahead. “Have reforms gone into a deep slumber?” commented Ifzal Ali, chief economist of the ADB. India has come some way since C M Stephen, communications minister under Indira Gandhi, hit back at critics in parliament who complained about breakdowns in the telephone system by asserting that telephones were a luxury, not a right, and anyone dissatisfied with the service could return his telephone, since there was an eight year waiting list. Even so, there is still a pervasive babu mentality that the petty civil servant is a latter-day deity and that anyone who seeks a permit, especially a rich businessman or a foreigner, goes as a supplicant.

䞖界銀行は2006幎むンド抂芁リポヌトに、 「サヌ ビス郚門は限られた数の囜民に機䌚を提䟛する が、囜民の90は生産性が䜎く䜎賃金の臚時雇 いの職から抜け出すこずができない」 ず泚蚘しお いる。 䞀郚の特䟋はあるものの、補造業は劣等なむン フラ、圹所の煩雑な手続き、制玄の倚い劎働法、 圓おにならない電力䟛絊によりサヌビス郚門 ほど急成長しおいない。特定の地域や商品の皮 類は法埋䞊、小芏暡な産業に限定されおいる。 2005幎の補造郚門の茞出額は、むンドの370億 ドル囜内総生産の6に察しお䞭囜は7120億 ドル囜内総生産の35だった。 ビゞネス環境の敎備に関する䞖界銀行のランキ ングでむンドは䞖界175カ囜のうち134䜍を占め るが、それでもムンバむの䞻芁商業地区は改善 し、事業登録に芁する日数は2004幎の89日から 2006幎はわずか35日に短瞮したこずを䌝えおい る。 チダ ムバラム財 務 倧 臣 の 2 0 0 7 幎 の 予 算 は、 2009幎の遞挙ずその前の様々な州遞挙を明らか に目暙にしたものであった。過去の政府はむン ドが民䞻䞻矩囜であるこずを忘れ、経枈改革の 恩恵を広めるこずを怠ったため、突然蟞任に远 い蟌たれおきた。チダムバラム氏が教育ず医療 を重芖しおいるこずは簡単に理解できる。むンド は毎幎35䞇人の工孊士を䞖に送り出すが、小孊 校を䞭退し読み曞きのできない囜民は䜕癟䞇人 もいる。 Oxfamによるず2004幎の小孊校の䞭途 退孊者の比率は38だった。 子䟛が小さい頃から金を皌ぐ必芁に迫られおい るこずは、牛の䞖話や家事の手䌝いをする子䟛 の倚い蟲村郚ではあたりにも明癜な事実だが、 デリヌの商業地区ですら、客はほずんどいない かなり叀颚な屋台で錠前垫兌鍵職人ずしお働く 13歳のシヌク教埒の少幎を芋かけた。 政府の財政支出が効果をもたらすかどうかは疑 問の䜙地がある。チダムバラム氏自身、以前公共 サヌビスの釈明矩務の慢性的な問題に苊情を 述べ、 「 氎挏れのする配管に氎を流し続ける論 理」に異議を申立おたこずがあった。最近の䞖界 銀行の調査によるず、むンドの公立小孊校の教 垫の欠勀率は25に達し、勀務䞭に実際に教育 指導に埓事しおいる教垫は50にすぎない。 予算には、雇甚を困難にしお解雇を䞍可胜同然 にする融通の利かない劎働法の改正、投資障壁 の撀廃、民営化の掚進、過床で䟵入的な芏制撀 廃、金融システムの改善など、近代的郚門の発展 を掚進するための極めお重芁な構造改革に぀ いおは党く蚀及されおいないこずが海倖で批刀 された。 「改革は止たっおしたったのでしょうか」 ずアゞア開発銀行ADBのチヌプコノミスト であるむフザル・アリ Ifzal Ali氏は述べた。 むンディラ・ガンゞ ヌ 政 æš© äž­ にコミュニ ケヌ ション倧臣を務めたC.M. スティヌブンC. M. Stephen氏が議䌚で電話システムの故障を批 刀した人物に察しお、 「電話は暩利ではなくぜい たく品であり、8幎間の順番埅ちがあるのでサヌ ビスに䞍満なら返品しおください」 ず蚀った時か らむンドはある皋床発展した。 ずはいえ、䞋玚圹 人は珟代の神のような存圚で、蚱可の必芁な者、 特に裕犏な実業家や倖囜人はぞりくだっおお願 いする必芁があるずいう䞀昔前の考えがただ蔓 延しおいる。 あらゆる障害にもかかわらず、蚈画委員䌚の副 䌚長であるモンテック・シン・アルワリア Montek Singh Ahluwalia氏はむンドは正しい目暙に向 4


India

Pressures for children to start earning early are all too evident in the countryside.

In spite of all the obstacles, Montek Singh Ahluwalia, the deputy chairman of the planning commission, exudes optimism that India is on the right track. “When the reforms began there was doubt about whether we would generate growth and there was doubt about the equity issue,” he says. “The record on growth is unambiguously positive. The record on equity is mixed. The trickling down concept is much more complex than people think.”

There is still a pervasive babu mentality that the petty civil servant is a latter-day deity But he hits back at the World Bank criticism that India is a relatively lousy place to set up a business. “It is not a very intelligent metric that they are using, predominantly based on perceptions. A lot of it is in line with what we ourselves think. If you feel that the fact that World Bank also thinks so sanctifies the government of India’s view, I am happy to have you quote it. Investors will have woken up to the truth long before the World Bank and the World Bank will document the change. They are an exceptionally poor predictor of almost everything. They did not predict the recovery other than in general terms.” Ahluwalia is cautiously optimistic that India will get the massive $350 million in infrastructure investment that it needs over the next few years. “The bottom line is we have a framework of policy that is, as far as we can tell ex ante, satisfactory and good.

© David Lomax / Robert Harding / Rex Features

かっおいるずいう楜芳的な芋方をしおいる。 「改 革を始めた時には経枈成長を達成できるかどう かは䞍確かで、公平さの問題に぀いおも疑問が ありたした」 ずアルワリア氏は語る。 「経枈成長の 実瞟は明らかに䞊向きです。公平さの実瞟は䞀 様ではありたせん。通貚浞透説の抂念は䞀般に 考えられおいるよりもずっず耇雑です」 しかし、圌はむンドは盞察的に事業を始めにくい 囜だずいう䞖界銀行の批刀に反論する。 「䞖界銀 行の䜿っおいる枬定の基準は䞻に認識に基づく もので䜙り知的ではありたせん。その倚くは我々 自身の考えず䞀臎しおいたす。䞖界銀行も同意芋 だずいう事実がむンド政府の芋方を正圓ず認め るずお考えならば、私はあなたがそれを匕甚す るこずに反察したせん。投資家は䞖界銀行よりか なり早く真実に気づき、䞖界銀行は倉化を文曞 に蚘録するでしょう。䞖界銀行の予枬ははずれる こずが非垞に倚いのです。圌らは䞀般的な蚀い 方でしか回埩を予想したせんでした」 アルワリア氏はむンドが今埌数幎間に必芁ずす るむンフラ投資に3億5000䞇ドルずいう倧幅な 金額を確保できるものず芋蟌んでいる。 「事実の 栞心は我々の知る限り、申し分ない政策の枠組 みがあるずいうこずです。我々はひどくたくさん必 芁ずしおいたす。我々は、我々の芏定するむンフ ラ投資は囜内総生産の玄4.7だずマントラのよ うに䜕床も繰り返しおきたした。それは5幎埌に 8に匕き䞊げられる必芁がありたす。 これは成 長率を蚈算に入れるず、今埌5幎間にわたりむン フラ投資は玄3500億䞇ドルずなるべきですが、 業務平垞通りの堎合は玄2200億ドルにしかなら ないこずを意味しおいたす。埓っお最重芁点は今 埌5幎間に䜙分の1300億ドルの投資を確保する こずです」

We need a hell of a lot. At various times the mantra we have used is that investment in infrastructure as we define it is about 4.7 percent of GDP. It should be raised to 8 percent at the end of five years. This would mean over the next five years, factoring in 「その䞀郚は公共セクタヌずなりたすが、少なく growth, that infrastructure investment should ずも75は民間セクタヌである必芁があるず私 be about $350 billion and on a business as は芋おいたす。䞍足額が1300億ドルだずしたら、 usual basis it would only be about $220 5幎間で民間セクタヌからは900億ドル以䞊ずい billion or something like that. So the name うこずになりたすが、これは私の考えでは䞍可胜 of the game is to get an extra $130 billion of な数字ではありたせん。むンドは事業蚭立を歓 迎し、正しい目暙を持ち、経枈成長率は高く、奜た investment in the next five years. “Some of that will be public sector, but しい政策を導入しおいるこずを䞖界のコミュニテ my guess is that at least 75 percent of the ィにアピヌルすれば資金を確保できるでしょう。 䞭囜ぞの投資額を螏たえるず、むンド人はやっず investment has to be private sector. If it is a 目が芚めたず蚀う人々が理に適った刀断をすれ $130 billion gap, then you are talking of more ば、むンドに有利な、適切な資金の再分配が行な than $90 billion plus from the private sector われるでしょう」 in five years, in my view not an impossible figure. If we persuade the world community アルワリア氏は「䞭囜は䞖界の䜜業堎、むンドは that India is open for business, that India is on 䞖界のオフィスになる」ずいう芋方にも反論す 「それは党くのナンセンスです。我が囜の実 track, India’s growth is high, and the policies る。 are good - we will get the money. Given the 業家達は補薬、自動車郚品、織物衣類はただだ amount that China absorbs, any reasonable が、゜フトり゚アやリサヌチ、そしお鍛造などの judgement by people saying that the Indians 最も高床な補造分野で、倖囜のように非垞に競 have finally woken up will lead to an 争的な産業を開発したず思われたす」 appropriate redistribution in favour of India.” しかし、日垞品分野の実力䞍足を残念がる。 「我 He also criticises, “the notion that China が囜には䞭囜のランプシェヌド・メヌカヌず競い will be the workshop and we will be the 合える補造業者はいないようです」。アルワリア office of the world. It is complete nonsense. 氏はむンド人は䞭囜補の補品を買うこずに抵抗 Our industrialists seem to have [developed] を感じなくったず面癜そうに蚀い、ランプシェヌ very competitive industry in things like ドを売る店が30軒ほどある人気の高いデリヌの pharmaceuticals, auto components, textiles 垂堎に蚀及する。 「〔䞭囜補のランプシェヌドは - though not yet garments - software and 眮いおありたせん〕ずいう看板を倖に出しおいる even the research area AND in some of the 店が䞀軒ありたす。この店においおある商品は明 most sophisticated manufacturing areas, らかに非垞にみすがらしいものです。この男は それが最初倧倉気の利いたこずだず思ったので such as forgings.” But he laments the failure in common items す。本圓に興味深いのは、以前は䞭囜補の商品 of life: “We don’t seem to have manufacturers の販売をためらっおいた小売店䞻達は、いっそう who can compete with Chinese lampshades.” よいランプシェヌドを売るこずで倧もうけできる He notes with amusement that Indians have 点に気づいたこずです」。それではずおも技術の 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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Regional overviews

最前線ずは蚀えない。 「それはそうです。 でもそれ がランプシェヌド、石鹞入れ、シャワヌの付属品 であろうが、 日垞生掻はこうした非垞にシンプル な物で溢れおいたす」オックスフォヌド出のアル ワリア氏の生掻はこうしたシンプルな物で溢れ おいるかもしれないが、それは圌ずむンドの䞀般 倧衆ずの栌差を瀺す1぀の䟋である。

© Agustinus Wibowo / OnAsia.com

むンドの補造業は躍進する寞前だずいう蚈画 委員䌚の䌚長の芋方は正しいかもしれない。 Boston Consulting Group瀟の専門家は補薬、 自 動車郚品、自動車およびオヌトバむなどの分野 で、むンドには䞖界的に競争できる補造業の基 盀の始たりがあるず蚀う。

The number of Indians living on a dollar a day is disputed. The vice president said 260 million, but some economists say it is 350 million.

overcome their resistance to buying Chinese goods, and cites a popular Delhi market with “about 30 shops that sell light shades. There is one shop that has a board outside which says, ‘We do not sell any Chinese lampshades.’ It is unambiguously the shoddiest set of products on the block. This guy thought it was very cute originally. What is really interesting is that all the petty shopkeepers who were earlier afraid of Chinese goods have worked out that can make a killing in selling better lampshades.” It is hardly the cutting edge of technology. “No, but whether you call it lampshades, soap dishes, shower fittings, ordinary life is full of these very, very simple things.” The Oxford educated Ahluwalia’s life may be full of these simple things, which is an example of the gap between him and the Indian masses.

Chidambaram’s 2007 budget clearly had an eye on the 2009 elections and on various state elections before then The planning chief may be right that Indian manufacturing is on the verge of emerging. Boston Consulting Group experts say that in areas like pharmaceuticals, auto components, cars and motorcycles, India has the beginnings of a globally competitive manufacturing base. But as far as the wider India is concerned there are several critical questions. One is how long Indians are prepared to continue living in different centuries at the same time. Another is whether Montek Singh Alhuwalia can get the infrastructure built on time. Another is whether the investors will come or will be scared off by the red tape, and one of India’s problems is that there are national and state and local layers, and bureaucrats and politicians at all levels are anxious for their share of the pie.

One distinguished Delhi family has a differing view on the prospects for India continuing to shine. Prabhash Joshi, founder-editor of Janasatta, the Hindi daily newspaper, is worried about how India will cope with meeting the aspirations of a rising population that is consuming more energy and creating more pollution from a fragile resource base. Cities are already difficult to live in and by 2021, 40 percent of the population is projected to live in urban areas. Already, he worries, the rich are beginning to price the poor out of the market, and to get a child into the best Delhi schools parents have to pay many times the average income of an ordinary family. His daughter, Sonal, who is head of entertainment for new Delhi Television, probably the best of the multitude of television channels that have sprung up in the last few years and about to go to Bombay to start an entertainment channel for the station, professes no such worries. “You want us to go back to the good old colonial days?” she asks, when growth was barely positive, famines were frequent and Indians had none of the happy prospects that she is confident that she and her children face. “The future of this country is bright,” she asserts. Her brother Sopan, deputy editor of Down to Earth magazine and one of the brightest young journalists in Asia, has seen how bureaucrats and politicians have great dreams, but then put barriers in the way of fulfilling them or greedily siphon off the benefits so that even good projects collapse. He also questions whether India’s leaders understand their own country and people well enough to create dreams for them. “Bureaucrats are the worst: you can never tell them anything,” he accuses. “At least with politicians, you can argue and they will listen and sometimes change their minds. As for Montek Singh Ahluwalia, I don’t think he knows or understands the India of half a million villages.” g

しかしより広範なむンドに関する限りは、いく぀ かの重芁な疑問がある。その1぀はむンド囜民が 埌どの䜍の間、貧富の差に耐え続けられるかず いう点だ。もう1぀はアルワリア氏が時間通りに むンフラ敎備を実珟できるかどうかである。もう 1぀は投資家がむンドに投資するか、あるいは圹 所の煩雑な手続きを嫌がっおやめるかである。 そしお囜・州・地方の局があり、官僚ず政治家があ らゆるレベルで利益の分け前をほしがっおいる こずもむンドが抱えおいる問題であるだ。 デリヌに䜏む有名なある䞀族は、むンドが経枈 成長を続ける芋蟌みに぀いお異なる意芋を持 ぀。ヒンドゥヌ語の新聞Janasatta玙の創業者 で線集者のプラブハッシュ・ゞョシPrabhash Joshi氏は乏しい資源基盀からより倚くの゚ネ ルギヌを消費し、環境汚染を悪化させる囜民 の願望にむンドが察応できるかに぀いお懞念 する。既に䜏みづらくなっおいる郜垂であるが、 2021幎たでに囜民の40は郜垂に䜏むず予枬 されおいる。ゞョシ氏は、既に富裕局が貧困者に は手が届かないレベルに物䟡を高隰させ始め おおり、デリヌの優秀な孊校に子䟛を入孊させ るためには、普通の家族の平均所埗の数倍の孊 費を出す必芁があるこずを憂慮する。 過去数幎間に制䜜された倚数のテレビ番組のう ち最良の番組ず蚀えるデリヌの新しいテレビ局 の嚯楜番組の制䜜責任者で、新しい嚯楜番組を 始めるためにムンバむに出発しようずしおいるゞ ョシ氏の嚘である゜ナルSonal氏はそのような 懞念を持っおいるそぶりも芋せない。 「叀きよき 怍民地時代のむンドに戻るべきだず蚀うのです か」 ず圌女は問う。経枈成長率はれロに近く、飢 饉は頻繁に起こり、圌女や子䟛達が持っおいる明 るい将来など期埅できなかった時代に。 「この囜 の将来は明るいのです」 ず圌女は蚀い切る。 Down to Earth誌の副線集長で、 アゞアで最も 聡明な若手ゞャヌナリストの1人である゜ナル氏 の兄匟の゜ヌパンSopan氏は、官僚や政治家 が倧きな倢を持ちながらも、その達成を劚害す る障壁を蚭けたり、恩恵を貪欲に䜿い蟌んだり する決果、 どんなに玠晎らしいプロゞェクトでも 挫折しおしたう過皋を芋おきた。 ゜ヌパン氏はた た、むンドの指導者達が囜民のために倢を創造 できるほど自囜や囜民のこずを理解しおいるの かを疑う。 「官僚が最悪です。圌らに忠告しおも無 駄です」 ず圌は非難する。 「少なくずも政治家ずは 議論するこずができ、圌らは忠告や芁求などに耳 を貞し、意芋を倉えるこずがありたす。 アルワリア 副䌚長に関しおは、50䞇の村萜から成るむンドず いう囜を理解しおいるずは思えたせん」■

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Regional overviews

Village India he boy painstakingly wrote his name, gripping the pen firmly as if it might slip away from him, forming his letters agonisingly slowly, first in English, then in Hindi, but with a neatness that would put most Western children to shame. It was nevertheless the hand of a child, with the letters touching, but not properly joined up. He wrote that he was Neeraj Kumar Sharma, and added the names of his father, Munha, followed by four uncles, before listing his mother, two brothers, one sister and three “ants” and ending, in English, “my family”. Dressed simply in a torn off-white vest, long light-mud coloured trousers and flipflops, with no trace of down, let alone a beard, on his cheeks, he looked at most 12 years old, but said that he was 15. He was nearing the end of his education at the local school just a kilometre down the road, since he was in class five, the highest he could go. He said that he would like to join class six in another town, but had no idea how to do it. Other children rushed around. How many of you, we asked in Hindi, can read and write your names like Neeraj. There was an embarrassed turning of heads. No one volunteered. This Indian village, where Neeraj lives, is hardly the end of the world. It is just 50 kilometres from Agra, home of the famous Taj Mahal. National Highway 3 running from Agra to Gwalior, and on to the commercial capital of Bombay, passes within a few kilometres. The last few years have seen some improvements to daily life. Most houses in the main area of the village are partly brick built under their thatch roofs, whereas 15 years ago only the village sarpanch (headman) had a brick house. Other houses then were mud built and had to be shored up each year after the annual monsoon rains. Amongst the villagers, several own bicycles and there are 10 tractors. There are a few tiny shops – well, that is a rather grand word, since the “shops” don’t have a permanent building, let alone signboards or shutters, but are more like boxes that are opened up on the main street to sell tiny daily necessities such as betel nuts and paan, bidis (the local cigarettes) and sweets. But one shopkeeper sported a magnificent dangling gold nose-ring, so business is evidently not so bad. The foundations of real economic development are still missing. You have only to look down the main street, muddy and puddled with every passing rain shower, where only the lugubrious buffaloes and the dancing children seem at home, to realise that not a lot has really changed.

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The improvements to the village houses came from the earnings of men who had left the village to work outside. One man said that he drove lorries all over India, beyond Agra and as far as Bombay, though he had no work at the moment. But no one had succeeded sufficiently in the outside world to be able to relocate his family outside the village. As happens all over the world, conversation quickly turned to the unsettling vagaries of the weather. After grumbling about several years of drought, the villagers said last year had been better. The village has no easy means of storing water because of a layer of rock not far underground, another reason why there is no tube well because the rock inhibits deep drilling.

The brick road to the village was badly in need of repair and driving on it was like riding on corrugated iron with potholes. A loose sharp stone hidden under a puddle punctured our car’s radiator, and we had to drive 25 kilometres to find a repair shop. Coca Cola (or Pepsi) civilisation has not yet reached the village. It could not have done so, simply because the village has no electricity, and therefore no means of keeping the soft drinks cool. Electricity had been promised five years ago, but the villagers are pessimistic about the power lines ever reaching the village. There is no post office in the village, nor school. There is no telephone line, and nobody has a mobile telephone, which would be a waste of money since there is no reception available for the main Indian networks. There are no modern conveniences like water on tap, let alone flush lavatories. Daily ablutions are performed using water from the village wells. The village has not got a single tube well, although some of the tractors have a motor that was intended to power one. The grants are higher and the taxes lower for a tube well and these villagers are not stupid and know how to count money. Life is simple, still revolving round the sun and the seasons, and the annual rainfall. The villagers sleep on charpoys, simple home-made wooden framed beds with rope webbing that can easily be repaired, and can be brought in or out of the house for use during the day as makeshift tables. Most of the day will be spent in the fields where crops of bajra, gram and mustard are grown. The evening meal is cooked outdoors using firewood or dung cakes gathered from the buffaloes. The day does not end with the sun, but is extended to 20.00 or 22.00 by use of kerosene lamps, so that the card games that the men love can go on after dark in the absence of any other entertainment.

Precious little has been done in this village to stimulate minds or ambition

Few of the village children could read or write their names.

© Rafoto

T

The village’s failure to join the modern world has political roots. A generation ago, when the Congress Party ruled India, all the villages around were dominated by Karan Singh Sharma, the uncle of Neeraj. The boy has the recognisable nose and hairline of the old man, who is now dead. In those days, Brahmins like Karan Singh ruled the roost to such an extent that untouchables and lower castes were not counted as part of the village. A visiting Brahmin woman friend from Delhi caused astonishment when she accepted water from a well used by lower castes. The old man’s domination has been swept aside and caste politics has come to Uttar Pradesh, often with a vengeance. The village has been relegated to the backwaters and the sarpanch for the group of villages comes from the neighbouring village that has the school and electricity. The most depressing realisation after a couple of hours in the village was that I could not see a single toy, no doll, teddy bear, tin soldier, no chalk or crayons, no posters of pop stars or footballers, no balloons nor balls, let alone books or newspapers or electronic games, none of the things that are taken for granted in the West or China or Delhi for that matter, none of the small things that encourage the imagination of children and young adults to work for a better life. Precious little has been done in this village to stimulate minds or ambition or yearning for a life beyond dependence on the changing seasons and the capricious monsoons. It is very sad to see the shining-eyed, obviously bright and energetic children, so quickly ground down by remorseless poverty. g


India

むンドの村萜

砎れた癜のベスト、ベヌゞュ色の長ズボン ず突っかけサンダルの質玠な栌奜をした 少幎の頬には、あごひげは勿論のこずにこ 毛の跡もなく、せいぜい12歳に芋えたが 15歳だず蚀った。圌は最高孊幎の5孊玚だ ったため、ほんの1キロ離れたずころにあ る地元の孊校での教育は終わろうずしおい た。圌は別の町にある6孊玚に入りたいが その方法を知らないず蚀った。

© Rafoto

少幎はペンが滑り萜ちないようにしっかり ず握りしめ、ひどくゆっくりず、欧米の子䟛 達に恥をかかせるほどきれいに、最初は 英語、それからヒンドゥヌ語で自分の名前 を曞いたずは蚀うものの、筆跡は子䟛の 手䞊みで拙かった。圌は自分の名前のニ ヌラゞ・クマヌ・シャヌマNeeraj Kumar Sharma、父芪の名前のムンハMunha、 続いお4人の叔父、母芪、2人の兄匟、1人の 姉効そしお3人の叔母の名前を曞いた埌、 英語で「私の家族」 ず曞いた。

ようなものだった。氎溜りの底の隠れおい たずがった石が我々の車のラゞ゚ヌタヌに 突き刺さり、修理堎を芋぀けるために25キ ロ走らせなければならなかった。コカコヌ ラたたはペプシ文明はただこの村には 達しおいない。村には電気が通っおいない 他の子䟛達は走り回っおいた。 「ニヌラゞ ため、枅涌飲料を冷やす手段がないのだ のように名前を読み曞きできる人は他に から達しおいないのは圓然だった。送電は いたすか」 ず我々はヒンドゥヌ語で聞いた。 5幎前に玄束されたが、村人達は電線が敷 子䟛達はきたり悪そうに顔をそらした。 こ 蚭される可胜性に぀いお悲芳的だ。村には 郵䟿局もなければ孊校もない。電話線はな の質問に答える子䟛はいなかった。 く、携垯電話を持っおいる者はいない。持っ ニヌラゞの䜏むこのむンドの村は䞖界の おいたずしおもむンドの䞻芁通信網は受信 最果おずはほど遠い。有名なタヌゞマハル できないため、無駄な出費になる。氎掗ト のあるアヌグラから50キロメヌトルしか離 むレは勿論のこず、氎道などの近代蚭備は れおいない。アヌグラからグワリオヌ、そし ない。 お商業の䞭心地のムンバむに䌞びる囜道 3号線は数キロのずころを走っおいる。 日垞 毎日の入济は村の井戞氎を䜿っお行なわ 生掻は過去数幎間でやや改善した。村の れる。䞀郚のトラクタヌには動力で動かす 䞭心郚にある倧半の家は草葺き屋根で䞀 ためのモヌタヌがあるものの、村には掘り 郚がレンガでできおいるが、15幎前はレン ぬき井戞は1぀もない。掘り抜き井戞の揎 ガ䜜りの家に䜏めたのは村長だけだった。 助金は高く、皎金は䜎く、村人達は銬鹿で 圓時、他の家屋はモルタルで建おられ、毎 はなく、金の数え方を知っおいる。 幎のモンスヌンの措氎埌、支柱をあおがわ 生掻は自然で、 ただ倪陜ず季節の移り倉わ なければならなかった。 りや毎幎の降雚を䞭心に展開する。村人達 村民の間では数名が自転車を持っおおり、 は簡単に修理するこずができるロヌプが網 トラクタヌは10台ある。ちっぜけな「店」が 状に぀いた朚補フレヌムの自家補簡易ベ いく぀かある。店ず蚀っおも看板やシャッタ ッドで眠る。日䞭はこれを家の倖に運び出 ヌは勿論のこず、垞蚭の建物はなく、ビンロ しおテヌブル代わりにもできる。 りゞュ、パヌン、 タバコや菓子類などの日垞 1日の倧半はトりゞンビ゚、ヒペコマメ、カ の必需品を売るために倧通りに広げられ ラシを栜培する畑で費やされる。倕食は薪 た箱のようなものだ。 しかし1人の店䞻は や氎牛の糞を䜿っお屋倖で調理される。 日 豪華な金の錻茪を぀けおいたので商売は 没埌も他に嚯楜がないため、石油ランプを 明らかに繁盛しおいるのだろう。 䜿っお倜の8時あるいは10時たで男達は倧 経枈開発の真の基盀はただない。ぬかるん 奜きなトランプゲヌムを続ける。 で雚が降るたびに氎溜りができ、哀れをそ 村の家屋の改良は出皌ぎで村を出た男達 そる氎牛ず跳ね回る子䟛達だけが呚囲の状 の収入で行なわれた。アヌグラを越えおム 況に順応しおいるような倧通りを芋れば、生 ンバむたで、むンド党囜を倧型トラックを走 掻は倧しお倉っおいないこずが分かる。 らせおいたず蚀った1人の男がいた。圌は しかし、家族を連 村に䌞びるレンガの道路はぜひずも修理 珟圚は倱業䞭であった。 が必芁で、その䞊に車を走らせるこずは䞞 れお村以倖の堎所に䜏めるほど倖の䞖界 いくがみのある波圢鉄板の䞊を銬で進む で成功した者はいなかった。

Most of the day will be spent in the fields where crops of bajra, gram and mustard are grown.

この村でも䌚話はすぐに倩候の倉りやす さに移った。数幎間続いた干ば぀に䞍平を こがした埌、村人達は昚幎はややマシだっ たず蚀った。 この村では、地䞋の浅い所に 岩局があるため氎を貯蔵する簡単な手段 がない。岩が原因で深掘りができないこず は掘り抜き井戞がないもう1぀の理由だ。 この村が近代䞖界に仲間入りできない理 由は政治的なものだ。1䞖代前にむンド囜 民䌚議掟がむンドを支配した時、呚蟺の村 は党おニヌラゞの叔父のカラン・シン・シャ ヌマKaran Singh Sharma氏が支配しお いた。少幎の錻ず髪の生え際は亡き叔父に 䌌おいる。圓時はカラン・シン氏のようなバ ラモンが䜕事も牛耳っおいたため、䞍可觊 賀民やカヌストの䜎い者は村の䞀郚ずしお 認められなかった。 デリヌから来たバラモンの女性は、䜎いカ ヌストに属する村人の䜿う井戞の氎を飲ん で人々をびっくりさせた。 カラン・シン氏は暩嚁を倱い、りッタル・プ ラデヌシュ州にはしばしばひどい勢いでカ ヌスト政治が抌し寄せた。村は僻地に分類 され、孊校ず電気のある近隣の村から五人 䌚議の議長がやっお来る。 村で数時間過ごしお気が぀いた最も気が 滅入るこずは、玩具を1぀も芋かけなかった こずだ。本や新聞や電子ゲヌムは勿論のこ ず、人圢もテディベアもブリキの兵隊もチョ ヌクもクレペンもタレントやサッカヌ遞手 のポスタヌも颚船もボヌルもない。欧米や 䞭囜、぀いでに蚀えばデリヌで圓たり前ず 考えられおいる物が党くなく、 よりよい生掻 ぞず子䟛や青少幎達の想像力を育むちょっ ずした物が党くない。季節の移り倉わりや 気たぐれなモンスヌンに䟝存しなくずもよ い人生ぞの憧れを刺激するようなものは、 この村ではほずんどない。明らかに聡明で 瞳を茝かせた元気な子䟛達が、あんなに 小さい頃から貧困に苊したなければなら ないのは非垞に残念である。■ WiA Delegate Publication

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Regional overviews

䞭倮アゞアの新 しい「絹の道」

Photo courtesy of World Bank

東掋ず西掋を結ぶ最も重芁な亀易路であっ たシルクロヌドは、倚くの倉遷を経お珟代文 明瀟䌚の瀎ずなっおいる。

Making the road as smooth as silk for the CAR’s The Silk Road was once the most important link between East and West, a vital series of stepping stones in laying the foundations of the modern world.

I

t was also pivotal in helping to develop the great civilizations of China, India, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Rome, but today it is a rocky road indeed, both literally and metaphorically. However, Juan Miranda, the director general of the Central and West Asia department of the Asian Development Bank, is an enthusiastic supporter of the revival of the road as an essential bringer of prosperity and peace to central Asia and making it again, in a true sense, the “crossroads of the world” between China, India, Russia, the Middle East and Europe. The old and fabled road started in Chang’an, the Xi’an of today, and was not so much a single road as a series of routes that spread from China and deviated north and south of the Tibetan plateau through to India, Asia Minor, and the Mediterranean. Miranda says his appetite for the area and the route was whetted when he visited Petra, which by some definitions was the western end of the route. But then he laughs and says that, “in another sense, London was the last point in the chain as the goods came to the East India dock for delivery beyond.” Alexander the Great was one of the first to open up the routes from the west, and his successors, the Ptolemies, expanded the links between Egypt and the Mediterranean and India. China made the opening from the east. Silk, of course was one of the main products traded from early Roman times. Marco Polo, the Venetian merchant, was a relative latecomer to the road. Gunpowder, 120

か぀おは壮倧な䞭囜、むンド、 メ゜ポタミア、ペル シャ、ロヌマの文明発展にも重芁な圹割を担っ おいたが、珟実的にも比喩的にも、今日のシルク ロヌドは険しい道である。 しかし、アゞア開発銀 行ADB)の䞭倮・西アゞア局長フアン・ミランダ Juan Miranda氏は、 シルクロヌドを再び䞭囜、 むンド、ロシア、䞭東そしお欧州を結ぶ本圓の「䞖 界の亀差点」 ず䜍眮付け、䞭倮アゞアに繁栄ず平 和を導くためのものずしお埩興させたいず熱心 に垌望しおいる。 叀くから語り継がれおきたシルクロヌドは今日 の西安である長安を起点ずし、䞀本の道ではな く䞭囜から幟本にも道が䌞び、枝分かれしおチ ベット高原の北ず南を通っおむンド、小アゞア、地 䞭海地方ぞず繋がっおいた。 ミランダ氏は、シル クロヌドの西の終点ずもいわれるペトラを蚪ね たずきに、その地域ずシルクロヌドの埩掻に思い を銳せた。 しかし、 「別の意味では物資が遥か東 むンドドックたで運ばれたずいうこずで、ロンドン が終点だずも蚀える」 ず笑いながら語っおいる。 初めに西からのルヌトを開拓したのはアレクサ ンダヌ倧王で、その埌継のプトレマむオス王朝 ぱゞプト、地䞭海地方、曎にむンドぞず亀易路 を拡匵しおいった。䞭囜は東からルヌトを切り開 いた。叀代ロヌマの時代から、䞻芁な亀易品はも ちろんシルクであった。やや時代を経おマルコ・ ポヌロ、ベニスの商人もシルクロヌドを枡っおい った。火薬、印刷技術、コンパス、地図、造船技術 などが運ばれ、曎には文化、仏教もかたちを倉え お䌝播しおいった。歎史䞊、 グロヌバリれヌショ ンはシルクロヌドを通しお初めお実珟し、囜際的 な文化亀流が長い間続いた。

printing, the compass, maps, shipbuilding, as well as culture and the Buddhist religion were among the major items carried or modified by the trade links. Indeed, globalisation itself took its first steps on the Silk Road and the road sustained a truly international culture. However, the coming of the great しかし、垝囜の勃興、海䞊茞送の発達、埌には empires and greater use of sea, then air, 空路も開かれたこずで昔のシルクロヌドは迂 routes meant that the old Silk Road was 回され、飛び越されるようになっおしたった。既 bypassed and overflown. Even by the 19th に19䞖玀には、南のルヌトの䞻芁䞭継点であ century, Afghanistan, a key link in the るアフガニスタンはロシア垝囜ず英領むンドに southern part of the road was caught like 培底的に搟取されおいた。゜ビ゚ト垝囜の時代 a bone chewed over by the old imperial になるず、ルヌトのかなりの郚分がその領土に powers of Russia and British India. With the 組み蟌たれた。サマルカンド(Samarkand)ずい coming of the Soviet empire, great chunks った地名は語り継がれる物語りになり、ブハラ of the routes were absorbed into the USSR. (Bokhara)は論理孊の教本で觊れられる皋床に Names of places like Samarkand faded into なっおしたった。 the imagination of fables, while Bokhara しかし、゜連邊が厩壊し、䞭倮アゞア共和囜諞囜 CARsCentral Asian Republicsの略 ず呌ば lived on in logic textbooks. But now after the break-up of the USSR れる䞭倮アゞアの囜々が独立した今日、ミランダ and the coming of the independent states 氏ずADBでは石油、倩然ガスおよびその他の鉱 of central Asia, often known as the CARs 物資源の亀易路ずしおシルクロヌドを埩掻させ、 (for Central Asian Republics), Miranda and この地域の工業化を掚進する奜機であるず考え the ADB believe it is a good opportunity to おいる。 revive the old trading ties of the Silk Road, ミランダ氏は䞭倮アゞアが持぀巚倧な可胜性 this time with opportunities for trading oil に目を茝かせる。 「䞭倮アゞア5カ囜のなかで最 and natural gas and other mineral resources 倧の囜、りズベキスタンでも人口は2600䞇人で and for stimulating industrialisation. すから巚倧な垂堎があるわけではありたせん。 Miranda is enthusiastic about the [他ではカザフスタンが1500䞇人、キルギス共和 トルクメニスタンがそれぞれ immense opportunities in central Asia: “We 囜、タゞキスタン、 don’t have a huge population, 26 million 箄600䞇人] しかし、膚倧な石油、ガス、綿、鉱物 in Uzbekistan, which is the largest of the 資源があり、地理䞊でもこれらを戊略的に経枈 five central Asian countries, so there is not a 発展に掻かせる奜䜍眮にありたす。ただ、こうし huge market. [Of the others, Kazakhstan has た資源は公平な方法ず、ベスト・プラクティスを 4


Central Asian Republics

15 million people, and the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan have about six million people each.] But we have a key location, strategically well positioned to take advantage of what are really vast resources of oil, gas, cotton and minerals. But these resources need to be tapped in a fair manner and following best practices. We have talent, but talent can be eroded, particularly if they don’t invest in education and health. The region has culture, people, monuments, tradition.

Miranda and the ADB believe it is a good opportunity to revive the old trading ties “It is potentially a link between east and west and north and south. The dynamics are that the commodities are produced in the region, and the markets are south, east and west. The problem is to get them there. Although geographically in terms of kilometres the region is physically close, the Silk Road is not as smooth as it may have been in years past.” Investment is needed, adds Miranda, in a whole range of things such, as roads, railways, communications, paperwork and customs harmonisation. This means that regional co-operation is essential. Indeed, a report from the United Nations Development Programme in late 2005 warned that, “Only if central Asian countries and their neighbours create borders that allow people to connect with each other without fear, without undue loss of time and without bribes, will they succeed in achieving economic prosperity, social progress, human security, and political stability for their people.”

In an effort to encourage the regional 以っお開発される必芁がありたす。ADBにはこう countries to co-operate, the ADB and other した胜力がありたす。しかし、特に教育や医療に multilateral bodies like the UNDP, World 投資しなければそれも掻かされないでしょう。 Bank, IMF, Islamic Development Bank この地域には特有の文化、民族、遺跡、䌝統があ and European Bank for Reconstruction りたす。 and Development helped eight countries to set up the Central Asian Economic 「東西、曎には南北の架け橋ずなる可胜性もあ りたす。この地域には資源があり、消費垂堎が Co-operation Programme, or Carec as it 南、東そしお西に控えおおり、発展の可胜性を秘 inevitably is known. The eight participating めおいたす。問題はこの地域ぞのアクセスが難し countries are Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, China いずいう点です。シルクロヌドは距離的には近い (because of its Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous のですが、昔のように螏み均された道ではありた Region), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, せん」 Mongolia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The ADB serves as the Carec secretariat. Carec ミランダ氏は、道路、鉄道、通信、制床ず関皎の調 stands for four things: connectivity, better 和など広範囲に枡る投資が必芁だず指摘する。 business environment, better regional public そのためには地域的な協力は欠かせない。 goods, better capacity within the countries 2005幎末に発衚された囜連開発蚈画(United themselves. Within the four areas the focus Nations Development Programme)のレポヌト 「䞭倮アゞアずその近隣諞囜が䞍安を抱かず is on four vital issues, explains Miranda, は、 namely transport and logistics, energy, に、時間を有効に䜿い、賄賂を匷芁するこずなく building capacity and trade facilitation – “If 盞互に亀流できなくおは地域の経枈的な繁栄、 you can’t get the stuff out at competitive 瀟䌚的進歩、安党な瀟䌚、政治的安定を達成す rates, you’re not going to get anywhere,” るこずはできない」ず譊告しおいる。 adds the ADB director general in practical 䞭倮アゞア諞囜の盞互協力を促進するため、 down to earth mode. ADB他、囜連開発蚈画、䞖界銀行、囜際通貚基 Miranda’s speech is a mixture of the jargon 金、むスラム開発銀行、欧州埩興開発銀行ずい beloved of the multilateral institutions, such った囜際機関の協力を埗お、同地域の8カ囜で as “best practices” and “capacity building”, 構成される䞭倮アゞア地域経枈協力プログラム along with a cheerleader’s enthusiasm, as Central Asian Economic Co-operation、略し he switches between “they” – meaning the おCarecずいう機構が創蚭された。その8カ囜は countries – and “we” – meaning himself as アフガニスタン、アれルバむゞャン、䞭囜 (新疆り the director general and clearly a part of the むグル自治区が䞭囜に垰属するため)、カザフス team, responsible for leadership, not merely タン、キルギス共和囜、モンゎル、タゞキスタン、 for cheering. “We are in a global business,” りズベキスタンである。その䞭でADBはCarecの 補助機関ずしおの圹割を担っおいる。Carecは、地 he adds. “They are not into it.” Cheering and leading are both clearly 域内の盞互亀流、事業環境の向䞊、地域の公共 necessary. The region has tremendous 財の改善、生産胜力の向䞊を目指しおいる。ミラ potential but has to catch up on neglect and ンダ氏はこの4぀の目的の達成に向けお、運茞ず on the aftermath of dissolution of the Soviet ロゞスティックス、゚ネルギヌ、胜力育成、貿易促 進の4぀の重芁課題に泚力するず語る。 「この4぀ empire. The Soviet years were difficult ones に䟡栌競争力がなければ囜際垂堎で勝぀こずは for the nationalist feelings in central Asia, but できない」 ずいうのが局長ずしおのミランダ氏の the command economy had its comforts and 冷静な芋方である。 provided a market and a source of help when ミランダ氏はむンタビュヌの䞭で、 「ベスト・プラ クティス」や「胜力育成」 ずいった囜際機関で奜ん で䜿われる甚語ず、䞭倮アゞア8カ囜を指すずき には「圌ら」、ADBを代衚しお自らを指すずきには 「我々」 ずいう蚀葉を䜿っおいる。 これには、単な る旗振り圹ではなく指導的な圹割を担うのだ、 ず いう匷い責任感が感じられる。 ミランダ氏は「我 々はグロヌバルな事業を掚進しおいるが、圌らは これに参加しおいたせん」 ず指摘する。

© Rafoto

激励ず指導力が必芁なのは明らかである。䞭倮 アゞアは倧いなる発展の可胜性を秘めおるが、 これたでの遅れを取り戻し、゜連垝囜厩壊埌の 混乱から立ち盎らなければならない。゜連邊䞋 の䞭倮アゞアは囜家䞻矩には苊難の時代であっ たが、統制経枈にはそれなりの心地良さもあり、 垂堎も圢成され䞍景気の時には支揎もあった。 独立の興奮冷めやらぬ今日では、䞭倮アゞア諞 囜には自らの進路を決め、新しい垂堎を創蚭す る機䌚があり、時には敵察的な近隣諞囜ず劂䜕 に協力しおいくかも孊ばなければならない。独立 を勝ち埗たものの、政治的な利暩絡みで囜境を 閉ざしおいる囜もある。

The eight participating countries are Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, China (because of its Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Mongolia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

囜連開発蚈画では、広範囲の分野に枡っお地域 的な協力がなければ可胜性の実珟は難しく、政 治䞍安も免れないず譊告しおいる。同レポヌトで は「政治的改革を掚進するのはトップの政治指 導者か、長期的には統合ず協力を基盀にした、 よ 4

WiA Delegate Publication

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Regional overviews

economies were in difficulty. In the still heady excitement of being independent, the central Asian republics can make their own decisions and have opportunities for new markets, but also have to learn how to co-operate with sometimes prickly neighbours. Some of the countries have already found that having won independence, entrenched political interests do not relish opening the borders. UNDP warned that without regional cooperation across a wide range of issues, the countries would find it difficult to fulfil their potential and could face unrest. Its report said that: “The political push for change will likely have to come from the top leadership, or from the enlightened self-interest of the elites as they recognise that in the longer term they will also benefit substantially from a more competitive, dynamic and rapidly growing regional economy – one based on integration and co-operation.” On the other hand, the UNDP continued, the drive for change “could also come from those who feel most oppressed by closed borders and corrupt officials, the people in the border communities who are the most negatively affected and most prone to turn to radical and potentially violent methods.” Co-operation does not mean a return to the closed or centrally planned economies, but permitting integration and encouraging competition, not an easy conjunction, which in turn means borders open for trade and investment, linked infrastructure, shared water and energy, common standards of environmental and health protection and a free flow of ideas and experiences. The inheritance is awkward, and progress since the break up of the Soviet empire in 1991 has been stumbling. Although boundaries may be clearly marked on the map, the different peoples sprawl across them, linked by their faith in Islam. Afghanistan, though it was never quite part of the Soviet empire, has a multitude

of different peoples and tribes besides the majority Pashtuns, including substantial り競争的でダむナミックな急速に成長する経枈 の方が自分達にずっおも有利だず考える啓蒙さ numbers of Uzbeks, Tajiks and Turkmens. れた゚リヌト局になる」 Miranda sketches some of the differences between the countries. “Kazakhstan 「䞀方で、閉鎖的な瀟䌚で汚職官吏により最も (population 15 million, per capita income 抑圧された人々や、最も䞍利益を蒙り過激な暎 $2,260, according to ADB statistics, but $9.100 力的手段にも蚎える可胜性もある囜境によっお according to the CIA on a purchasing power 分断された民族も改革の原動力ずなり埗る」ず指 parity or ppp basis) is a rich, fast growing 摘しおいる。 economy where the ADB is mainly involved 協力ずいうのは閉鎖的経枈あるいは䞭倮政府に with the private sector.” In fact Kazakhstan よる蚈画経枈ぞの回垰を意味するのではなく、 offers a good example of how painful life 地域の統合を可胜にし、競争を促進するもので was outside the Soviet umbrella. Its GDP なければならない。安易な連垯ではなく、貿易ず shrank by 25 percent in the 1990s. It is the 倖囜からの投資を受け入れ、むンフラが結ばれ、 largest of the central Asian nations and the 氎ず゚ネルギヌが共有され、環境保護ず医療の ninth largest in the world, almost four times 共通の基準が確立され、ヒトずモノの亀流が自 bigger than Texas. Besides enormous fossil 由に行われる必芁がある。 fuel reserves, it has considerable agricultural 同地域は負の遺産を倚く抱え、1991幎の゜ビ゚ potential from the vast steppes. ト垝囜厩壊埌も政治的、経枈的な改革は進展し おいない。囜境は地図䞊では明確に描かれおい るのかも知れない。 しかし、その䞊にはむスラム 教ずいう信仰で繋がった倚くの違う民族があちこ ちに散らばっおいるのである。 アフガニスタンは ゜ビ゚ト垝囜には組み蟌たれなかったものの、 倚数のパシュトりン人の他、かなりの倚数を占め るりズベク人、 タゞク人、 トルクメン人などで構成 される倚民族囜家である。

Although boundaries may be clearly marked on the map, the different peoples sprawl across them, linked by their faith in Islam

ミランダ氏はそれぞれの囜の特城に぀いお、か い぀たんで玹介する。 「カザフスタン(ADBの統蚈 によれば、人口1500䞇人、䞀人圓たりの幎収は 2260ドル、CIAの資料では賌買力平䟡で9100ド ル ) は 豊 か な 囜で 経 枈も急 成 長しおいたす。 ADBは䞻に民間ずの協力を掚進しおいたす」。実 際に、 ゜連邊厩壊埌の経枈が劂䜕に苊難の道の りであったかを劂実に瀺す䟋はカザフスタンを おいお他にない。1990幎代にGDPは25%瞮小。 面積では䞭倮アゞア最倧、䞖界でも第9䜍、テキ サス州の玄4倍の広さを持぀。化石燃料の埋蔵 量が豊富なばかりでなく、盞圓芏暡の蟲業を可 胜にする広倧な草原も控えおいる。

“Azerbaijan,” says Miranda, “is another extreme, growing at 35 percent a year, the fastest in the world thanks to oil exports, but not all nice for your health since you have to sterilize the money somewhere so that it does not destroy the achievements.” The population of Azerbaijan is 8 million and income is $950 according to the ADB, $7,300 according to the CIA. Corruption is rife, according to the CIA, which says that parts of the country are the most polluted on earth. Tajikistan (population 6.8 million, income per head $280 according to the ADB, $1,300 according to the CIA) is the poorest of the former Soviet republics, with only small amounts of oil and little arable land. Kyrgyz Republic with a population of 5.2 million

ミランダ氏は、 「アれルバむゞャンも特異な囜で、 石油の茞出で幎35%の経枈成長を達成しおいた すが、膚倧な石油収入を掻かしお産業の裟野を 広げる必芁がありたす」 ず指摘する。ADBの統蚈 によれば、アれルバむゞャンの人口は800䞇人、 䞀人圓たりの幎収は950ドル、CIAの統蚈では 7300ドルずなっおいる。CIAによれば、汚職が蔓 延しおおり、䞀郚の地方は地球䞊で最も公害が ひどいず報告されおいる。

For thirty years, Afghanistan has been torn apart by war and is still so insecure that it is simply ‘not on the radar’ for most investors.

© Brent Lewin / OnAsia.com

タゞキスタン (ADBの統蚈では人口680䞇人、 䞀人圓たりの幎収は280ドル、 CIAの統蚈では 1300ドル)は、旧゜連邊のなかでは最も貧しく石 油にも、蟲耕に適した土地にも恵たれおいない。 キルギス共和囜は人口520䞇人、䞀人圓たりの 幎収400ドル、CIAの統蚈では2000ドルで、若干 豊かな皋床である。他の䞭倮アゞアの囜々同様、 内陞囜ずいうだけでなく山が倚いために通信が 思うに任せないずいう問題がある。 しかし、 ここに は䞖界最倧の野生のクルミの森がある。

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䞭倮アゞア最倧の囜、りズベキスタンは䞀人圓 たりの幎収が460ドル、賌買力平䟡では2000ド ルで、倩然ガスず金の埋蔵量は盞圓量にのがる。 たた、綿の生産量は䞖界第4䜍、茞出量では䞖界 第2䜍である。 ミランダ氏は、 「りズベキスタンは 地域的協力にはあたり積極的ではありたせんで したが、今では[ロゞスティックス]の重芁性を認 識し、その地理的優䜍性を自囜のため、そしお地 域のために戊略的に掻かせるかどうか真剣に怜 蚎しおいたす」 ず語る。 4


Central Asian Republics

© Ami Vitale / Alamy

トルクメニスタンの人口は650䞇人、䞀人圓たり の幎収は1340ドル、賌買力平䟡では8900ドル で、Carecには加盟しないずいう遞択をした。 この 囜は倩然ガスの埋蔵量が豊富だが、内陞囜のた めに茞送䞊の問題を抱えおいる。政府が倖囜人 ず倖囜からの投資に察しお懐疑的なこずも発展 を劚げる芁因ずなっおいた。 しかし、最近遞出さ れた新©倧統領は䞭囜ぞの茞出も芖野に入れた ガスパむプラむンの建蚭蚈画を明らかにしおい る。

Azerbaijan is growing at 35 percent a year, and average annual income is $950, according to the ADB.

and income of $400 or $2,000 according to the CIA ppp basis, is only slightly richer. Besides being landlocked like the rest of central Asia, it is also a mountainous country, making communications difficult, though it possesses the world’s largest natural growth walnut forest. Uzbekistan, the biggest of the CARs with income of $460 according to straight currency conversions and $2,000 according to ppp, has considerable reserves of gas and gold and is the world’s fourth biggest cotton producer and second biggest exporter. “The Uzbeks, who were less enthusiastic about regional cooperation are now embracing the term ‘logistics’ to see whether they can take advantage of their strategic position to yield results for themselves and for others,” adds Miranda.

The private sector is always awake, but has not yet really turned up Turkmenistan, with 6.5 million people and income of $1,340 or $8,900 according to ppp, chose not to join Carec. It has rich but untapped gas reserves and the problem is how to release them through a landlocked country. The task was made more difficult by a government suspicious of foreigners and foreign investment, but the country under a newly elected president has plans to build gas pipelines, including to China. Then there is Afghanistan (population 24 million, per capita income $200 or $800 by ppp), torn apart for 30 years by the quarrels of others and still racked by insecurity which frightens investors. The country has 75 approved political parties, but an electricity supply of a couple hours a day. Miranda talks of “a country which we all love” haunted by the daily presence of the past. The ADB and other donors are working to finish the ring road round Afghanistan, which would link Kabul and Qandahar with Heart, as well as providing arteries to

the rest of the nation and the world and prove that there is an option for Afghanistan other than continuous infighting: to regain its position at the crossroads of the world linking east and west and the once and future empires of India, China, Iran and the Middle East and the West. With the threat of the Taliban making a comeback and pervasive corruption – a police superintendent’s job paying $60 a month was sold for $100,000 to the highest bidder last year – the question is whether the aid givers can sow the seeds and show the fruits of a better life before the Islamic ideologues can wreck them. Miranda exudes an infectious enthusiasm. He wants to get Russia, Pakistan and Turkmenistan to join Carec and to get Japan, the US and the Europeans involved. Competition between aid donors is not a problem, but co-ordination and co-operation is important. Altogether, he says, there are $2.3 billion in funds available for the period 2006-2008. “The requirement is much bigger than what any of us or all of us can do.” He talks of the successes of building electricity transmission lines from Tajikistan to Kabul and from Uzbekistan to Kabul, the latter in co-operation with the Indian government. Miranda claims that “the line between, ‘just leave me alone’ and ‘let’s work together,’ that line is being blurred.” He and the bank are working to speed up customs clearances: “We are not asking that they be done in minutes, as they are done in Singapore, but to get them down to days, to a single day.” That is one indicator of the rocky state of the road. Another is the as yet limited role of the private sector. Miranda adds: “The private sector is always awake, but has not yet really turned up. It will do, like it has done in other parts of the world when the business environment is predictable, the enabling conditions are in place. Where there is uncertainty, there is no private sector.” Clearly, there is still a long way to go before the Silk Road can again be one of the facts of central Asian life rather than fable. g

そしお、 アフガニスタンは (人口2400䞇人、䞀人 圓たりの幎収200ドル、賌買力平䟡で800ドル)、 他囜間の察立に30幎間に亘っお囜土を匕き裂 かれ、珟圚も治安が悪いために倖囜人投資家も 寄り付かない。 この囜には75の正匏に登録され た政党があるが、電力䟛絊は1日のうち数時間だ けずいう状況にある。 ミランダ氏は、 「珟圚が過去 の歎史に取り憑かれおいる、誰もが思いを寄せ る囜」 ずいう。ADBをはじめずした揎助機関はカ ブヌルからカンダハルを経由しおヘラヌトに至 る環状道路の完成に力を入れ、同時に地方、曎 には䞖界に繋がる幹線道路を建蚭しお内戊に明 け暮れるアフガニスタンに垌望の灯をずもそうず しおいる。東掋ず西掋、曎には過去ず未来のむン ド、䞭囜、むラン、䞭東そしお西掋を結ぶ䞖界の 亀差点ずしお再床䜍眮付けようずいう詊みであ る。 タリバン埩掻の脅嚁ず、昚幎は月絊60ドルの譊 郚職が10䞇ドルで競り萜ずされるなど汚職が絶 えない䞭で、狂信的なむスラム教埒に砎壊され る前に揎助の皮が撒かれ、目に芋えるかたちで 成果を実珟できるかのかどうかずいう疑問もあ る。 ミランダ氏の熱意が党身から出おおり、かなり説 埗力がある。 ミランダ氏はロシア、パキスタン、 ト ルクメニスタンのCarecぞの加盟ず、 日本、米囜、 欧州の支揎を望んでいる。揎助機関の間での競 争は障害ではない。調敎ず協力が重芁なのであ る。 ミランダ氏は、2006-2008幎に぀いおは総額 23億ドルの揎助資金が調達できるず蚀う。そし お、タゞキスタンずカブヌルを結ぶ送電線、むン ド政府の協力を埗お完成したりズベキスタンず カブヌルを結ぶ送電線に話しが及ぶず、 「この地 域の発展は私達だけでは実珟できたせん」 ず語 る。 ミランダ氏によるず 「ほっずいおくれ」 ず 「䞀緒に やろう」 ずいう盞反する立堎の境界線が曖昧に なっおきおいる。ADBはミランダ氏の䞻導で迅速 な通関手続きの実珟を目指しおいる。 「シンガポ ヌル䞊みの迅速な凊理ではなく、数日掛かるずこ ろを1日で枈たせるよう求めおいるのです」。 この たった぀のこずからも、 これから乗り越えおい かなければならない障害が劂䜕に倚いかが窺え る。民間セクタヌが未だに積極的になっおいな いこずも、 この蟺の問題意識を瀺唆しおいる。 ミ ランダ氏は「民間セクタヌは垞に機䌚を窺っおい たすが、 ただ本栌化しおいたせん。事業環境の将 来が芋通せるようになり、事業化の条件が敎え ば䞖界の他の地域同様に促進されるでしょう。先 行きが読めないなかでは民間セクタヌはあり埗 たせん」 ず指摘しおいる。シルクロヌドが物語り の䞖界から再び䞭倮アゞアの珟実になるたでに は、ただ解決しなければならない倚くの課題が あるのは間違いない。■

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Regional overviews

タむ軍郚の行動 が投資を抑制

© Getty Images

去幎タむの軍郚が無血で暩力を奪取したの は15幎ぶりのクヌデタヌであった。 それでも 1932幎の立憲君䞻制移行以来18床目のク ヌデタヌであった。

Thailand’s military manoeuvres inhibit investors When Thailand’s military took power in a bloodless coup last year, it was the country’s first in 15 years, but the 18th since it became a constitutional monarchy in 1932...

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n 2006, tanks were out in the heart of Bangkok protecting the important government buildings, but strangely their gun barrels were garlanded, and the soldiers attending them were pressed with food and flowers by local people, who saw them as saviours. Yes, it was odd - and it has become even odder. Now, the flower decorated tanks have largely been withdrawn but the soldiers are still in charge, though they are blundering around in trying to resolve the contradictions of running a relatively sophisticated emerging market country. Thailand, already a tiger cub economy, looked likely to grow into one of the strongest and best developed, but sadly the miracle has been put on hold and growth is falling towards 4-5 percent. Worse, Thailand has lost its way. It would be far-fetched to claim that it is heading down the path of its neighbour Burma (Myanmar) where a bunch of thuggish generals have managed to turn one of the most bountifully endowed countries into a backward swamp. But what is happening in Thailand illustrates the importance of making political progress in tune with economic development. There are many positives, of course: Thailand has shown the claws of a tiger cub with rapid growth that has lifted the country, with its population of 65 million, into the ranks of middle-income states. The Asian Development Bank gives per capita income as $2,540 in 2004, but the CIA in 124

2007 estimates that on a purchasing power basis income is $9,100. The economy is diversifying nicely from its firm agricultural base and has a strong industrial sector, particularly in the production of cars and car parts, where Thailand has become the world’s second biggest maker of pick-up trucks. Electronics, textiles & garments, and agricultural products are also strong performers. Tourism, booming because of a warm year-round climate, good beaches, a splash of colourful culture and history, and the welcoming attitude of the people of “The Land of Smiles”, also brings in about $15 billion. In an international study conducted by leading universities round the world, Thailand comes top of the world for its entrepreneurial spirit, with more than 50 percent of its working population counted as entrepreneurs. Unfortunately, while the economy has made superb progress, Thailand’s political system has spluttered and stuttered through 18 coups since the abolition of absolute monarchy in 1932. In September 2006, after Bangkok had been disrupted by months of street protests, a group of military officers took advantage of the absence at the United Nations in New York of the controversial “caretaker” prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra to conduct a bloodless coup, claiming - as the military are wont to - that they were acting “to

2006幎、銖郜バンコクの䞭心に戊車が出 動し䞻芁政府庁舎を防衛したが、奇劙なこ ずに銃身には花茪がかけられ、芋匵りの兵 士を救䞖䞻ずみなす䜏民は食料や花を差 し出した。確かに奇劙な光景であった。そし お、さらに奇劙なこずになっおいった。花で 食られた戊車の倧半はすでに撀退したが、 いただに軍政が続いおおり、比范的進んだ 新興垂堎囜を運営するこずの矛盟をたご぀ きながらも解決しようずしおいる。 すでにアゞアのタむガヌ経枈囜ぞの道を 歩み぀぀あるタむは最も匷力で発達した 経枈ぞず成長が芋蟌たれおいたが、残念な がらその成長率は4〜5%に䜎䞋したため に奇跡は棚䞊げ状態ずなり、 「タむガヌカ ブ」に留たっおいる。 さらに悪いこずに、 タむは方向を芋倱ったの である。凶悪な軍郚が資源に恵たれた囜を 前時代的な泥沌に匕きずり蟌んでしたった 隣囜のミャンマヌずタむが同じ蜍を螏むず いうのは蚀い過ぎであろう。 タむの状況は、 経枈発展ず同調した圢の政治的前進を実 珟するこずの重芁性を瀺しおいるのである。 もちろん前向きな郚分も倚々ある。人口 6500䞇人のタむは「タむガヌカブ」 ずしおの 実力を蚌明する高床成長を遂げ、囜民所埗 では䞭䜍クラスの仲間入りをした。アゞア 開発銀行ADBによれば、2004幎の人口 䞀人圓りの所埗は2540ドルであったが、米 䞭倮情報局CIAは2007幎の賌買力ベヌ スの所埗を9100ドルず詊算した。 堅固な蟲業基盀から匷力な工業郚門たで タむ経枈の倚角化が成功しおいるこずは、 ピックアップトラックの生産では䞖界第 䜍ずなっおいる自動車や自動車郚品の生産 では特に顕著に珟れおいる。電子、繊維・衣 料、蟲業補品ずいった郚門の成長も堅調で ある。䞀幎を通じお暖かく、玠晎らしいビヌ チず色圩豊かな文化歎史、そしお「埮笑み の囜」の人々の歓迎で芳光業も掻況で、玄 150億ドルをタむにもたらしおいる。 䞖界の䞻芁倧孊が実斜した囜際調査では、 タむは起業家粟神においお䞖界のトップに ランクされ、劎働人口の50が起業家ずさ れる。 経枈はすばらしい進歩を遂げたが、政治制 床に぀いおは残念ながら1932幎の絶察王 制廃止以来18回のクヌデタヌを経隓しおギ クシャクしおいる。 2006幎9月、バンコクで数か月にわたる街 頭デモで混乱が続いた埌、ニュヌペヌクの 4


Thailand background. He too came from an old business family of Chinese origin and 囜連出垭のために賛吊䞡論の倚い「暫定」 carefully cultivated his military and police 銖盞であるタクシン・シナワットThaksin connections, so this allowed him selectively Shinawatra氏が䞍圚の時機を狙い、 「平和 to co-opt security forces and business ず秩序」を維持するための行動ずいう軍郚 leaders useful to him. の決り文句を掲げお将校の䞀団がクヌデタ Critics concede that Thaksin used the ヌを起こした。翌日、軍事政暩は次のような levers of power brilliantly, though they 宣蚀を行い、 タクシン銖盞を告発した。 complain that, like a latter-day Roman emperor, he used all democratic means, 「我々は暫定銖盞がか぀おないほどの瀟 along with his financial strength and a 䌚の溝、腐敗、瞁故䞻矩を生じさせ、独立機 takeover of radio and television stations, 関を劚害しマヒさせお機胜䞍党に陥らせ to ensconce himself as a virtual dictator. たずの芋解で䞀臎したした。もし暫定政府 Local Thai blogs talked of “President の統治が蚱されれば、囜に損害を䞎えるこ Thaksin”, even though Thailand has a ずになるでしょう。圌らは繰り返し囜王を䟮 highly revered monarch - King Bhumipol 蟱しおきたした。 したがっお評議䌚が至急 Adulyadej - who in 2006 celebrated 60 暩力を掌握しお状況を統制し、正垞埩垰、 years on the throne and is the world’s 䞀臎団結を実珟するこずが必芁になりたし longest reigning monarch. た」

maintain peace and order”. The following day the junta produced its bill of charges against Thaksin, proclaiming: “We agreed that the caretaker prime minister has caused an unprecedented rift in society, widespread corruption, nepotism, and interfered in independent agencies, crippling them so they cannot function. If the caretaker government is allowed to govern it will hurt the country. They have also repeatedly insulted the king. Thus the council needed to seize power to control the situation, to restore normalcy and to create unity as soon as possible.” Western diplomats were appalled, with some seasoned observers claiming that all that Thaksin had done was the same as US President George W Bush or UK Prime Minister Tony Blair - try to manipulate and control as many levers of power as possible. Thaksin had been elected by a landslide in 2005, even though the 2006 elections, which he won virtually without opposition, were declared unconstitutional. Thais, especially the Bangkok elite, did not view Thaksin’s rule as benevolently as that. The former police lieutenant colonel became a billionaire businessman using his connections to get into computer software, and then to set up Thailand’s largest mobile telephone network as part of the Shin Corporation business empire. He then turned to politics, and after the 1997 financial crisis established a political party with the patriotic name Thai Rak Thai (Thais love Thais). He rode a wave of popularity to victory in 2001 and then unveiled “Thaksinomics”, boosting the economy, especially in rural areas, by spending measures, although critics said that the measures led farmers and the poor into debt. Backed by his great wealth, Thaksin pursued populist power and was unafraid to clash with the traditional Thai elite: the monarchy, the armed forces, bureaucracy, and rich business interests, many of Chinese

© Rafoto

It would be far-fetched to claim that it is heading down the path of its neighbour Burma

Military officers took advantage of the absence of the controversial “caretaker” prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra to conduct a bloodless coup.

西偎倖亀官らは仰倩した。䞀郚のベテラン のオブザヌバヌはタクシン銖盞がしたこず はゞョヌゞ・ W・ブッシュ George W Bush 米銖盞やトニヌ・ブレア Tony Blair英銖盞 ず同じで、できる限り倚くの政治的テコの 操䜜ず制埡をしようずしただけであるず䞻 匵した。 タクシン氏は2005幎の遞挙では地 滑り的倧勝で遞出されたが、実質的に抵抗 れロで勝利を収めた2006幎の遞挙は違憲 であるず宣蚀された。

Thaksin won a new election in April 2006 with 57% of the vote, but was soon confronted by massive street demonstrations in Bangkok against his dictatorial ways, タむ人、特にバンコクの゚リヌト局は、 タク which included ignoring the parliament シン氏のやり方をそれほど奜意的には芋お whose majority gave him his power and treating his cabinet as a rubber stamp. いなかった。元譊察䞭䜐のタクシン氏は人 Just when it seemed that the protests were 脈を利甚しお゜フトりェア業界に進出し、実 running out of steam, Thaksin sparked new 業家ずしお億䞇長者になった。さらに巚倧 outbursts when it was announced that his 䌁業Shin Corporation瀟の䞀郚ずしおタむ family had sold its 49 percent stake in Shin 最倧の携垯電話䌚瀟を蚭立した。その埌、 Corporation to Temasek Inc, the Singapore 政界に進出、1997幎の金融危機の埌には government owned flagship, for 73.3 billion タむラックタむタむ愛囜党 ずいう愛囜的 baht, or about $1.9 billion, without paying な名前の政党を立ち䞊げた。 any tax on the deal. The howls of outrage united nationalist タクシン氏は倧衆からの支持の勢いに乗っ 「タクシン経枈 sentiments (the telecommunications empire, お2001幎の遞挙で勝利し、 including a mobile telephone leader, a 孊」を披露、予算拡倧政策で蟲村郚を䞭心 しかしながらこの television company, and a satellite company に経枈を掻発化させた。 had been sold to a company dominated by 政策で蟲業関係者や貧困局は借金をする a foreign government) with anger that a rich ようになったずの批刀も济びおいる。 business got away without paying a satang in tax and left unanswered questions about the タクシン氏は巚額の資産に支えられおポピ legality of the deal. The deal had supposedly ュリスト的暩力远求を行い、王宀、軍、官僚 been struck by Thaksin’s children, the やその倚くが䞭囜系で占められる豊かな実 owners of the shares after he became prime 業界など、䌝統的゚リヌト局ずの衝突を恐 minister, but most Thais believed that a れなかった。タクシン氏自身も䞭囜系実業 domineering personality like Thaksin must 家の名家の出身であり、軍ず譊察の人脈拡 have been actively involved, given the sale 倧を慎重に行ったために公安や実業界の of the flagship, the size of the deal, and the 䞊局郚で自分に郜合のよい人脈を䜜るこず fact that he shared his household with his ができた。 children who are inexperienced and in their 批刀する偎もタクシン氏は政治的圱響力 early 20s. Korn Chatikavanij, head of J P Morgan’s の䜿いかたがうたかったこずは認めおいる operations in Thailand until he became a が、ロヌマ垝囜末期の皇垝のようにあらゆ politician and was elected a Democrat る民䞻手段ず経枈力そしおラゞオ、テレビ Party member of parliament in the 2005 局を買収しお、事実䞊の独裁者の地䜍に安 elections, launched a stinging attack on 䜏したず非難しおいる。タむには2006幎に the legality of the Shin-Temasek deal, 圚䜍60幎を祝い䞖界で最も圚䜍期間の長 claiming that it “was possible because of a い囜王になったプミポン・アドゥンダデヌト series of policies designed to aid and abet Bhumipol Adulyadej囜王がおり、囜民 4 Shin Corp companies, ranging from illegal WiA Delegate Publication

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Regional overviews amendments of concession terms to waivers of tax payments, be it customs duty on imported satellite equipment, or excise tax obligations on mobile phone revenues. “It was possible also because the revenue department sided with the family in allowing them to get away with not paying income tax in a series of transactions dating back to 1999 right up to the day before the Temasek deal itself. “It was possible because the Telecom Act was amended to allow the foreign ownership limit to rise from 25 per cent to 49 per cent - one day before the transaction.

Thaksin sparked new outbursts when it was announced that his family had sold its 49 percent stake in Shin Corporation to Temasek Inc “It was possible because the Shinawatra family colluded with Temasek in setting up an ownership structure that the commerce ministry has subsequently concluded was illegal. “Furthermore, it may have been possible because Thaksin had always illegally owned the shares sold to Singapore and, perhaps worst of all, was in a position to make formal and informal side agreements with Singapore to assure them of future benefits related to the transaction.” Several months after their takeover, Thailand’s coup leaders are still floundering. They promised that they would only be in office for a year and would hand over to a new government chosen by elections under a new constitution. Progress has been slow in writing the constitution in such a way as to ensure that neither Thaksin nor a similarly

autocratic figure can attain power. Getting to grips with possible abuses of power and corruption under Thaksin, as well as unearthing any illegalities in the Shin deal, are also taking an age. Meanwhile, Thaksin has been touring neighbouring countries and presenting himself as a maligned leader who only wanted to do good for the Thai people. Visits and media interviews in Singapore, Indonesia, China, Hong Kong, and Japan hardly dispel the idea that he has given up politics. In a pathetically softball interview with CNN, the deposed Thai leader claimed that “enough is enough”, he was retiring from politics. He presented himself as a hard-done-by leader who had only tried to “serve the people” - a saintly figure rather than the ruthless political leader or successful business billionaire that Thais loved or hated. Mr Thaksin talked of his “belief” in the kindness of the Thai king and of the national “spirit” and tradition of amnesty and added, “we forgive each others” (sic, CNN transcript). But he was not pressed on what forgiveness he was seeking and for which misdeeds. He added that if he were allowed to return to Thailand, his strongest desire was to rebuild national harmony and end the political crisis. His wish to do this “outside the political arena” was rightly seen in Thailand as a red flag signalling that the former leader is not finished as a political force. The military coup-makers have to face questions as to whether they are competent to run the government of this rapidly growing emerging market country. They took over claiming that they had to rescue Thailand from Mr Thaksin’s baneful and corrupt influence. Yet their inability to uncover hard evidence of corruption bears a similarity to the US quest for weapons of mass destruction in Saddam Hussain’s Iraq.

の尊敬を集めおいるにもかかわらず、囜内 に「タクシン倧統領」に぀いお曞かれたブロ グがあった。 タクシン氏は2006幎4月の総遞挙で埗祚率 57%で再遞されたが、その盎埌バンコク垂 内では、過半数獲埗により銖盞ずしお信任 を受けた議䌚を無芖しお内閣を远認機関ず しお扱うなどの専暪的なやり方に抗議する 倧芏暡な街頭デモが起こった。抗議の勢い が衰えるかず思われたたさにそのずき、銖 盞の家族がShin Corporation瀟株の49を シンガポヌル政府系の倧䌁業Temasek瀟 に売华するこずが発衚されタクシン問題が 再び堰を切ったように噎出したした。総額 7330億バヌツ玄190億ドルの、䞀切課皎 されない取匕であった。 憀激の嵐が愛囜心携垯電話トップ䌁業、 テレビ䌚瀟、衛星䌁業を含む巚倧通信䌁業 グルヌプが倖囜政府系の䌁業に売られた こずによる ず裕犏な䌁業が皎を逃れ取匕 の合法性に぀いおも䞍問にされおいるこず ぞの怒りを結び付けた。取匕は銖盞就任埌 に該圓株匏を取埗したタクシン氏の子䟛た ちが行ったものだが、タむの人々のほずん どは銖盞が20代前半のこのようなこずに経 隓の浅い子䟛ず同居しおいた事実から、専 暪なタクシン氏は巚倧䌁業の倧買収取匕 に積極的に関䞎したはずだず考えた。 政治家ずなり、2005幎の遞挙で民䞻党か ら囜䌚議員に遞出されるたで、 タむのJ P Morgan 瀟の事業責任者を぀ずめおいたコ ルン・チャティカバンゞKorn Chatikavanij 氏はShin Corporation瀟ずTemasek瀟の取 匕に察しお激しい批刀を济びせた。Shinグ ルヌプを揎助および幇助するための䞀連 の政策によっお営業暩に関する条件が違 法に倉曎されたこずにより、茞入衛星機噚 の関皎や携垯電話事業収入の免蚱皎など の免皎措眮が可胜になっおしたった。 「これは囜皎庁が1999幎以来Temasek瀟 の取匕にいたる諞契玄で所埗皎の䞍支 払いを蚱しおタクシン家の味方に぀いた からでもありたす。 これは取匕の前日に通 信法が改正され、倖囜人の株匏保持の䞊 限が25から29に匕き䞊げられたため に可胜になりたした。これはタクシン家が Temasek瀟ず結蚗し、埌に商務省が違法ず 結論づけた株匏保有構造を蚭定したため に可胜になったのです。さらにシンガポヌ ルに売华された株匏をタクシン家が垞に 違法に保有し、最悪なこずには取匕に関連 しお、シンガポヌルずの間で将来の利益を 保蚌する公匏、非公匏な远加合意を結ぶ䜍 眮にあったために可胜になったのかもしれ たせん」 © Suthep Kritsanavarin / OnAsia.com

The new showpiece Suvarnabhumi international airport was replete with corruption, according to Tortrakul Yommanak, a director of Airports of Thailand.

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政暩奪取から数か月が過ぎおも、 タむの軍 政指導者らの苊しみは続いおいる。軍郚は 幎間政暩を担圓した埌、新憲法䞋での遞 挙によっお遞出される新政府に政暩を委譲 するず玄束した。タクシン氏などの独裁者 が暩力を握るこずを防止するための憲法の 4


© Rafoto

Thailand

The current head of the Privy Council, Prem Tinsulanonda, is close to the king.

However, in the case of the Thai rulers, it may be their own failings or the collusion of the bureaucracy, since there are plenty of suspicions of wrongdoing. Leave aside the Shin deal, the new showpiece Suvarnabhumi international airport was replete with corruption, according to Tortrakul Yommanak, a director of Airports of Thailand. “The corruption disease spread like when one was bitten by a vampire, he or she turned into another vampire and bit other people more,” Tortrakul said in a television interview. The new rulers took the disastrous decision to go ahead with the opening of the airport in late September as Thaksin had scheduled, but in 2007 had humiliatingly to reopen the old Don Muang airport to take some of the strain off the new airport as cracks were found in a runway and taxiways. The decision to allow the airport to open on schedule was merely one in a series of economic decisions that showed how out of their depth the junta were. They also announced plans to restrict foreign ownership of Thai companies, probably directed at Temasek, but also potentially threatening a string of foreign companies in the modern Thai economy. Equally badly thought out were hastily imposed capital controls which sent the stock market plummeting. Thais also suffered with early measures to curb the popular lottery, and a ban on advertising alcohol was later retracted. Probably the most appropriate word to apply to the new rulers is bizarre. When they came to power, the agenda should have been clear - to justify their takeover by producing hard evidence that Thaksin had been corrupt and was damaging the country, and to restore confidence among Thais and foreign investors that they could hold the reins until a new constitution and elections could be prepared - and then get out. Instead, they indulged themselves with a mixture of policies that were irrelevant and others, such as restrictions on foreign

ownership and on capital inflow, that should be tackled by an elected, not a 成立は遅々ずしお進んでいない。タクシン 政暩䞋での暩力濫甚や腐敗の把握、Shin瀟 caretaker, government. In February 2007, still more bizarrely, の売华にかかわる䞍正远求にも時間がか the rulers appointed Somkid Jatusripitak, かっおいる。 deputy prime minister under Thaksin and 䞀方、 タクシン氏は近隣諞囜を回り、 タむ囜 a key architect of Thaksinomics, to be their 民の利益のためだけに働いたにもかかわ special envoy to travel abroad and explain らずそしりを受けた指導者であるずのむメ “sufficiency economics”, a Buddhist idea dear to King Bhumipol that the junta had ヌゞを広めようずした。シンガポヌル、むン adopted as its economic philosophy. There ドネシア、䞭囜、銙枯、日本を蚪れ取材を受 was such an outcry that Somkid resigned けおも、政界からすでに去った人物ずの感 before taking up his post, leaving the junta じは吊めない。CNNずのあわれなほど぀た looking stupid again. らないむンタビュヌで、远攟されたタむの Tapping Somkid (a key lieutenant of リヌダヌであるタクシン氏は「もう十分だ」 Thaksin and architect of Thaksinomics) for ず断蚀し、政界を匕退した。 タクシン氏はタ the job of salesman for the junta was the むの人々に愛され憎たれた冷酷な政治指 final straw for Pridyathorn Devenakula, 導者や成功した䌁業の億䞇長者ではなく、 deputy prime minister and finance minister. 「囜民に尜くしお」ひどい扱いを受けたリ Even though Somkid had abandoned the job before taking it up, Pridyathorn said he ヌダヌずしおの殉教者的な姿を芋せようず had had enough of rifts in the government した。 and personal media attacks on him. Critics タクシン氏は囜王の優しさぞの「確信」、囜 said that this just showed how much at sea 民の「粟神」、目こがしの䌝統ずいうこずに the new rulers were, since Pridyathorn had 觊れ、 「私たちは蚱しあう」 ず付け加えた。 し been the economic supremo and had been かしどのような蚱しをどの悪業に察しお求 responsible for the much criticised imposition めおいるのかに぀いおは远求されなかっ of controls on foreign capital inflow and for タクシン氏はもし垰囜が蚱されたなら、 badly articulated attempts to curb foreign た。 ownership of Thai companies. Although 囜民調和を再建し政治危機を終わらせるこ タクシ he was respected as central bank chief ずを最も匷く望むこずも付け加えた。 before joining the junta, the critics said that ン氏はこれを「政治の䞖界の倖で」行うこず Pridyathorn did not understand markets.... を望んでおり、圓然ながらタむ囜内では政 治圱響力が倱われおいないこずを瀺す赀 信号ずみなされおいる。

The military coup-makers took over claiming that they had to rescue Thailand from Mr Thaksin’s baneful and corrupt influence

Thailand in 2007 has many forces grasping for a slice of its attractive economy, including economic nationalists resentful of foreigners, and well-meaning Buddhists who see the country going to rack and ruin under fully fledged capitalism that has tempted even some abbots to own Mercedes cars and take mistresses in disobedience to vows of poverty and celibacy. Several leading bankers told me that, “a powerful group of influential Thais believes that business here should belong to Thais, not foreigners.” Peter van Haren, head of the Joint Foreign Chambers of Commerce in Bangkok, noted some of the government measures with concern, saying that, “It’s clear these moves are going to discourage new investors.” Probably the most influential person under the military junta is former armed forces head, former prime minister and current head of the Privy Council, Prem Tinsulanonda, who is close to the king. Prem’s own rule in the 1980s epitomised that of a grandfatherly benevolent despot, caring but firm, running a technocratic government. Banker turned politician Korn warned that Thailand has moved on in the 20 years since Prem was in power: “Thailand has

クヌデタヌを起こした軍事政暩は急速に成 長しおいる新興垂堎囜の政治を運営する 胜力を持っおいるか、 ずいう問いに自問自 答するこずになる。 クヌデタヌは、タむをタ クシン氏の有害で腐敗した圱響力から救う ためずいう䞻匵で行われた。 しかし軍事政 暩が汚職の確固たる蚌拠を明るみにだせ ないのは、米囜によるフセむン政暩のむラ クの倧量砎壊兵噚探しず䌌おいる。 しかしながら、タむの指導者の堎合、䞍正 の疑いが倚分にあるのは、軍事政暩の䞍 手際か官僚の結蚗があるためかもしれな い。タむ空枯公団のトルトラクル・ペマナ ク Tortrakul Yommanak局長によるず、 Shin瀟の取匕を別にしおも、スバルナブミ 新囜際空枯は汚職たみれである。 トルトラ クル氏はテレビのむンタビュヌで「腐敗は 吞血鬌の逌食ずなった者が吞血鬌ずなっお 別の人を襲うように広がりたす」 ず述べおい る。 新政暩は、タクシン氏が蚈画した9月末の 開枯を実斜するこずを決定したが、新空枯 の滑走路や誘導路に亀裂が芋぀かったた め、その䞀郚を肩代りするために2007幎に なっお屈蟱的にもドンムアン旧空枯の䜿甚 を再開せざるを埗なかった。 新空枯の開枯を予定通り行ったのは、軍事 政暩の力量䞍足を瀺すさたざたな経枈政 策決定のひず぀に過ぎない。軍事政暩はタ む䌁業ぞの倖囜からの出資率を制限する 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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Regional overviews

© Rafoto

蚈画を発衚した。Temasek瀟を念頭に眮い た措眮であるず思われるが、珟圚のタむ経 枈における倖囜䌁業に脅嚁を䞎える可胜性 もある。性急に課せられた資本制限も怜蚎 がたずく、株䟡の暎萜を招いた。たた、タむ では初期に導入されおいた人々が奜む宝く じぞの制限措眮が囜民を苊しめおおり、犁 止されおいたアルコヌル飲料の広告は埌で 撀回された。

Korn Chatikavanij, a Democrat Party member of parliament launched a stinging attack on the legality of the ShinTemasek deal.

moved on since Prem’s era, and we are a much more open economy, much more market-based now. Fifteen or 20 years ago, exports were 15 per cent of gross domestic product; now they are 70 to 80 per cent. We have a vibrant capital market that did not exist when Prem was around. We are greatly reliant on foreign capital and the free movement of capital. The world has moved on, yet the rulers are still operating as if the world is as it was when they were at their prime.” Korn is correct. Thailand does have contentious issues with foreign capital, which has often bribed or circumvented its way round the rules. But even more than in the 19th century, when the then Siam did a hypnotic dance with imperial powers to evade the close embrace of any one of them, Thailand needs foreign investments and capital to sharpen its competitive edge and to help to tackle glaring domestic problems, such as the urban-rural divide, rebellion in the Muslim south, the backward educational system that encourages rote-learning rather than individual thinking, and the fact that many of its entrepreneurs are microentrepreneurs, street hawkers, hairdressers, locksmiths, printing companies, that cannot get access to loans or capital that has concentrated on the elite. Ironically, the hated and feared Thaksin was the man who led the way to open the countryside, however bad his methods. Ironically too, Thaksin proved that a country may have a near perfect constitution, but that this counts for little if it can be abused and sidestepped, and judges and bureaucrats bribed. Thailand will have to face the fact that it has to fight for capital with China and, indeed, with Vietnam, which is becoming the new darling of investors because of its dedicated, hard working and cheap labour, and a government that has clear rules of foreign engagement. Memo to Bangkok and to foreign tourists: the south of Vietnam has wonderful beaches too. g

新政暩を蚀い衚すのには奇劙ずいう蚀葉が 䞀番ぎったりであろう。䞀床暩力を掎んでか らは、 タクシン氏が堕萜し囜に害を䞎えおい たこずの確固たる蚌拠を提瀺するこずにより 政暩奪取を正圓化し、新憲法ず遞挙の準備 ができるたでは䞀時的に囜を統治しおから 政治の舞台から降りる甚意があるずいうこ ずに぀いお囜民ず海倖投資家の信頌を回埩 するこず 新政暩の課題は明らかのはずで あった。

えおいたす」 ず語っおいる。バンコク共同倖 囜商工䌚議所のピヌタヌ・バン・ハヌレン Peter van Haren䌚長は政府の措眮の䞀 郚に懞念を瀺し、 「こうした措眮が新しい投 資家の意欲を削ぐこずになるのは明らかで す」 ず述べおいる。 軍事政暩内で最も圱響力を持぀人物は、お そらく軍参謀総長ず銖盞を経隓し、囜王に 近い立堎にあるプレム・ティンスラノンダ Prem Tinsulanonda枢密院長であろう。 プレム氏が銖盞を務めおいた80幎代の政 治は、祖父的な善意のある専制政治的なも ので、愛情を泚ぎながらも断固ずした立堎 でテクノクラヌトの政府を運営しおいた。

銀行家から政治家に転じたコルン氏は、プ レム政暩から20幎が過ぎ、タむは前進した ず譊告しおいる。 「プレム時代から20幎でタ むは前進したした。珟圚のタむはずいぶん 開攟的な経枈になり、マヌケットベヌスの 実際に軍事政暩のずった政策は、芋圓違い 床合も高たりたした。15幎〜20幎前は、囜内 や倖囜䌁業の出資や資本流入ぞの制限な 総生産のうち茞出の占める割合は15でし ど暫定政暩によっお取り扱われるものでは たが、今は70〜80です。プレム時代に なく、遞挙で遞出される政府が取り扱うべき は存圚しなかった掻発な資本垂堎がありた す。私たちは倖囜資本ず資本の自由な移動 ものばかりであった。 2007幎2月、さらに奇劙なこずに、軍事政暩 に倧幅に䟝存しおいたす。䞖界は倉わりたし はタクシン政暩で副銖盞ずしおタクシン経 たが、為政者たちは自分が最盛期だった頃 枈孊の掚進圹だった゜ムキッド・ゞャトゥス ず䞖界が倉わっおいないかのように振舞っ リピタク Somkid Jatusripitak氏を、 ブミポ おいたす」 ル囜王が貎ぶ仏教的構想で、軍事政暩が経 コルン氏は正しいのである。確かにタむに 枈思想ずしお採甚した「充足の経枈孊」を倖 は倖囜資本の問題がある。倖囜資本はしば 囜で説明させるための特䜿に任呜した。 こ しばワむロを払ったり、ルヌルを巧みに迂回 れには激しい抗議が寄せられお゜ムキッド したりしおきた。19䞖玀のシャムの囜は、目 氏は就任を前に蟞退し、軍事政暩はたたも たぐるしいダンスで垝囜䞻矩列匷の特定の 囜ず接近するこずを回避した。 しかし、今や 顔に泥を塗られた圢になった。 郜垂ず蟲村の断絶、 むスラム教埒の倚い南 ゜ムキッド氏タクシン氏の右腕でタクシン 経枈孊の掚進圹を軍事政暩の売り蟌み圹 郚の反乱、個人の思考よりも機械的な孊習 に任呜するこずはプリディダトヌン・テワクン を重芖した時代遅れの教育制床ずいった深 Pridiyathorn Devakula副銖盞兌財務盞 刻な囜内問題や、起業家の倚くが街頭の商 にずっおは最埌の頌みの綱であった。 ゜ムキ 人、理髪店、鍵職人、印刷業などのマむクロ ッド氏が就任前に蟞退したにせよ、 プリディ 起業家であり、゚リヌトに集䞭した資本や融 ダトヌン氏は政府内の亀裂ずメディアから 資が利甚できない状況に察抗するために、 の個人攻撃には蟟易ずしおいるず述べおい たた競争力を匷化するために、圓時以䞊に る。 このこずは新政暩の方向性が定たっおい 倖資系投資や海倖からの資本を必芁ずしお ないこずの衚れであるずいう評論家もいる。 いる。 経枈の最高暩嚁者であるプリディダトヌン 皮肉なこずに賛吊䞡論のあったタクシン氏 氏は、倖囜からの投資制限の導入ず䞍手際 は、手段はどうあれ蟲村郚を開攟した人で の目立ったタむ䌁業の倖囜保有抑制策で匷 あった。さらには、完璧に近い憲法を持぀囜 い批刀を受けおいたからである。軍事政暩 でも、その䜿い方が間違っおいたり逃げ道 参加以前は䞭倮銀行総裁ずしお尊敬されお があったりしお刀事や官僚にワむロが䜿え いたが、垂堎を理解しおいないずも評䟡さ る堎合、憲法はほずんど意味がないこずをタ クシン氏が蚌明した。 れおいる。

2007幎のタむには、倖囜人に怒りを燃やす 経枈ナショナリストや、枅貧ず犁欲の誓いを 砎っお高僧でさえベンツを所有し愛人を囲 うずいった誘惑に満ちた本栌的な資本䞻矩 により、囜が砎壊されるこずを愁いおいる善 意の仏教関係者達など、倚くの勢力が力を 付けおきた経枈の舵を取り合っおいる。耇 数の有力な銀行家は「圱響力を持぀匷力な タむ人のグルヌプが、タむの䌁業はタむ人 のものであっお倖囜人のものではないず考

タむは䞭囜そしおベトナムずの資本獲埗競争 の珟実に盎面するであろう。ベトナムは熱心 で勀勉か぀賃金の安い劎働力、倖囜䌁業参 入に関しお明確なルヌルを持぀政府を持ち、 投資家にずっお新しい寵児ずなり぀぀ある。 バンコクそしお倖囜人芳光客ぞのメモベト ナム南郚にもすばらしいビヌチがある。 ■

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13.03.2007 14:31:20 Uhr


Regional overviews

Temasek pays for skating on thin ice Temasek Holdings is very much Singapore Inc. Its single shareholder is the government of Singapore, through the ministry of finance. t holds majority or controlling stakes in the bluest of the blue chip companies of Singapore, such as PSA International, Singapore Airlines, Singapore Telecommunications, Singapore Press Holdings, DBS Bank. Temasek itself is rated AAA by Standard & Poor’s and Aaa by Moody’s. In rare encounters with the media, Temasek executives have stressed that the government does not interfere in Temasek’s operations, just as Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, who is married to Ho Ching, the chief executive of Temasek, insisted at the height of the controversy over the purchase of Shin Corporation that the government was not involved. “It’s a commercial proposition. If it doesn’t work out, that’s Temasek’s fault and it has to answer for it,” he told Reuters. “It’s their job to safeguard the resources and invest them optimally.” In what was presumably an accident, some journalists last year got a draft internal document to help Temasek staff answer frequently asked questions. Among them: Q: “The Singapore Government is Temasek’s only shareholder. How can Temasek make investments based purely on commercial principles? Surely the shareholder can and does impose its noncommercial agenda onto Temasek? A: “All our investment and business decisions are taken independently by our own board and management, based on commercial considerations. The Singapore government is not involved. A majority of our board members are prominent business leaders from the private sector. We have one nominee director from our shareholder on our board. He is one amongst a group of very experienced, steady, and thoughtful directors. All board decisions are made on a commercial basis. Q: “Your CEO is also the PM’s wife. The PM is also the minister for finance, heading MoF which is your shareholder. Is her appointment politically motivated? Wouldn’t there be conflicts of interest? A: “We are not here to discuss politics since we are not politicians or a political organization. Our CEO is accountable to the board of directors, headed by an independent chairman, just like any other commercial organisation.” There is an element of disingenuousness in this. Temasek’s chairman is a former foreign minister and the chairman of the Economic Development Board and the permanent secretary of the ministry of finance are among the great and good of the board. 130

© Patrick Beckers 2003

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Temasek’s Singapore headquarters.

Temasek’s foray into Thailand to snap up Shin Corporation was very much in keeping with its efforts to diversify its portfolio outside Singapore. By the end of its 2004-05 financial year only 49 percent of the Singapore $105 billion portfolio was in Singapore. Temasek has bought bank shares in China (Bank of China, China Construction Bank and China Minsheng Bank), India (ICICI Bank) and Indonesia (Bank Internasional and PT Bank Danamon). The $1.9 billion purchase was not even Temasek’s biggest purchase of 2006. Buying the 12 per cent stake in Standard Chartered Bank from the estate of Khoo Teck Puat, estimated at $4 billion, was bigger. But Shin was the most controversial, and raises questions about whether Singaporeans understand the jealousy that its success may cause among neighbours. Buying a key company from Thailand was already skating on tricky ice. That the package included a television channel and a satellite company, as well as the mobile telephone operation, should have signalled that the ice would be subject to nationalist global warming. Structuring it through

nominee companies that might fail the Thai ownership stakes was surprising. Buying from the Shinawatra family, whether Thaksin himself was involved or not, should have had the deal ringed with “DANGER - thin ice” notices. Given the daily demonstrations in Bangkok against Thaksin, a more prudent investor might have walked away, especially one so closely connected with the government that would have to bear the backlash. It is not fair to blame only Temasek. When the deposed Thaksin himself visited Singapore he got a grubby pale pink carpet reception, no 21-gun salute or state dinner or speech to parliament, but a “private” meeting with the deputy prime minister and the opportunity to sound off to assorted media. A prominent Thai opposition politician asked pointedly: “How would Singapore react if Bangkok was used as a base for interviewing and airing anti-Singapore government comments by Singapore exiles. The new Thai rulers of course misunderstood and exaggerated the dangers. No less a figure than coup leader General Sonthi Boonyaratglin expressed fears that the purchase of Shin’s mobile telephone and satellite arms meant that: “The army has a problem because our communications and information sent over mobile phones or via satellite could appear in Singapore. Although Singapore is not our enemy, we are economic rivals. They could be informed of secrets in the army and in the economic sector.” Temasek naturally denied that there were any reasons for such fears, and indeed any self-respecting military would have encoded its signals to keep them from any prying eyes or ears. Leaving aside whether there were any illegalities in the purchase - denied, of course, by Temasek, which insists that it obeyed the law - the Singapore flagship faces a large financial loss on the deal, not to speak of the political fallout. It would be interesting to know what minister mentor and Singapore’s latter-day (after Thomas Stamford Raffles) founding father Lee Kuan Yew really thinks. When in office he preached the importance of integrity and being careful not to deal with business executives whom he suspiciously regarded as out for a fast buck. He famously resisted money from banker-hotelier Khoo Teck Puat to set up a charitable foundation in exchange for granting Khoo permanent residence in Singapore. The old Singapore under the older Lee would surely have kept a carefully measured distance from Thaksin Shinawatra. g


Thailand

危ない案件に投資するTemasek瀟

Temasek Holdings瀟は玔粋にシンガポヌルの䌚瀟です。 シンガポヌル政府が唯䞀の株䞻であり、財 務省が担圓しおいたす。

Temasek瀟は、PSA International瀟、Singapore Airlines瀟、Singapore Telecommunications瀟、 Singapore Press Holdings瀟、DBS銀行を初め ずするシンガポヌルの超優良䌁業株匏に察しお 過半数の所有もしくはその支配暩を保有しおい る。Temasek瀟自䜓もスタンダヌドプアから AAA、ムヌディヌからAaaの栌付けを受けおい る。

シンガポヌル以倖ぞの倚角化に取り組んでいる こずず方向が䞀臎しおいる。2004〜05幎床末の 時点で、1050億シンガポヌルドルに及ぶ資産の うちの49がシンガポヌル囜内で投資されおい る。Temasek瀟は、䞭囜では䞭囜銀ず䞭囜建蚭 銀行および䞭囜民生銀行、むンドではICICI銀行、 むンドネシアではBank International銀行ずPT Bank Danamon銀行に投資しおいる。

の野党政治家は次のように批刀しおいる。 「もし シンガポヌルを远攟された者がバンコクでむン タビュヌを受けお、シンガポヌル政府に反察す るコメントを述べたら、シンガポヌルはどのよう な反応を瀺すでしょうか」

タむの新しい指導者が䞊に述べた危険に぀い お誀解し、誇匵したこずは確かである。特に、 クヌ デタヌを率いた゜ンティ・ブンダラガリン倧将 メディアに顔を芋せるこずの少ないTemasek瀟 19億ドルを投じた買収は2006幎にTemasek瀟 Sonthi Boonyaratglinは、Shin瀟のモバむル電 であるが、その経営陣はシンガポヌル政府が が行った最倧の投資案件ずいうわけではない。 話ず衛星通信郚門の売华に぀いお、 「モバむル Temasek瀟の運営には関䞎しおいないこずを匷 シンガポヌルの倧富豪であった故邱執拔Khoo 電話や衛星を介しお送られる通信や情報がシン 調しおいる。同じ頃、Temasek瀟の最高経営責任 Teck Puat氏の遺産に含たれおいた発行総数の ガポヌルで芋られおしたうかもしれないずいう 者である䜕晶Ho Ching氏ず結婚しおいるシン 12にあたるStandard Chartered 銀行の株匏 点で軍にずっお問題です」 ず述べお懞念を衚明し ガポヌルの李顕韍Lee Hsien Loong銖盞も、 の賌入には40億ドルを投じおいる。いずれにし おいる。 「シンガポヌルはわが囜の敵ではありた Shin Corporation瀟の買収をめぐる論争の高た おも、Shin Corporation瀟ぞの投資は最も論議 せんが、䞡囜は経枈的にラむバルです。軍そしお りの䞭で政府の関䞎を匷く吊定しおいる。 「これ を呌んだ案件であり、シンガポヌル人は同囜の 経枈郚門の秘密が挏れる可胜性がありたす」。 も は営利的なビゞネスです」 「うたく行かない堎合 繁栄が近隣諞囜からの劬みの察象になっおいる ちろん、Temasek瀟はこうした懞念の根拠に぀ はTemasek瀟が悪いのであり、責任を取らなけ こずを理解しおいるのかずいう疑問を提起する いお吊定した。実際、近代的な軍隊であれば、送 ればなりたせん」同銖盞はロむタヌに察しおこ ものであった。 信内容を暗号化するこずで倖郚ぞの挏掩を防い のように答えおいたす。 「自瀟の経営資源を管理 でいるはずである。 し、最適な圢で投資するこずがTemasek瀟のや タむの䞻芁䌁業を買収するこず自䜓が危険を䌎 う行為ず蚀える。買収の察象ずなった䌁業にテレ 今回の買収に䜕らかの違法性があるのだろう るべき仕事です」。 ビ局、衛星攟送䌚瀟、モバむル電話事業が含た か。同然のこずながら吊定しおいるTemasek瀟 昚 幎 、ちょっずした 偶 然 から、䞀 郚 の 蚘 者 は れたこずが囜家䞻矩者の間で倧きな論議を呌ん は法埋に埓っおいるこずを匷調しおいる。政治的 Temasek瀟がスタッフのためによくある質問に だからである。 タむ囜内資本ではなくなる可胜性 な挫折は別にしおも、シンガポヌルを代衚する 察する回答をたずめた内郚文曞を入手した。そ がある䌁業を介した買収は驚きをもたらした。 䌁業は今回の取匕から倧きな経枈的損倱を被 の䞀郚は以䞋のずおりである。 る危険に盎面しおいる。 たずえタクシンThaksin氏自身が関䞎しおいる 質問シンガポヌル政府はTemasek瀟の唯䞀の か吊かに関わらず、チナワット(Shinawatra)䞀族 珟銖盞の垫匠であり、Thomas Stamford Raffles 株䞻ですが、Temasek瀟が玔粋に商業的な原則 から株匏を賌入するこず自䜓が「危険薄氷」の トヌマス・スタンフォヌド・ラッフルズの埌で に基づく投資を行うこずは可胜でしょうか唯䞀 看板を掲げるべきこずであった。バンコクで連日 は近代版シンガポヌルの建囜の父ずしお知ら の株䞻はTemasek瀟に察しお商業的でない目暙 続いた反タクシンのデモを考えた堎合、慎重な れおいる李光耀Lee Kuan Yew氏は、 これらに を課し、それに察しお圧力をかけるこずができる 投資家は離れお行っおもおかしくはなく、特に政 ぀いおどのような考えをもっおいるのだろうか。 ず思うのですが 府ず密接な関係があり、揺り返しの圱響を受け 李光耀氏が銖盞であった時、高朔さの重芁性を る恐れがある投資家は慎重な行動をずるこずが 蚎え、身近な利益に飛び぀くず思われる経営者 答圓瀟の投資および事業に関わる決定は党 考えられる。 ずは付き合わないように慎重な態床を保っおい お、経枈的な怜蚎に基づいお圓瀟の取締圹䌚ず た。䞭でも、銀行家でありホテル経営者でもある 経営陣が独立で行っおいたす。シンガポヌル政 しかし、Temasek瀟だけを責めるこずはフェアで 邱執拔氏から、シンガポヌルの垂民暩取埗を条 府は関䞎しおいたせん。圓瀟の取締圹の過半数 はない。銖盞の地䜍を远われたタクシン氏がシ 件ずした慈善団䜓蚭立のための寄付の申し出を は、䞀流䌁業の経営者です。株䞻の指名を受け ンガポヌルを蚪問した時、歓迎のために敷かれ 拒吊した゚ピ゜ヌドはあたりにも有名である。 た取締圹1名が取締圹䌚に参加しおいたす。そ たのは薄汚れた絚毯であり、儀瀌兵による号砲 の人物は経隓豊かで賢明か぀思慮深い取締圹 も公匏晩逐䌚も議䌚での挔説も行われなかっ 李光耀銖盞の叀き時代のシンガポヌルであれ の1人です。取締圹䌚の決定は党おビゞネス・ベ たが、副銖盞ず 「非公匏」に面䌚し、䞀郚のマスコ ば、タクシン・チナワット氏ずの関係を慎重に考 ヌスで行われおいたす。 ミに話す機䌚は䞎えられた。これに察しおタむ 慮しお、適切な距離を保ったに違いない。■

この答には正しくない郚分がある。Temasek瀟 の䌚長は前倖務倧臣であり、優秀な取締圹陣の 䞭には経枈開発委員䌚の委員長ず財務省の事 務次官が含たれおいる。 Temasek瀟がShin Corporation瀟の買収でタむ に進出したこずは、同瀟が投資ポヌトフォリオを

© Munshi Ahmed / OnAsia.com

答圓瀟は政治を議論するために存圚しおいる わけではありたせん。私たちは政治家ではあり たせんし、政治的な組織でもありたせん。圓瀟の 最高経営責任者は取締圹䌚に察しお責任を負 っおいたす。取締圹䌚の䌚長は、他の䌁業ず同じ く、別の人間が務めおいたす。

© Munshi Ahmed / OnAsia.com

質問あなたの䌚瀟の最高経営責任者は銖盞 の劻でもありたす。銖盞は財務倧臣も兌務しお おり、Temasek瀟の株䞻である財務省のトップず いうこずになりたす。銖盞倫人を最高経営責任 者に任呜したこずに政治的な動機はありたせん か 利害の抵觊にならないのでしょうか

Executive Director Ho Ching is married to Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong: executives have stressed that the government does not interfere in Temasek’s operations.

WiA Delegate Publication

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The corporate perspective

民間䌁業のため の旗振り圹ずなる

䞖界銀行および民間セクタヌの支揎を行う囜際金 融公瀟IFCInternational Finance Corporation を含む囜際開発銀行に察するロバヌト・ベスタニ Robert Bestani氏の批刀は留たるずころを知らな い。

© Rafoto

ベスタニ氏は倚囜間開発銀行MDBによる民間 セクタヌの理解、たたは誀解に぀いお時代遅れ、無 駄、愚かなたでに競争を重芖したものであり、本圓 の意味での競争優䜍を実珟するずいう意味で党く 倱敗しおいるず痛烈に批刀しおいる。 ベスタニ氏は囜際開発銀行の優䜍性はその資金に あるのでなく、銀行の旗にあるず述べおいる。旗ずは 䜕だろうベスタニ氏が匷調するのは、䞖界、特にア ゞアには金が溢れおいるずいう点である。䞀方、旗ず は金よりも貎重な物、政府間の察話を生み出し、民 間セクタヌず公共セクタヌのギャップを぀なぎ、投 資資金がその䟡倀があるプロゞェクトに効果的に投 入されるこずを保蚌できる力を意味する。

Flying the flag for private enterprise

PricewaterhouseCoopers、 Citibank、 Bank of Americaの 経営幹郚を歎任したベスタニ氏は、2001幎に千野忠 男前総裁の招聘を受けお、実質的に䌑止状態だった 民間セクタヌ掻動局の掻性化のためにアゞア開発銀 行に参加した。 それにより同局はその状態から芋事に 脱皮し、 脚光を济びるこずずなった。

Robert Bestani is uncompromising in his criticisms of the multilateral development banks, including the World Bank and its pro-private sector arm, the International Finance Corporation.

ベスタニ氏は、民間・公共を問わず、倧きな組織は 時代に察応しお動くこずが難しいず述べおいる。䞭 でも、公共セクタヌは本質的に護られおいる。巚倧 な囜際開発銀行が蚭立された圓時に぀いおベスタ ニ氏はこのように語る。 「終戊埌に開発資金を必芁 ずした特定の問題に察応するために終戊埌に創ら れたした。圓時の芁請は資金を䟛絊するこずにあり たした。それがこの時代の問題だったからです。圓 時の資金ギャップは30にも達しおいたした。新興 囜に向けられる資金には限りがあり、貎重だったの です。そこで、 これらの囜際開発銀行が蚭立されたし た。その䜿呜は、新興囜のための資金を䜕ずかかき 集めお本郚に集玄し、それを融資資金ずしお組み立 おお䟛絊するこずにありたした」

H

e has lambasted the MDB’s understanding - or misunderstanding - of the private sector as out of date, wasteful, stupidly competitive, and indicative of a total failure to realise their true competitive advantage. Their advantage is not money, he says, but the bank flag. The flag? Yes, he insists, the world and particularly Asia is awash with money. But the flag brings a more precious commodity, the ability to create dialogue with governments, to bridge the gaps between the private and public sectors, and to make sure that investment dollars are well spent on worthwhile projects. The former Citibank, Bank of America and PricewaterhouseCoopers’ executive was brought to the Asian Development Bank by former president Tadao Chino in 2001 to revive the virtually moribund private sector operations department. By his own account he has succeeded brilliantly, and from a Cinderella department, the private sector has become the belle of the ball. Bestani says that big institutions, whether private or public sector, find it hard to move with the times. But the public sector has an inbuilt protection. When the big multilateral development banks were established, he says, “They were created in the post-war period to address a particular problem which was the need for development funds. The modality of the day back then was to provide money because that was the problem of the time. There was a 30 percent 132

funding gap. There was precious little money going to the emerging countries. So all of these institutions were put together with the mission to go out and scrape together whatever funds there were for the emerging countries, bring it back to our home offices, package it up nicely and deliver it. “That was important and that functioned for a good 40 or 50 years. But today there is 「これこそが重芁であり、それから40幎50幎の間 no shortage of money. Today it is estimated は有効に機胜したした。ずころが、珟圚は資金䞍足 that there is between 4 and 7 trillion dollars ずいう状況は存圚したせん。珟圚の掚蚈によれば、 of surplus money awash in Asia looking for アゞアには4兆ドル7兆ドルの䜙剰資金が溢れ、 a home. Moreover, there is money from the 投資先を探しおいるのです。さらに、米囜ず欧州か United States and Europe trying to come らの資金もアゞアでの投資先を探しおいたす。新興 囜の貯蓄率は先進囜を䞊回っおいたす。さらに、過 to Asia. “The emerging countries have a higher 去30幎の間に資本垂堎は劇的に拡倧したした。埓っ お、䌁業あるいは囜を問わず、巚額の資金を借りる savings rate than the developed countries. 偎にずっおは資本垂堎から盎接か぀容易に資金を Additionally in the last 30 years there has 調達するこずが可胜なのです。もちろん開発のニヌ been a dramatic rise in the capital markets. ズは䟝然ずしお高いのですが、囜際開発銀行が認識 So large borrowers, whether they are する必芁があるのは、最初の圹割はすでに達成され companies or countries, can go directly to お終了しおおり、これからは新しい方向に動いおい the capital markets and borrow very easily. く必芁があるずいうこずです」 These institutions have to see that, yes, ベスタニ氏は民間セクタヌに期埅を掛け、次のよう development is still very much needed, but に確信しおいる。 「倧きな政府の時代は䞖界䞭で終 the old job is done and finished with, and わろうずしおおり、これからは民間セクタヌが䞻流に they need to move on.” なりたす。そのこずを明確に瀺しおいるADBの䞭期 Bestani pins his faith on the private 戊略では、投資の觊媒ずなるこず、぀たり民間セクタ sector, and believes that: “The days of ヌを支揎するこずが䞻芁目暙ずなっおいたす」 big government everywhere are much しかしながら、ベスタニ氏が珟職に就いた2001幎 diminished, so private sector is the direction にADBの民間セクタヌ掻動局が取り扱った新芏案 for the future. The bank has all but said that 件の合蚈額は5800䞇ドルにすぎなかった。ベスタ explicitly and the medium term strategy ニ氏は誇らしげに発衚した。 「昚幎、15億ドル近い says that the principal goal of the bank 資金䟛絊を行いたした。さらに、債務ず資本の䞡面 is catalysing investment, which is the での収益を芋るず、民間セクタヌ掻動局のADBに察 する寄䞎は2億6800䞇ドルに達しおいたす。 これら 4 private sector.”


Private enterprise

But when he took over in 2001, the private sector department of the ADB handled a mere $58 million in new financings. Last year, he is proud to report, “We did financings of close to $1.5 billion. On top of that we earned, if you look at our debt and equity earnings taken together, $268 million for ADB. Which says two things: those are resources that the institution can turn around and use for other activities, grants, disaster relief in the face of the tsunami; but also, if we made $268million, since we only do 25 percent of any particular transaction, it means that we have contributed at least $1 billion to real wealth generation in Asia.”

Today it is estimated that there is between 4 and 7 trillion dollars of surplus money awash in Asia looking for a home Besides the quality of his staff Bestani attributes his success to his new strategy: “We have essentially thrown out the old way of approaching the private sector that has been adopted by all the MDB’s in the past. We have thrown out the core model which was that we are the lenders of last resort. I don’t believe in that approach. it is a recipe for disaster. I frequently call it the dead cat syndrome. We have said something radical here–that money is not our core product.” Bestani says that when he arrived in Manila, he startled colleagues in the ADB by asking them what their core product is: “I could see people throwing up their hands and saying, ‘we thought we had an experienced banker here and this poor sod doesn’t even know what we do. Money is our core product, you idiot.’ “And I said, ‘No, it’s not true. Money is not your core product. Asia is awash with money, so why are you choosing to play

in a commodity field where the commodity is in rampant oversupply?’ Thinking about it further, I came to the conclusion that the old job of providing money as a good commercial bank is completely over. I came to the startling conclusion that the core product is no longer money, but is now the flag of the bank.” For emphasis, he picks up a small flag of the ADB and puts it down with an emphatic thump. ADB funds can come in the form of debt, equity, mezzanine finance, guarantees, risk insurance, and since Bestani arrived, local currency finance. “It boggles my mind that these institutions never did local currency financing when this was what’s desperately needed,” he says, taking another sideswipe at the lack of imagination in the development banks. He continues: “Despite having that full toolkit, money is not our core product, but with the money we give you get the flag and it is infinitely more important. You cannot buy it. What happens when the ADB is brought in to a transaction is that it implicitly brings the flag with it. What does that flag give you? It gives you protection from capricious government intervention; it gives you credibility; it gives you visibility; and it gives you a dialogue with the government to help effect regulatory change that may be needed to make conditions better for this industry and hopefully for other industries as well.” Bestani pours scorn on other development banks: “I don’t see them as rivals since all of them are still playing the money game. They say they are not but, let me give you an anecdote. I had to call a particular head of the IFC operations in one of our countries about something completely extraneous. We took care of that very quickly and made some small talk and said, “well, how’s business?” The guy said that things were really tough. “There’s so much money in all the banks here. They are all flush with money.

の数字は、ADBが財政支揎や接波被害に察する救 揎ずいった他の掻動に察応するための資源を持぀ こず、そしお民間セクタヌ掻動局による2億6800侇 ドルの収益を䞊げた我々の取匕が党䜓の25しか 占めおいないこずから、アゞアにおける富の圢成に ADBが少なくずも10億ドル寄䞎したこずの2぀を意 味しおいたす」 この成果の芁因ずしお、ベスタニ氏はスタッフの胜 力に加えお新しい戊略を挙げおいる。 「基本的には、 党おの囜際開発銀行が採甚しおきた埓来の民間銀 行に察する取り組み方法から脱华したのです。我々 が最埌の貞し手ずなるずいうコアモデルを捚お去っ たのです。私はこの埓来の方法を信じおいたせん。 それは非垞時に察応する手段だからです。私はしば しば、埓来のやり方を『デッドキャット その本来の 圹割を終えた ・シンドロヌム』 ず呌んでいたす。 ここ では、資金は我々のコア商品ではないずいう急進的 な発蚀をしおいたす」 マニラに着任した時、ベスタニ氏はコア商品は䜕か ずいう質問をしおADBの同僚を驚かせた。 「皆手を 広げお、 『経隓豊かな銀行家が来たはずなのに、我 々が䜕をしおいるのかも分からない哀れな奎だ』 ず 嘆いおいるずころが想像できたした。 『銬鹿だな、資 金に決たっおいるじゃないか』。私は、 『それは違う』 ず答えたした。資金はADBのコア商品ではないので す。アゞアには金が溢れおいるのに、なぜ、䟛絊過 剰な状態にある分野で競合するこずを遞択するの かこの疑問に぀いおさらに深く考えおいくず、金融 機関ずしお資金を䟛絊するずいう昔ながらの仕事 は完党に終わったずいう結論に達したした。぀たり、 我々のコア商品はもはや資金ではなく、銀行ずいう 旗印なのだずいうショッキングな結論に至ったので す」。ベスタニ氏はこの蚀葉を匷調するかのように、 ADBの小さな旗を取り䞊げおドンず眮いた。 ADBの資金は、借入れ、株䞻による資本金拠出、劣 埌債、保蚌、 リスク保険ずいう構成であったが、ベス タニ氏が着任した埌は珟地通貚による資金調達が 加わった。ベスタニ氏は「ADBのような囜際開発銀 行が、絶察に必芁なこずであるのにも関わらず、珟 地通貚建おの資金調達を行っおいないこずに驚か されたした」 ず述べ、開発銀行の想像力の欠劂にも 批刀の矛先を向けた。 「資金は確かに有甚な資源で すが、我々のコア商品ではありたせん。 しかし、資金 があるこずで我々は旗を手に入れるこずができたす。 この方がはるかに重芁です。旗を買うこずはできた せん。ADBが取匕に参加するずいうこずは、その取匕 にADBの旗を持ち蟌むこずを意味したす。その旗は 投資先に䜕を䞎えるのでしょうかそれは政府によ る恣意的な介入に察する防埡手段ずなり、信頌ず存 圚感を䞎えたす。そしお我々の業界、 さらには他の産 業にずっおの条件を改善するために必芁な芏制改 革の実斜を支揎するための政府ずの察話を行う機 䌚を䞎えおくれたす」

© AP / Empics / Mustafa Quraishi

Bestani was brought to the Asian Development Bank by former president Tadao Chino. Chino is pictured here on a visit to Hyderabad in India.

ベスタニ氏は他の開発銀行に皮肉な目を向ける。 「他の開発銀行をラむバルずは考えおいたせん。圌 らは䟝然ずしおマネヌゲヌムに興じおいるからで す。圌らはそうではないず蚀いたすが、私の蚀っおい るこずを蚌明する゚ピ゜ヌドがありたす。仕事ずは 無関係のこずで、ある囜のIFC郚門長に電話をしたし た。芁件はすぐに片付き、少し䞖間話をしお、 『ビゞ ネスの方はどうですか』 ず質問したずころ、非垞に 厳しいずいう返事でした。 『どの銀行も資金が䜙っお いるのです。金が溢れおいるのです。その結果、利益 率が圧瞮されおいたす。地元の銀行ず競争するこず が非垞に難しくなっおいたす』。圌の発蚀内容は私 の恐れおいたこずを確認する圢ずなりたした。圌は 資金ずいう、ありふれた商品を扱う垂堎で競争しお いるのです。金が圌にずっおコア商品なのです。そし お、圌は民間セクタヌず盎接競争しおいるのです。 こ れは我々が絶察に避けようずしおいるこずです」 ベスタニ氏は勢いよく1枚の玙を取り、2぀の円を䞀 郚が重なるように描き、公共セクタヌず民間セクタ ヌの状況を衚しおいるず説明した。 「この2぀の円が 重なった郚分をむンフラだず考えれば、銀行は倚く

WiA Delegate Publication

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The corporate perspective

What that’s done is that it has compacted margins. It is so hard to compete with the local banks.” He had just confirmed all my worst fears. He is playing in a commodity market, which is cash, money is his core product, and he is in direct competition with the private sector–which is something we desperately try to avoid here.” Excitedly, he takes a piece of paper and draws two circles with some overlap to represent the public and private sector operations. “We know that there’s an overlap area that if you think about it is infrastructure, banking, a whole raft of things in here. We have defined this as our core market because this is where you need a dialogue with the government and the flag is the most powerful tool. If I am out here at point in the middle of the private sector territory, then I have no dialogue and I don’t bring anything to the game, other than pure commodity money. I don’t want to be there. “The only time I want to be there is if there is a general vacuum, like for example, Afghanistan. There were no banks in Afghanistan five years ago, so we went in and we started a bank. But you won’t find me starting a bank in Thailand or Philippines or anywhere else. Why? because it is in direct competition. “I was talking to a representative of one of the MDB’s and said to him what kind of deals are you doing? He said vineyards and breweries. The IFC did a pig farm in China. For the love of God, is that what you need a multinational for–to do a pig farm? It will be a cold day in hell before you find us doing pig farms or vineyards or breweries.” Bestani’s ADB is concentrating on infrastructure and the financial sector,

which, he says, “is not a small market. This の郚分がここに属するのです。ここは我々のコア垂 is trillions of trillions of dollars, far more 堎ず考えおいたす。ここでは政府ずの察話が必芁で than we as an institution can do.” あり、旗が最も匷力な歊噚ずなるからです。我々がこ He goes back to anecdote to tell of the の民間セクタヌの瞄匵りの䞭ほどにいる堎合、政府 bank’s leverage: “About eight years ago ずの察話は䌎わず、ゲヌムに持ち蟌めるのは、あり ADB helped finance a power plant, state of ふれた商品である資金だけなのです。ここには䜍眮 the art, and for the first six years or so it したくありたせん。この堎所にいたいず考えるのは、 was doing very very well, humming away, 唯䞀そこがアフガニスタンのように真空地垯になっ おいる時です。5幎前、 アフガニスタンには銀行が党 producing low cost electricity, employing くありたせんでした。そこで、我々が出かけおいっお、 people, paying taxes, being a good corporate 銀行を開蚭したのです。しかしながら、私がタむ、フ citizen, doing all the things that you would ィリピンあるいはその他の囜で銀行を始めるこずは expect it to do. ありたせん。なぜなら、盎接競争するこずになるから “There were new elections in the country です」 a few years ago and the new government 「私があるMDBの代衚者ず話しおいお、 どのような came in and basically said, ‘we did not プロゞェクトを行っおいるかず聞きたした。圌から like what the s.o.b.s that preceded us はブドり栜培ずビヌル醞造ずいう答がありたした。 did, and we are going to renegotiate all IFCは䞭囜で逊豚業ぞの融資を行っおいたした。䞀 the contracts. They went to the sponsor 䜓党䜓、䜕のために囜際開発銀行が逊豚業に必芁 company of this power plant business and なのでしょうか我々が逊豚やブドり栜培あるいは told them they were going to pay less for ビヌル醞造ずいった事業に関わるこずは考えられた the electricity bought and to raise the taxes. せん」 The company said, ‘Wait a minute, we have ベスタニ氏のADBはむンフラストラクチャず金融セ all these contracts with the government.’ クタヌに力を入れおいる。どちらも「小さな垂堎では The government replied, ‘Tough luck.’ The ありたせん。巚額の資金が必芁で、ADBが取り扱うこ company said, ‘Why are you punishing us ずのできる金額をはるかに超えおいたす」 this way? We are doing exactly what we ベスタニ氏はADBの優䜍性を瀺す゚ピ゜ヌドを披 promised to do.’ The government said, ‘It is 露しおくれた。 「玄8幎前、ADBは最新匏発電所の融 not just you; we are going to do this to the 資に参加したした。この発電所はそれから6幎間に entire industry.’ わたっお非垞に奜調に皌動し、䜎コストの電気を生 “So after much effort and discussion with 産し、埓業員を雇い、皎金を払い、よき䌁業垂民ずし the government, they gave up and came to お掻動し、期埅される党おのこずを行っおいたした。 us and said ‘Is there anything you can do to 数幎前にその囜で遞挙が行われ、新しい政暩が暹 help. This is going to be a disaster, not only 立されお次のような基本方針を明らかにしたのです。 for our efforts in this country by putting us 『我々は、前政暩が行っおきたこずを評䟡しおおら ず、党おの契玄に぀いお再亀枉したい。』新しい政府 into a loss-making position? Our masters の担圓者はこの発電所のスポンサヌずなっおいる back home don’t know the difference 䌚瀟を蚪れ、賌入電力の料金を匕き䞋げお、皎金を between this country and Cambodia.’ 匕き䞊げるず申し入れたした。䌚瀟が『埅っおくださ “We said, ‘Yes, this is exactly where we い。我々は政府ず契玄しおいるのですよ。』ずいうず、 can really be effective.’ We went to the 政府は『残念だがしょうがない』ず蚀いたした。 『なぜ government and in the nicest, most diplomatic このような扱いをするのですか我々は玄束した通 terms, we said to them essentially get your りのこずをしおいたす。』ずいう反論に察しお政府は、 『あなたの䌚瀟だけではない。我々は同じこずを産 業界党䜓に察しお行う぀もりだ。』 ず答えたした。政 府ずの床重なる話し合いの埌、亀枉をあきらめた䌚 瀟偎はADBに助けを求めたした。 『これは非垞事態 です。損倱が出お我々の努力が損なわれるだけでは ありたせん。我々の芪䌚瀟はこの囜ずカンボゞアの 違いも理解しおいたせん』。我々は次のように答えた した。 『こういう問題こそ、我々の真䟡を発揮できる 機䌚です。』そしお、我々はその囜の政府を蚪問し、 最も繊现か぀巧みな蚀い回しでこのプロゞェクトか ら手を匕くように亀枉したした。その埌、次のような 䌚話が続きたした」

There were no banks in Afghanistan five years ago, so ADB went in and started one. Noorullah Delawari, the Governor and President of the Afghanistan Bank shows coins of 1, 2 and 5 Afghanis.

政府担圓者おたくはどなた 私ADBです。 政府担圓者それがどうしたの

© Shah Marai / AFP / Getty Images

私我々がここにいるのは個人ずしおの資栌ではな く、ADBを構成しおいる68カ囜の政府の代衚者ずし お話しおいるのです。

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「囜際開発銀行ずいうのは非垞に䞍思議な構造な のです。10億ドルあるいは100䞇ドルの取匕を行う 堎合、ADBの理事䌚による審査が必芁ずなりたす。 ず いうこずは、理事䌚はその案件に関わる文曞を68カ 囜の政府に送り、各政府は怜蚎し、意芋を述べ、最埌 に理事䌚で承認するかどうかの投祚を行うのです」 「぀たり、私 が 政 府 関 係 者 に蚀った の は『我々は ADBを構成しおいる68カ囜の政府の暩限に基づい お話をしおいたす。そしお、我々が蚀いたいのは、 こ れが公正誠実か぀呚到に蚈画され、囜の開発にずっ

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© Olivier Nilsson / OnAsia.com

Private enterprise

Bestani: The IFC did a pig farm in China. For the love of God, is that what you need a multinational for–to do a pig farm?

hands off this project. They said, ‘Who the hell are you?’ We said, ‘We are ADB.’ They said, ‘Yes, so what?’ “We responded that, ‘When we sit here with you, this is not me Bob speaking, not my colleagues from the resident mission, but in a very real sense we are speaking to you on behalf of the 68 governments that make up ADB. We MDB’s have these very strange structures. If I do half a billion dollar transaction, or I do a million dollar transaction, it has to be reviewed by the board, which means that the board sends out the documents to 68 governments and they all examine it, opine on it and all of that is distilled down to a board vote approving the project.’ “So essentially what I said is that, ‘We are speaking with the authority of the 68 governments that make up ADB, and we are here to tell you that this was a fair, honest, well-structured, developmentally important project and we are telling you to get your hands off of it, back off.’” “In fact three really good things happened from that discussion. First of all, we backed them off of that particular power plant. Second of all, it became very clear that they could not bash the entire industry and leave the foreigners alone, so they had to back off what they wanted to with the entire industry. Then the icing on the cake came when the sponsor came to us and said, ‘This is really good and can you do this everywhere? We showed them other examples of our intervention. They said, ‘This is fabulous. Wherever you guys want to work, we are interested.’ Today, we are talking about power plants in eight separate countries. “The irony of the whole story is that if you understand that money is not your core product any more, you end up lending infinitely more money, and that is what has happened.” He cites other examples of

leverage and synergy if the bank does not お重芁なプロゞェクトであり、介入を控えるようにお follow the money but the flag, for example 願いしたい』ずいうこずです。結果ずしお、この話し合 the Chad-Cameroon pipeline, where the いは次のような成果をもたらしたした。たず、この発 World Bank cooperated with Exxon-Mobil. 電所に察する政府の介入を䞭止させるこずができ Bestani warns that it is hard to change, たした。次に、倖囜䌁業を含めお産業界党䜓に圧力 especially for a big concern: “Every new をかけるこずはできないずいうこずが明らかになり、 technological innovation, every new wave 行おうずしおいた匷硬策から手を匕かざるを埗な of new technology has always been led くなりたした。䜙談ですが、この埌、発電所のスポン サヌずなっおいる䌚瀟の代衚者から 『玠晎らしいこ by a new group of companies. Every new ずをやっおくれたした。他でも同じこずができたせん wave of business processes is always led by か』ず蚀われたした。我々はこれたで行っおきた介 a new group of companies. Why? Because 入の䟋を話したした。 『玠晎らしい。 『はADBが関わり the old ones have a very difficult time of たいずいう仕事であればどこでも、私達は興味があ changing the paradigm of how they go りたす』ずいうコメントでした。珟圚、我々は8カ囜で about doing their business. As a result the 発電事業に぀いお亀枉䞭です」 lifespan of the companies on the Fortune 「皮肉なこずに、資金が我々のコア商品でないこず 500 list or whatever list you want has を理解するず、結果ずしお無限に倚くの資金を貞し been dramatically dropping over the years 出すこずになり、実際にそういう状況が生じおいる because in the private sector if you start のです」。ベスタニ氏は、ADBが資金ではなく旗をコ slowing down, one of two things happens ア商品ずした堎合に埗られるレバレッゞずシナゞヌ to you–either you get run over or you get の具䜓䟋ずしお、䞖界銀行が゚ク゜ンモヌビルず eaten or both. But the MDB’s are somewhat 共同で進めおいるチャドカメルヌンのパむプラむ immune to this. But they are still operating ン等を挙げた。 according to the old model, where their job その䞀方で、ベスタニ氏は倧芏暡な組織にずっお倉 was to find money, bring it home, package it わるこずは難しいず指摘する。 「新しい技術改革、新 and present it like a good commercial bank. しい技術の波を先導したのは党お新興䌁業です。新 Those days are over, those days are over for しい業務プロセスを最初に導入するのは垞に新興 the commercial banks. For me looking at all 䌁業です。なぜでしょうか既存の䌁業にずっおそれ these institutions, it is, as Yogi Berra said, たでのビゞネスのやり方を倧幅に倉えるこずは非垞 に難しいからです。その結果、 フォヌチュン500瀟や déjà vu all over again. その他のランキングに掲茉される䌁業の寿呜は幎 “We have three core products: the first を远うごずに短くなっおいたす。これは、民間セクタ is risk mitigation on a whole variety of ヌでは業瞟が䜎䞋し始めるず撀退に远い蟌たれる products; second is the expertise we bring か、買収されるか、どちらかの道をたどるこずになる to the task; and third is the role we uniquely からです。ずころが、囜際開発銀行はこうした厳しい can fulfil, which is being honest broker to 環境ずはある意味で無瞁な組織です。䞀方で、資金 を集め、集玄しお、区分し、商業銀行のように貞し付 the market.”

Bestani says that when he arrived in Manila, he startled colleagues in the ADB by asking them what their core product is

けるずいう叀いモデルに䟝然ずしお埓っお運営され おいるのも事実なのです。 こうした時代は終わりた した。商業銀行のような圹割を果たす時代は終わっ たのです。珟圚の囜際開発銀行を芋るず、 ペギ・ベラ Yogi Berra遞手の『たた再床同じこずが再び繰り 返されおいる』 ずいう名句通りの状況にありたす。我 々のコア商品は3぀ありたす。たず、倚岐にわたる金 融商品に関わるリスク䜎枛です。第二は業務に関わ る専門知識です。そしお第䞉は我々だけが果たすこ ずのできる、垂堎にずっお公正な仲介者になるずい う圹割です」

Again, he goes back to his notepad and draws a pair of pliers to illustrate the unique comparative advantage of the multilaterals: ここでベスタニ氏はノヌトを再び取り出し、ペンチの “If you look at the public sector, they have a 絵を描いお囜際開発銀行の持぀ナニヌクな比范優 top down approach by virtue of where they 䜍性を説明しおくれた。 「公共セクタヌを芋るず、そ sit. We, sitting on the ground as we do trying の眮かれおいる䜍眮が高いこずからトップダりン方 to do transactions, grounded in the day to 匏ずなっおいたす。地面に座っお日々の珟実に根ざ day realities, have a bottom up approach. した業務を行っおいる我々民間セクタヌはボトムア I think that this makes a great deal of ップ方匏です。これは実に理に叶ったこずだず思い たす。そしお、公共セクタヌず民間セクタヌの間に継 sense. But it becomes really significant and 続的な察話があれば、本圓の意味がある、力を持っ powerful if you have this ongoing dialogue たものになるず思いたす。私の民間セクタヌ掻動局 between the public sector and the private はこうした仲介的な圹割を挔じるこずができ、それは sector of the particular institution. 倧きな力ずなりたす。我々はADBの公共セクタヌ担 “We in this department can play this 圓郚門に察しお民間セクタヌが日垞的に盎面する問 intermediary role and it can be very 題、課題、関心事に぀いおアドバむスし、圌らは政府 powerful. We can advise our public sector の考え方や優先事項が䜕であるを我々にアドバむス colleagues on what the day to day problems するこずができたす。こうした情報亀換は非垞に重芁 トップダりンずボトムアップを組み合わせる and issues and concerns of the private sector であり、 こずで、ペンチで物を挟む時のように非垞に倧きな are, and they can advise us on what the 力が生たれるのです。ペンチは党おの工具箱にあっ priorities of the government are and what お、どこでも䜿える力匷い味方です。冗談で蚀うこず the government’s views are– so this iterative があるのですが、昚幎ADBがロゎを倉曎した時に、 dialogue is terribly important, and with this 私はペンチをロゎずするこずを提案したした。幞いな top down and bottom up approach, you こずに、賢明な人たちの意芋が通りたした」 have a very powerful pincer action. 圌のペンチのむメヌゞは、最近行った講挔を聎き “A pair of pliers is a very powerful tool にきおいたBP経営幹郚の泚意を匕くこずになった。 that belongs in every toolkit, wherever. 「 圌らは 講 挔 の 埌 で 私 のずころたで 来 お、B P は 4 I jokingly say to people that last year we WiA Delegate Publication

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The corporate perspective

Infrastructure, such as this road building project in Pakistan, is something that Bestani intends to concentrate on.

changed our logo and I proposed that the pliers be the logo of the ADB, and then I add that fortunately wiser minds prevailed.” The pliers’ image caught the attention of some BP executives in the audience for one of his presentations: “They came up to me afterwards, and said a double A-rated organisation like BP that made billions of dollars and could borrow in any corner of the planet did not need ADB money. “They made this very clear to me, but said, ‘We are doing a mega-project in Indonesia, $6.9 billion to provide gas to the entire Pacific basin. We all know that this is very important, but quite honestly we are worried about political instability in Indonesia, we are worried about corruption and frankly we have to move some indigenous people in pristine jungle area. And although we, BP, have gone way out of the way to say that we are environmentally friendly company, our flag is green, our logo is a flower, nobody believes us because we are an oil company. “’Take all of that together, we don’t need your money, but we like the idea of the flag, and we like it so much that would like to borrow a big flag. Would you lend us a billion dollars?’ We had to say to them, ‘Look guys, our board is not ready for us to make a billion dollar loan to one entity, however strong it is, though I would be happy to lend five billion dollars out of my own pocket. It is a great company. We asked them to cut if down to $350 million, and it has been very successful. “By being this honest broker in the middle, we can go to the company if it ever comes to it, and say these are the sorts of things you should do to keep out of hot water and we can also go to the government and assure them that this is a company that is trying to comply and do everything they can. 136

“The beauty of this whole approach is that it is equally as relevant in China as it is in the Maldives. Everybody wants us with them. This business model is relevant everywhere.” Bestani says his department has made loans as small as $500,000 and as high as $350 million. It is stil the smallest or second smallest ADB department in terms of staff: 40 professionals, about 70 altogether, including the secretaries, tea boys and cleaning crew. The IFC has 80 people in China alone. But this year, he predicts, the private sector department will be ADB’s biggest in terms of the dollar value of its activities. Even so, not everyone in the bank gets it. Because of the squeeze on space, it was suggested that his department move out of headquarters to a nearby place with more space. Bestani explodes: “I said over my dead body. There is no way that I will move because if we moved out we would immediately start developing a different culture from the rest of the institution. I would stop running into my director general colleagues in the hallway and cafeteria. I don’t want to be like the IFC. In every place, even in Washington, they are in a different building. It is completely wrong. One of the advantages is that we are in the same building, we run into each other all the time, and that facilitates dialogue. I don’t own the flag. The public sector colleagues are the ones who own it, tend it, have the dialogue with the government. For me to be effective I need to work hand in hand with the public sector colleagues. That is why I used the image of pliers, a very powerful tool. But if you take out the pin that holds the two together - that is our dialogue with the public sector - then you have two pieces of junk metal and can’t do anything.” g

AA栌付けを受けおいる数十億ドルの売䞊高の優 良䌁業であり、地球䞊のどこでも借入れを行うこず ができるのでADBの資金は必芁ずしないずはっきり 述べる䞀方で、次のような話をしおくれたした。 『我 々はむンドネシアで総額69億ドルに䞊る、倪平掋地 域党䜓に倩然ガスを䟛絊する巚倧プロゞェクトを 実斜しおいたす。 これが非垞に重芁なプロゞェクト であるこずは疑いの䜙地が無いのですが、正盎に 蚀っお、圓瀟はむンドネシアの政情が䞍安定なこず や汚職に぀いお懞念しおおり、単刀盎入に蚀えば、 原生林に䜏む䞀郚の土着の人々を移転させる必芁 がありたす。そしお、BPずしおは環境にやさしい䌁業 であるこずを宣蚀し、緑の瀟旗を採甚し、ロゎには 花をデザむンしおいるのに誰もそれを信じおくれな いのです。それは我々が石油䌚瀟だからです。結論 から蚀うず、圓瀟にはADBの資金が必芁ありたせん が、我々はあなたの蚀う旗の考え方が気に入りたし た。非垞に気に入ったので、倧きな旗に取り入れた いず思いたす。10億ドル融資しおくれたすか』 ず聞か れたので、次のように答えざるを埗たせんでした。 『 我々の理事䌚は1瀟に10億ドルを融資する甚意は ありたせん。 どのように倧きな䌚瀟でも同じです。䜆 し、私がもし持っおいれば喜んで50億ドル貞したす よ』。BPは玠晎らしい䌚瀟です。我々は3億5000䞇ド ルたで枛額するように頌みたした。結果はうたくい きたした」 「このように公正な仲介者ずなるこずで、我々は䌁 業を蚪れお危険を避けるために行うべきこずをア ドバむスし、その䞀方で、政府に察しおできるこずは 䜕でも実行する䌚瀟であるず確玄するこずができた す。 この方匏が玠晎らしいのは、それが䞭囜ででも モルディノででも同じように適甚できる点にありた す。我々は党おの人々から求められおいたす。 このビ ゞネスモデルはどこでも適甚可胜です」 ベスタニ氏が率いる民間セクタヌ掻動局が行っお いる融資額は50䞇ドルから3億5000䞇ドルたでず 倚岐にわたっおいる。今のずころ同局はADBの䞭で 最も小さい方に属しおおり、専門職員は40名、秘曞、 お茶汲み、枅掃を含めた職員数は玄70名である。䞀 方、IFCは䞭囜だけでも80名の職員を擁しおいる。 なお、ベスタニ氏は今幎の民間セクタヌ掻動局が ADBの掻動に占める割合ドルベヌスは最倧にな るであろうず予想しおいる。 䜆し、ADBの誰もがそう思っおいるわけではない。 ADB行内のスペヌスが足りなくなっおいるこずから、 同局が本郚を出お近くの斜蚭に移転するこずが提 案されおいる。 しかしながら、ベスタニ氏はこれに断固反察しおい る。 「絶察に移転したせん。本郚から出おしたったら、 盎ちに他の郚門ず異なる文化が育ち始めるからで す。私自身も廊䞋や食堂で他の郚門の同僚ず顔を合 わせるこずがなくなるでしょう。IFCのようになりたく はありたせん。IFCはワシントンDCでさえも違う建物 に入っおいたす。 これは党くの間違いです。我々が同 じ建物にいるメリットのひず぀は、違う郚門の人間 同士が出䌚い、䌚話をする機䌚があるこずです。私 が旗を持っおいるわけではありたせん。公共セクタ ヌに属する同僚は、旗を所有し、それを管理し、政府 ず察話を行っおいたす。我々が成果を䞊げるには、 公共セクタヌに属する同僚達ず密接に協力する必 芁がありたす。 これがペンチずいう匷力な工具のむ メヌゞを提瀺する理由です。 しかし、ペンチを構成す る2぀の柄を留めおいるピンを倖しおしたうこずは、 公共セクタヌずの察話が無くなるこずを意味し、2本 の圹に立たない金属が残るだけです。 それでは䜕も できたせん」■



The corporate perspective

京郜総䌚に シクスト・センス が欠ける フランク・シクスト氏は京郜で開催されるア ゞア開発銀行ADB幎次総䌚に䞍参加の 予定である。実のずころフランク・シクスト氏 はADBに぀いお倚くを知っおいるわけでは ないが、圌がこの総䌚に欠けるこずはADBに ずっお残念なこずである。

© Rafoto

ADBの䞊玚圹員が知り合った堎合、フラン ク・シクスト氏は、仕事の䞊でも個人的にも 倧いに圹に立぀人物だからである。

Sixt sense will be missing from Kyoto Frank Sixt will not be going to the Asian Development Bank annual meeting in Kyoto. In fact, Frank Sixt does not even know much about the ADB, but his absence will be a pity for the ADB.

A

pity because Frank Sixt is precisely the kind of man that senior ADB executives would greatly benefit from getting to know, both on a professional and on a personal level. He is the chief financial officer of the Hong Kong based conglomerate Hutchison Whampoa, the major vehicle of billionaire Li Kashing, who rose from being a sickly, penniless refugee to become a manufacturer of plastic flowers and then to be one of the world’s richest people in command of a business empire operating in more than 50 countries worldwide with assets in construction, real estate, plastics, cellular telephones, satellite television, cement production, pharmacies and supermarkets, hotels, transportation, airports, electric power, steel production, oil and gas, ports and shipping. Sixt himself, a Canadian, graduated in law and is responsible for Hutchison Whampoa’s leading edge— critics say bleeding edge -- 3G telecom interests, though he had problems trying to understand his BlackBerry during our meeting. He was closely involved in the deal in which Hutchison sold its Indian telecoms interests to Vodafone for $11 billion, a neat $9 billion profit on the original investment. Hutchison’s treasury operations, which Sixt looks after, are themselves an important profit centre for the company and add almost $1 billion to earnings, although Sixt says, “We don’t consider ourselves to be asset managers, but custodians and managers of liquidity as

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part of the business of a conglomerate, very different from trying to be a fund manager.” In several interviews Sixt’s favourite phrase was “blue chip”, which he used as both a noun, to mean Hutchison Whampoa, one of Asia’s leading blue chips and as an adjective, to describe how the company behaves, in a blue-chip way. Professionally, many of the Hutchison companies, particularly in energy and infrastructure, are involved in businesses

シクスト氏は、倧富豪の李嘉誠Li Ka-shing 氏の経営するコングロマリットの䞻芁䌚瀟 で銙枯に本拠を眮くHutchison Whampoa瀟 の最高財務責任者CFOである。李嘉誠氏 は病気がちで䞀文なしの亡呜者から身を起 こしおプラスチックの造花の補造を始め、䞖 界50カ囜を超えお掻動するビゞネス垝囜を 率いる䞖界有数の富豪ずなった。その資産 は建蚭、䞍動産、 プラスチック、携垯電話、衛 星テレビ、セメント補造、薬局やスヌパヌ、 ホテル、運茞、空枯、電力、補鉄、石油ガス、 枯湟および海運にわたっおいる。 カナダ囜籍で法孊郚を卒業したシクスト 氏自身は、評論家が「出血」を意味するブ リヌディング・゚ッゞず評するHutchison Whampoa瀟のリヌディング・゚ッゞであ る第䞉䞖代通信事業の責任者である。ず はいえこの䌚談䞭に自分のBlackBerry携 垯端末の䜿い方に苊劎しおいたが。圌は Hutchison瀟が所有しおいたむンドの通信 事業を110億ドルでVodafone瀟ぞ売华し、 圓初の投資から90億ドルずいう倧きな利益 を䞊げた案件に密接に関わっおいた。 シクスト氏が担圓するHutchison瀟の財務 掻動は、それ自䜓が䌚瀟の重芁な収益セン タヌになっおおり、10億ドル近くの収益を 蚈䞊しおいる。もっずもシクスト氏は「私達 は資産管理ではなく、コングロマリット・ビ ゞネスの䞀郚ずしお流動性の保守ず管理を しおいるず思っおおり、 ファンド・マネヌゞャ ヌずなろうずしおいるずいうのでは党くあり たせん」 ず述べおいる。 シクスト氏はいく぀かのむンタビュヌの䞭で 「ブルヌ・チップ」 ずいう蚀葉を奜んで䜿っ おいるが、圌はそれをアゞアの超優良䌚瀟 であるHutchison Whampoa瀟を意味する 名詞ずしおも䜿い、同時に䌚瀟の行動様匏 を述べるずきに「ブルヌ・チップ的に」 ずいう ように圢容詞ずしおも甚いおいる。

Li Ka-shing, founder of Hutchison Whampoa, was a peniless refugee who rose to become one of the world’s richest men.

Hutchison瀟の䌁業の倚く、特に゚ネルギ ヌずむンフラ関係䌁業はその業務䞊で、発 展途䞊囜における30億のアゞアの人々の 生掻を向䞊させようずADBが積極的な掻動 をしおいる分野に関わっおいる。同瀟の本 拠地は銙枯であるが、 アゞアずオヌストラリ 4


Sixt sense

Many of the Hutchison companies are involved in businesses where ADB is active “The starting point is making sure that debates are held on the basis of the facts and that we understand the facts. The fact that is most often left out of the discussion is that China actually does not have anywhere near the trade surplus that it appears to have because it has a very significant trade deficit with the rest of Asia. This is not about China and America and China and Europe. This is basically about the engine of Asia as a whole, and that needs to be recognised.” He believes that China is trying to redirect the economy, “and basically trying to direct investment and policies to stimulate domestic consumption. And that is everything from buildings to the railroads and roads—you forget how basic these things are: you can’t have consumers if you don’t have a distribution network to get goods to consumers. So the starting point actually is things like road and rail infrastructure and competition restructure inland and that is a big part of the National People’s Congress’ ‘harmonious society’ platform.

アでの売䞊は46%に過ぎない。 ちょうどシク スト氏が垂堎の動向に぀いお囜際的なビ ゞョンを持たねばならないように、その掻 動は䞖界的に広がっおいる。 シクスト氏個人ずしおは持続可胜開発に぀ いお匷い関心を寄せおいる。たた、非垞に 興味深い人物で、映画『黄土の英雄軍医 ベシュヌンの生涯』 䞻挔 ドナルド・サザヌ ランド、ヘレン・ミレンの䞭で䜿甚された 曲のうち2曲を手掛けた才胜溢れる音楜家 でもある。 © Uden Graham / RedlinkImage

where ADB is active in trying to build a better life for the three billion Asians in developing countries. The company has its headquarters in Hong Kong but is active throughout the world, with only 46 percent of its revenues in Asia and Australia, so it has a global outreach, just as Sixt has to have an international vision of what the markets are doing. Personally, Sixt is keenly interested in sustainable development issues. He is also an interesting guy, and a talented musician who wrote two musical scores for the movie Bethune (starring Donald Sutherland and Helen Mirren). Since he won’t be In Kyoto, we asked Sixt for his views about issues of concern to the ADB and delegates to the annual meeting. Sixt applauds the rapid growth in world trade which has, “lifted more people out of poverty in the last 15 years than has ever been done in history, and that is true to a very large extent in China, and to a meaningful extent in India.” Unfortunately, he acknowledges, it has created trade imbalances that won’t be unwound easily. But he urges that fingers should not be pointed against China in spite of the stresses that have led the US to press China to revalue the currency. Sixt believes that it is important to manage the imbalances, “as part of the development profile of the world as a whole. If we don’t succeed in managing the balances, we land ourselves with significant sectoral shocks to the economy that will be bad for all players involved, American consumers, European consumers, and Chinese producers.

Sixt: The starting point actually is in things like road and rail infrastructure.

シクスト氏が京郜総䌚に出垭しないこずか ら、私達はADBず幎次総䌚出垭者にずっお の関心事項に぀いおの氏の芋解を䌺った。 「䞖界貿易の急激な成長は過去15幎で前 代未聞の数の人々を貧困から救枈したし た。䞭囜ではそれが特に顕著に衚れおいた すが、むンドでも盞圓救枈されたした」 ずシ クスト氏は述べおいる。

そしお残念なこずに、䞖界貿易の急激な成 “The truth is that the introduction of 長が簡単には解消できない貿易䞍均衡を し WTO and the privatisation of state-owned 生み出しおいるずいうこずも認めおいる。 enterprises in China have been as much of かし、たずえ䞭囜の通貚再評䟡を求めるア a shock, in a sense, to potential Chinese メリカの圧力の原因ずなっおいるストレス consumers as losses of jobs in manufacturing があったずしおも、䞭囜を指匟しおはならな in the eastern seaboard of the US or more いず力説しおいる。シクスト氏は「䞖界が党 - because social safety nets, which were 䜓ずしお発展しおいくずきの䞀偎面ずしお」 part of the established fabric of China, 䞍均衡を管理するこずが倧切であるず信じ disappeared. And healthcare has a cost, and おいる。 「均衡管理がうたくいかなければ、 education has a cost. Retirement savings are 経枈のある分野で非垞に倧きなショックが a necessity, but are not met by a complete 生ずるこずになりたす。それはアメリカの消 system of pension and annuity systems. ペヌロッパの消費者、それに䞭囜の “So if you look at the policy thrusts in the 費者、 finance sector, they are very much aimed 生産者ずいう関係者党員の䞍利益ずなるの たず始めに、私達が事実を理解し、議 at developing secure sources of potential です。 savings, reducing the perilous cost of health 論がそれに基づいおされるこずを確認する この議論で䞀番忘れられ care and the cost of education, so that people 必芁がありたす。 in China will start to rebuild enough of a おいるのは、䞭囜には貿易䜙剰があるよう level of security so that they are prepared to に芋えたすが実際にはそのようなものはな save less and spend a little bit more.” いずいう事実です。それは䞭囜がアゞアの He points to moves to let the currency それ以倖の囜に察しお非垞に倧きな貿易 appreciate, so that it has now moved 赀字を抱えおいるからです。 これは䞭囜察 through the 7.80 rate of the Hong Kong 米囜や䞭囜察欧州のこずではありたせん。 dollar against the greenback, and Beijing’s tightening of reserve requirements and これは基本的にアゞアの牜匕力党䜓に぀ いおであっお、そのこずを認識しなくおはな raising of interest rates. He judges that it, “is definitely yielding らないのです」 positive results. Nobody would say perfect シクスト氏は䞭囜が経枈の方向を倉えよう results but definitely positive results.” Sixt ずしおいるず信じおいる。 「基本的に䞭囜は sees the proof in things like the growth 囜内消費を刺激するような投資ず政策を目 of retailing in second and third tier cities, 指そうずしおいたす。 これは建物から鉄道や which has allowed rapid expansion of 道路たですべおに圓おはたりたす。私達はこ Hutchison’s Watson’s pharmacies, “which れらがいかに基瀎的な芁玠であるかを忘れ was unthinkable five or ten years ago. You would not have imagined putting おいたす。商品を消費者に届ける流通ネット a Watson’s store in a second or third tier ワヌクがなければ、消費者は存圚しないの city in China. There would have been no です。ですから出発点は実際には道路や鉄 purchasers for the goods. Now we have 道のむンフラ、あるいは囜内の競争の改革 more than 200 stores in China, growing at ずいったもので、それが党囜人民代衚倧䌚 ずいうプラットフォヌ close to 100 a year. The limiter on growth is の『調和のずれた瀟䌚』 not consumer demand, but is the ability to ムの倧きな郚分を占めおいるのです」 get and train good people to manage large 「 äž­ 囜 が 侖 界 貿 易 機 関 W T O  W o r l d retail distribution operations, which is a very Trade Organizationに加盟し、囜有䌁業が people intensive business.” Watsons, he adds, “is a very busy 民営化したこずは、アメリカ東海岞の補造 organisation that has grown extremely 業やその他の地域で倱業が生ずるずいう rapidly over the last few years. It has grown だけではなく、ある意味で䞭囜の朜圚的消 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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substantially in Europe. Watsons has presences in Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia, Ukraine.” At last, suggests Sixt, the great myth of China as the billion-person market is becoming a fact. “That is the most important trend of our time,” he says that China is growing “not merely as an exporter but also as a consumer.”

The fact that is most often left out of the discussion is that China actually does not have anywhere near the trade surplus that it appears to have For all this, Sixt does not recommend setting the renminbi free. “Not at this hour. I think that there is considerable work to be done in the market infrastructure, whether you are talking about capital markets or equity capital markets, whether you are talking about insurance and pensions, all of the things that you need in place to balance where homes for savings can be. To simply open up the country’s full capital account, making the currency tradable for anything else by anybody at any time, at this point would not be advantageous from China’s point of view or a stabilising factor for China’s economic development.” He also believes that China is on the right road to making the renminbi convertible. The next steps are, “Basically some of the steps that they are taking,” and he cites continuing banking reforms and privatisations. “Three of the policy banks had their objectives realigned with development of interest structure and sensible commercial lending bases. All of that is very necessary to succeed. “If by making the RMB fully convertible you create a global choice as to where savings can be placed, China has first to be sure that it has a full balance and a full menu

of domestic options for its savings because it 費者ぞのショックでもあるずいうのが事実 still needs to direct savings into development です。なぜなら䞭囜の確立した制床の䞀郚 into missing bits of infrastructure, missing bits であった瀟䌚的なセヌフティネットがなく of the educational and healthcare system, the retirement and pension, the distribution なったから。埓っお医療にはお金が掛かり、 infrastructure. You name it, there is still a 教育にもお金が掛かりたす。退職の備えを lot to be done to complete the process of するこずが必芁になりたすが、恩絊や幎金 improvement of the lot of that part of China 制床では賄われたせん」 that has not benefited all that much from the 「金融郚門改革政策を芋れば、その政策が export trade boom and WTO access.” 朜圚的貯蓄を確実にできるようにする手段 But Sixt is relaxed about China’s trillion を開発し、高額になりかねない医療費甚ず dollars of exchange reserves and does not 教育費甚の削枛を目的ずしおいるこずは明 foresee that an attempt by China to diversity らかです。それによっお䞭囜の人々が充分 out of US dollars might, as he puts it, “scupper the dollar”. This is “a popular myth”, he な瀟䌚保障氎準を䜜り盎すこずができ、貯 says, since, “The truth is that I believe there 蓄をやや少なくしおその分を支出に回すこ has been a substantial reallocation over the ずができるようになるでしょう」。シクスト氏 course of the last several years and the extent は、通貚の隰貎を容認する動きのために結 to which foreign currency reserves, not just 果米ドルが珟圚7.80銙枯ドルになっおいる in China but around the region, are held in こずや、北京政府による準備預金の匕締め US dollars has actually been going down, so ず金利匕䞊げに぀いおも指摘しおいる。 that the exposure in terms of the investment そしお次のように刀断しおいる。 「それは are not that great. I would put the risk of a 良い結果を生んでいたす。完党だずはだ central banker-led intervention which causes a brusque cascade of volatility to the currency れも蚀いたせんが、間違いなく良い結果 markets and sends the dollar reeling as small になっおいたす」。シクスト氏は、2類・3類 I think that central bankers are a lot smarter の郜垂における小売の成長をその蚌拠ず しお芋おおり、それによっおHutchison瀟 than that, including China’s. Sixt says that as a CFO of a major のWatson’s薬局の急成長が芋蟌たれおい 「これは5幎前、10幎前には考えられな Asian-based multinational company, he る。 is interested in the development of Asian かったこずです。䞭囜の2類・3類の郜垂に markets and creation of a common Asian Watson’s薬局の店舗を出店するこずなど誰 currency unit. “Clearly,” he says, “when が想像できたでしょう。たず、その商品を賌 you have exposure in any of a number of 入する消費者がいたせんでした。珟圚、我 countries what you need to do is have some 々は䞭囜に200を超える店舗を持ち、幎間 sensible level of local currency hedge, in 100店舗近く増えおいたす。 こうした成長を terms of the liability side against the asset 制限しおいるのは消費者の需芁ではなく、 side, on the revenue side, in local currency. That mix will depend on the business, 倧芏暡小売の流通事業を管理する優秀な because some businesses, even though they 人材を獲埗し蚓緎するずいう、非垞に劎働 are sited abroad, in effect have US dollar 集玄的な䜜業です」 revenue-based streams and some businesses さらに、Watson’s薬局に぀いおも、 「これは have local currency revenue streams and 倧倉に忙しい組織で、 この数幎間でずおも foreign cost structures because you have to 急速に拡倧したした。 ペヌロッパではかな buy equipment abroad.” りの成長を遂げたした。Watson’s薬局はポ ヌランド、ハンガリヌ、チェコ共和囜、 スロノ ェニア、ラトノィア、 リトアニア、ロシア、りク ラむナに進出しおいたす」

Photo courtesy of Hutchison Whampoa Ltd

最埌にシクスト氏は、䞭囜が10億人のマヌ ケットであるずいう倧きな神話が事実にな り぀぀あるず瀺唆しおいる。 「これは私達の 時代の最も重倧なトレンドで、䞭囜は単に 茞出囜ずしお成長しおいるのではなく消費 者ずしおも成長しおいるのです」

The Hutchison Whampoa business empire operates in more than 50 countries worldwide with assets in construction, real estate, plastics, cellular telephones, satellite television, cement production, transportation, airports, electric power, steel production, oil and gas, ports and shipping, pharmacies, hotels, and (above) supermarkets.

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それにも関わらず、シクスト氏は人民元の 自由化は勧めおいない。 「この時点ではた だです。垂堎のむンフラに぀いおは、それ が資本垂堎および゚クむティ資本垂堎なの か、保険や幎金の垂堎なのかを問わず、す るべき仕事が盞圓あるず思いたす。 しなけ ればならないのは貯蓄の䞭心ずなるべき ものの均衡を図るこずです。単玔に囜の党 おの資本勘定をオヌプンにし、誰でもい぀ でもどのような通貚ずでもその囜の通貚を 取匕できるようにするのは、珟段階では䞭 囜の芖点および䞭囜経枈発展の安定化芁 玠からすれば埗策ではありたせん」 4


Sixt sense

Asian markets are still underdeveloped, たた、シクスト氏は䞭囜が人民元を他通貚 he adds. “Whereas I have a very full range ず亀換できるようにしたこずは正しい遞択 of options as between bank markets, bond markets, structured markets, you name it, if であったず考えおいる。次の段階は「基本的 I want to hedge my exposure in the likes of に䞭囜がずっおいるステップのいく぀か」で sterling or the euro or, of course, in dollars, あり、その䟋ずしお銀行改革ず民営化の継続 「 3぀の政策銀行は、その目 I have a full range of choices because there を挙げおいる。 的を利益構造ず合理的商業貞出ベヌスの開 is a lot of depth across all markets. “In Asia we are still too concentrated in 発に再調敎したした。これはどれも成功の commercial bank lending, and the smaller the ために必芁なものです。もし人民元を完党 currency pool you go into the more concentrated に亀換可胜にすれば、 どこに貯蓄をするか you are. There is an absence of bank and に぀いお䞖界的な遞択をするこずができる commercial paper markets. Again, every central ようになり、䞭囜はたず囜内の貯蓄のオプ banker and every economic policy maker in the ションをバランス良く完党に敎えるこずが倧 region is aware of it and trying to take steps 切になりたす。それは䞭囜がただ貯蓄を、開 to stimulate—but there is room for much more development, room for example, to free up the 発、欠劂しおいるむンフラ、教育や医療シス value in real estate through the development of テムの改善、退職金や幎金、流通のむンフラ などに回す必芁があるからです。茞出ブヌ mortgage market and asset backed securities.” In spite of the arrival of REITS (real estate ムずWTO加盟からさほど恩恵を受けおいな investment trusts) in places like Singapore い䞭囜の倚くの地域で改革プロセスを終了 ただ倚くのこずをしなけれ and Hong Kong, adds Sixt, “If you compare させるためには、 the available sources of liquidity in relation ばなりたせん」 to real estate development and investment in しかし、䞭囜の持぀3兆ドルの貿易黒字に and around Asia to the comparable panoply ぀いおは楜芳的で、シクスト氏自身のように of sources in the US or in Europe, it is still a 「ドルをやっ぀け」 お、䞭囜が米ドルの力を night and day comparison.” 分散させるこずにはならないず予想しおい る。 「これは根拠のない䜜り話です。過去数 幎間で非垞に倧きな再分配が行なわれおき たずいうのが真実だず思いたす。䞭囜だけ ではなく、 この呚蟺諞囜で保有しおいる米ド ルによる倖貚準備の芏暡は実際には枛少し おきおおり、投資の物差しで芋るず゚クスポ ヌゞャヌはそれほど倧きくないのです。私は 䞭倮銀行の人達が䞻䜓ずなる介入の方にリ スクがあるず思っおいたす。介入は通貚垂堎 Why has the development of Asian markets に突然のボラティリティヌを起こしお、 ドル been so slow? Sixt believes that: “Part of it を匱いもののように動揺させたす。私は䞭 is because of the multifarious currencies. It was slow in Europe until the euro. In a way 囜を含めお䞭倮銀行の人達はもっずスマヌ the dollar is the euro of the United States, a トになるべきず思っおいたす」 common currency for all of the states. The lack シクスト氏はアゞアを拠点ずする巚倧倚囜 of a common monetary base makes it more 籍䌁業の最高財務責任者CFO ずしお、ア difficult because you are dealing with situations ゞア垂堎の発展ず共通のアゞア通貚単䜍の denominated in so many currencies. 創蚭に興味を持っおいるず語っおいる。 「い “There have often been suggestions that く぀かの囜に゚クスポヌゞャヌがある堎合 it would be very interesting to form an Asian に必芁なこずは、資産に察する負債のヘッ currency unit. I am no economist, but I am ゞ、収益偎における合理的な氎準の珟地通 intrigued by that idea. Basically, anything that increases liquidity means that markets 貚ヘッゞです。その内容はビゞネスによりた ずいうのも、それが海倖に所圚するビゞ can be more effective and that more can す。 get done. From my point of view, it would ネスであっおも実際には米ドルをベヌスに mean that cost of capital would be easier 収入があるものもあり、別のビゞネスではそ to manage, which would mean that greater の囜の通貚による収入を埗お機材の海倖調 exposures would be easier to manage.” 達で倖囜に費甚を支払うずいう構造になっ Sixt points out the overlap between おいるこずもあるからです」 Hutchison Whampoa’s interests and those シクスト氏は、 アゞア垂堎はただ未開発であ of the ADB, telecoms, ports, property and るこずも付け加えおいる。 「銀行垂堎、債刞垂 retail, electricity generation and natural gas 堎、 ストラクチャヌもののマヌケッ ト、その他 distribution, infrastructure. “We build cities,” he says. “We build an awful 䜕であれ私には非垞に幅広いオプションが どのマヌケットも遞択の幅が広い lot of housing that ends up making cities. We ありたす。 ドルも含めお、英ポンド、ナヌロなどの are quite keenly aware of changing needs, for ので、 どの example in mass residential and the need to build ゚クスポヌゞャヌをヘッゞしたければ、 more energy efficient and more water efficient ようなものも遞択するこずができたす。アゞ housing from the way they have been framed in アではただあたりに商業銀行貞出に集䞭し the past. We will be very involved by definition.” おいるため、通貚のプヌルが小さければそ It is indeed a pity that Sixt will not be in Kyoto to の集䞭はたすたす匷いものになりたす。銀 share common experience and perspective. g

Clearly, when you have exposure in any of a number of countries what you need to do is have some sensible level of local currency hedge

行や䌁業の発行するコマヌシャルペヌパヌ の垂堎がありたせん。 この地域の䞭倮銀行 の人々や政策決定者は誰でもこのこずに気 が぀いおいお刺激策を取ろうずしおいるの ですが、そこにはモヌゲヌゞのマヌケットや 資産を担保ずする債刞を開発するこずによ っお䞍動産の䟡倀を自由にするこずなど、も っず発展させる䜙地がありたす」 䞍動産投資トラスト REITSreal estate investment trustsがシンガポヌルや銙枯 ずいった郜垂で始たっおいるが、シクスト氏 は「アゞアずその呚蟺の䞍動産開発ず投資 の関連で埗られる流動性資源を米囜や欧州 の倚様な品ぞろえず比范するず、 ただ昌ず倜 ほどの違いがありたす」 ず加えおいる。 なぜアゞア垂堎の開発が遅れおいるのだろ うか。シクスト氏はこのように考えおいる。 「その理由の䞀぀ずしお通貚がさたざたで あるずいうこずがありたす。欧州でもナヌロ ができる前は発展が遅かったのです。ある 意味でドルは米囜内のナヌロで、党州の共 通通貚なのです。共通の通貚ベヌスを持た ない堎合、非垞に倚くの通貚で衚瀺された 状況に察応するこずになるため、物事がずっ ず難しくなりたす。アゞア通貚単䜍を創蚭す るずいうのは非垞に興味のあるこずだずよく 蚀われおいたす。私は経枈孊者ではありた せんが、 このアむデアに惹かれおいたす。基 本的に流動性を増加させるずいうこずは䜕 であれ、垂堎の効率が良くなり、より倚くの こずが可胜になるずいうこずを意味したす。 私の芋方からするず、 これは資本コストの管 理が楜になり、゚クスポヌゞャヌが倧きくな っおも管理が楜であるずいうこずを意味した す」 シクスト氏は、Hutchison Whampoa瀟ず ADBの関心が、電気通信、枯湟、䞍動産や小 売業、発電および倩然ガスの䟛絊、むンフラ ストラクチャヌで䞀臎しおいるこずを指摘し おいる。 「私達は郜垂を䜜りたす。私達は非垞に倚 くの家を建お、それは最終的に街になりた す。私達はたずえば倧芏暡䜏宅などでニヌ ズが倉化しおいるこずを非垞によく理解しお いたす。 このニヌズは過去に䜜られたものよ りも゚ネルギヌ効率がずっず高く、氎の利甚 がもっず効率的な家ぞのニヌズです。圓然 のこずながら、私達はこういったニヌズに深 く関䞎するこずになるでしょう」。シクスト氏 が京郜の総䌚で共通する経隓ず芋通しを分 かち合うこずができないのは、非垞にに残 念なこずずいえる。■

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穏やかな嵐が䞖 界を吹きぬける

© Rafoto

荒削りのランカスタヌ人、 ブラむアン・テンペ スト Brian Tempest氏は、 むンドの補薬メ ヌカヌ、Ranbaxy瀟の最高顧問兌取締圹副 䌚長ずいう立掟な肩曞きがある。Ranbaxyず いう名前を耳にしたこずがないず蚀う人は、 あなただけではない。

An affable storm blowing across the world Brian Tempest, a bluff Lancastrian, rejoices in the splendid title of chief mentor and executive vice chairman of the Indian pharmaceutical company Ranbaxy. If you have never heard of Ranbaxy, you are hardly alone.

F

ew people in the world could recite the names of the top ten branded pharmaceutical makers and maybe one in a hundred people know who the world’s top maker of generic pharmaceuticals is. (It is Teva, from Israel, with 2006 sales of more than $8 billion.) Ranbaxy comes eighth or ninth among the generics, depending on who is doing the counting, with sales of $1.4 billion. But it is growing, “Heading for the top five,” says Tempest: it now makes 80 percent of its sales abroad from its base in the Indian industrial city of Gurgaon, about 45 minutes (or sometimes three hours) drive from Delhi and is beginning to get name recognition in Europe, Japan and the US because of its takeover bids, most recently for the generic arm of Merck, and its global joint ventures. Behind an affable manner, Tempest hides a shrewd brain and an intimate knowledge of medical drugs gained from 26 years in the business. The chairman of GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), the world’s second biggest pharmaceutical company with sales of $35 billion) called him “a pirate”, but Tempest is unusual in that he spent 13 years with the big pharmaceutical companies, including time with Glaxo, before turning pirate. The curse of “pirate” comes from the accusation that the big companies spend all the money to make the path making breakthroughs with wonder drugs, and then the generics come and steal the business and flood the world with cheap copies. But these days, especially now that

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India has accepted World Trade Organisation obligations on intellectual property, the drugs world is getting complicated. Ranbaxy itself is one of the leading holders of US patents, and in their buccaneering role the pirates can present themselves as the honest guys trying to get miracle medicines to the masses, not pandering to well paid doctors and politicians. What also sets Ranbaxy and its chief mentor apart is not merely their increasing global reach but their understanding of the pharmaceutical business and of social, economic, health, political and management practices round the world. If you go to the US – or the USA, as Tempest, correctly, calls it each time – you may think that nothing exists outside its shores. Tempest can talk with meticulous knowledge of the $600 billion pharmaceutical business and big pharma (the leading brand companies like GSK , and Pfizer), API (active pharmaceutical ingredients, the raw materials for generic drugs), USFDA, big molecules, GMP (good manufacturing practices, not always practiced in China) R+D and all things technical; but he can also tell you about the lamentable state of Indian infrastructure, as opposed to the “marvellous” network in China, about the organisation of the drugs business in the US, the big differences that national boundaries make even inside a supposed European Union, and the implications of former Japanese prime minister Junichiro Koizumi’s battle to open up the postal service.

自瀟ブランド医薬品を生産する補薬䌚瀟 の䞊䜍10瀟を挙げられる人は䞖界でも少 ないだろうが、䞖界で最倧のゞェネリック 埌発医薬品メヌカヌずなるず、おそら く100人に1人であろう 答はむスラ゚ルの Teva瀟で、2006幎の売䞊げは80億ドルを 超えた。調査がどの機関のものかによる が、売䞊高14億ドルのRanbaxy瀟はゞェネ リック補薬䌚瀟の䞭で8䜍か9䜍にランク されおいる。しかし同瀟は成長しおおり、 「じきに䞊䜍5瀟に入るだろう」 ずテンペス ト氏は蚀う。むンドのデリヌから車でおよ そ45分時には3時間の産業郜垂グルガオ ンに本瀟を眮くRanbaxy瀟は、すでに売䞊 げの80パヌセントを海倖で䞊げ、最近行っ たMerck瀟のゞェネリック郚門などの公開 株匏買い付けや倚数のグロヌバル合匁事 業のために、欧米ず日本でも認知されるよ うになっおきた。 物腰の柔らかいテンペスト氏だが、 その実、 シャヌプな頭脳の持ち䞻であり、医薬品に 関しおは業界26幎の経隓を持぀事情通で ある。350億ドルの売䞊げを誇る䞖界第2の 補薬䌚瀟GlaxoSmithKlineGSK瀟の䌚長 からは「海賊」 ず呌ばれるテンペスト氏であ るが、海賊化する以前にGlaxo瀟を含む倧 補薬䌚瀟で13幎間働いたずいう点で普通 ずは異なる。 「海賊」 ず叩かれるのにはわけ がある。倧手䌚瀟は倚額の資金を぀ぎ蟌ん で特効薬の開発を実珟するが、そこにゞェ ネリックメヌカヌが珟れおビゞネスを盗み 取り、あっずいう間に䞖界䞭に安䟡なコピ ヌ商品をばらたいおしたうのである。 しかし 最近、むンドが䞖界貿易機関の知的所有暩 芏定を受け入れたこずから、補薬業界の状 況は耇雑化しおきた。Ranbaxy瀟自身、米囜 の特蚱保有数に関しおはトップクラスにあ る。 たた海賊達のコピヌ商品補造に぀いお も、高所埗の医者や政治家におもねるので はなく、倧衆の手に特効薬を届けようずす る英雄的行為ずしお芋られるようになっお きた。 Ranbaxy瀟ずその最高顧問が他瀟ず違うず ころは、事業が䞖界的な広がりを芋せおい るこずだけではなく、補薬業を含む各囜の 瀟䌚・経枈・医療・政治・経営慣習に粟通し おいる点である。米囜、吊、テンペスト氏が 正確に呌ぶずころのアメリカ合衆囜に行け ば、その囜倖には䜕も存圚しないかのよう に感じおしたうかもしれない。テンペスト 4


An affable storm

In China there is this great government that actually knows exactly what it is going to do and tells everyone to do it “There are 117,000 MScs in chemistry a year coming out of India, and something like 3,500 in the UK. There is a huge surge of science. Chemistry departments are being closed down in the universities in the UK, and physics is even worse than chemistry. Last year at Delhi University, the most favoured degree course was physics - so there is night and day between the east and the west in the education of science.” The implications are obvious: Tempest draws attention to some showing how the west is becoming dependent on the east. “The last set of data showed that 43 percent of the APIs registered with the FDA (the US Food and Drug Administration) are coming from India and 17 percent from China. That’s why it is commonly said that the supply chains of generic medicines are controlled by Indians. If you take the product licences, which are the regulatory approvals for the tablets and capsules with the FDA, currently 25 percent are coming from India. You have a lot of strength of Indian companies in America, and you have a lot of American companies dependent on Indian companies for their API. “Adding to that is the issue of productivity of R+D in India, which is significant. This is why on the discovery side, as well as the generic side, the world is beating a path to India.” It saddens Tempest, who has a PhD from Lancaster University, that even if the UK and the West try to remedy their science deficit, it will be at least 10 years before the results come through. Not everything in the Indian pharmaceutical industry is rosy. “The biology side needs to be stronger,” says Tempest. “When you run discovery, you need to have as many biologists as chemists. Another problem is that people worship monkeys here, and in the development of medicines, you need to

do experiments on primates, so you have 氏は、6000億ドル垂堎の補薬ビゞネスず倧 to go to China or Singapore or to central Europe. Also there is quite a following for 手補薬䌚瀟GSK瀟、Pfizer瀟等の有名ブラ dogs in India. When you do toxicology, you ンドメヌカヌに぀いお、たた、APIゞェネ start with the rats and the rodents - that’s no リック医薬品の原薬である医薬品有効成 issue here - but when you move into the dogs 分、USFDA米囜食品医薬品局、倧分子、 GMP䞭囜では必ずしも守られおいない医 and monkeys, that is a sensitive matter.” A worse problem is that having made 薬品補造管理基準、R&D研究開発 ずい the drugs, Ranbaxy and other companies ったテクニカルな事柄に぀いお非垞に正 have to raid their own medicine chests to 確な知識を披露する。そしおたた、むンドの handle the headaches in shipping the drugs むンフラが嘆かわしい状態にあるこず、そ out. It might be regarded as something of れず察照的な䞭囜の「芋事な」ネットワヌ a miracle that Ranbaxy got the award in 2005 from retail giant Wal-Mart as the best ク、米囜の補薬業界組織、囜家連合䜓であ supplier of pharmaceuticals, especially る欧州連合の䞭にさえある囜ごずの倧きな given the wretched state of India’s potholed 違い、そしお日本の小泉玔䞀郎前銖盞が詊 roads and congested red tape ridden ports みた郵政改革が及がす圱響に぀いお意芋 and airports. “Wal-Mart is a very demanding を語るのである。 customer,” says Tempest, who is able to boast that: “We can make products in the 英囜人ずしおの思い入れを倱っおいない Himalayas and can take them to our US テンペスト氏は、欧米の倧孊生は化孊を怖 「む logistics centre in Jacksonville in seven or がっお専攻しなくなっおしたったず嘆く。 eight days and sell to Wal-Mart. Short-term ンドではゞェネリック医薬品の補造が拡倧 we can do that in spite of all the holes in the し、たた宇宙開発研究倧手補薬䌚瀟の䞭 road and the troubles in the airports and the 心的事業である も進んでいたすが、 これを ports. But the issue is that if we are going 促す根本的な芁因は、科孊分野における教 to grow as we think we are going to grow, 育の匷さにありたす。化孊ず数孊の教育を in five years [India’s poor infrastructure] will 受けた専門技術者の数が問題なのです。 も strangulate it unless that is put right. I think っずも生物孊に関しおはそうでもなく、 これ the government understands it, and [prime ずもあれ、 minister] Manmohan Singh has made lots of は䞭囜のほうが匷いずいえたす。 化孊が匷いこずがこうした発展を可胜にし comments about what needs to be done. “But there is so much money that needs to おいるのです。それずは察照的に珟圚の欧 be invested and I don’t think that the Indian 米では、化孊者になりたい者など皆無で government has got all that money and it will す。孊生たちの垌望職皮は法埋家や医者や be down to these private public partnerships ビゞネスマンです。科孊専攻の孊生数を芋 and it will be down to tolls. It does not matter ればそれがよく分かりたす」 whether you talk to the IT sector, Wipro or Infosys, everybody has the common view 「むンドでは幎間11侇7000人が化孊の修 - got to get the infrastructure improved, 士号をずりたすが、英囜では3500人皋床で otherwise it will strangulate the growth which す。科孊の人気においお倧きなうねりが起 is going great guns at the moment.” こっおいたす。英囜の倧孊では化孊系の孊 郚が盞次いで閉鎖され、物理孊にいたっお はそれよりひどい状況です。䞀方、昚幎のデ リヌ倧孊で最も人気があったのは物理孊 科でした。 このように科孊教育に関しおは 東西で明癜な違いが珟れおいたす」

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There is something in Tempest’s heart that will be forever English, and he laments the way that chemistry in western universities has become a dark place where students fear to go. “The fundamental driving force behind the generics, and also in the discovery space (the main business of big pharma), in India is the educational strength of science. The number of people who are trained and developed in chemistry and maths - biology not so much, China is stronger in biology - it is the strength of chemistry which is driving all this momentum. You compare it to what is happening in Europe and the USA where nobody wants to be a chemist. They want to be lawyers, medics and businessmen, and you can see that in the numbers of people who are educated in science.

Tempest was called “a pirate” by the (then) chairman of GlaxoSmithKline, Richard Sykes.

これが意味しおいるこずは明らかである。 西掋が東掋に倧きく䟝存し始めおいる蚌拠 ずしお、テンペスト氏はいく぀かの事柄に 泚意を促す。 「最新のデヌタでは、米囜食品 医薬品局FDAに登録されおいるAPIのう ち43パヌセントがむンド、17パヌセントが 䞭囜のものでした。ゞェネリック医薬品の サプラむチェヌンをコントロヌルしおいる のはむンドであるず䞀般に蚀われおいるの はこのためです。錠剀やカプセルの補造蚱 可ずしおFDAが発行する補造ラむセンスに ぀いおも、珟圚は25パヌセントがむンドの 補品に䞎えられおいたす。むンド䌁業は米 囜においお倚くの匷みを持っおいたす。そ しお、APIに関しおはたくさんの米囜䌁業が むンド䌁業に䟝存しおいるのです」 「これに加えお泚目されおいるのが、むン ドにおける研究開発力の高さです。新薬開 発でもゞェネリック補造でも、 これらが䞖界 4 WiA Delegate Publication

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The corporate perspective

Poor infrastructure is the short-term issue, but close after that India has to square up to issues of pollution affecting its air and water. One issue is the cleanliness of water, which is dreadful in urban India, though Ranbaxy has invested heavily to clean up its own supplies. “I can take you to some of our plants, and we have fish swimming in the water coming out of them. We have sufficient cleaning things going out that the water coming out of our API plants is cleaner that than across the road in the dykes.”

These days, especially now that India has accepted WTO obligations on intellectual property, the drugs world is getting complicated

はむンドぞの道を切り開いおいるずいわれ る所以です」 ランカスタヌ倧孊の博士号を持぀テンペス ト氏が嘆くように、たずえ英囜やその他の 欧米諞囜が科孊教育の立お盎しを図ったず しおも、その成果が珟れるのには少なくず も10幎はかかるであろう。 ずはいえ、 むンドの補薬産業が党おにおいお バラ色だずいうわけではない。 「生物孊方面 はもっず匷化する必芁がありたす」 ずテンペ スト氏は蚀う。 「新薬の開発には化孊者ず同 じくらい生物孊者も必芁ですから。もう1぀ の問題は、むンドでは猿が信仰の察象にな っおいるこずです。医薬品の開発には霊長類 の動物実隓をする必芁があるため、 これに 関しおは䞭囜やシンガポヌル、 たたは䞭倮ペ ヌロッパに行かなければなりたせん。 たたむ ンドには犬の愛奜者も倚くいたす。毒物怜査 はネズミや霧歯動物から始めたす。それは 問題ないのですが、犬や猿を䜿う段階にな るず、 慎重を芁する難しい問題ずなりたす」 さらに深刻なのは、Ranbaxy瀟をはじめず する補薬各瀟が出来䞊がった補品を茞出 しようずするず、あたりにも倚くの難関のた めに自瀟の頭痛薬にしがみ぀く堎合も少な くないずいうこずである。むンドの道路は穎 がこだらけで、枯も空枯も混雑がひどく、圢 匏的な手続きの倚さにも苊しめられる。そ ういう惚憺たる状況を思えば、Ranbaxy瀟 が2005幎の医薬品最優秀サプラむダヌず しお巚倧スヌパヌのWal-Mart瀟から衚地 されたこずは、䞀皮の奇跡だずも考えられ る。 「Wal-Mart瀟は倧倉芁求の倚い取匕先 です」 ずテンペスト氏は蚀う。そしお、 「しか し私どもは、ヒマラダで䜜った補品を、米囜 のゞャク゜ンビルにあるわが瀟の物流セン タヌに7日か8日䞭に配送しおWal-Mart瀟 に販売するこずができたす」 ず誇らしげに語 る。 「道路の穎がこや空枯・枯湟での手間が あったずしおも、短期的にはそういうこずも 可胜なのです。 しかし問題は、今埌、珟圚の 予想どおりの成長を続けようずしおも、 む ンドの劣悪なむンフラが改善されない限 り、5幎埌には成長も止たっおしたうずいう こずです。むンド政府はこの問題を認識しお いるず思いたす。 銖盞のマンモハン・シン Manmohan Singh氏も、必芁な措眮に ぀いお倚くの意芋を出しおいたす」

Photo courtesy of Ranbaxy

But water supply is also a problem. “One of the centres for pharmaceuticals in India is Hyderabad,” says Tempest, “and there is not much water there, so that it has to be shipped in in tankers. The available amount of water per person in India is declining every year.” He contrasts India with China: “Infrastructure is wonderful in China. The difference between China and India is that in China there is this great government that actually knows exactly what it is going to do and tells everyone to do it. The roads are all straight, and the private sector disappears. Here you have got this great private sector going like the clappers, but the public sector is not doing well. If only the public sector could just become like the private sector we would be going even more. [In India] if you want to put a road this way,

there is a challenge and somebody argues this way and somebody argues another and before you know it there is a whole debate going on. “When you go to Shanghai, and you see everything, it is just spectacular. [Besides infrastructure] China is cleaner, and also the rubbish is picked up. You don’t see piles of rubbish by the side of the road where people live. It is all taken away.” So does he prefer a benevolent dictatorship? I am not saying what I prefer. That is a very complicated story.” How about Singapore? “Singapore is lovely, amazing,” he adds. Tempest has looked at China, but Indian companies find it easier to sell to the West: “The Chinese generic market is difficult. There are companies there which aren’t necessarily working at GMP, good manufacturing practices meaning quality controls and so on, with hugely low prices. A number of them are owned by the government. So in China we are present with generic products, but we also have products with a certain level of protection. If you are dealing with companies without GMP - and not one Chinese generic company has yet filed on the USA - then you just get cut to ribbons. Although Tempest says that good chemists and biologists, understanding of the raw materials and processes, good manufacturing and good understanding of markets are the main ingredients of success in generics, it is clear that it is more complicated than this. Leave aside the fact that there is some crossover between big pharma and the generics – and that some big pharma are getting some of the processes done by generic companies in India – a successful company has to do what he calls “some very elegant chemistry thinking.” That’s because a single drug molecule will have as many as 100 separate patents on it,

Ranbaxy comes eighth or ninth among the generics, depending on who is doing the counting, with sales of $1.4 billion.

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「ずころがそれには倚額の投資が必芁で、 むンド政府にそこたでの資金があるずは思 えたせん。そこで、官民の提携ずいうもの が必芁ずなっおくるわけで、道路通行皎の 城収も行われるようになるでしょう。 これは ITセクタヌのWipro瀟やInfosys瀟ず話しお も同じこずです。 ずにかく必芁なのはむンフ ラ敎備で、それをしないず、今は絶奜調で も成長はそのうち逌塞するずいうこずで皆 の芋解は䞀臎しおいたす」 むンフラ問題は短期的に察凊できる問題 であるが、それずずもに解決を迫られおい 4


An affable storm

孊者ず生物孊者、原材料ず補法の知識、䞁 寧な補造技術、そしお垂堎を熟知するこず を挙げるが、実際はもっず耇雑な問題であ るのは明らかだ。数瀟の倧手補薬䌚瀟がむ ンド内のゞェネリック・メヌカヌに䞀郚のプ ロセスを委蚗しおいるこずなど、倧手ずの亀 流を陀けば、同氏が蚀うように「成功するた めに、非垞に掗緎された化孊的思考が必 芁です」。なぜなら、薬物分子1぀をずっおも 100にも及ぶ特蚱が぀いおおり、その期限は しかし、氎の䟛絊に぀いおも問題がある。 それぞれに異なっおいるのである。倧手補 「むンドにおける補薬業の䞭心地の䞀぀は 薬䌚瀟は圓然ながら 「垞緑暹化」、すなわち ハむデラバヌドです」 ずテンペスト氏は蚀う。 新しい特蚱を叀いものに぀けるこずで特蚱 「しかしそこにはあたり氎がないので、タン 保護の氞久化を図る。そこで、ゞェネリック・ カヌで運びこたなければなりたせん。その メヌカヌも創造性を発揮しお、自瀟補品で ためにむンドでは、䞀人圓たりの利甚可胜 も特蚱をずるようにする必芁がある。 な氎の量は幎々枛っおきおいるのです」 おそらく今埌、垂堎機䌚が最も高いず考えら 圌は䞭囜をむンドず察比させお、 「䞭囜のむ れるのは、䞖界第2の経枈倧囜日本である。 ンフラはすばらしい」 ずいう。 「䞭囜ずむンド 日本では倧手補薬䌚瀟ず医者ずの間に特別 が違うのは、䞭囜には、実斜する政策に぀い な関係があるために、 ゞェネリック医薬品の お正確に理解し、 しかも囜民党員にそれを 垂堎シェアは特蚱期限埌でもわずか5パヌ 呜什できるちゃんずした政府があるずいう セントである。䞀方、ほずんどの欧米垂堎で こずです。道路は党おたっすぐだし、民間セ は80パヌセントに達しおいる。 しかし小泉氏 クタヌは䞍圚です。䞀方この囜では、 ご承知 は、郵䟿局員ず察決した際、倧手補薬䌚瀟ず のように民間セクタヌは猛烈な勢いで拡倧 の儲けの倚い心地よい関係の䞊に成り立っ しおいたすが、公共セクタヌはぱっずしたせ おきた医垫䌚にも䞀撃を加えおいた。 ん。公営䌁業が少しでも民間のように発展 すれば、わが瀟も今以䞊に拡倧できるでしょ 瀟䌚の高霢化が劇的に進み、財政赀字も う。 むンドではある道路をこのようにした 莫倧なものになっおいる以䞊、日本は医療 いず考えおも、困難に出䌚いたす。すぐにあ 費を匕き䞋げる必芁がある。ゞェネリック医 れこれの議論が出おきお、気が぀けば倧論 薬品に門戞を開攟するこずが1぀の容易な 方策であるずテンペスト氏は蚀う。もしゞェ 争が展開しおいるのです」 ネリック医薬品がシェアを25パヌセントに 「䞊海に行っおいろいろず芳察するずした 䌞ばすこずができれば、それは垂堎芏暡が す。それはもう芋事なものです。 むンフラ 珟圚の30億ドルから150億に拡倧するこず はさおおき䞭囜のほうが枅朔です。ゎミの を意味する。それは容易に達成できるずテ 収集も行われおいたす。䜏宅地域の道路脇 ンペスト氏は自信たっぷりである。すでに にゎミが山積しおいるずいうこずはありたせ Ranbaxy瀟は、単身で乗り蟌もうずはせずに ん。党お片付けられたすから」 折半出資䌚瀟を蚭立しおいる。テンペスト氏 ぀たり圌は、慈愛に満ちた独裁者になろうず によれば、Japan Inc.はすでに営業を開始し しおいるのか。 「䜕になりたいかなど、話しお おいる。政府は倧手補薬䌚瀟の䌁業合䜵を はいたせん。それは倧倉耇雑な問題です」。 匷制的にすすめ、䞭小の䌚瀟に察しおはゞ シンガポヌルに぀いおはどうなのか。 「シン ェネリック医薬品の補造を指導しおいるの 日本は欧米ずは違うず圌は指摘する。 ガポヌルはいいですね。すばらしい」 ず、圌 である。 「日本人は売䞊げや雇甚がなくなるこずを、 は぀け加えた。 ただ黙っお芋過すこずはありたせん」■ テンペスト氏は䞭囜に目を向けたこずはあ るが、むンドの䌁業ずしおは欧米ずの取匕の 方が楜だず蚀う。 「䞭囜のゞェネリック医薬品 垂堎には難しさがありたす。品質管理その他 を保蚌するGMP、すなわち医薬品補造管理 基準に必ずしも埓わず、きわめお安䟡に薬 を補造しおいる䌚瀟が䞭囜にはありたす。そ の䜕瀟かは囜営䌁業です。私どもは䞭囜で ゞェネリック医薬品を販売しおいたすが、同 時に、䞀定の保護をかけた補品も販売しお いたす。GMPに埓わない䌁業ず取匕すれば、 ズタズタにされおしたいたす。ちなみに、䞭 囜のゞェネリック・メヌカヌで、米囜での申請 を行ったずころはただ1瀟もありたせん」

© Narendra Chikara / OnAsia.com

るのが倧気ず氎の汚染問題である。1぀は 氎の枅浄床である。むンド郜垂郚の状況は すさたじいが、Ranbaxy瀟は倚額の資金を ぀ぎ蟌んで排氎浄化に取り組んできた。 「わ が瀟の工堎にお連れしおもいいですよ。排 氎口では魚が泳いでいたすから。十分な浄 化装眮を取り付けおいたすので、私どもの API工堎の排氎は、堀防の道路の向かいに ある氎よりもきれいなくらいです」

Tempest laments the way that chemistry in western universities has become a place where students fear to go.

all expiring at different times. Big pharma naturally wants to do “evergreening”, building new patents on old ones to ensure eternal protection, so the generics have to do some creative thinking and patenting of their own. Perhaps the most promising new market opportunity is Japan, the second biggest in the world. Thanks to special relationships between Japan’s big pharma and doctors, generic penetration is only 5 percent of the market even when drug patents have expired, against 80 percent in most Western markets. But when Koizumi took on the postal workers, he also dealt a blow to the doctor lobby in its cosy and profitable relationship with big pharma.

Poor infrastructure is the short-term issue, but close after that India has to square up to issues of pollution Given the dramatic aging of Japanese society and the massive government debts, Tempest says that Japan needs to reduce its health bill and opening the door to generics is one easy way. If the generics can expand their share to 25 percent, that would be a market that goes from $3 billion to $15 billion. But he is sanguine about how easy it will be, and Ranbaxy has formed 50-50 joint ventures instead of trying to go it alone. Japan Inc is already at work, he says, with the government forcibly encouraging mergers of big pharma and telling smaller companies to get into generics. Japan is different from the West, he notes. “They are not just going to allow sales and jobs to disappear.” g

テンペスト氏はゞェネリック医薬品補造で 成功するための䞻な芁玠ずしお、優秀な化 WiA Delegate Publication

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