KAILYN CLANCY Pennsylvania State University Professional Master of Architecture
ARCHITECTURE CAPSTONE
SCHOOL DESIGN FOR HEALTH & WELLBEING 2021
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Content Problem Statement School Typology Precedent Design Recommendations Site Design Proposal & Brief Classroom Unit Design Orthographics Perspectives Appendix
Kailyn Clancy M.Arch
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Lack of Healthy School Design The environment in which students learn largely impacts their health, well-being, and levels of achievement. Within the United States, healthy school design is lacking, and many of the public schools provide unhealthy environments that are too often in states of disrepair. This places students at a disadvantage, hindering their academic achievement levels and their overall health. The COVID-19 era has brought the health of students in learning environments to the forefront of the educational discussion. Many schools have transitioned to remote learning as they have struggled to accommodate students safely. Seeing that the spread of COVID-19 may continue into the foreseeable future, schools must be designed to safely accommodate students and allow them to progress in their learning. A school design that prioritizes occupant health can allow students to successfully learn through out current COVID-19 pandemic and throughout the future as we begin our new normal.
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Problem
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School Typology Precedent Open Air School
Time period: 1930-1945 The Open Air School Movement focused on open air, fresh air, or outdoor schools, and prioritized daylighting, outdoor learning, and easy circulation. This was an emerging educational model that enabled children to attend school while prioritizing their health. The Open Air School Movement began largely due to the tuberculosis outbreak which was a leading cause of mortality in the United States (Means 150). Although this movement passed with the coming eras, it promoted the openair idea and brought us closer to the realization of how school design can promote child health and education (Means 151).
Village College, Impington, view of the end of the classroom wing, 1939, by Maxwell Fry and Walter Gropius. Credit: Dell & Wainwright, RIBA Collections
Open-air school, Stadionkade, Amsterdam. Architect: Publieke Werken Amsterdam. Credit: Wikimedia Commons
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Recommendations Healthy School Design
Learning environments have a significant impact on student’s health, achievement and overall experience. It is imperative that learning environments be designed to maximize the impact on student health and learning. Through preforming a meta-analysis of learning environment design and its impact on the user, I have concluded that the following six categories must be carefully incorporated into the design of these spaces. Children are more susceptible to negative impacts of the indoor environment, therefore, it is imperative that schools are designed to help foster a healthy environment for student learning and development. All six aspects of sustainable design that I have mentioned must be integrated with one another in the design of schools. One aspect cannot succeed without the others, all aspects of sustainable design must be implemented and realized through design. However, it does not stop here, buildings must be properly maintained through the lifespan to preserve the function and health of the space.
* See appendix for meta-analysis details
6 FEATURES FOR HEALTHY LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS 1. INDOOR AIR QUALITY & VENTILATION Increased ventilation rates in classrooms have a positive effect on short-term concentration and logical thinking of children performing schoolwork.
2. QUALITY VIEWS
6. ACOUSTICS & NOISE POLLUTION
Views to green outdoor spaces keep students connected with the outdoors and time of day. Green views have been shown to improve student attention spans by up to 13%.
Student performance in reading and language subject areas decreases with an increase in background noise
5. MATERIALS
3. DAYLIGHTING & LIGHTING
Daylight and artificial light have a positive effect on human behavior, one study showed a 26% improvement on standardized tests in optimal lighting conditions.
4. THERMAL COMFORT
Students in thermally comfortable environments were shown to achieve a 4% higher test score than those in uncomfortable thermal environments.
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) are emitted into the air from building materials. Relationships have been found between VOCs and chronic Sick Building Syndrome.
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I NE S TR
AHE L A R I V
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Pittsburgh, PA
MILL DISTRICT MO
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W HA ZE L
HAZELWOOD
HAZELWOOD GREEN
SITE PLAN
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SCALE 1” = 400’
PITTSBURGH
HAZELWOOD
HAZELWOOD GREEN
ND AVE
PITTSBURGH
SEC O
Hazelwood Green is an undeveloped brownfield along the Monongahela River in the Greater Hazelwood neighborhood in Pittsburgh. The site was a polluted industrial area in the past, but has undergone years of soil remediation, and is prepared to incorporate 8 million square feet of development. This site is a prime area for the development of a public high school due to its connection with existing public transportation, pedestrian and bike routes within Pittsburgh. The site is also in close proximity to buildings which are used by Carnegie Mellon University, offering further educational opportunities for students.
RV
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MACRO TO MICRO
PITTSBURGH PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL CATCHMENT ZONES EXISTING HIGH SCHOOLS PROPOSED HIGH SCHOOL
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BUS ROUTES
BIKE & PEDESTRIAN
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PITTSBURGH PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICTS
WIND WHEEL
SUN PATH - SUMMER SOLSTICE
SITE ZONES
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Architectural Intent 1
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School learning environments can greatly affect student health and achievement. Many schools in the United States are overcrowded and in states of disrepair, placing the students at a disadvantage. I am proposing the design of a public high school building to promote student achievement, while focusing on overall occupant health. This school promotes health and wellbeing through spatial layout and design of the indoor learning environment.
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Design Proposal & Brief
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The school can safely accommodate students during the COVID-19 pandemic, and through the future. The small scale design, accommodating 200 students will limit large scale gatherings and limit student contact to those within their classroom unit. This school will act as a model to follow for future school design that promotes students health, wellbeing, and achievement.
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Each classroom unit contains a lecture based room and a lab/ interactive room. The classrooms were arranged on site to take advantage of natural ventilation, views, and natural lighting. The classrooms open to the exterior, creating a seamless connection between indoors and outdoors. Students will remain within one classroom unit throughout the day, rotating between the two rooms, limiting contact with others. Multiple classroom units were combined together to create the classroom wings of the building. 1
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CLASSROOM UNIT DESIGN
Students will report to one classroom unit each day. During class period changes, students will rotate between lecture (red) and lab (yellow) rooms, while staying within a single classroom unit. This limits the contact between students to those in their classroom unit rather than students within the entire school. Students from grade levels 9-12 will learn together within the units.
CLASS SCHEDULE ROTATION Health & Wellness
EXPLODED AXON
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Thermal Comfort - Operable windows accessible to students and faculty for operation. Air - 100% of occupied spaces have mixed mode ventilation with operable windows leveraging prevailing breezes. Daylighting - Classrooms receive sufficient daylighting while limiting glare. Acoustics - Cork wall panels within classrooms provide acoustical environments suitable for teaching and learning. Materials - Interior finishes limit VOCs and chemicals that are harmful to occupants. Views - 90% of occupied spaces have direct views to the outdoors.
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ASE
200
SDA
CLASSROOM ORIENTATION STUDIES
52%
QUALITY VIEWS 90%
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CLASSROOM SECTION
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1. ADMINISTRATION 2. CUSTODIAL 3. CAFETERIA 4. GYM 5. MECHANICAL 6. NURSE 7. HEALTH SCAN 8. CLASSROOM - LECTURE 9. CLASSROOM - LAB/INTERACTIVE 10. OUTDOOR LEARNING / GARDEN 11. QUAD 12. BUS DROP OFF 13. ARBORETUM 14. PARKING 15. MILL-19 (EXISTING BUILDING) 16. SPORT FIELD
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FIRST FLOOR PLAN
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KEY:
SECTION 1
30 0
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SECTION 2
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SECTION 2
30 0
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NORTH ELEVATION
East 1" = 20'-0" 20
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East 1" = 20'-0" 20
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1
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WEST ELEVATION
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1
East 1" = 20'-0"
WEST ELEVATION 20
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1" = 20'-0" SCALE
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East 1" = 20'-0"
EAST ELEVATION 20
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CLASSROOM VIEW
Material Guidelines: - Red List Free - Non-toxic products - No PVC or Vinyl - Declare Label 1 Low VOC Paint - Limits the amount of volatile organic compounds that are offgassed. 2 Cork Wall Panels - Natural material, improves acoustical quality of the classroom. 3 Bio-Floor tile - PVC free, low VOC. Easy to clean and keep sanitary, unlike carpeting. 4 Low VOC Furniture - Contains no toxic chemicals and limits VOC off-gassing.
KEY PLAN - VIEW LOCATION
HALLWAY VIEW
KEY PLAN - VIEW LOCATION School Design for Health & Wellbeing | 35
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EXTERIOR VIEW
KEY PLAN - VIEW LOCATION School Design for Health & Wellbeing | 37
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Meta-Analysis Sources
1
Authors
Research Method
Participants: Number of Schools (n), Sample (pp), Ages (yr), Country (c)
Exposure Measure
Outcome Measure
Relevant Results
Mendell et al.
Quantitative
n = 28, 150 classrooms pp = 5046 (English) &5455 (math) yr = elementary c = California, United States
Indoor carbon dioxide and daily classroom ventilation rates (VRs) were measured
Standardized test scores in Math and English
• Positive associations between
classroom ventilation rates (VRs) and learning in English and Math among young students.
1
Authors
Research Method
Participants: Number of Schools (n), Sample (pp), Ages (yr), Country (c)
Exposure Measure
Outcome Measure
Relevant Results
Lee, Hwa-Soo et al.
Field experiment
n = 4 classes pp = students yr = n.s. c = Korea
A lighting control system based on contextawareness, detects the occupant position in the room and activity, and creates the ideal listing conditions.
Efficiency in Learning
• Lighting conditions created were ideal
Differing lighting conditions (varying illuminance levels and temperatures)
Student ability to concentrate
Implementation of a new lighting system in the classroom that featured different colors temperatures and luminosity levels.
Student educational performance
A large population of students were monitored in their typical classrooms, which had differing lighting conditions.
Standardized math and reading test results
• VRs were more strongly associated
with higher test scores in the district where the VRs were very low.
2
Petersen et al.
Quantitative
n = 2, 4 classrooms pp = 82 yr = 10–12 c = Denmark
Increased classroom ventilation rate
Test performance in: addition, number comparison, grammatical reasoning, reading and comprehension
• Positive effects were found between
increased ventilation rates and shortterm concentration and logical thinking of students.
•
Student performance improved in four of four tests when outdoor air supply rate was increased, and CO2 concentration was decreased.
2
Sleegers et al.
Quantitative
c = Netherlands
3
Mott et al.
Case Study
recirculation condition compared to the fresh air condition.
Shaughnessy et al.
Quantitative
n=54 Pp= na yr=5 c= United States
4
Bakó-Biró et al.
Quantitative
n=1 Pp= yr= 5 c= United Kingdom
5
HaverinenShaughnessy et al.
Quantitative
“Association between Substandard Classroom Ventilation Rates and Students’ Academic Achievement.” 6
Hutter et al.
n= 70 elementary school district pp= 140 classrooms Yr = 5 C= Southwestern United States
Classroom carbon dioxide concentrations were monitored over a 4-5 hour time span within a typical school day.
Student performance on standardized aptitude tests that are administered to students on a yearly basis
• Results from this preliminary study
Direct air supply system was used to alter ventilation rates in classrooms. The system either provided outdoor air or re-circulated classroom air while all other physical parameters were left unchanged.
Computerized Assessment Tests and paperbased tasks used to evaluated pupils’ performance.
• +Due to the intervention the fresh air
Classrooms surveyed and monitored for multiple IEQ parameters during the academic year
yield a significant (P < 0.10) association between classroom-level ventilation rate and test results in math.
Indoor air pollutants were monitored
Cognitive tests were performed in 436 children
School dust and suspended particulates (PM10, PM2.5) were measured, focusing on semivolatile compounds.
Health status and environmental conditions were determined by parents' questionnaire, cognitive function was measured by Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM).
Quantitative
n=1 pp = 1 classroom yr = third grade c = USA
n = three elementary schools pp = < 21,000 students yr = elementary c = USA
for learning environment, contributing to student achievement levels.
system on student concentration.
air samples and impairment of cognitive performance in school children
• Cognitive function decreased
significantly with increasing CO2 levels.
Table 1. Sources Included in Meta-Analysis: Ventilation Rates Category
Exposure Measure
Outcome Measure
Relevant Results
Brännström et al.
Quantitative
n=4 pp = 149 yr = 9–13 c = Sweden
School acoustic environment
Children’s perception of acoustic environment
• Acoustical annoyance is detrimental
2
Santos et al.
Quantitative
n=4 pp = 87 children yr = 8–10 c = Brazil
Classroom sound pressure levels and changes in acoustic admittance
Quantitative
n = 20 classrooms pp = 400 students yr = University c = Saudi Arabia
Statistical analysis used to relate the performance of 400 students in 40 classrooms at the selected buildings. The classrooms were distributed among different floors of the educational buildings.
Connolly et al.
Quantitative
• Statistically significant effects of
important daylighting effect associated with increased window or skylight areas in buildings.
A statistical model was used to examine the relationship between improvement of students’ performance and the presence of daylight in their classrooms.
• The data shows a positive correlation between daylight in classrooms and student performance.
• Positive correlations were also
displayed in the categories of artificial lights, ventilation, and outdoor view, however the correlation between daylighting and student performance was the highest.
Table 2. Sources Included in Meta-Analysis: Lighting Conditions Category
affected by high sound pressure levels in classrooms.
• The learning process tested using
n=6 pp = 2588 Eyr = 11−16 c = UK
School acoustic properties
Student opinions on the acoustic environment of their schools
• Older students were more affected by poor acoustical conditions than younger students.
• Students attending city schools were
daylighting on human behavior, as evidenced in the standardized test scores for elementary school students.
• Findings strongly suggest there is an
• Student auditory skills were not
the Staggered Spondaic Word Test (instrument used to detect auditory processing problems in children).
3
A pre-designed questionnaire and some interviews with some students and faculty members.
Student auditory skills during learning processes
to increase the concentration and focus of students.
more dissatisfied with their school rooms acoustical performance due to external noise sources.
4
Dockrell and Shield
Quantitative
n=8 pp = 393 yr = 8−11 c = UK
Sound field systems within classrooms
Students and teachers opinions on acoustics of their classroom and changes in scores on cognitive tests over six months.
• Student and teacher opinions and
5
Ronsse and Wang
Quantitative
n = 67 pp = 34 third grade & 33 fifth grade classrooms yr = 3&5 c = USA, Eastern Nebraska
Investigations of unoccupied classroom acoustical conditions were conducted in an elementary school.
Standardized student achievement test results, math, language, and reading subject areas as averages across all students in each classroom.
• The unoccupied BNLs (background
diffuse and glare-free daylight improved their performance on standardized tests by up to 26%
Dahlan and Eissa
in tasks wherein the demands of verbal processing are higher.
difficult spaces to control acoustics, students create noise in the classroom, this is accompanied with outdoor noise and teachers in adjacent classrooms.
• Students in rooms with the most
5
• Correlation between TCEP in indoor
Participants: Number of Schools (n), Sample (pp), Ages (yr), Country (c)
• Specific lighting conditions were seen
explanation of why such an effect would occur.
between ventilation rates and mathematics scores, and it was stronger when the six classrooms with high ventilation rates that were indicated as outliers were filtered (> 7.1 l/s per person).
Research Method
• Positive influence of the lighting
• The studies do not, offer any
• Statistically significant association
1
Authors
• Crowded spaces are the most
supply increased from 0.3-05 to 13- 16 L/s per person that increased pupils’ work rate by ~7% in addition (p<0.036) and subtraction (p<0.052).
when prior year test scores were included in the model, resulting in less unexplained variability.
n= nine elementary schools pp= 436 students yr= 6-8 years of age c= Austria
Heschong et al.
classroom level ventilation rates and reading test results is also suggested.
• The association remained significant
Quantitative
4
• A positive relationship between
Pupils’ perceptions about the classroom environment, comfort, general mood and hunger were assessed. Standardized test scores
n = 2; 1; 6 pp = 98; 44; 55 yr = Elementary
• Less eye discomfort was shown in the 3
Acoustics
Lighting
performance on standardize tests showed an improvement after sound field systems were implemented in the classrooms.
noise levels) are significantly negatively correlated to the language and reading subject area achievement scores for the fifthgrade students.
• In general then, elementary school
classrooms should be designed with lower unoccupied BNLs to optimize student performance in the reading and language subject areas.
Table 3. Sources Included in Meta-Analysis: Acoustics Category
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APPENDIX
1
2
Authors
Research Method
Participants: Number of Schools (n), Sample (pp), Ages (yr), Country (c)
Exposure Measure
Outcome Measure
Relevant Results
Li and Sullivan
Quantitative
n= 5 schools pp= 94 students yr=high school c=usa, Illinois
Students randomly assigned to one of three types of classrooms – windowless, with a window looking out onto built space, or with a window looking out onto green space. Each type of classroom had a similar size, layout and furniture.
One-on-one experiments and activities (proofreading, speech, mental math)
• Students’ capacity to pay attention
Matsuoka
Quantitative
n= 101 public high schools pp= students yr=high school c=usa, michigan
Information about each school facility was obtained regarding the students exposure and views of nature.
Following the activities, the students were given an attention test, then a 10minute break in the classroom and another attention test following the break. Student performance measures: 1. Michigan merit award, 2. graduation rates, 3. Four year college plans Student behavior measures: 1. Student disorderly conduct, 2. student criminal activity
3
4
5
Lee, Kate E. et al.
Tennessen and Cimprich
Aumann et al.
Quantitative
Quantitative
Quantitative
n= 1 university pp= 150 students yr= university c= Australia
n= 3 university dormitory pp = 72 university students yr= university c= usa, michigan
n= 450 classrooms pp= >8000 students yr= 3rd-6th grade c= USA California
increased 13 percent if they had a green view outside their classroom window, the study found.
Authors
Research Method
Participants: Number of Schools (n), Sample (pp), Ages (yr), Country (c)
Exposure Measure
Outcome Measure
Relevant Results
Kim et al.
Quantitative
N= 8 schools, 23 classrooms PP= 1014 students YR= primary schools C=Sweden
Students attended school and classrooms were monitored for airborne toxins, along with other indoor air environment details.
Parent/student questionnaire regarding students doctor diagnosed asthma and other respiratory symptoms.
• Exposure to MVOC and plasticizers at
• The students in the room with the
green view showed a greater physiological recovery from stress after the break than the other students.
school may be a risk factor for asthmatic symptoms in children.
1
Authors
Research Method
Participants: Number of Schools (n), Sample (pp), Ages (yr), Country (c)
Exposure Measure
Outcome Measure
Relevant Results
Jiang et al.
Quantitative
n=1 university pp= 25 students yr= university c= USA, Massachusetts
University students were randomly assigned to different temperature conditions in an office environment (25C → 30C, or 30C → 25C) that were implemented using a combination of heaters and air conditioners over a 1.25 hour session.
Students’ performance in a computer-based learning task in the classroom.
• Experimental data provides evidence
Local daily weather data in New York City
Synchronized high stakes exams
• Hotter temperatures during high stakes
High school graduation status
• Hot temperature during an exam
• At higher indoor concentrations of total MVOC, nocturnal breathlessness (P < 0.01) and doctor-diagnosed asthma (P < 0.05) were more common.
• Association between respiratory symptoms and indoor MVOC concentration.
2
Norbdck et al.
Quantitative
N= na PP= 129 students YR= na C=na
systematically positive relationships between nature exposure and student performance. Specifically, views with greater quantities of trees and shrubs from cafeteria as well as classroom windows are positively associated with standardized test scores, graduation rates, percentages of students planning to attend a four-year college, and fewer occurrences of criminal behavior
• Large expanses of landscape lacking
• Participants who briefly viewed the
Student dormitories were studied regarding their variety of views from the windows. Views ranged from all natural to all built city
A number of testing measures were taking by the students in their own dormitories, measuring the capacity to direct and sustain attention
• Natural views were associated with
40 classrooms were observed during normal operation
>100 teachers were surveyed on their classroom operating experience and preferences.
• Variables describing a better view out
• Chronic SBS was related to VOC,
previous wall to wall carpeting in the schools, hyperreactivity, and psychosocial factors. Incidence of new SBS was related to concentration of respirable dust, current smoking, and the psychosocial climate.
2
Park
Quantitative
n= New York Public School System pp= 1 million New York City public high school students yr= high school c=USA, New York
learning was stronger during the third tutorial session (later in time) compared to the first two sessions.
decrease in sick leave owing to airway illness, removal of carpeting in the schools, and moving from new to old dwellings resulted in a decrease in SBS score.
3
Sofuoglua et al.
Quantitative
N= 3 primary schools PP= na YR= na C= Turkey
green roof made significantly lower omission errors, and showed more consistent responding to the task compared to participants who viewed the concrete roof.
• Green views boosts to sub-cortical
arousal and cortical attention control.
better performance on attentional measures
A questionnaire that studied the effect of different types of symptoms
4
Ongwandee et al.
Quantitative
N= 17 office buildings, 12 study offices PP= 356 YR= naC= Bangkok
Students attended school and concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including formaldehyde, in classrooms, kinder- gartens, and outdoor playgrounds of three primary schools were measured in spring, winter, and fall
Health-risk assessment was conducted for odor detection, sensory irritation, chronic toxic effects, and cancer
Office workers in their normal offices and field measurements were taken to detect POC's and the air quality of office buildings.
Questionnaire survey investigation with office workers identifying the prevalence of symptoms and exposure level to total VOCs.
of windows are found to be positively and significantly associated with better student learning, while variables describing window glare, sun penetration and lack of visual control are associated with negative performance.
• Seasonal variations in VOC
concentrations, including formaldehyde, have been reported for primary school classrooms, kindergartens, and outdoor playgrounds
complaints were dust and dirt (40%), varying room temperature (26%), dry air (25%), stuffy bad air (22%), and unpleasant odor (19%).
• The three most reported symptoms were irritation of the eyes (21%), feeling heavy headed (18%), and fatigue (17%).
• When VOC were detected at elevated concentrations with inadequate ventilation, it led to an increase in occupant complaints about indoor environmental and health problems as reflected by the questionnaire survey results.
5
Kanazawa et al.
Quantitative
N= 41 dwellings PP= 134 occupants YR= na C= Japan
Surveys and samplings of air and house dust were analyzed
Questionnaires consisted of two sections concerning dwelling and personal characteristics.
Table 5. Sources Included in Meta-Analysis: Materials Category
• VOC and airborne dust particles were strongly and directly associated with mucosal symptoms
exams cause a negative impact on student performance.
resulted in reduced performance: an approximately linear decline of -0.2 ◦ percentiles per F above room ◦ temperature (72 F).
• Heat exposure during these exams subsequently affects a student’s chances of graduating from high school.
3
HaverinenShaughnessy et al.
Quantitative
“Sixth Grade Pupils’ Health and Performance and Indoor Environmental Quality in Finnish School Buildings.”
• The presence of VOCs detected in the schools and outside of the schools are known to have serious health affects, cause changes in sensory perception through irritation of the eyes and upper respiratory tract, along with the sensory effects even at the low indoor air levels VOCs may be associated with chronic toxic and carcinogenic health effects. • The five most reported indoor air
that learning is optimal when thermal comfort is neither too high nor too low (inverted U relationship), corroborating prior work.
• The impact of thermal comfort on
• Remission of hyper-reactivity,
natural features are negatively related to these same test scores and college plans
Students completed baseline tasks, and completed the task again after viewing the scene to monitor any changes to sustained attention.
School personnel and students attended their schools normally. Volatile organic compounds in the indoor and outdoor air were sampled and monitored.
• The analyses revealed consistent and
Students were exposed to 40 second views of two different city scenes: flowering meadow green roof, bare concrete roof.
Table 4. Sources Included in Meta-Analysis: Quality Views Category
1
Thermal Comfort
4
HaverinenShaughnessy et al. “Effects of Classroom Ventilation Rate and Temperature on Students’ Test Scores.”
n= 334 schools pp= 6787 yr= c= Finnland
Existing condtitions of their classrooms
Pupil and principal Questionnaires, DATA received from the Finnish national board of education
• Reported discomfort caused by high
indoor temperature appeared to be consistently associated with math achievement: the more frequent the discomfort, the larger the influence. On average, the pupils who never experienced discomfort achieved 4% higher scores in the math test than those who experienced it daily.
• Math achievement was associated with missed school days due to respiratory infections, headache, difficulties in concentration, and indoor temperatures perceived as too high in the classroom.
Quantitative
n= 70 elementary school district pp= 140 classrooms Yr = 5 C= Southwestern United States
lassrooms surveyed and monitored for multiple IEQ parameters during the academic year Surveyed and monitored for multiple IEQ parameters during the academic year
Standardized test scores
• Findings show an additional increase of 12–13 points per each 1°C decrease in temperature within the observed range of 20–25°C.
• Similar effects were observed for
reading and science scores. Maintaining adequate ventilation and thermal comfort in classrooms can significantly improve academic achievement of students.
Table 6. Sources Included in Meta-Analysis: Thermal Comfort Category
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VOC
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