vol. 60, no. 2, 2018 Published by NTEU
ISSN 0818–8068
60 YEARS
AUR 1958–2018
Australian Universities’ Review
Australian Universities’Review
AUR Editor Dr Ian R. Dobson, Monash University
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King, D.A. (2004). What different countries get for their research spending. Nature, 430, 311–316.
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vol. 60, no. 2, 2018 Published by NTEU
ISSN 0818–8068
Australian Universities’ Review 2
Letter from the editor Ian R Dobson
ARTICLES 4
Indigenous data sovereignty in higher education: Towards a decolonised data quality framework Judith Wilks, Gillian Kennedy, Neil Drew & Katie Wilson
The sector has no culturally-informed data quality framework. It is essential for there to be an inquiry into the type of data required which include Indigenous educators and researchers. 15 Wish you were here: Academic supervision of international professional experience John Buchanan
This paper reports on an analysis of the experiences of academics who have supervised pre-service teachers who have undertaken international professional experience. 25 Research workloads in Australian universities
OPINION 66 History revisited: The system before Dawkins Paul Rodan
The ‘binary’ system before the changes wrought by education minister Dawkins is misrepresented as having been in better shape than it really was. 68 The benefits and drawbacks of transnational higher education: Myths and realities Stephen Wilkins & Katariina Juusola
This paper presents an examination of key debates into transnational higher education, considering both the benefits and drawbacks of it. 77 Salary diversity: Australian universities and their general staff Ian R Dobson
An examination of general staff employment patterns and salaries at Australian universities in 2017-2018
John Kenny & Andrew Edward Fluck
REVIEWS
This paper considers research workload allocation for Australian academics, exploring the distinction between research performance and research workload allocation.
88 If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it
38 A historical overview of responses to Indigenous higher education policy in the NT: Progress or procrastination? Catherine Street, John Guenther, James A. Smith, Kim Robertson, Shane Motlap, Wendy Ludwig & Kevin Gillan
The authors present a historical narrative around responses to national Indigenous higher education policies. 49 Research with former refugees: Moving towards an ethics in practice Nisha Thapliyal & Sally Baker
This paper examines research ethics considerations for research involving people from refugee backgrounds. 57 Mind the cap? Postgraduate coursework degrees and tuition fees in Australia Nigel Palmer, Natasha Abrahams, Mark Pace & Emily De Rango
An examination of the spectacular growth in postgraduate by coursework programs in light of the risks posed by the deregulated fee environment that has been developed.
Stop Fixing Women: Why building fairer workplaces is everybody’s business by Catherine Fox Reviewed by Kate White
89 The impending disruption of Australian higher education The Australian Idea of a University by Glyn Davis Reviewed by Andrew Gunn
91 POP goes the weasel? Publish or Perish: Perceived benefits versus unintended consequences by Imad A. Moosa Reviewed by Arthur Shulkes
93 ‘With gods on the side…’ (misheard lyric, Bob Dylan) Religion and Education: comparative and international perspectives by Malini Sivasubramaniam and Ruth Hayhoe (Eds.). Reviewed by Neil Mudford
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Letter from the editor Ian R Dobson
Welcome to the second edition of the Australian for
2018. As
I
Meanwhile, Cat Stewart and several colleagues from
write, the
institutions in the Northern Territory have focussed their
International Federation of Association Football World
attention on policy development relating to Indigenous
Cup, being hosted by Russia, has reached the semi-finals
students. In their words, they have provided ‘…a historical
stage.As I am currently escaping the worst of the Ballarat
narrative around the institutional responses to national
winter in Finland, it means I am in the same time zone
Indigenous higher education policies’ and summarise
as Russia, so access to the games is easy. The games are
how implementation has often been constrained by
available free-to-air on YLE, the Finnish equivalent of the
parallel economic and socio-political forces.
Universities’ Review
Australian Broadcasting Commission network. My hopes for an Australia v. Iceland final have not been realised.
Nisha Thapliyal and Sally Davis have researched into issues about former refugees. Looking at the
This issue has six scholarly refereed articles, some
literature and existing institutional ethics standards,
opinion pieces, and reviews of a few recently-published
they have examined ethical issues, often unaddressed,
books. The first cab off the rank in this issue is a paper
in recruitment, data collection and dissemination. Their
that builds from a concern about retention of Australian
goal was to contribute to strategies on how best to carry
Indigenous students at Australian universities, despite
out ethical research with former refugees.
attempts to address this issue and to strengthen equity
Nigel Palmer and his colleagues report on the rapid
in participation. Authors Judith Wilks, Gillian Kennedy,
growth in postgraduate coursework study at Australian
Neil Drew and Katie Wilson, all seasoned writers on
universities. They note the benefit to both students and
this topic, point to the absence of a culturally-informed
universities but have concerns about the deregulated
data quality framework. They suggest that an ‘inquiry be
market in which these programmes are now offered: the
carried out into the type and nature of data required or
benefits now risk being outweighed by the costs!
sought in the higher education sector on, for and with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’.
Paul Rodan takes us back to the time of the so-called Dawkins reforms, particularly the aspects that saw the
John Buchanan reports on the experiences of six
transmogrification of colleges of advanced education
academics who have supervised Australian pre-service
into universities: the advent of the ‘unified national
teachers
professional
system’. He discusses the inaccuracy of contemporary
experience. They were concerned about duty of care,
criticism of John Dawkins, ‘for dismantling a reasonably
blurring of relationship distinctions, and the expectations
well-functioning binary system. Closer to the truth, the
of both local supervising teachers and Australian pre-
system was essentially dismantling itself, as the model
service teachers.
was frozen in the late 1960s …. the only way in which
undertaking
international
John Kenny and Andrew Fluck have done considerable
the system could be accurately described as “binary”
work on workload allocation models used in Australian
concerned the distribution of resources, with universities
universities, and in this case, they explore the distinction
explicitly funded for their research activities.’
between research performance and research workload
Stephen Wilkins & Katariina Juusola have analysed
allocation. In their paper, they analyse data from an
some of the debates about transnational higher education
online survey, circulated to academics across Australia in
They looked at the the claimed benefits and drawbacks
2016, in which staff estimated the typical time spent on
for both the home and host country stakeholders and
a wide range of research related tasks.
suggest some ‘alternative realities’ for which there
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Letter from the editor Ian R Dobson
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
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is evidence. This is an interesting review of the major issues relating to transnational education. And we finish the papers in this issue with a statistical note on general staff at Australian universities: which universities pay the most? Which universities have relatively more of their general staff in senior grades? Perhaps someone should compare vice-chancellors’ salaries with the salaries paid to the worker bees at universities! In addition, we have several book reviews, including offerings from regular AUR reviewer Kate White and AUR Editorial Board member Neil Mudford. That’s all for this issue. Please keep the papers flowing in! Ian R Dobson is Editor of Australian Universities’ Review, and an Adjunct Professional Staff member at Monash University, Australia.
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Letter from the editor Ian R Dobson
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Indigenous data sovereignty in higher education Towards a decolonised data quality framework
Judith Wilks, Gillian Kennedy, Neil Drew University of Notre Dame, Australia
Katie Wilson Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
In the Australian higher education sector, the challenges to successful engagement and retention experienced by Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander students and communities are considerable. They persist despite many well-intentioned attempts to address this issue and to strengthen equity in participation in the sector. Implicated in this is the absence of a culturally-informed data quality framework for the sector, and the resulting persistence of associated issues such as confusion with data ownership; consistency; standards; usage; and storage. In this paper we argue it is essential that rigorous inquiry be carried out into the type and nature of data required or sought in the higher education sector on, for and with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. This inquiry must involve Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander educators, researchers, evaluators and communities to bring into effect their aspirations for data sovereignty including stewardship and ownership of data, and for culturally beneficial outcomes relating to the use and application of data. It also mandates a collaborative approach with existing government and independent organisations, and Indigenous and non-Indigenous researchers from higher education institutions, working together towards the development and implementation of an agreed-upon and decolonised Indigenous data framework for the sector. Keywords: Indigenous data quality framework; data sovereignty, self-determination, decolonisation
Introduction
one cannot assume impartiality in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander data collection in Australia. Aboriginal and
Data and statistics on and for Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Torres Strait Islander values and perspectives have been
Islander people have been collected, interpreted and
excluded from data collected about them at the hands of
used for countless and contested reasons, purposes and
dominant (Western) epistemologies and methodologies
interests by government departments,independent groups
(Rigney, 1999; Martin, 2003; Smith 2012; Walter &
and researchers, for decades (Jordan et al., 2010;Yu, 2012;
Andersen, 2013; Bodkin-Andrews & Carlson, 2016). To
Biddle, 2014). Data and statistics are not value free, and
remedy this, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples,
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Indigenous data sovereignty in higher education Judith Wilks, Gillian Kennedy, Neil Drew & Katie WIlson
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
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and indigenous peoples globally, are asserting their rights
paper (Drew et al., 2016) and other sources (for example,
to data sovereignty, particularly in the areas of population
Behrendt et al., 2012; Kinnane et al., 2014) is that
data, health, and wellbeing (Kukutai & Taylor, 2016a).
universities have much to achieve in the area of Aboriginal
Indigenous scholars have challenged the colonising and
and Torres Strait islander student access and participation
deficit-based narratives that created and have continued
(notwithstanding the modest gains noted in the pre-
to dominate discourses about Indigenous data (Kukutai &
budget report). Crucial to realising these aspirations is
Taylor, 2016a). Walter (2016) in particular has named the
data informed decision making based on high quality data.
racialised reality of data, perpetuated and promulgated
In this respect previously, (Drew et al., 2016) we
by the five ‘Ds’: disparity, deprivation, disadvantage,
offered a point of provocation to challenge the dominant
dysfunction and difference. This has the effect of
discursive agendas around the collection and use of
homogenising, pathologising, demonising and exoticising
data and statistics relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Indigenous peoples almost always to their disadvantage.
Islander peoples. In this current paper, we continue this
She does not ipso facto reject data on inequalities per
conversation with the higher education sector by offering
se but rather the data desert that surrounds Indigenous
a way towards a decolonised data quality framework.
data from strengths-based approaches. 5D data serves to
In doing so, our ultimate aim is to contribute to the
further marginalise Indigenous peoples, fostering not only
enhancement of successful transition, participation and
marginalising discourses and exclusionary practices but
retention experiences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
also paternalistic practices that hark back to the days of
Islander higher education students.
‘saving’ Indigenous people from themselves.
The conversation is two-pronged: firstly, fundamental
In the higher education context, data collection
data quality issues exist within the higher education
processes have developed over time with limited formal
sector generally that require urgent attention (Kinnane
planning or evaluation processes in place (PhillipsKPA,
et al.,2014; PhillipsKPA, 2012; Department of Education
2012). This has important implications for the sector
and Training, 2013; Wilks & Wilson, 2015; Drew et
generally, but as we have found through recent research
al., 2016). We assess elements of extant national and
in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander contexts, cultural
international data quality frameworks to inform our
representativeness, accuracy, reliability and validity
development of some next steps towards addressing
present particularly difficult challenges (Drew, Wilks, &
these challenges. Secondly, and critically, we argue that
Wilson, 2015; Drew, Wilks, Wilson, & Kennedy, 2016).
the sector must strive towards the decolonisation of data
Driven by changing funding models that are impacting
and statistics to ensure that Aboriginal and Torres Strait
revenue and recruitment, Australian universities are ‘at
Islander peoples are not only accurately represented in
a crossroads’ (Lacy et al., 2017). Universities Australia’s
the sector, that the data and statistics about them are
pre-budget submission (2017) stated that ‘Australia’s
relevant to them, but that they are equal participants in
universities have faced an unprecedented level of
the design, methods, interpretation and ownership of
uncertainty in recent years’. In a survey of top university
the data (Kukutai & Taylor, 2016a).
leaders, Lacy et al. (2017) found amongst other issues
The First Nations Indigenous Governance Centre
that addressing the needs of society through outreach
(FNIGC) promotes the OCAP principles of Ownership,
and engagement were important. Significantly however,
Control, Access and Possession. These principles are
although this comprehensive report signalled important
the foundational bedrock for any consideration of data
changes in gender composition and internationalisation,
quality in Indigenous settings (First Nations Indigenous
it offered scant commentary on the nationally important
Governance Centre, 2016). Walter (2017) in a similar vein
issue of Aboriginal andTorres Strait Islander participation in
suggested the acronym PILAR, meaning that we should
higher education (Kinnane et al.,2014). This underscores Strait Islander students and emphasises the importance
Prioritise Aboriginal data needs; protect the Integrity of Indigenous data; support Indigenous Leadership in the realm of Indigenous data; be Accountable for our
of data informed policy development (Drew et al., 2016).
practices in the Indigenous data space and recognise
The Universities Australia (2017) pre-budget submission
Indigenous Rights in relation to data. For example, Yap &
also stated that any government proposals must achieve
Yu (2016) have utilised Taylor’s (2008) ‘recognition space’
a number of objectives, the first of which they name
to ensure that data and statistics respect both Aboriginal
as maintaining high levels of access and participation,
and Torres Strait Islander world views and priorities, as
whilst guaranteeing quality.The evidence from our earlier
well as government/sector planning and reporting needs.
a cultural blind spot with respect to Aboriginal and Torres
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Indigenous data sovereignty in higher education Judith Wilks, Gillian Kennedy, Neil Drew & Katie WIlson
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What follows here is our contribution to this important
Torres Strait Islander sovereignty, knowledges, voices
conversation, outlining a rationale, key principles and
and perspectives; and the importance of demonstrable
recommendations for suggested next steps.
community benefit flowing from research (Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies,
Background
2012; Moreton-Robinson & Walter, 2009; Nakata, 2007; National Health and Medical Research Council, 2007;
This paper represents the culmination of a number
Smith, 2012).
of interlocking research projects. The research team
The data quality project was implemented in five phases
comprises Indigenous and non-Indigenous researchers
over 2013-17. Phase 1 involved a desk audit of available
from three Australian universities and one New Zealand
literature on data quality issues.In Phase 2 a draft discussion
university who collaborated on a series of Office for
paper was developed as a trigger document for an expert
Learning and Teaching funded research projects during
panel consultation comprising Indigenous and non-
the period 2011-16. Two key projects completed by the
Indigenous researchers. Indigenous and non-Indigenous
team during this period were: ‘Can’t be what you can’t
experts in the fields of statistics, demography, economics,
see’: The transition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
and higher education administration identified in the desk
students into higher education (Kinnane et al., 2014),
audit were invited to critically evaluate the findings of the
and Developing a culturally appropriate data quality
draft paper. Further to this, three Indigenous and four non-
framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander higher
Indigenous senior educators were interviewed about the
education statistics (Drew et al., 2015).
key issues of data quality and the key challenges facing
Our 2014 project surveyed twenty-six Australian
the higher education sector in this field. A satiation search
universities and identified, among other factors, persistent
strategy guided the recruitment of participants until no
challenges associated with data quality and availability in
further substantive issues emerged.
relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students’
In Phase 3, a revised discussion paper was presented
higher education participation and pathways.This finding
to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander higher education
provided the impetus for the second project in which
sector representatives and other stakeholders for
we examined these issues more closely, and subsequently
comment, discussion and revision. In Phase 4, following
developed a conceptual framework for identifying and
publication of the report by the Office for Learning
understanding the impacts of matters of data quality
and Teaching in 2015, the Discussion Paper, including a
(Drew et al., 2016). Additionally, a second practice/
proposed draft data quality conceptual model, was made
practitioner oriented framework (data quality framework)
available for dissemination and feedback throughout the
was developed for the promotion of sector-wide
sector (Drew et al., 2015). The current phase, Phase 5,
guidelines associated with the collection, interpretation,
involves wider dissemination activities, including a series
use, and storage of quality data and statistics. Subsequent
of publications. The first, Drew et al. (2016), outlined
research has revealed new insights that have strengthened
the research findings using a conceptual framework
our understandings of the importance of Indigenous data
for understanding the data quality challenges that were
sovereignty, and the need to ensure that a decolonised
identified. This paper comprises the second publication
data quality framework for the higher education sector
in the series.
is articulated, designed and developed by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The non-Indigenous
Rationale for a data quality framework
research team members position themselves as ‘non-
In previous publications (Drew et al., 2015; Drew et al.,
Indigenous allies’, ceding leadership and stewardship to
2016) we drew attention to the lack of shared standards
their Indigenous colleagues.
and understanding of data and subsequently of data
This paper concludes by proposing some next steps
elements in higher education data sets. We identified
towards the development of a national Indigenous data
issues associated with understanding data needs, the
framework for the sector.
lack of data consistency, and inadequate data definitions. Clarity and sector-wide agreement around these elements
Project approach and methodology
is necessary in order that a clear, culturally informed and culturally beneficial rationale is developed to lay
Our
collaboration
Indigenous
6
between
researchers
Indigenous
recognises
and
non-
Aboriginal
and
the foundations for a national framework for Indigenous higher education data.
Indigenous data sovereignty in higher education Judith Wilks, Gillian Kennedy, Neil Drew & Katie WIlson
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
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In 2012, the Department of Education and Training
or usage of data on, for or with Aboriginal and/or Torres
(the Department) commissioned a review of reporting
Strait Islander higher education students within data
requirements and data collection in the higher education
collection processes, nor for its storage in the main
sector (PhillipsKPA, 2012; Department of Education
information repositories.
and Training, 2013). The Department responded to the
The dominance of Western knowledge systems and
PhillipsKPA review, accepting the majority of the 27
methodologies underpinning data collection has meant
recommendations. At the time of writing it is understood
that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander values and
that the Department is finalising work on a discussion
perspectives have been excluded (Smith, 2012), and
paper relating to a proposed redevelopment and audit of
the resulting statistics are either misleading (Taylor,
the Higher Education Information Management System
2011), irrelevant for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
(HEIMS) (personal communication, 2017).
purposes (Yap & Yu, 2016) and/or inaccurate. For example,
Despite the Department’s acknowledgement of these
as Rowse (2009) pointed out, in the political discourse of
fundamental challenges, and the subsequent efforts by the Higher Education Data Committee (HEDC) in 2017, towards improving higher education data collections, these not
undertakings specifically
do
statistics there are differences
An authentic commitment by all relevant actors to Indigenous stewardship and ownership of data in the spirit of Indigenous data sovereignty will be challenging for many institutional leaders
address
between using ‘population’ as a measure and ‘people’ with a shared culture and measured within a culturally specific framework. In the higher education context, this may be illustrated by
Aboriginal and Torres Strait
the example of commonly
Islander data and statistics in the higher education
touted factors such as ‘retention’, ‘completion’ and
reporting landscape. We make the case here that in
‘success’ at university.
order to improve higher education access, retention and
It has been suggested for example that such indicators
outcomes for Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander
might more appropriately be measured by way of
students in higher education, there is a need to grapple
‘cyclical rather than linear’ (Behrendt et al., 2012, p. 87)
with significant data quality matters directly relating
experiences for Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander
to this cohort, as highlighted in the Review of higher
students in higher education. The reasoning behind this
education access and outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres
is that these students are ‘more likely than others to move
Strait Islander people (Behrendt et al.,2012), which stated:
in and out of programs over time according to a range
While a substantial amount of high-quality data is already collected from universities on a variety of outcome measures, data is not collected with a strategic focus on the specific outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Most data that relates to outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students is collected as part of a broader data collection process in which respondents or students are simply recorded as having identified themselves as being of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander origin. This collection approach may mean under-reporting by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, particularly if they do not see any relevant purpose to the data collection. (p. 168).
of personal and environmental circumstances’ (Day et al.,
Indeed,Trewin (2003) pointed out that higher education
impact they had on their lives’ (Statistics New Zealand,
statistics come from a diverse range of agencies and require
2002, p. 3). Community concerns were raised when there
improved integration, comparability and consistency (p.
was a realisation of the intimate connection between the
iv), and currently there is not even agreement between
statistics that were gathered about them and subsequent
the responsible data gathering agencies on the number of
government decisions. Moreover, it became clear that
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students undertaking
governments had ‘their own reasons for collecting these
higher education. At present there is no clear evidence of
statistics’ (Statistics New Zealand, 2002, p. 3). For Māori,
standards or guidelines for the collection, interpretation
many issues discussed above were at play, including the
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
2015, p. 508; see also Walker, 2000; Behrendt et al., 2012). Such an approach would also contribute to the reframing of data towards student achievement (Walker, 2000), as opposed to the more common, ‘5D data of disparity, deprivation, disadvantage, dysfunction and difference’ (Walter, 2016, p. 80). A compelling rationale for the development of culturally beneficial data/statistical quality frameworks is provided by Statistics New Zealand in its Māori Statistics Framework (2002). Its authors commented that: ‘up to …1961… [many] Māori were oblivious to official statistics and the
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failure to include Māori worldviews and beliefs in the
Strait Islander observers. An authentic commitment by all
collection, storage and applications of data, culminating
relevant actors to Indigenous stewardship and ownership
in an overarching belief that the prevailing practices were
of data in the spirit of Indigenous data sovereignty will be
not relevant to Māori.
challenging for many institutional leaders (Walter, 2016).
Data collection is implicated by the political and
The power that control of the data endows, and where
racial assumptions and values of those gathering data
this power might reside, will not be easily relinquished
and framing the questions (Walter, 2010), and reflects
by some. Yet it is crucial that this happens in order that a
the sociocultural, historical and political constructions
culturally responsive and safe dialogue in the intercultural
that serve particular agendas. The instilling of culturally
space takes place. Non-Indigenous allies must also be
competent, data informed and responsive policies,
active advocates for this important eventuality.
practices and procedures across the sector is a critical step
Lovett
(2016)
recognised
the
disempowering
towards the achievement of this goal. We have previously
experience of being an Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait
argued (Drew et al., 2016) that it will be necessary for
Islander person acting on advisory boards such as
non-Indigenous and Indigenous participants in the sector
National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health Data
to (re)position themselves in relation to a clear reflective
(NAGATISHID) with the power only to advise not to
‘dual lens’ (Drew, Adams, & Walker, 2010) of whiteness
direct. Walter (personal communication, 11-12 October,
and Indigenous Terms of Reference (Oxenham, 2000).
2017) went further to advocate for active resistance in the
The application of a dual lens will promote simultaneous
form of withdrawal of service for such advisory boards,
reflection on the implications of white privilege (and
to become ‘data disobedient’. This is a fundamentally
the associated colonising practices) and Indigenous
important governance issue. At the midstream level the
worldviews for understanding this contested and
concepts of intercultural space and reflective practices
complex domain (Nakata, 2007; Walter, 2010). Below we
through the dual lens identified above, are important for
outline what this might look like in the context of higher
developing authentic and trusting relationships. Equally
education practices.
important is building the statistical capacity of Aboriginal
Summary of data quality issues
and Torres Strait Islander people (Lovett, 2016). Downstream is the engine room for data quality. That
Our conceptual framework (Drew et al., 2015; Drew et al.,
engine room can only function effectively with the
2016) for disaggregating data challenges into upstream,
right types of guidance and support from the system
midstream and downstream (summarised briefly below;
that developed and engaged it. The pragmatics of data
see Table 1) provided a typology to assist in understanding
quality including access, timeliness, reliability, validity,
and responding at the appropriate level of analysis, or
sampling data security and the balance of quantitative
site of intervention, towards the achievement of the goal
and qualitative methods, cross sectional and longitudinal
identified above. A range of actors implicated at different
studies can only be assured by the right signals being
levels is identified, but together they need to develop a
sent from the midstream and upstream agents to those
coherent, sophisticated and critical statistical literacy
enacting policy and practice at the downstream level.
culminating in a capacity to create a ‘common language’ at all levels (Throgmorton, 2000).
As noted, this conceptual model provided a reflective tool for universities and other higher education
The upstream level will require the demonstration of
institutions to interrogate their practices as a precursor to
leadership at the international, national and executive
considering the practicalities of developing and adopting
institutional levels, in areas of vitally important cultural
a decolonised data quality framework. A decolonised data
commitments regarding the use and abuse of Aboriginal
quality framework should honour the OCAP principles for
and Torres Strait Islander data; of what needs to be known
data sovereignty outlined by the FNIGC lest the dominant
and why, and of shared agreement across jurisdictions
discourse remains the status quo.
regarding the nature and scope of a shared critical statistical literacy. At the midstream level is engagement with Aboriginal
Models to inform the development of a decolonised data quality framework
andTorres Strait Islander communities. A lack of purposeful commitment and culturally respectful motivation from
To address some fundamental data quality issues within
those with the power and agency upstream has been
the higher education sector, we take inspiration from
identified as a problem by many Aboriginal and Torres
both domestic and international models for improving
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data quality, and briefly review these for relevance to
the Māori Statistical framework (Statistics New Zealand,
an Indigenous data framework. The Australian Bureau of
2002) is a multi-dimensional framework oriented towards
Statistics (2011) data quality framework draws on the
Māori wellbeing and development and incorporates
seven dimensions applied by Statistics Canada’s quality
Māori worldviews. Although gaps do exist (Kukutai &
assurance framework, outlined below:
Walter, 2015; Bishop, 2016), it is often quoted as a model
Institutional environment: This dimension refers to the trustworthiness and credibility of the institution providing the data. As consumers, we rely on the credibility and trust in the sources of the data, which can be challenged in two key ways: inappropriate methodology and suspicion of political biases of the institution (Trewin, 2002). Relevance: How well do the data meet the needs of the end user?
system for indigenous statistics because it engages Māori in identifying Māori needs for statistics, and elaborates a way to meet such needs. It combines different levels and models into one framework (Dandenau, 2008; Rowse, 2009). The framework identified ‘areas of concern’ such as Māori language, Māori knowledge, modern knowledge and skills; ‘goal dimensions’ such as empowerment and enablement; and related ‘measurement dimensions’ for each goal (Wereta & Bishop, 2006, p. 9). However, existing
Timeliness: What is the time lag between the data reference point (the time the data refers to) and the data availability?
within a dominant system, this framework does not meet
Accuracy: How well does the data measure what it purports to measure? This is a variant of validity.
Raraunga. (n.d.)) established in 2015, actively positions
Coherence: Are the data internally consistent and comparable across other sources of data?
data as a treasure (taonga) and advocating for Māori
Interpretability: What information is available to provide insight into the data? Accessibility: There are two components to accessibility. The first is how easily it can be obtained and the second is the suitability of the form in which it may be obtained.
all data needs of Māori iwi (tribes). In response, Te Mana Raraunga – Māori Data Sovereignty Network – (Te Mana Māori rights and interests in Māori data, recognising governance, quality and integrity of Māori data and its collection (Kukutai & Taylor, 2016b). Other key guiding bodies include the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, in particular its
wellbeing
indicators
framework
(Stankovitch,
2008), significant because it was driven by Indigenous peoples and foregrounds Indigenous priorities (Jordan,
(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2011; Allen, 2002; Gilbert, 2010)
et al., 2010); and the World Indigenous Nations Higher
Upon the establishment of the HEDC in 2012 the
in 2002, WINHEC provides an important vision which
Higher Education Data Committee Terms of Reference
can be used to inform a data quality framework for
(Department of Education, 2017) outlined eight principles
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander higher education
of the collection and dissemination of data. These
statistics. This vision and its accompanying goals are
were: fit for purpose; privacy; consistency; auditability;
strongly supportive of recognising and valuing cultural
transparency; timeliness; validity and reliability; and,
dimensions as key elements to academic success and
efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
indigenous involvement, in the agreeing of definitions,
Education Consortium (WINHEC) (2016). Established
It is noteworthy that these types of quality indicators
interpretations and affirmations of success, and what it
are subject to contextual factors, and some may be more
means to indigenous peoples (personal communication,
important (or impactful) than others, depending on the
13 October 2014). WINHEC’s vision is expressed as
circumstance, data type and proposed use. We propose
follows:
that they require integration with more finely-grained, responsive, flexible, and culturally discursive elements identified and defined by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Additionally, and in the spirit of a commitment to data sovereignty, these guiding principles should be further interrogated to ensure they honour the principles of OCAP and PILAR. International models of data collection exist in other countries with indigenous populations that appear to be on
We gather as Indigenous Peoples of our respective nations recognising and reaffirming the educational rights of all Indigenous Peoples. In pursuit of this we share a collective goal of Indigenous Peoples of the world united in the collective synergy of self-determination through control of higher education. In doing so we have the common objective of being committed to building partnerships that restore and retain indigenous spirituality, cultures and languages, homelands, social systems, economic systems and self-determination. (WINHEC, 2016).
a trajectory towards data sovereignty. As mentioned above, vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Indigenous data sovereignty in higher education Judith Wilks, Gillian Kennedy, Neil Drew & Katie WIlson
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WINHEC’s goals outlined in the following section,
decolonised data quality framework will require an
provide important foundations for a data quality
authentic sense of data stewardship and ownership for
framework. Likewise, principles developed for the
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in moving
National Advisory Group on Aboriginal and Torres Strait
forward. We do not propose a solution, but rather
Islander Health Information and Data (NAGATSIHID,
considerations for next steps.
2006) also might offer useful guidance. In particular: Principle 1: The management of health-related information about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons must be ethical, meaningful, and support improved health and better planning and delivery of services.
Step one: In relation to data quality, recognise the importance of Indigenous terms of reference, including the emergent aspirations and principles of data sovereignty. Any attempt to move towards improved data quality
Principle 2: The analysis, interpretation and reporting of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health-related information should, where feasible, occur collaboratively with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.
in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander higher education
In taking into account the strengths, principles and
Article 3: Indigenous peoples have the right to selfdetermination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.
constitutive elements of the models and frameworks of relevance outlined above, we consider that an Indigenous data quality framework should provide (at a minimum), the basis for a shared, culturally beneficial, critical statistical literacy to bridge the gap between diverse and often diverging communities of interest (professionals in the data and statistics field; bureaucrats and administrators within government, the sector and the community; higher education leadership and the lay community) (Drew et al., 2016). It would also involve the provision of an explicit accountability mechanism for dealing with developing data/statistical literacy and National Standards and KPIs. In other words, a data quality framework should aim to find the recognition space (Taylor, 2008) within the higher education sector.
contexts must recognise, and be underpinned by, the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (United Nations, 2007), specifically:
Article 15(1): Indigenous peoples have the right to the dignity and diversity of their cultures, traditions, histories and aspirations which shall be appropriately reflected in education and public information. Article 23: Indigenous peoples have the right to determine and develop priorities and strategies for exercising their right to development. In particular, Indigenous peoples have the right to be actively involved in developing and determining health, housing and other economic and social programs affecting them and, as far as possible, to administer such programs through their own institutions. Additionally, WINHEC sets out nine goals for higher education which provide a critical foundation upon
What might a decolonised data quality framework look like in the Australian higher education sector?
which to build a decolonised data quality framework. Among other aspirations, these goals are aimed at enabling Indigenous peoples to: • be in control of their own education for long term
Some guiding principles therefore emerge from the
success;
above review towards the development of a decolonised
• accelerate the articulation of Indigenous epistemology
Indigenous data quality framework. Inspired by these
(ways of knowing, education, philosophy and research);
principles, and informed by our consultations with
and
senior Indigenous and non-Indigenous academics and
• create an accreditation body for Indigenous education
bureaucrats, researchers, and other higher education
initiatives and systems that identify common criteria,
stakeholders, in this section we propose elements for
practices and principles by which Indigenous Peoples
such a framework for the higher education sector. We
live (WINHEC, 2014).
also provide some suggestions for how to address the data quality challenges (the upstream, midstream and downstream elements) identified in our conceptual framework (Drew et al., 2016).
Step two: Define the recognition space and identify indicators. While ground-breaking work exploring the recognition
What follows refers to both the generic and culture-
space has occurred in relation to demographics and
specific challenges for the higher education sector. A
wellbeing (Yap & Yu, 2016; Kukutai & Walter, 2015), this is
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Table 1: Summary of Indigenous data quality challenges in higher education
(p. 45), a data quality framework in
‘Upstream’ practices promote data consistency
the recognition space would have the
• cultural dimensions of statistical literacy • sector wide reporting standards • clarity of management structures • shared statistical literacy • student self-identification as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander • Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander data needs, peer review • respect for cultural data restrictions
‘Midstream’ practices promote data integrity, completeness cultural appropriateness
• train community in data collection • expand HEIMS metadata and Indigenous elements • culturally appropriate data collection methods • impact of self-identification practices on data • community participate in data analysis, measurement • Aboriginal, Torres Strait Islander communities identify data • develop appropriate levels of measurement
‘Downstream’ practices promote accurate, accessible data
• data availability, audience, timeliness • rigorous data standards • culturally respectful protocols for data ownership, stewardship • data determinism • data collection over time, cross sectional, longitudinal
capacity to reflect a strengths-based as opposed to a 5D’s perspective. Another important element of the data regime is to recognise that ‘data’ is both qualitative and quantitative and both must be considered valid and equally important data sources.
Step three: Develop processes to ensure cultural appropriateness, community responsiveness, quality, and equity in data collection practices in higher education. Below
we
make
some
recommendations as to how issues associated with specific data quality processes identified above and also in
unexplored territory in higher education.The recognition
our first paper (Drew et al., 2016), might
space is the negotiated space between Aboriginal and
be addressed. Collectively, the elements outlined below,
Torres Strait Islander world views and priorities and
and summarised in Table 1, might not only improve higher
government/sector reporting requirements, resulting
education data collection, storage and usage practices, but
in social indicators that reflect shared understandings
also ultimately contribute to the overall goal of better
(Taylor, 2008). As noted by Walter (2016):
outcomes for Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander
Expanding the ‘recognition space’ between Indigenous and non-Indigenous understandings allows us to speak back to the state in the language of statistical evidence that they both understand and culturally respect, reframing the narratives about us (p. 92).
students regarding access, participation and retention in
The
processes to promote data consistency:
recognition
space
allows
Aboriginal
and
higher education.
Addressing ‘Upstream’ challenges Recommended elements in higher education governance
Torres Strait Islander peoples to become the creators,
• Recognition of the cultural dimensions of statistical
interpreters, users and importantly stewards and owners
literacy – cultural knowledge, worldviews, customs and
of data, as opposed to simply subjects of data, which has been the norm for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples (Biddle, 2014, Kukutai & Taylor, 2016). This in
practices, and consent considerations. • Development of agreed-upon, sector wide standards of reporting, definitions and classification systems.
turn brings a demonstrable community benefit, reflecting
• Clarity of management structures relating to the
a relational, rather than hierarchical approach (Andersen
collection, storage, analysis, monitoring communication
et al., 2008), and recognises the importance of trust and reciprocity.
and review of data. • Professional development of governance personnel to
Therefore, one of the key first steps on the road to the
promote a shared statistical literacy across the sector.
decolonisation of data and statistics is for Aboriginal and
• Student self-identification as Aboriginal and/or Torres
Torres Strait Islander peoples to identify priorities and
Strait Islander – understanding that this can vary across
measures against which data can be collected, analysed
time, locations and contexts and that the dynamics of
and ultimately used by both the sector and Aboriginal
students’ self-identification behaviours impact on data
and Torres Strait Islander peoples.This is the fundamental
quality and data collection.
premise of an authentic data sovereignty regime. Unlike
• Indigenous peer review of technical specifications.
much data collected about Aboriginal and Torres Strait
• Identification of data by Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander peoples, which Walter (2010) has described as
Islander communities that needs to be restricted,
the ‘…statistical portrayal of Indigenous dysfunction’
repatriated, or not be collected at all (Smith, 2016).
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Addressing ‘Midstream’ challenges
(Australian Institute of Health & Welfare, 2015; Department
Recommended elements to promote the integrity,
of Education, 2015; National Centre for Student Equity in
completeness and cultural appropriateness of data:
Higher Education (NCSEHE), 2016; Pitman & Koshy, 2015),
• Train local community members to gather data
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander values and perspectives
according to high standards of research practice (Taylor
remain largely absent in Australian higher education,
et al., 2012).
making the goal of Indigenous data sovereignty particularly
• Promote understanding of the impacts of selfidentification practices on data.
challenging. The responsibility for embarking on this challenge is two-pronged:
Rodriguez-Lonebear (2016),
• Promote the role of the sector in the training and
writing in the US national statistics context emphasises
support of Indigenous researchers and evaluators
that on the one hand, ‘it involves tribes exercising their
(Biddle, 2014; Lovett, 2016; Rodriguez-Lonebear, 2016)
sovereignty by developing tribal data sources; on the
• Develop culturally appropriate data collection methods
other, it involves improved collection of official statistics
– collect statistics through a ‘dual lens’. • Improve the capacity of the sector to, among other
maximally useful to tribes’ (p. 261). This has relevance to higher education in Australia.
things, evaluate program performance, link data,
As we noted in our first paper (Drew et al., 2015)
produce quality comparative data, and undertake
statistical literacy should include the capacity to understand
benchmarking.
the motivations behind the use and abuse of statistical
• Further expansion of metadata and Indigenous elements
data and to resist promulgation of deficit narratives (civic
of the Higher Education Information Management
statistical literacy), and to appreciate the importance of
System (HEIMS) data elements dictionary to capture
Indigenous knowledges and perspectives on data use and
the needs and perspectives of Aboriginal and Torres
abuse (cultural statistical literacy). From the perspective of
Strait Islander peoples.
the higher education sector, Indigenous data sovereignty
• Identify appropriate levels of measurement: e.g. individual vs group vs sector.
Addressing ‘Downstream’ challenges Recommended elements to promote more accurate and
involves attention at all levels, namely, organisational culture change, systemic change, operational change, and staff development and training. It will also require sound and regular monitoring and evaluation of data quality. In a practical sense the process may begin by ensuring
accessible data:
that data are more visible to Aboriginal and Torres Strait
• Data availability: consideration of online access: When
Islander communities. As Jansen (2016), writing from
(timeliness)? How? For whom?
the Māori experience of the New Zealand/Aotearoa
• Apply rigorous data quality standards to data collection
health sector suggests, indigenous data sovereignty seems
and analysis, including: data reliability and validity;
to ‘move up a hierarchy from data visibility and data
sampling; sample size; reliability and validity; don’t
accessibility to data sharing and data control’ (p. 209).
collect data that are not valid or reliable for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.
Finally, a great deal of the solution towards decolonising data for the higher education sector resides in relationship
• Develop culturally respectful protocols for data storage
building. Above all, we propose an approach whereby the
and security, including the ownership and stewardship
sector engages with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
of data.
communities in conversations towards embedding the
• Develop a strategic, agreed-upon and informed sector-
principles of data sovereignty in data frameworks. This
wide approach to data collection over time, including
involves Indigenous people and non-Indigenous allies
linking of cross-sectional data and collection of
coming together in an intercultural space to collectively
longitudinal data.
honour the importance of ownership and stewardship of the data that impacts Indigenous lives and livelihoods. We
Conclusion
regard this as a non-negotiable launching pad fundamental to shifting the narrative from deficit to strengths based
Notwithstanding the ground-breaking work by Aboriginal
understandings. In doing so a catalyst for positive action
and Torres Strait Islander researchers in the data sovereignty
will be created to assist the sector to keep moving towards
space (notably, Maggie Walter, Ray Lovett, Gawain Bodkin-
the achievement of equitable outcomes for Aboriginal and
Andrews, Eunice Yu), and despite recent initiatives to
Torres Strait Islander students and communities in terms
improve data and statistics across the education sector
of participation, retention and success in higher education.
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Judith Wilks is Adjunct Associate Professor, Nulungu Research Institute, The University of Notre Dame, Australia; and Adjunct Associate Professor, School of Education and Member of Emeritus Faculty, Southern Cross University, Australia. Contact: Judith.wilks@scu.edu.au Gillian Kennedy is Coordinator of Aboriginal Studies at The University of Notre Dame Australia, Broome Campus. Neil Drew is Adjunct Professor, Nulungu Research Institute, The University of Notre Dame, Australia; and Professor/ Director, Australian Indigenous HealthInfonet, Edith Cowan University, Australia. Katie Wilson is a researcher and librarian at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.
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vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
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Wish you were here Academic supervision of international professional experience John Buchanan University of Technology Sydney
International professional experiences have long been esteemed by universities and pre-service teachers alike. This paper analyses the experiences of six academics who have supervised Australian pre-service teachers undertaking international professional experience (PE), with a view to better understanding the problems and prospects that they encounter during their overseas supervision. The respondents reported concerns about duty of care, blurring of relationship distinctions, and pre-service teachers’ and the local supervising teachers’ expectations. Using a narrative inquiry approach, this paper examines the interface between visiting academic supervisors or preservice teachers, and the host culture, against a backdrop of globally normed, Western approaches to pedagogy. The paper also explores implications for support needed for international PE academic supervisors. Keywords: International professional experience; academic supervision; pre-service teachers; intercultural education; international mobility, narrative inquiry.
Background and introduction
staff member, the accompanying supervisor operates alone.
Given their disruptive capacity, intercultural exchanges
This paper investigates opportunities and challenges
demand and nurture attributes such as flexibility in
encountered by a sole academic supervisor during
thinking, openness to new ideas, and interpersonal
international PEs. These include personal wellbeing and
acceptance, deemed highly valuable in teaching. The
workload, and relationships with the pre-service teachers,
Australian university that is the site of this study offers
with the host schools, and with the host communities and
annual in-school, international professional experiences in
cultural differences. It is anticipated that this paper will
the Asia-Pacific region for its pre-service primary teachers.
contribute to more informed support for international
Serving the needs of the school students is the ultimate
PE supervisors, through a better understanding of their
goal of these international PEs.This is optimally done, it is
needs.
posited here, by supporting the pre-service teachers, and, in turn, the staff who supervise them.
Review of the literature
International PEs can be organised in various ways (Buchanan, Major, Harbon & Kearney, 2017). At the site
Little research appears to have been conducted into the
university, an academic accompanies the pre-service
conditions under which teacher educators undertake
teachers overseas to the host schools, observes their
international PE supervision. This literature review,
lessons, offers advice and writes their reports. These
therefore, includes a focus on onshore PE supervision,
academic supervisors are chosen from among those who
drawing inferences therefrom.
respond to a call for expressions of interest. Unless there
The positive contributions of international PEs to
are sufficient pre-service teachers to warrant a second
pre-service teachers have been extensively documented
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(Beck & Kosnik, 2002; Cohen, Hoz, & Kaplan, 2013; Fayne,
co-operating classroom teacher has limited English.
2007; McDonald, 2014). International PEs offer pre-service
Arguably, pre-service teachers depend more on their
teachers multiple and rich opportunities to engage in
academic supervisor during an international PE than
aspects of teacher competence in ways that differ from
domestically, where they have more avenues of support.
onshore PEs. See also Buchanan & Widodo (2016) and
Equally, supervisors may be in need of such support
Buchanan et al. (2017).
themselves, and may feel reduced capacity to offer the
Bodycott, the
Mak
importance
and of
Ramburuth
supporting
(2013)
staff
in
note
same to the pre-service teachers in their care.
pursuing
The academic supervisor needs to foster a relationship
internationalisation endeavours. Beck and Kosnik (2002),
with the co-operating schools’ classroom teachers. In
in reviewing the Professional Experience needs of pre-
the context of English as a foreign language (EFL) pre-
service teachers, nominated emotional support, peer
service teachers teaching in China, Yan and He (2010)
relationships, collaboration and realistic but challenging
recommend closer school-university collaboration. In a
workloads as key factors. Arguably, international PE
Kenyan context, Ong’ondo and Borg (2011, p. 516) noted
academic supervisors have similar needs, but provision of
that, ‘co-operating teachers very often took a hands-off
these is problematic across distance.
approach to their role and had little contact with the
The roles and responsibilities of PE academic
student teachers they were meant to be supporting’.
supervisors are significant (McDonald, 2014). Supervisors
Naturally, many counter-examples of this can be
assume oversight of pre-service teachers who are adapting
found, with co-operating teachers deeply dedicated
to ‘the unsteady beat of learning to teach’ (Mueller &
to the professional development of their protégés.
Skamp, 2003, p. 429). This beat can become even more
Nevertheless, a complicating factor in the program
arrhythmic in a context of cultural and procedural
examined in this paper is that local teachers receive no
unfamiliarity (Buchanan & Widodo, 2016; Buchanan &
payment for classroom supervision, so it is not possible
Maher, 2018).
to insist that they provide feedback or other support to
The PE supervisor needs to engage meaningfully and
our pre-service teachers.
productively with pre-service teachers and host schools.
Another potential fault line of PEs is authenticity. Fayne
Fayne (2007) acknowledges that the academic supervisor
(2007) asserts a progressive characteristic of pre-service
is typically their institution’s sole representative at the
teacher education programs, as opposed to a pedagogical
host school, having to ‘straddle the two worlds of the
conservatism typical of schools. Ong’ondo and Borg
academy and the school’ (p. 54).The relationship between
(2011) cite one of their pre-service teachers referring to
academic supervisor and pre-service teacher is typically
teaching as ‘plastic (i.e. artificial) performances motivated
characterised by complexity and potential conflicts, even
by fear of and designed to please supervisors’ (p. 521). If
in onshore contexts (Patrick, 2013). Acting in the interests
an objective of a PE is to develop ‘pedagogical reasoning’
of the profession, or of the pre-service teacher, the tertiary
(Ong’ondo & Borg, 2011, p. 523), then authenticity
institution or the host school may at times be at odds.The
assumes crucial importance. Inauthenticity can assume
complexities of these roles multiply when working across
greater proportions when teaching across cultures, as can
international, cultural and language borders.
assumptions about preferred pedagogies.
In addition to the roles of assessor and instructor, Fayne
Some research has been conducted into rural
(2007) distinguished three other roles of the tertiary
and remote PE programs, which may resonate with
supervisor: manager, evaluator and confidante.These latter,
international PEs for reasons such as cultural adjustment,
more pastoral dimensions of supervision, may assume
distance from home, and difficulties regarding supervision.
increased importance when operating in an international
Ryan, Jones and Walta (2012, p. 52) use the aspirational
and, by definition, residential PE. In a moral if not legal
terms ‘sustainable’ and ‘supportive’ for their rural PEs,
sense, duty of care assumes broader proportions in such
recognising the added complexities of supervision over
circumstances. Fayne (2007) elicited pre-service teachers’
distance. They identify inter-university partnerships
views on their supervisor’s help with: adjustment to the
and emerging technologies as currently underutilised
PE; willingness to confer; getting to know the pre-service
mechanisms with potential to improve such programs.
teacher; observation and resulting suggestions; and
The usual positioning of co-operating teacher as expert,
trouble-shooting. It stands to reason that in international
and pre-service teacher as novice, can face challenge in
situations, international PE supervisors face greater pre-
developing country contexts, where international PEs
service teacher demands for support, particularly if the
run the risk of becoming normative, thereby potentially
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establishing or reinforcing visitors’ and hosts’ views that
a total of approximately 50 pre-service teachers. Of
Western pedagogical approaches are superior. Buchanan
the destinations, only in Samoa is English the medium
and Widodo (2016) refer to this as risk as a cultura franca,
of instruction (from Year 3 onwards). Some of the
a globally-accepted, Western-dominated set of norms for
interviewees had supervised on several international
behaviour and attitudes.
PEs in multiple locations, while others drew on their
It is recognised here that using ‘culture’ as a shorthand
experiences of a single international PE.
term is prone to essentialism (Dervin, 2010). Suffice it to
The investigation adopted a narrative inquiry approach,
say, though, that individuals and institutions approach one
in that it sought to understand the conditions of offshore
another with certain assumptions about ways of thinking,
PE supervision as narrated by the informants. Connelly
doing and being, that can lead to confusion or offence.
and Clandinin (1990, p. 2) assert that narrative inquiry ‘is
In summary, international PEs offer great potential
increasingly used in studies of educational experience’.
for intercultural professional and personal learning
Narrative inquiry sheds light on participants or players, and
and discovery, even though such experiences may be
on their backdrop or circumstances. The process enabled
overwhelming at times, particularly in the context of an
us as respondents to collect our thoughts and analyse
assessable PE for a pre-service teacher.
them. The study also explored cultural assumptions that
While shedding little light on the circumstances
accompanied us as visitors. Spector-Mersel (2010) claims
specific to international tertiary supervisors, the literature
that the time is ripe for a narrative inquiry paradigm. Means
has established that international PEs can be valuable for
for establishing trustworthiness (Loh, 2013) appear to be
pre-service teachers; the role of the tertiary supervisor is
those common to a broader range of qualitative research
an important one; and this role is problematic because
methods, such as thick description and member checks.
it may invert the usual professional relationship of pre-
This study undertook a holistic content analysis, which
service teacher and host teacher. These distinctions form
sought patterns in the respondents’ narratives (Wells,
the starting points for this paper.
2011) with a view to ‘understanding teaching from the inside’ (Elbaz-Lusisch, 2007, p. 359).
Methodology
The narratives explored the demands and rewards of international PE academic supervision, compared to those
Five staff from a metropolitan Australian university, who
of onshore PEs. They were digitally recorded, transcribed
had supervised an international PE, accepted invitations
and coded (Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003) for emergent
to participate in interviews or focus groups to narrate
themes. Coding was thematic (Vaismoradi, Turunen, &
their experiences of rewards and demands as academic
Bondas, 2013), to identify recurring themes, and axial links
supervisors and quality controllers for the university’s
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990) among them. All participants
international PE program (see Appendix for interview
gave informed consent and were accorded pseudonyms.
protocol). There were two small focus groups, and one
They were offered an opportunity to comment on earlier
interview, governed in part by participants’ availability.
drafts of the paper. All are highly experienced academics,
Focus groups were the preferred approach, in that they
of Anglo or European-Australian background.
facilitate conversation, in a ‘comfortable, permissive environment’ (Kruger & Casey, 2000, p. 9). Moreover,
The international PEs
some participants had supervised at the same destination, albeit at different times, permitting further conversation.
Our pre-service teachers, in their second or third year
The researcher, as a coordinator of International
of a four-year Primary Education degree, apply to teach
Programs, had also supervised some international PEs, as
overseas for 10 working days, from two to three hours
well as a PE in an Aboriginal community in Australia’s
daily, in primary or junior secondary classrooms. In
Northern Territory, took part as a participant-observer.
Samoa, where the medium of instruction is English, the
The narratives exposed benefits and difficulties emerging
pre-service teachers might teach in any subject area,
from supervising an international PE, particularly those
while at the other destinations, they teach English only.
different from supervising onshore PEs, and in particular
In the latter circumstances, the pre-service teachers may
any critical incidents and the interviewees’ responses
be deployed to junior secondary classes, as the students
to and reflections on them. The international PEs under
therein are likely to have more advanced English than
discussion had taken place in Thailand, China, Indonesia
their primary school counterparts. The pre-service
and Samoa, mostly in the previous five years, with
teachers teach in pairs, to facilitate collaboration and
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mutual support, as well as English conversation in class. In
them understand the challenges that face newly-arrived
preparation for the international PE, pre-service teachers
students in Australia, particularly those from the country
must pass a subject, Teaching English to International
they visited, as well as providing a starting point for
Students, which deals with teaching English as a foreign
bridge-building with these children and their families.
language, intercultural communication, in the context of
Pamela, for example, observed:
post-colonialism, and matters specific to the destination. Candidates are assessed, as are their onshore counterparts, against criteria aligning with the Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2014). Academic supervisors are responsible for observing
[Some] Samoan parents sit under a tree in the playground all day. The kids sat with extended family groups at playtimes. Imagine being a parent coming to an Australian school, and being told to drop your kids at the gate. You go away and come back at the end of the day.
and reporting on the pre-service teachers’ lessons and pedagogy, supporting them as necessary, and liaising
More broadly, the academic supervisors reported that
with the host schools on behalf of the university and
our pre-service teachers grew in confidence and learned
the pre-service teachers. Conditions in international
coping skills, realising that they could deliver sound
PE destinations can differ considerably, and it is not
educational experiences with minimal resources and
necessarily easy for the University or its supervisors to
minimal advance notice. Further research might explore
control the pre-service teachers’ teaching circumstances.
how first-hand experience of a regional country and its education system might also inform pre-service teachers’
Findings
subsequent teaching.
Rewards
Responsibilities and duty of care
According to the supervisors, the international PEs
Duty of care during international PEs, and where this
certainly appear to have conscientised (Freire, 1970/2007)
reasonably begins and ends, emerged as significant for the
many of the pre-service teachers. Some, for example,
supervisors. Steve described his experience of being an
raised money for tsunami-affected schools in Samoa,
academic supervisor as ‘more intimate’ than its onshore
among other causes, some returned subsequently to their
counterpart. Others referred to the need for greater
host countries including to work as volunteers.
mentoring or counselling than at home. This aspect is
Our pre-service teachers also seem to have been very well received by the local school children. As Pamela recalled, ‘The children were very receptive in the classroom, and loved having our [pre-service teachers] there’. In the context of relative poverty, the visitors often found the locals’ generosity and gratitude overwhelming. Pamela recalled: When the [pre-service] teachers were leaving, members of the [Samoan] school’s community made the teachers dresses. They measured them up the day before the Thank You Concert, and they hand-printed the fabric, to honour the work [the pre-service teachers] had done. At times it was overwhelming. I felt uneasy – particularly in the sense that we parachute in. Two or three years later we’re back. Similarly, Linda recalled that in China the children made outfits for our pre-service teachers. The research participants cited these as real positives of the program, along with the relationships that are formed between
further illustrated by the following conversations with Pamela and Beverly about their visits to Samoa. I had a student disclose to me before we went…issues of anxiety. She wanted to know which room I was sleeping in, so that if she needed to, in the night, she could come and speak with me. (Pamela) When crossing the street I actually grabbed their hands and they grabbed each other’s hands and we walked across as a team and I’m the one who put my hand up to stop the traffic. [Author’s note: This is routine practice in Bandung; local pedestrians routinely hold up their hands to halt traffic, momentarily interrupting its walking-pace progress.] A couple of times I went into the girls’ rooms, and particularly when a student was having an anxiety attack and I sat on the bed and helped them. When some students were told their clothes were too revealing [to be appropriate for school], I actually gave them a couple of my tops to wear that were a bit longer. (Beverly) These roles operate in conjunction with the routine
the visiting teachers and the locals in each destination.
supervisor-student
Moreover, the visitors had practice – some perhaps for
discussed previously, can also be fraught.The participants
the first time – in ‘being a foreigner’ and exploring what
all agreed that had the genders involved been different,
living and attending school in Australia might be like
the above scenarios would be have been impossible or
for a non-English speaker. This will presumably help
inappropriate. As Pamela commented, ‘If one of the male
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teacher
interactions,
which,
as
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students had asked which room I was sleeping in, I would
observe as many lessons as practicable. They typically
have felt creepy’. Both Pamela and Beverly commented
supervise more pre-service teachers than would be the
that their roles at times resembled mothering, with
case domestically. Social and cultural obligations, such as
Beverly reporting feeling a strong sense of being ‘in loco
welcome and farewell functions, convivial though they
parentis’. Steve also commented, ‘Because I’m middle
are, also demand a supervisor’s time. Beverly and Linda
aged, I tend to be more parental in initial expectations
also mentioned delivering seminars at their respective
of the students. Some were traumatised by how things
host/gatekeeper universities – three, in Beverly’s case.
were going, they needed some fatherly care’. By contrast,
The respondents referred to the potential advantages
Mike commented, ‘I don’t think females relate the same
of having a supervising partner to help or to confer with.
way to males. [Females are] like the mum; we’re like the
Beverly recounted how the day following the panic
slightly weird uncle’. Another issue that arose concerned
attack referred to above, she decided it was preferable
the use of alcohol; knowing whether and when to join
not to leave the pre-service teacher alone at the hotel,
pre-service teachers at social occasions created some
but to invite her to observe at the school. Another
uncertainty, as some of these were formal functions of the
panic attack occurred during the day and Beverly sent
hosting institutions. As Pamela explained, even when we
the student back to the hotel with another pre-service
compensate for our ‘alien’ home culture in an effort to be
teacher, because she herself had to continue supervising.
sensitive to host cultures, our resulting behaviours might
She said having another academic staff member on hand
not match local expectations. ‘Perhaps even because of
would have been useful in such circumstances. Pamela
over-compensating,’ added James.
said that on one occasion in Samoa she decided that the
Concerns about protecting our pre-service teachers
bus provided by the local Ministry of Education should
also presented an ill-defined demarcation line. During
leave for school without waiting any longer for a tardy
one Samoa international PE, an Australian male rugby
pre-service teacher, adding that it would have been
team booked into the same hotel as the visitors.
good to confer with another supervisor on how long
Pamela recalled their arrival as they first encountered
it was appropriate to wait. One of Pamela’s pre-service
our pre-service teachers: ‘You could see their eyes
teachers failed the international PE, and Pamela said she
popping out of their heads…these beautiful young
would have preferred to confer with another academic
women lying in bikinis reading their books beside the
and discuss the matter jointly with this pre-service
pool’. Pamela lamented that following the final day
teacher. She reflected that the student, too, was without
of teaching some of the pre-service teachers decided
the immediate support of friends and family.
to watch the team play and then join the post-match celebrations. She said, ‘It then split the group, at a time
Cultural issues
when they should have come together to celebrate their
Dissonance between the pre-service teachers’ home
[teaching] achievement’. The next day, one of the pre-
and host cultures presented occasional problems for
service teachers came to her and reported to her what
the academic supervisors, sometimes vicariously. In all
had happened at the celebrations. ‘I felt professionally
four destinations divergent expectations emerged about
compromised and awkward,’ she said. Given that
appropriate school organisation. These included dress
some students struggled interculturally and, in one
codes in Indonesia, preparedness of international PE
case, had disclosed beforehand potential problems,
schools in Thailand, and use of corporal punishment in
there remained a range of tensions for the academic
Samoa; one of our pre-service teachers was traumatised
international PE supervisors. Among these are exclusion
by witnessing ‘pulling ears, poking, pinching’ of children,
criteria for international PE applicants; reasonable harm
to the point where she asked to be deployed to another
minimisation and duty of care; equality of opportunity
classroom. Some co-operating teachers in Samoa are also
for pre-service teachers; minimising the likelihood
taxi drivers, and they would accept a fare during school
of at-risk situations; and upholding the reputation of
time, which occasionally left our pre-service teachers
institutions, the profession, and, most fundamentally,
without classroom support for extended periods.
teaching quality.
The pre-service teacher’s distress with corporal
The international PE places other demands on academic
punishment was resolved easily. Because of the informal
supervisors exceeding those of supervisors onshore.
allocation of our pre-service teachers to classes, it was
Because the supervisors take principal responsibility
a fairly straightforward matter to redeploy her. The
for writing pre-service teachers’ reports, they need to
research participants indicated that this may be less
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confronting for the academic supervisors, whose own
from the local market to subsequently wear to school.
schooling may have been characterised similarly, than for
This was openly appreciated by the Principal’.
a young female pre-service teacher. Further compounding
It stands to reason that Australians must also behave in
this, such instances of corporal punishment, if observed
ways that remain subliminal to us or seem not to matter,
in Australia, would constitute an offence mandating
but matter to the hosts, who might politely decline to
reporting.
bring the indiscretion to visitors’ attention. Some of our
The corporal punishment incident seemed to pass
pre-service teachers appear to have flouted local social
relatively unnoticed by the Samoans at the school, but it
conventions. Mike recollected with displeasure that
left the visitors feeling discomfited. In Australia, a request
several of our pre-service teachers departed early from a
to deploy a pre-service teacher to another class might
school farewell lunch in Thailand.
be more likely to raise questions or objections from a
Our limited literacy with the host cultures gave rise to
co-operating teacher. The participants reported other
what research participants saw as mixed or contradictory
incidents with similar apparent impact. Steve recalled
messages from the hosts. Having anticipated high levels of
an encounter with a Ministerial official, who arrived
extended family support and care in their host countries,
two hours late: ‘We went to a school, and they [left] and
both Linda and Steve reported being taken aback by
I never spoke to them again, despite trying to initiate
seeing people with no apparent source of family support
contact’. Pamela recounted a planned meeting with a
and little government welfare. Linda was shocked to
Ministry contact person at the onset of the Samoan PE.
meet a retired university lecturer, who was ‘pretty much
The Ministry official was to meet Pamela at the hotel
confined to one room because there wasn’t a welfare
at 3pm prior to the first day’s teaching. When Pamela
system’. Steve also recounted what he saw as a paradox
returned to the hotel in good time for the proposed
between Samoan religious fealty and apparent levels
meeting, she was informed that the official had called in
of drunkenness and domestic violence. He also said it
earlier and left, and would not be returning. Aware of the
struck him as counterintuitive that, despite the apparent
importance of first impressions, Pamela rang the official,
predominance of collaboration or collectivism over
‘profusely apologising’. The official responded that she
competition in Samoa, one of the schools set out to help
just happened to be passing the hotel earlier, and decided
their students gain entry to a selective high school. Such
to drop in at that time instead. We are left to infer that
encounters serve to illustrate the multi-dimensionality
Samoans and Australians might typically interpret such
and, at times, impenetrability of others’ culture. We
encounters differently. As Pamela recollected, ‘It didn’t
accept that we inevitably export our own cultural norms,
seem to matter to her at all, but it mattered to me’.
assumptions and corresponding interpretations with us,
An incident in Thailand that disquieted the visitors
despite our best deconstructive efforts.
concerned the organisation and allocation of PE schools
Disparities in available technology also presented
in Thailand. Having agreed that the appointed time of year
challenges, and/or opportunities, to pre-service students.
would be appropriate for the international PE, we learnt
Given our university’s association with technology, some
upon arrival that national exams were being conducted in
host school staff anticipated that our students might
all high schools, rendering them unavailable. When asked
be there to teach them about the use of pedagogical
during the interview if that might be ‘a cultural thing’,
technologies. While this misunderstanding was easily
Mike responded,
resolved, there do appear to be associated assumptions
I don’t care where it is, what country it is, anyone can organise that. I don’t think it’s a cultural thing. I think it’s really slack, and I think these people need to lift their game, dramatically. To send you to a school where the students are doing exams this week so no classes - the person didn’t even bother to check. You can’t sugar coat this – they need to lift their game.
that technology affords superior pedagogies compared to technology-poor approaches. For our pre-service teachers to be positioned as the experts arguably inverts the preservice teacher-host supervising teacher relationship.This also has implications for the expectations of academic supervisors. As Pamela observed, ‘If the [pre-service teachers] are positioned as experts, then this really
A matter of dress code arose in Samoa but was easily resolved.
positions the academic staff as super-experts’.
As Pamela explained, the Principal at one
One difference between international PEs and onshore
school was openly critical of one of our male pre-service
PEs is that our university does not pay international PE
teachers, ‘who, to his credit, went and bought some lava
cooperating teachers. In defence of non-payment, the
lavas [traditional male wraparound] and collared shirts
academic supervisor assumes much of the cooperating
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teacher’s responsibilities through provision of planning
PE because ‘I didn’t want a “smooth ride”, but I wanted
support and feedback to pre-service teachers. Moreover,
to professionally challenge myself and open up a sense
with a view to mimicking conditions in Australia, and
of new possibilities – for myself – in terms of my own
for accreditation purposes, we adopt the onshore
professional learning as a teacher educator’. Nevertheless,
IP reporting form, the language of which may be
high demands without reward or support may prove
unfamiliar to overseas teachers. Additionally, during the
debilitating for a lone international PE supervisor.
international PE the pre-service teachers may teach in
Further research into reward, demand and support will
a range of classrooms and at several schools, making it
complement existing literature on cultural dissonance.
difficult to identify the co-operating teacher to receive payment. Nevertheless, non-payment arguably signals
Intercultural dissonance
that local teachers are unworthy of assuming the
To the demands of an onshore PE, an international PE
responsibilities of supervision.
introduces higher levels of intercultural dissonance. Logically, a host culture that is more similar to one’s own
Discussion
might present fewer challenges. The more unfamiliar the new culture, the more difficult it might be for
Two international PE-related factors emerged from the
narratives:
demand and support, and intercultural These
dissonance.
elements
highlight
the backdrop against which the participants play their part.
A
third
temperament,
element,
investigates
the players themselves, and their interplay with their circumstances. A discussion of each element follows.
fathom ‘how the symbolic,
Dissonance between the pre-service teachers’ home and host cultures presented occasional problems for the academic supervisors, sometimes vicariously. In all four destinations divergent expectations emerged about appropriate school organisation. These included dress codes in Indonesia, preparedness of international PE schools in Thailand, and use of corporal punishment in Samoa
Encounters: Reward, demand and support This
element
international PE supervisors and pre-service teachers to
reward,
concerns
material
and
behavioural
practices in teaching and learning
are
experienced,
work together, are related to broader social, political and economic and
have
developments, particular
effects on individuals and communities’ (Halse, 2013, p. 150). This supervisor-culture interplay needs to be taken into account when planning international
PEs
and
preparing pre-service teachers and supervisors for them. on
It is possible that our pre-service teacher who faced a
international PE supervisors, vis-à-vis the rewards and
panic crisis in Indonesia might not have reacted to the same
support offered. It explores the cultural milieus in
extent in Samoa. Similarly, the student who feared facing
which international PE supervisors find themselves
anxiety prior to visiting Samoa may have been more likely
and interrogates the kinds of responses these might
to do so in Indonesia; we can only speculate. Nevertheless,
precipitate. In the case of international PEs, it also seeks
an aspect of Samoan practice, corporal punishment, proved
to understand how modifying some circumstances might
to be among the most confronting for some of the visitors.
better support pre-service teachers facing an assessable,
James reported that of all his PE destinations, one in
accredited
supervisors
Australia’s Northern Territory, in a relatively isolated school
facing difficult decisions with little support or advice
with almost exclusively Aboriginal students and staff,
immediately available. This element also examines how
appeared to him ‘the most foreign’ he had encountered,
building knowledge, expectations and resilience prior
as ways of thinking and doing were so unfamiliar to him.
to the international PE might help supervisors and pre-
This highlights the difficulty in anticipating and predicting
service teachers to minimise some of the adjustment
intercultural dissonance, making optimal preparation for
difficulties encountered.
an international PE difficult to ascertain. Nevertheless,
international
the
PE,
demands
and
for
placed
A certain level of challenge is not necessarily deleterious.
equipping all students and supervising staff with as much
As Pamela explained, ‘Culture shock is good; it’s part of
cultural knowledge as practicable is a vital precursor to the
the experience’, for academic supervisors and pre-service
successful operation of an international PE, and optimal
teachers alike. Pamela offered to supervise an international
support for its participants.
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Reserving our right to ‘critique everything’ is arguably a
A supervisor’s or pre-service teacher’s temperament
set of Western values that we seek to impose universally.
may
(Bastian,
Moreover, we are probably overlooking those things that
McCord, Marks & Carpenter, 2017). Temperament is an
we hesitate to critique in the West. As Steve put it,‘I didn’t
idiosyncratic, personal component, an ‘emotional style’
want to give the impression that I’m the great white
(Eren, 2014, p. 381) that can perhaps be gauged by one’s
bwana coming in to show them how to do their job’. Or
responses to problems or crises. No attempt to venture
in James’s words, ‘We’re not there to rid or cure them of
into any psychological analysis of behaviour is proposed
their Indonesian or Samoan tendencies’. I am inclined to
here but suffice it to say that different individuals react
sympathise with Mike’s lament about the disorganisation
in various ways to otherwise similar circumstances.
encountered in Thailand: ‘This is no way to run an
Only one pre-service teacher is known to have suffered
organisation’; in so doing, I am arguably imposing my
a panic attack during any of the international PEs
Western values.
influence
intercultural
interactions
under discussion, although another feared she might.
All elements above are arguably controllable to
A thwarted meeting with a Ministry official appears
some extent. The choice of destinations according to
to have had a deeper impact on Pamela than on Steve,
(perceived) cultural dissonance may assist supervisors
even though both of them pursued means to address the
in their responsibilities. Similarly, choosing supervisors
situation. Similarly, Linda appeared more disconcerted
with broader intercultural experience may minimise
by her encounter with a local person with no family
related problems, but neither approach guarantees
support than did Steve.
a problem-free international PE. Perhaps the most
Reactions might be a combination of individual
controllable aspect in this narrative is building
temperament and circumstance. Our pre-service teacher
resilience, possibly through prior sharing of knowledge,
who failed the international PE appeared relatively
information and understanding of the host culture,
unfazed by the outcome.
enabling participants to devote greater focus to their
According to Pamela, ‘He
had already been having doubts about his suitability to
teaching or supervision.
teaching. It was a productive conversation and we were
A related problem concerns our international PE
able to plan a path for him’. She added, ‘But it was awful
students’ own limited knowledge about host countries.
for me to be in this situation’.
In Indonesia this manifested itself culturally in terms of
Temperament may also derive from previous in/
the dress code. In an interculturally rich environment
experience. Pamela had not travelled to developing
such as Sydney, one might have expected familiarity with
countries before, whereas Beverly had visited Afghanistan,
typical Muslim dress expectations. A similar unfamiliarity
Iran, Myanmar and Algeria. Such prior experiences are
with local context also manifested pedagogically when
likely to lessen culture shock for academic supervisors.
teaching about the four seasons in Samoa. The local
Whether a person’s previous destinations can be an
children struggled with the concepts, and our pre-service
indicator of resilience in such matters is more difficult to
teachers struggled to understand why. It emerged that
discern, however.
they had limited awareness of Samoa’s wet and dry
It
might
be
tempting
to
consider
increased
seasons. Such cultural and pedagogical responses are
intercultural acceptance as unquestionably preferable to
disconcerting, not only in terms of the international PE, but
the alternative. But universal acceptance of all aspects
also for our graduates, who will, ideally, become globalised
of all cultures may also be problematic. An acceptance
third-millennium teachers working inter-culturally. It is
or rejection of corporal punishment, and attitudes to
to be hoped that these experiences add to our students’
dress codes are two examples that arose in this study.
capital of intercultural and global knowledge, awareness
Similarly, we might not want to affirm taxi-driving
and sensitivities.
teachers, although we understand the dynamics that
The temperament aspect invokes a further tension.
might precipitate it. Concerning the Indonesian dress
High resilience is at times linked with efficacy and agency
code, Beverly shared,
(Bandura, 1982). Agency is often couched in terms of
Part of me says I want to push the envelope here and not wear something too long…I’m a Western woman and this is what I wear. So I did do that a little bit, but on the other hand, in a classroom with Muslim kids, it’s different.
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ability to change and impact one’s circumstances – but such an aim in an intercultural context may smack of neocolonialism. The circumstances to be impacted are those that concern the children’s learning.
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Dr John Buchanan is an associate professor in the School of Education at the University of Technology Sydney, Australia,
Trede, Bowles and Bridges (2013) observe that inadequate
where he also coordinates international and engagement
preparation for an international PE can lead to negative
programs. His research interests include intercultural
learning experiences and outcomes. Ultimately, in the
education, as well as teacher quality, attrition and retention.
lead-up to and during the relatively short time of an
Contact: John.Buchanan@uts.edu.au
international PE, there is a tussle between prioritising preservice teachers’ intercultural competence and optimising their pedagogy (Buchanan et al., 2017). Pre-service teachers tend to prioritise the latter, their assessable pedagogy, and devoting attention to both can be a demanding task for them. Indeed, there is an argument that the optimal way to serve the international host school students is to focus all one’s energies on teaching. This might present a particularly strong argument in the case of helping non-English background speakers acquire and refine their abilities in English, given current global realities and the dominance of English. There is a risk herein that an international professional experience can be a normalising one for staff and students alike, particularly in terms of preferred pedagogies. It is perhaps these two ostensibly competitive, yet also at times complementary, intents (pedagogy and intercultural competence) and the resulting conversations, even arguments, that may serve us best in our teaching endeavours, both at home and abroad. Nevertheless, the academic supervisor is left to do much of this tussling alone. While this is also likely to be an enriching experience for the supervisor, in the shortterm, it can also be overwhelming, particularly in the context of meeting their other responsibilities. The findings here present a strong case to extend further support to academic supervisors, such as deploying international PE supervisors in pairs where practicable. This would incur a considerable cost to the university, including fares and accommodation, and staff lost from onshore supervision and other responsibilities. In
addition, there
was
universal
agreement
that
international PEs consume more supervisor time than their onshore counterparts. Greater and more focused information-sharing prior to the international PE, and debriefing during and afterwards, including increased communication through Skype and other technologies, may address some of these concerns, particularly bearing in mind the ultimate goal of such professional experiences – serving the needs of the school students.
References AITSL (2014). Australian Professional Standards for Teachers. Retrieved from http://www.aitsl.edu.au/australian-professional-standards-for-teachers/ standards/list Auerbach, C. & Silverstein, L. (2003). Qualitative data: An introduction to coding and analysis. New York: New York University Press. Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122-147. Bastian, K. C., McCord, D. M., Marks, J. T., & Carpenter, D. (2017). A Temperament for Teaching? Associations Between Personality Traits and Beginning Teacher Performance and Retention. AERA Open, 3(1), 2332858416684764. Beck, C., & Kosnik, C. (2002). Components of a good practicum placement: student teacher perceptions. Teacher Education Quarterly 29(2), 81-98. Bodycott, P., Mak, A., & Ramburuth, P. (2013). Utilising an Internationalised Curriculum to Enhance Students’ Intercultural Interaction, Engagement and Adaptation. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 23(3), 635-643. Buchanan, J. & Maher, D. (2018). Being a ‘foreign’ language teacher: negotiating the culture of a school when unfamiliar with the language of instruction. Teacher Development, 1-18. Buchanan, J., Major, J., Harbon, L., & Kearney, S. (2017). Preparing teachers through international experience: A collaborative critical analysis of four Australian programs. In C. Reid and J. Major (Eds.). Global Teaching: Southern Perspectives on Working with Diversity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Pp. 176-188. Buchanan, J. & Widodo, A. (2016). Your place or mine? Global imbalances in internationalisation and mobilisation in educational professional experience. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17(2), 355-364. Connelly, F. & Clandinin, J. (1990). Stories of experience and narrative inquiry. Educational Researcher, 19(5), 2-14. Cohen, E., Hoz, R., & Kaplan, H. (2013). The practicum in pre-service teacher education: A review of empirical studies. Teaching Education, 24(4), 345-380. Dervin, F. (2010). Assessing intercultural competence in language learning and teaching: A critical review of current efforts. In F. Dervin & E. Suomela-Salmi (Eds.). New approaches to assessment in higher education. Bern: Peter Lang. Pp. 157-173. Elbaz-Lusisch, F. (2007). Studying teachers’ lives and experience. In J. Clandinin (Ed.). Handbook of narrative inquiry: Mapping a methodology, pp. 357-382. Eren, A. (2014). Relational analysis of prospective teachers’ emotions about teaching, emotional styles, and professional plans about teaching. Australian Educational Researcher, 41(4), 381-409. Fayne, P. (2007). Supervision from the student teacher’s perspective: an institutional case study. Studying Teacher Education, 3(1), 53-66. Freire, P. (1970/2007). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.
Acknowledgements I am most grateful to my colleagues for giving their time to take part in conversations. vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Halse, C. (2013). Presidential address: Culture and the future of educational research. Australian Educational Researcher, 40(2), 139-153. Kruger, R. & Casey, M. (2000). Focus Groups: A practical guide applied research. (3rd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Wish you were here John Buchanan
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Loh, J. (2013). Inquiry into Issues of Trustworthiness and Quality in Narrative Studies: A Perspective. The Qualitative Report, 18(33).
Appendix
McDonald, L. (2014). Visiting lecturers: Perceptions of their role in supervising student teachers on practicum. Journal of Education and Training, 1(2), 210-222.
Semi-structured interview/focus group questions
Mueller, A., & Skamp, K. (2003). Teacher candidates talk: Listen to the unsteady beat of learning to teach. Journal of Teacher Education, 54, 429-440.
issues of wellbeing, and OH&S for supervising staff;
Ong’ondo, C., & Borg, S. (2011). ‘We teach plastic lessons to please them’: The influence of supervision on the practice of English language student teachers in Kenya. Language Teaching Research, 1(4), 509-528. Patrick, R. (2013). ‘Don’t rock the boat’: Conflicting mentor and pre-service teacher narratives of professional experience. Australian Educational Researcher, 40(2), 207-226.
Preamble: Our discussion will focus on the following: relationships with the pre-service teachers; relationships with the schools (executive, staff and students, as applicable) and other hosts (e.g. a university if applicable); relationships with the locals/negotiating the culture. [Prompts: Do you have any comments on how you
Ryan, J., Jones, M., & Walta, C. (2012). Creating a sustainable and supportive teaching practicum in rural and regional locations. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 22 (1), 57-72.
think the host communities, schools and teachers viewed
Spector-Mersel, G. (2010). Narrative research: Time for a paradigm. Narrative Inquiry, 20(1), 204-224.
otherwise, about the international PE you supervised?
Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
you left etc?]
Trede, F., Bowles, W., & Bridges, D. (2013). Developing intercultural competence and global citizenship through international experiences academics’ perceptions. Intercultural Education, 24(5), 442-455.
pre-service teachers is different in international PEs (as
Vaismoradi, M., Turunen, H., & Bondas, T. (2013). Content analysis and thematic analysis: Implications for conducting a qualitative descriptive study. Nursing and Health Sciences, 15, 398-405.
do you think? Any differently from on-shore PEs? Did
Wells, K. (2011). Narrative Inquiry. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Yan, C. & He, C. (2010). Transforming the existing model of teaching practicum: A study of Chinese EFL student teachers’ perceptions. Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy, 36(1), 57-73.
you, and by extension UTS (and, perhaps, Australians)?] What were the things that surprised you, pleasantly or [Prompts: any first impressions; thoughts, feelings as How, if at all, do you think the relationship with our opposed to onshore PEs)? How do you feel about this? [Prompts: How did the pre-service teachers view you, any of this constrain you to behave (or release you from behaving) in certain ways? Do you think they were more (or less) dependent on you, and/or dependent in different ways, during the international PE than in other PEs?] Was there a host/mediating institution, such as a local university? How did you find negotiating with it and its key gatekeepers/stakeholders? How would you describe the schools at which you supervised? Was there anything that surprised you, pleasantly or otherwise? How did you find negotiating with the executive, and with cooperating teachers? Did you have any interaction with local school students? Anything you want to describe about that? In what ways if at all were the demands different, particularly if they were greater, than in an onshore PE? (If it’s not too personal!) Do you have any comments about the out-of-school time while you were away? Prompts: What, if any, were the main adjustments you had to make? Was there anything you missed while you were away? How would you describe the international PE in terms of its capacity as a learning opportunity (or impediment?) for the students and for you? Are there any structural or other changes you could suggest to make the international PE more supervisorfriendly?
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Research workloads in Australian universities John Kenny & Andrew Edward Fluck University of Tasmania
This article provides insight into the nature of research workload allocation for Australian academics. It explores the distinction between research performance and research workload allocation. Research performance can be judged at an institutional level, a work group level or an individual level. The process by which an institution’s research performance is judged is not necessarily suitable at the level of the individual academic. The research performance of individual academics is based on their ‘research output’, in the form of publications, grants or supervision of research students, but historically, little attention has been paid to the ‘input’ or the time required to achieve these outputs. To determine the real costs of research, and to examine academic working conditions, this paper argues the clear distinction must be made that ‘output’ is about research performance; whereas ‘input’ is about research workload allocation. Therefore, what is needed is a suite of reasonable time allocations which can be associated with research activities, as is the case for teaching related activities. The paper analyses data from an online survey, circulated to academics across Australia in 2016, in which staff estimated the typical time spent on a wide range of research related tasks. The findings from the 2059 respondents show staff strongly support a transparent and holistic approach to workload planning which acknowledges the full range of activities they undertake. Analysis of the times associated with the research tasks led to the development of a table of suggested time estimates, based on the median values, for many common research activities. Keywords: Academic workload; time-based allocation; research tasks; academic workload models
Introduction: The research landscape
academics (Anderson, 2006; Bexley, James & Arkoudis, 2011; Langford, 2010; Roberts, 2013; Ryan, 2012; Woelert
In the post-cold war global neoliberal economic
& Yates, 2014).
agenda, the importance of knowledge for economic
In Australia, similar policies have driven efficiency
competitiveness was predicted to lead to universities
and productivity measures in universities and required
becoming less autonomous and increasingly subject to
institutions to become more entrepreneurial and
‘performativity’ (Lyotard, 1979). In practice, in the US
responsive to industry needs (Marginson, 2006; Marginson
(Giroux, 2002) and UK (Furlong, 2013) universities have
& Considine, 2000). University rankings have assumed
experienced decreased government funding, increased
increasing importance, due to their ability to enhance
managerialism and external accountability.The underlying
reputation and attract lucrative international fee-paying
higher educational policies, based on assumptions of
students. The Australian Financial Review estimated the
‘globalisation, competition and meritocracy’, have had a
overseas student market was worth $20 billion in 2015,
profound effect on educational institutions (Furlong, 2013,
making it the third-largest export after coal and iron ore
p. 32). Driving efficiency through funding reductions
(Dodd, 2016).
has resulted in increasing casualisation of the academic
Gill (2014) lamented that, through this extended period
workforce which has significantly contributed to the loss
of neoliberal change, there has been a ‘dearth of research
of power and greater levels of stress reported by many
on academic labour’ in the UK (p. 12) with the effects of
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these changes ‘almost entirely undocumented at the level
university funding for research is set to transition, from
of university workers’ experiences’ (Gill, 2014, p. 13). To
the largely publications-based metric under the ERA, to
address this gap in the literature, the authors surveyed
a process more connected to research grant income and
academic staff from across the Australian higher education
research candidate completions as proxy measures of
sector to obtain data on the time they typically take to
research excellence.The results will be used to determine
perform a wide range of tasks associated with the teaching,
allocation to universities of the $1.9 billion each year
research and service related aspects of their work.
through the Australian Government Research Block Grant
This paper aims to explore how the changes outlined
(Pettigrew, 2015).These changes are already having direct
above have affected the work of individual academics in
implications for the development of research strategies
Australian universities. The key question of concern was
and policies within universities and will directly impact
‘Can the essential intrinsic motivational and self-managing
decisions about how each organisation will support its
aspects of academic work, in teaching, research and
researchers and gauge performance.
service, be preserved in an ostensibly hostile managerial
Thus, as Franco-Santos, Rivera and Bourne (2014) argued,
environment?’ Given the global nature of these trends,
externally driven performance regimes (such as the ERA)
the findings may also have implications for academics
have direct consequences at the organisational level, the
elsewhere.
work unit level and at the level of the individual academic. This has led to the widespread adoption of corporate
Determining research performance
based performance management policies intended to improve the research output of individual academics
Research is defined as ‘investigation undertaken to gain
(Franco-Santos, et al., 2014; Kenny, 2016; Morris, 2011;
knowledge and understanding or to train researchers’
Winter & Sarros, 2002). Research shows that workplace
(NHMCR, ARC & AVCC, 2015). Given the importance of
stress arising from demands for greater productivity often
research for a competitive economy, it is not surprising
adversely affect the ability of academics to undertake
that governments around the world have established
research (Anderson, 2006; Cannizzo & Osbaldiston, 2016;
elaborate mechanisms to measure research performance
Houston, Meyer & Paewai, 2006; Langford, 2010; Roberts,
to target their spending (Kwok, 2013). Improving their
2013; Ryan, 2012). These findings indicate that something
comparative performance on research has become a vital
may be amiss with the way external performance drivers
strategic goal in most institutions. They monitor their
are translated into institutional policies around research,
performance relative to competitors, in the chase for
especially as they pertain to individual academics.
limited funds and a better relative position on international
Franco-Santos et al. (2014) surveyed 1000 employees in
rankings tables (Edwards & Roy, 2017). Excellence in
UK higher education and interviewed 110 of them. They
Research Australia (ERA) is the current methodology used
identified two basic types of performance management
to determine and compare the research performance of
system – stewardship and agency. Stewardship approaches
Australian universities. Australian universities have a legal
‘focus on long-term outcomes through people’s knowledge
obligation to be involved in both teaching and research
and values, autonomy and shared-leadership within a high
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2015), but only about 35 per
trust environment.’ Moreover, they found that stewardship
cent of the cost of university research is directly provided
approaches are associated with higher levels of staff
by the Australian Government (Productivity Commission,
well-being as well as higher student satisfaction (p. 7). By
2017, p. 44).The remaining research funding relies heavily
contrast, agency approaches ‘focus on short-term results
on cross-subsidies from teaching revenues, often across
or outputs through greater monitoring and control’ (p. 7).
disciplines (Productivity Commission, 2017, p. 49).
While suggesting that universities should ‘adopt and use
The effectiveness of these research performance
those performance management mechanisms that are
regimes has been questioned due to their cumbersome
fit for purpose’, they noted that increased accountability
nature, associated compliance costs, and often perverse
pressures on universities had caused a shift towards more
impact on the work of academics (Edwards & Roy, 2017;
agency-based performance management approaches (p. 8).
Henkel, 2005; Kwok, 2013). However, their persistence
Similarly, Pink (2010) argued that corporate style
and evolution continues, as evidenced by a recent
performance management systems, based on extrinsic
review of research policy and funding conducted by Ian
motivators such as performance-based pay, can be
Watt (2015). This review has led to a further revision in
counter-productive when applied to staff whose work
key metrics of research. Over the four years from 2017,
involves even mildly cognitive tasks. Therefore, to avoid
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Research workloads in Australian universities John Kenny & Andrew Edward Fluck
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perverse outcomes, it is essential that any mechanisms
that may not have resulted directly in outputs. Essentially,
to monitor academic performance are designed to
outputs are more suited as a measure of an individual’s
suit the underlying nature of academic work, which is
research performance rather than their research workload
largely based on intrinsic motivation, recognition and
(Kenny, 2016).The examples below illustrate how this may
prestige amongst their peers (Blackmore & Kandiko,
cause problems for individual academics.
2011; Edwards & Roy, 2017; Fredman & Doughney, 2012).
As an example, consider the time and effort required
However, although performance management processes
when an academic applies for a competitive research
have been in widespread use for many years in Australian
grant. In the US, Edwards and Roy (2017) outline some
universities (Morris, 2011), across the sector they were
concerns arising from a focus on shrinking grant income,
found to be largely incoherent and poorly conceptualised
including distortion of the research agenda, costs of staff
(Kenny, 2016).
time spent generating applications and the compliance
Time-based
approaches
to
academic
workload
costs of administering grants. In Australia, success rates
allocation are the most widely accepted, due to their
for the highly competitive Australian Research Council
ability to account for the complexity and range of
grants is around 10-15 per cent in some discipline areas
demands on academic time (Vardi, 2009; Watson, King,
(ARC, 2015). Thus, it is highly likely within the existing
Dekeyser, Bare & Baldock, 2015). However, the credibility
funding frameworks, that any given grant application will
of these time-based approaches, in the eyes of academics,
be unsuccessful. However, in many universities, with the
rests on their ability to reflect the work actually done.
focus on outputs, only successful grants are acknowledged
This is associated with the degree of consultation in their
in academic research workloads. This means that, for the
development, the level of transparency in their application
majority of academics, the workload associated with
and their capacity to cater for a wide range of disciplinary
submitting a grant is not acknowledged or accounted
variations in academic roles (Houston et al., 2006; Kenny
for in any way. This provides a disincentive and hides the
& Fluck, 2014; Vardi, 2009; Woelert & Yates, 2014).
true costs of research to the institution and the sector. It
This implies the processes for managing the workload
is already widely recognised that universities in Australia
of individual academics and the ways in which individual
do not receive funding for the full cost of research, and
research performance is determined are important aspects
so most internally subsidise their research activities from
of worker satisfaction and quality research outcomes for
money received to support their teaching programs
an institution (Kenny, 2016; Kenny & Fluck, 2017). Poorly
(Allen Consulting Group, 2009; Norton & Cherastidtham,
designed individual research performance processes and/
2015). A lack of accountability for research related work
or ineffective academic workload allocation processes
time only exacerbates this point.
can actually be counter-productive for an organisation
Clearly, individual academics have little control over
(Franco-Santos, et al., 2014; Houston et al., 2006; Kenny
national funding and other sector priorities. A range of
& Fluck, 2014; Pink, 2010). To be truly effective in terms
external factors may affect grant outcomes, such as limited
of their research performance, as Gill (2014) suggested,
funds, or government funding priorities (Carter, 2014).
there must be a better understanding of how external
Worse still, for the individual academic concerned, where
accountability mechanisms, such as the ERA, affect the
the organisational research performance expectations
day to day work of academics within their institutions.
require success in winning competitive grant funding as a component of an individual’s research performance, it
The context for this study
can be very demotivating and disempowering (Kenny,
When determining academic workload,teaching is generally
2016; 2017). If a grant application is unsuccessful, it is not
accepted as an ‘input-based’ activity, with some form of
necessarily because the research proposal was poor.
time-based method used to pre-determine an individual’s
The examples above also illustrate the need to clearly
teaching load (Watson et al., 2015;Vardi, 2009). By contrast,
distinguish between the processes used to determine
an individual academic’s research load has typically been
the institutional research performance and internal
seen as an ‘output-based’ activity, derived from the resultant
processes used to manage the research performance of
products of the activities undertaken. The problem is that
individual academics. For individuals, it also highlights
outputs are a time lagging measure, which may often
the need to distinguish between research workload
refer to work completed up to two years earlier. It does
allocation (input activities) and research performance
not necessarily measure an individual’s current research
(the resultant outputs). The existence of a credible
workload. It also does not account for work undertaken
mechanism to estimate the actual time spent by academic
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staff on research related activities, such as preparing a
the NTEU claimed 31.7 per cent of all academics were
grant application, would contribute greatly to the ability
members of the Union (personal email communication,
of universities to estimate the direct staffing costs of
2016), which is consistent with a figure of 31 per cent
research, which then could be amortised across the
provided by the Australian Bureau of Statistics for the
institutions and the sector.
education and training industry divisions (Australian
As alluded to earlier, studies have shown that the performance
management
process
for
Bureau of Statistics, 2016). Thus, while the sample
individual
completing the questionnaire probably consisted of a
academics cannot be separated from the workload
higher proportion of union members than the general
allocation process (Kenny & Fluck, 2014; Kenny, 2016).To
academic population, nevertheless it is reasonably
gauge an individual’s research workload, there needs to be
representative of the 52,974 academics in Australia at that
some means to estimate the effort required to undertake
time (Department of Education and Training, 2016).
research related activities. In their case study, Houston et
Using the same methodology as the earlier paper
al. (2006) used existing workload allocation models in an
(Kenny & Fluck, 2017), the data provided by individual
institution to provide some estimates for a limited number
academics for a range of research related activities was
of teaching and research related activities (p. 26). These
analysed and the median work hours for each activity
further illustrate the difficulty of estimating meaningful
determined. The data were then interrogated by sub-
allocations for academic work due to individual variations
group to identify any statistically significant differences by
(Kenny & Fluck, 2014). A previous paper by the authors,
academic level, years of experience, academic discipline
(Kenny & Fluck, 2017), reported on the teaching data
and academic workload category (i.e. teaching and
from the survey and used statistical analysis to suggest
research, research intensive, research only or teaching
reasonable time standards for a range of teaching related
intensive).With respect to these workload categories, 72.9
activities. This article follows a similar approach to
per cent of our sample identified as teaching and research,
examine the data provided for a range of research related
9.8 per cent as research intensive/only and 17.2 per cent
activities. To the Authors’ knowledge, there is little in the
as teaching intensive/only. The Australian Government
literature, or in university research performance policies,
(2016), through the Department of Education and
exploring this important difference between the research
Training website, reported that 32.2 per cent (14,617)
input (workload) and research output (performance).
of ongoing academic staff (excluding casual academics)
There appears to be no comparable data supporting time
in Australian universities were classed as Research Only.
standards for research related aspects of academic work.
Of the remainder, 59.6 per cent (26,963) held Teaching and Research positions, with 8.2 per cent (3,696) classed
Method
as Teaching Only. Therefore, the data is slightly skewed towards teaching and research staff.
The questionnaire that forms the basis of this study was sent to academics working in every university across Australia. The questions asked individual academics
Results and discussion
teaching, research and service related activities. With the
Attitudes of Australian academics to research workload management
cooperation with the National Tertiary Education Union
Bearing in mind the discussion above concerning the
(NTEU), an online questionnaire was circulated in early
links between research workload and performance, this
2016 to 8,000 academics across the Australian university
question was explored in detail in the survey and the
sector, including both members and non-members of
results are shown in Table 1. This table summarises the
the union. Responses were received from academics at
percentage of staff who ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with
each of the 39 Australian universities. The respondents
each statement on a five-point Likert scale from ‘Strongly
included a spread of academic levels, years of experience,
disagree’ to ‘Strongly agree’. The questionnaire also
disciplines and gender which broadly reflect the general
provided for the respondents to add open text comments.
to estimate the time they spent on a wide range of
academic population. This paper presents an analysis of the research related aspects of the questionnaire.
The results in Table 1 are consistent with the literature and re-emphasise the connection between research
The 2,059 valid responses constituted a very good
workload and performance (Kenny, 2016) since 94.7 per
response rate of 22.2 per cent, with an estimated 43 per
cent of academics believed their research performance
cent of those likely to be Union members. At the time,
must be judged holistically in the context of the teaching,
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Research workloads in Australian universities John Kenny & Andrew Edward Fluck
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Table 1: Agreement with statements about research workload and performance Statement (n)
% agree or strongly agree
Research workload performance must be considered holistically, taking account of my teaching, administration, service and community engagement duties (1361)
94.7
Research workload must be considered as part of a holistic allocation process that is fair and transparent (1362)
93.7
The minimal expectations should be transparently applied and adjusted pro-rata to match the actual research time allocated to the individual (1319)
88.6
Research performance should specify transparent minimal expectations, suited to each discipline, that are achievable by a competent academic within their allocated research time (1333)
87.9
Minimal research expectations on an individual must consist only of tasks that are achievable by and within the control of the individual academic (1321)
86.8
My research workload allocation process should take account of planned (input) activities for the coming year such as supervision, grant applications, article submission, etc. (1363)
86.2
The minimal research performance expectations should be considered as a demonstration of satisfactory performance by a competent academic in their discipline (1324)
78.7
Research expectations may describe aspirational levels of performance above the minimum which are clearly not mandatory (1315)
67.4
I am able to self-manage my research workload (1369)
58.1
I have adequate time provided in my workload allocation to conduct my research (1377)
11.6
administration, service and community engagement
(2016) found substantial lack of coherence.This mismatch
demands on their time (N=1361). In addition, 93.7
could explain to some degree the level of frustration and
per cent agree that their research workload must be
stress reported in the literature, especially if academics
considered as part of a workload allocation process that
are working within a performance culture that is agency-
is fair and transparent (N=1362). This is consistent with
based and emphasises outputs.
findings by Kenny (2016) who reported 97 per cent of
The open text comments about their experience
academics, ‘irrespective of academic level or discipline’
with research performance expectations, revealed a
held a similar view. However, while a majority (58.1
lack of satisfaction and understanding of the process
per cent) of academics said they can self-manage their
by many respondents. Many criticised the lack of
research workload, only 11.6 per cent (N=1377) of the
disciplinary awareness amongst managers. There was
respondents believed they were provided with adequate
also uncertainty about the performance ‘expectations’: ‘I
time in their workload to conduct research.
receive conflicting information in this area. Possibly there
The vast majority (over 85 per cent) also agreed that:
is confusion between minimal, negotiated as per position
their research performance must be based on activities
description and aspirational’ (Female, Level C). Negative
over which they have control; that expectations should
sentiment about research performance expectations was
be directly proportional to the time they have available
expressed in phrases like ‘the pressure is relentless’;‘there
within their workload to undertake research and;
is an increased focus on short-term economic gain’;‘They
that discussions about their workload should include
are ludicrous and unachievable year on year.’; ‘there are
consideration of planned research input activities for
little incentives and recognition for the staff who are
the coming year. Over two thirds believed in a clear
doing their best’; ‘The constant stress of trying to get
separation between minimal performance expectations
grants is exhausting’;‘Ludicrously unrealistic’.
and aspirational expectations.
Although fewer in number, there were some positive
As discussed earlier, research performance is linked to
comments that included ‘My Faculty has been reasonable
outputs, while workload is linked to the time academics
on this so far’;‘I achieve my goals, so I am happy with them.
are expected to spend on research activities to produce
For this year.’; ‘very happy with them’; ‘The expectations
research outcomes. While this statement might be
are reasonable and well-managed (updated annually in a
obvious, it is not reflected in the research performance
suitably flexible way)’. And on a salutary note: ‘Whatever
policies of most universities in Australia, in which Kenny
you do, there will be at least one metric you won’t manage
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Research workloads in Australian universities John Kenny & Andrew Edward Fluck
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to meet’.‘The biggest challenge in research is not research
such a suite of research time allocations is the purpose of
itself, but in managing teaching and admin workload so as
the following analysis.
to protect time for research.’ will privilege quantity of publications over quality:
Estimates of reasonable time allocations for research activities
‘Simple quantitative measures (number of articles) do not
The analytical approach will be illustrated using the
measure the difficulty of writing’; ‘I strongly believe that
data provided for one research activity: preparing an
quality measures of publications should be included in
academic article for submission for peer review in a
measuring research performance’. Kenny (2016) reported
journal. This is widely regarded as a core activity for
that some universities attempted to build quality criteria
academic researchers across most disciplines. Clearly
into the design of their research performance policy
there are many factors which might impact on the time
by, for example, giving bonus points for publication in
any given individual academic may take to complete this
highly ranked journals. He argued for a clear distinction
task including: the experience level of the academic, the
between ‘minimum’ research performance expectations,
nature of the research topic, the discipline, the intended
designed to encourage and support individuals to
audience, the chosen journal, etc. Nevertheless, the survey
engage in on-going research activity and to demonstrate
asked academics to estimate the time typically spent on
accountability associated with their research workload
this task. On analysing the responses, as was found for
allocation, and more ‘aspirational’ research expectations,
the teaching related data, there was wide variation in the
designed to encourage excellence. Logically, the question
time estimates provided by individuals. Figure 1 shows
of quality of outputs fits with the aspirational expectations,
the distribution of data was positively skewed, and there
along with:
were many outliers. In this case, twelve responses were
Others expressed concern that a focus on outputs
identified (e.g. 6,480, 4,800, 3,150, 2,400, 1,500, 1,120, and
...appropriate incentives likely to advance academic careers or prestige such as access to study leave, funds to attend conferences; payments of modest funds into the research accounts of published authors, becoming eligible to increase the research component of their workload and/or linking levels of high performance directly and transparently to certain academic promotion criteria (Kenny, 2016, p. 15).
1,000 hours) which are omitted from the figure. The same standard statistical analysis process, as outlined in (Kenny & Fluck, 2017), was followed. Statistical measures reliant on a normal distribution were inappropriate. The mean time for this task was found to be 139.51 hours (SD 137.05), with a median of 100
The contradictions evident in these statements are consistent with earlier comments that the processes
Histogram
used to judge the research performance of academics
200
are not always fully conceptualised and can be counter-
Mean = 139.51 Std. Dev. = 137.05 N = 711
productive. Many academics will accept performance expectations that are seen to be reasonable and are 150
that they have some control over their work (Cannizzo & Osbaldiston, 2016; Fredman & Doughney, 2012; Houston et al., 2006; Kenny 2016). In this context, the authors contend that a suite of
Frequency
transparently applied. However, they remain concerned
100
realistic time allocations for research related activities would enable individual academics to negotiate a reasonable research workload in their annual performance
50
management discussions. If this also operated alongside a research performance process that recognised input as well as output activity, it could foster high performance and risk taking by acknowledging genuine individual effort. This would still reward aspirational achievement based on intrinsically motivational incentives such as promotion, funding for research, conferences or additional resources or time for research (Kenny, 2016). The development of
30
0
0.00
200.00 400.00 600.00 800.00 1000.00 Write A1 - Typical time spent preparing an ‘A1’ (refereed article in a scholarly journal) for submission and peer review. Average estimated time in hours for this task
Figure 1: Distribution of hours for writing a refereed journal article
Research workloads in Australian universities John Kenny & Andrew Edward Fluck
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Table 2: Median estimated workload time for typical publication related activities Research Activity
Median hours (N)
Median hours Typical p.a .(N) quantum p.a.
Write a refereed journal article
100 N=723
240 N=737
2.4
Write a research chapter
100 N=394
100 N=364
1
Prepare a curated exhibition or performance
140 N=47
200 N=45
1.4
Prepare a registered design
30 N=14
N/A
N/A
Write a research book
300 N=234
200 N=203
0.67
Prepare a refereed conference presentation
40 N=517
62.4 N=494
1.6
60 N=31
35 N=26
0.6
Prepare a patent application
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Workload time estimates for research publication outputs and supervision of research students Continuing this method of analysis for the range of research activities, the data were explored to obtain typical times associated with publications, supervision of research students and obtaining grants. Table 2 provides the median hours for typical publication-related activities, some of which are more common within certain disciplines (e.g. exhibitions). The second column refers to the median time spent on the given activity in a year. The third column, the typical quantum per annum was calculated by dividing column two by column one and indicates, for example, that academics typically write 2.4 articles per annum. In the analysis that follows, these data were explored further to ascertain if there are variations by academic level, years of experience, academic workload category and discipline. Table 3 below, is presented as an example of the statistical calculations that were completed for all research related tasks, using SPSS version 23. Each exploration of the data involved a statistical calculation to
hours (interquartile range of 50-200 = 150 hours). The
test for any patterns in the data using the non-parametric
median and the interquartile range are the appropriate
Kruskals-Wallis one-way ANOVA.
measures of central tendency and variability for skewed
Where no significant difference was found, the overall
data (McCluskey & Lalkhen, 2007) as they are less affected
median value was proposed as an acceptable and
by outliers than the mean (Australian Bureau of Statistics,
reasonable workload time allocation for a given research
2013).
task.Where a significant difference was detected, pairwise
Given the characteristics of the data described above,
comparisons using the Mann-Whitney U test occurred,
the median (100 hours) is proposed as a reasonable time
using the Bonferroni correction of significance for
to undertake this research task. A similar analysis was
multiple tests. To conserve space in the tables, only those
done for a range of other research related activities and
measures for which a significant difference was found
these are proposed as potential standard allocations. As
are discussed. Where there was no significant difference,
previously shown for teaching, the medians of the ‘typical
the median values have been adopted and entered
time’ for the range of tasks are not necessarily the actual
directly into Table 9, which provides a summary of the
time an individual academic might take to perform the
recommended time allocations for all research related
tasks. However, the medians provide a reasonable estimate
tasks explored in this study.
of the time required to do the tasks which, for the purposes of workload allocation, acknowledge the complexity of these tasks. Aggregating the allocated times for all the
Table 3: Exploring differentials in typical time required for preparing a refereed journal article for submission for peer review (median = 100 hours, N=723).
activities to be undertaken by an individual
Academic Level #
in a given year, would provide a meaningful
Median (n)
and transparent way of determining and comparing their research workloads. It can similarly become a mechanism for a work group to plan a research program and estimate the associated research staffing needs.
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Years of experience as an academic Median (n)
A
B
C
D
E
120* (46)
100 (293)
100 (213)
100 (87)
80 (84)
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
>20
120 (133)
114.5* (192)
100 (129)
80 (113)
80 (156)
# A – E: Associate lecturer; lecturer; senior lecturer; associate professor; professor, respectively. * Significantly different
Research workloads in Australian universities John Kenny & Andrew Edward Fluck
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Table 4: Median estimated research hours by discipline group (Cannizzo & Osbaldiston, 2016) Research Activity
Arts, Law and Humanities (559)
Social and Behavioural Sciences (76)
Science, Technology & Engineering (430)
Health and Medicine (496)
Business and Economics (201)
Education and Related (198)
Preparing a refereed journal article for submission and peer review (n) [Overall median = 100 hours] N=702, test=25.174, df=5, p<0.001
150* (180)
100 (34)
85 (194)
60 (173)
200* (67)
100 (54)
Preparing a research book for submission and peer review (n) [Overall median = 300 hours] N=225, Test=27.244, df=5, p<0.001
500* (98)
640 (3)
160 (37)
120 (39)
140 (25)
250 (23)
Preparing a conference paper for submission and peer review (n) [Overall median = 40 hours] N=499, Test =50.591, df=5, p<0.001.
50 (124)
30 (17)
40 (122)
20* (128)
50 (57)
50 (51)
Supervise a Higher Degree by Research candidate (per year) (n) [Overall median = 60 hours] N=551, test=16.757, df=5, p=0.005
50 (146)
50 (30)
80 (156)
60 (122)
76 (48)
60 (49)
* Significantly different
Table 3 provides the results in detail for the question of
if there were variations by discipline.
Amongst the
whether the typical time taken to prepare a journal article
respondents, 1960 provided their discipline area. As
for submission for peer review varied by academic level,
the numbers of respondents in some discipline areas
or by years of experience. The null hypothesis, that there
were low, to ensure the analysis was valid, we combined
was no significant difference, was rejected in each case if
disciplines into groupings based on those put forward
the p-value was found to be less than 0.05 (95 per cent
by Cannizzo and Osbaldiston (2016) as illustrated in
confidence level).
Table 4. When we tested for the variation of a selection
Differences by Level and experience
of research activity across these groupings, we found only three research activities for which a significant difference
A significant difference was found for preparing a
was evident across disciplines. The time taken to prepare
journal article for both the academic level (test = 13.191,
an ARC grant application did not vary across disciplines,
df=4, p=0.010), and years of experience (test=15.167,
but there was a significant difference detected in the four
df=4, p=0.004). For the academic levels, the pair-wise
activities listed in Table 4.
comparison involved comparing each pair of levels, A to
With respect to writing journal articles, the pairwise
B, B to C, C to D, etc. And using the Bonferroni correction
comparisons and the Bonferroni correction showed
for significance. This revealed that level A academics
two areas of significant difference (p<.05). Respondents
tended to take the longest time for this task, followed by
from Business/Economics reported taking significantly
levels B, C, D and E in order. Level As took significantly
longer to prepare a journal article for submission than
longer that Level E academics (p=0.015). Similarly, the
the three lowest disciplines and academics in Arts/Law
pair-wise analysis by years of experience indicates that
take significantly longer than those in Science or Health/
less experienced staff tended to take longer. The pairwise
Medicine.
analysis revealed that those with 6-10 years of experience
The low number of respondents from Social and
take significantly longer than those with more than 20
Behavioural Sciences and the fact that the Economics data
years of experience (p=0.007).
in the sample was heavily skewed towards the high end,
The above analysis suggests less experienced academics,
left some doubt about the reliability of these figures. Arts/
or those at level A, should be allocated 120 hours for this
Law was the discipline with the largest response rate, and
task (see medians in Table 3), whereas, with no significant
responses in this discipline area indicated the authorship
differences found between the other academic levels, the
of research books tended to take significantly longer than
overall median of 100 hours is an appropriate allocation
the three lowest other disciplines (p<.03).
for academic levels B-E.
With conference papers, preparing presentations for
Following a similar analytic process, we also explored
Health/Medicine tended to take significantly less time
the results of other publication related activities to see
than in all other disciplines except Social/Behavioural
32
Research workloads in Australian universities John Kenny & Andrew Edward Fluck
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
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Table 5: Median estimated workload time for typical research grant related activities
through the Department of Innovation,
Research Activity
develop a methodology to estimate the
Median hours (N)
Median hours p.a. (N)
Prepare a nationally competitive research grant application (category 1)
120 N=490
150 N=457
1.25
Typical time spent managing a nationally competitive research grant application (category 1)
80 N=281
100 N=275
1.25
Prepare a cooperative research application with an external partner organisation
80 N=392
100 N=359
1.25
60 N-266
90 N=253
1.5
Typical time spent managing a cooperative research application with an external partner organisation Typical time spent preparing an ethics application
16 N=558
Industry, Science
Typical quantum p.a.
and
Research
to
indirect costs of research, including academic salary costs and other costs such as professional support staff costs, infrastructure, consumables, equipment, depreciation etc.Their report highlighted the growing international interest in developing
a
reliable
methodology
this
information,
to
determine
but
acknowledged
the
underlying
assumptions made the task very difficult. On page 44, the report notes the
30 N=535
median time spent preparing grant
1.9
applications per year is 21 days. In referring to Table 5, the median time
(p<=.04). When it came to supervision of higher degree
reported by academics in this survey was
by research candidates, the only significant difference
found to be 150 hours per annum for this activity, which
was between Science and Arts/Law (p=.004). These
at 7.5 hours per day, equates to 20 days.This independent
results suggest that disciplinary differences may exist for
result validates our choice of the median figure and our
a limited number of research related tasks, and these are
analysis of this item.
indicated with a range in Table 9. For other disciplines
The five grant related research activities listed
however, the relatively low numbers means the data may
above were then explored to establish if there were
be unreliable and the overall median values should apply,
any variations by academic level, years of experience,
pending further research.
academic or workload category and a summary is shown
Workload time estimates for research activities associated with grants
in Table 6. No significant differences (nsd) were identified for most activities, so the overall median values for these tasks have been included in Table 9.
Five research activities associated with applying for,
The two areas with a significant difference were
and managing, research grants were explored. Table 5
associated with academic levels and were analysed
summarises the overall median values. As discussed earlier,
using the same analysis as above. The results are given
these data are becoming very important for ascertaining
in Table 7. Curiously, Level B academics tended to report
the true costs of research. The Allen Consulting Group
spending significantly less time preparing cooperative
(2009) was commissioned by the Australian Government
grant applications than level E professors (p=.001). It would of course be interesting to see what the relative success
Table 6: Test for differences for research grant related activities Research Activity
Academic level*
Experience*
Prepare a nationally competitive research grant application (category 1)
nsd
nsd
nsd
Typical time spent managing a nationally competitive research grant application (category 1)
nsd
nsd
nsd
Prepare a cooperative research application with an external partner organisation
.002
nsd
nsd
Typical time spent managing a cooperative research application with an external partner organisation
nsd
nsd
nsd
.027
nsd
nsd
Typical time spent preparing an ethics application * No statistical difference vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Workload category*
rate was for this activity. Level A academics took significantly longer to prepare an ethics application than all other levels except B (p.>.05). Level B academics took significantly longer than professors did at level E (p=.029). As the time for this task is generally relatively low and did not seem to vary with discipline, we suggest using the median value of 16 hours as academics seem to get better at it with experience.
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Table 7: Test for differences in median grant-related workload estimates (hours) by academic level Research Activity
A
B
C
D
E
Prepare a cooperative research application with an external partner organisation
99 60* 80 (19) (130) (123)
80 (59)
100 (61)
Typical time spent preparing an ethics application
35* 20 15 (33) (222) (181)
13 (64)
11 (58)
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acknowledged in any discussion about the research workload of an individual.
Consolidated research workload allocations Following
these
investigations,
a
consolidated table of proposed time allocations for academic research activities
* Significantly different
was compiled (see Table 9).
Other research activities
Table 9 incorporates an adjustment for journal article
Respondents were also asked to describe any other
writing by academic level (taken to be broadly similar to
research related tasks not included in our list. 475
that identified by years of experience). However, based on
participants replied with an open text comment. The
the preceding analysis, there is also a case for adjusting
principle activities described were: peer-reviewing for journals, conferences and grant applications; editing for journals; data collection/field work; travel to attend conferences/collect data; analysis of data; and mentoring
Table 9: Median estimated hours for Australian academics to complete research tasks Research related activity (n)
Median hours for this research task
of colleagues. Significant time was required for travel to collect data in the field or attend conferences. Some respondents preferred to describe these activities by giving time estimates for ‘actually carrying out the
Prepare a nationally competitive research grant application (category 1) (490)
120
Prepare a cooperative research application with an external partner organisation (392)
80
Manage a research project (category 1) (per year) (281)
80
Conduct a collaborative research project (per year) (266)
60
indicate two distinct stages in the research process. For example, collecting data (whether in a laboratory, a survey
Prepare an ethics application (558)
16
or a field trip) is a necessary stage that has to occur before
Write a refereed journal article (723) [variations for level A, discipline]
100-1501
Write a research book (234) [variation by discipline]
300-5002
do not, of themselves generate outputs, they are the essential ‘grease’ that keeps the process going and enable
Write a research chapter in a book (394)
100
researchers to be productive. As such, they need to be
Write a peer reviewed conference paper (517) [variation by discipline]
research’ and combined the processes of collaboration, data collection and analysis into one large overall estimate. The times presented by each individual varied, and the medians per year are presented in Table 8. While the number of responses is relatively low, they
writing a paper. Other activities such as peer-review, underpin our scholarly work. While these activities
Table 8: Median estimates for ‘other’ research related activities ‘Other’ research related activity Peer review (e.g. Articles, grant applications, examine theses) Edit a scholarly journal or conference proceedings Data collection/Field trips Research process-combined: collaboration, data & collection, analysis Travel to collect data, collaborate with colleagues or attend conferences
34
Median hours for this research task (N) 50 (62) 200 (40) 70 (17) 400 (26)
80 (17)
Prepare a Registered Design (14)
40-503 30
Prepare an art work/exhibition (47)
140
Prepare a patent application (31)
60
Supervise a higher degree by research candidate (per year) (564)
60
Study for a higher degree (132)
500
Other research tasks (per year) e.g. presenting at conferences/seminars, examining theses, editorial board duties/peer reviewing, reading, stakeholder engagement and other miscellaneous tasks to be negotiated (337)
50-4004
1. Refer to variations by academic level (in Table 3) and discipline (in Table 4). 2,3. Refer to variations by discipline (in Table 4). 4 . Refer to tasks (in Table 8)
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these overall figures to account for the disciplinary
It must clearly distinguish between research workload
differences detected. These have been for journal article
allocation (input activities) and research performance
writing, where it takes nearly twice as long in Business
(outputs over time). Seventy per cent of technology
and Economics; and for writing books, where there
start-ups in the United Kingdom fail within the first
is a significant increase for Arts/Law. No reduction is
three years (Kirkham, 2017). Thus, research polices to
suggested for level B academics to prepare cooperative
encourage risk-taking by academic staff should be based
grant applications, since data on successful outcomes
on an understanding of the separate but interdependent
were not available, nor any increase for level A’s or by
requirements for research success of the institution and
gender to prepare ethics applications since the difference
those pertaining to individual success processes.
over an entire year is negligible.
A range of credible standard time allocations for
The time allocations in Table 9 are suggested as
research related activities, such as those in Table 9, enable
reasonable indicators of the time required to perform
the research workload of any individual academic to be
these research tasks.The figures should not be interpreted
easily estimated (and meaningfully compared) as the
as indicating how long any given individual may take on
cumulative total of the tasks undertaken. The ability to
the task, but as reasonable and transparent indicators of
quantify research workload as an ‘input’ activity, in much
the time associated with each task in order to estimate
the same way as teaching workload has historically
the research workload of individual academics, in a
been, may be of particular benefit to research intensive
transparent manner, which can be compared within
and research only staff. Their workload has traditionally
and across institutions. Emerging as they have directly
been determined retrospectively, in relation to research
from the profession, these figures provide a useful and
outcomes. All research active staff engage in the listed
transparent means to assist both academic staff and
activities to some degree, but research only staff would
performance managers in the negotiation of reasonable
engage in them more often. Of course, the outcomes of the
and equitable research workloads. They will also enable
research activity undertaken remain important for judging
the reasonableness of existing institutional performance
research performance. Further, the data in Table 9 would
expectations to be checked.
enable institutions to aggregate these individual allocations to get a better estimate of the real academic staffing costs
Conclusions
associated with research, a problem for which many governments around the world are attempting to devise a
This study suggests that, to improve the research
solution (Allen Consulting Group, 2009).
performance of institutions, there needs to be much more
The application of a suite of credible time allocations
careful thought given to how organisational research
for research related activities, as outlined in this paper,
performance criteria are translated into internal processes
provides
to judge the productivity of individual researchers.
conversations
Institutional
research
performance
is
more
a
transparent
platform
between
academic
for staff
constructive and
their
aptly
managers about their research aspirations. This would
measured over the longer term as an aggregation of the
fit well within a stewardship-oriented performance
output of individuals through, for instance, publication
management context. Within the stewardship-based
levels in the ERA. Similarly, institutional grant income
approach to individual performance, there needs to be
levels are sensibly measured at the organisational unit or
a clear distinction between the allocation of individual
School/Faculty level, because individual academics have
research workload and research performance over time.
little control over the outcome, other than submitting a
The performance management process should use figures
reasonable application.
in Table 9, along with the previously published figures for
While an agency-based approach may be suitable
teaching related tasks (Kenny & Fluck, 2017), to enable
for determining the performance of an institution, this
reasonable workloads to be negotiated for individuals
study indicates that a stewardship-based approach is
in a transparent manner. This would ensure research
appropriate for determining the research performance of
expectations are proportionate to an individual’s research
individual academics. To encourage research productivity
workload category (teaching and research, or research
by individual academics the research performance process
only, etc.) for accountability purposes. With 45,276 full
must be designed to suit the nature of academic work: it
and part-time staff in the workforce, this study, therefore
must recognise the intrinsic motivational aspects of the
has implications for 91.8 per cent of academics in
work and the wide range of demands on academic time.
Australia, since the academics in this proportion have a
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research element in their employment basis (Department of Education and Training, 2016). Encouraging aspirational performance outcomes must be based on incentives that support the self-managed and intrinsically motivational aspects of academic work and recognise the inherent risk associated with generating new knowledge. In acknowledging the efforts involved in developing and maintaining industry collaborations and innovation, such policies will be more likely to succeed. If research is vital for the national interests, then this paper proposes an important step in conceptualising a more constructive and productive approach to research productivity that serves the interests of individual academics and their universities. In the next phase of this research, and using the same methodology, we intend to analyse time associated with academic service related roles.This will enable a holistic and credible estimation to
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Dodd, T. (2016). Education revenue soars to become Australia’s $20 billion export. Australian Financial Review, Feb 3, 2016.
Acknowledgement
Edwards, M.A. & Roy, S. (2017). Academic research in the 21st Century: Maintaining scientific integrity in a climate of perverse incentives and hypercompetition. Environmental Engineering Science, 34 (1)51-61. doi:10.1089/ees.2016.0223.
The authors would like to thank the National Tertiary Education Union (NTEU) for supporting this study. Institutional ethics approval number H0010977.
Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. John Kenny and Andrew Fluck are senior lecturers in education at the Faculty of Education, University of Tasmania, Australia. Contact: John.Kenny@utas.edu.au
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A historical overview of responses to Indigenous higher education policy in the NT Progress or procrastination? Catherine Street, James A. Smith, Kim Robertson, Shane Motlap, Wendy Ludwig & Kevin Gillan Charles Darwin University
John Guenther Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education
The number of Indigenous people enrolling in and completing higher education courses in the Northern Territory slowly continues to climb. Since the first policies supporting the Australian Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s self-determination policy that encompassed training of Indigenous teachers in the Northern Territory, Charles Darwin University and Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education have played vital roles in increasing opportunities for Indigenous people to participate and succeed in higher education across all industries. From a policy perspective, these institutions are responsible for implementing Indigenous higher education policies at the local level in order to ensure that practice is guided by policy. Yet, there are other factors at play when considering policy implementation. This paper will provide a historical narrative around the institutional responses to national Indigenous higher education policies and summarise how implementation has often been constrained by parallel economic and socio-political forces. Keywords: Indigenous, education, higher education, policy, history, Northern Territory, university.
education policies that have assisted in this include
Introduction
financial and academic support, enabling and bridging courses, aspiration building and orientation programs,
Over the last fifty years, the number of Indigenous
increasing the Indigenous academic and professional
people enrolling in and completing higher education
workforce, and strengthening Indigenous governance
courses nationally has steadily increased (Department
within universities (Behrendt, Larkin, Griew, & Kelly, 2012).
of Education and Training, 2015; Pechenkina, Kowal, &
A vast array of national and state or territory government
Paradies, 2011). Some measures emerging from higher
policies have been developed and implemented over time
38
A historical overview of responses to Indigenous higher education policy in the NT Catherine Street et al.
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
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to direct action within the institutions responsible for
For the purposes of this article, Indigenous refers to
higher education delivery. However, Indigenous higher
Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people and/or
education student enrolment, success and completion
Australian First Nations people.
figures are still well below parity with those of the nonIndigenous population (Department of Education and Training, 2015). The ongoing disparity highlights that a vital part of
Background Charles Darwin University
policy success is dependent on the policy implementation
Adult education began in the Northern Territory in 1950
process. In the Northern Territory, the Indigenous
with the delivery of adult education classes in Alice
population constitutes approximately 30 per cent of the
Springs, and then in Darwin in 1951 at Adult Education
total population (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2017).
Centres (Webb, 2013). Webb (2013) reports that
The higher education system in the Territory, therefore,
enrolments grew quickly at these centres in the 1950s
has an important role to play in supporting and enabling
and 1960s, and momentum developed in the discussion
Indigenous higher education aspirations and outcomes.
around the need for a university in the Northern Territory.
It would be telling, then, to investigate how higher
Darwin Community College was established in 1974 as
education institutions have endeavoured to translate
a post-secondary teaching institution, initially delivering
national and Northern Territory government policy into
courses in fields such as technology and science, applied
action. In the Northern Territory, two institutions are
arts, commerce, teacher education and linguistics (Darwin
primarily responsible for providing higher education –
Community College, 1974). Over the past five decades,
Charles Darwin University (CDU) and Batchelor Institute
course offerings have grown to include a much larger
of Indigenous Tertiary Education. Although CDU and
array of courses such as health, education, business,
Batchelor Institute have different histories, student
law and more recently, Indigenous knowledges. Darwin
cohorts and programs, they have both played a significant
Community College evolved into the Darwin Institute of
role in providing higher education opportunities for
Technology (1984-1988), Northern Territory University
Indigenous people in the Northern Territory. This paper
(NTU) (1989-2002), and finally to CDU in 2003.
will outline the evolution of CDU and Batchelor Institute’s fifty years and how they have been influenced by national
Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education
and Northern Territory government policy frameworks
Batchelor Institute was established in the early 1970s
and contexts. It will also reflect on the impact of a
in response to changes in government policies towards
progressively deregulated higher education industry and
self-determination and self-management. Since 1974 the
the resulting policy focus on outcomes, performance and
Institute (originally the Aboriginal Teacher Education
accountability.
Centre, then from 1979 Batchelor College, and from 1999,
strategies for Indigenous higher education over the past
When conducting policy analysis, it is critical to
the Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education)
articulate how the term ‘policy’ is being applied (Jones,
has played an important role in building the skills and
2013). The term ‘policy’ can be interpreted in many ways,
capacity of Aboriginal teachers and teaching/teacher
however, most definitions can be classified into two
assistants across the Northern Territory and other parts
categories (Maddison & Denniss, 2009). The first is the
of Australia. It has had a particularly strong role in the
view that policy is the result of authoritative or authorised
development of the remote teaching workforce. From
choice, that is, governments devising policies through a
1990, Batchelor College was recognised as a higher
hierarchical process.The second is the view that policy is
education institution (Batchelor College, 1991). The
the result of structured interaction. These interpretations
College then progressively increased its offerings of
of policy recognise that policy is produced as a result
diploma and advanced diploma courses but maintained a
of compromise of multiple interests, through complex
continued focus on the discipline of education.
horizontal relationships. The analysis presented here fits with the latter, that is, it has attempted to describe Indigenous higher education policy responses in the
1970s
Northern Territory taking into consideration the complex
Darwin Community College
and multidimensional influences that impact on the
During the early 1970s Darwin Community College set
outcomes of policy.
up its teacher education program for Aboriginal teachers
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in line with national self-determination policy at the
award courses, or employment within the Australian
time (Darwin Community College, 1973). Successful
and Northern Territory public service (Department of
completion of this training at the time led to attainment
Education, 1981). There were 28 enrolments in the first
of an Aboriginal Schools Teaching Certificate, which
intake of this course in 1980 (Department of Education,
qualified students to teach in remote schools only. The
1981).
School of Australian Linguistics (SAL) was also established when Darwin Community College was set up in 1974.
Aboriginal Teacher Education College
Bilingual education was part of the bigger picture of
In 1972 the Vocational Training College was established
Aboriginal people’s need to control their own lives, to
at Batchelor, utilising the recently closed accommodation
express their identities, and to shape their communities
facilities of the Rum Jungle uranium mine. At the time,
through their own aspirations (Devlin, Disbray, & Devlin,
training courses were run for Aboriginal students from
2017). Units delivered by SAL became an integral part
around the Territory. The move to Batchelor was seen
of teacher training at Darwin Community College and
as a better alternative: ‘being located outside Darwin, for
the Aboriginal Teacher Education College, equipping
the mainly remote area students, was the comparative
teachers with the skills they needed to learn, and to most
tranquillity of the semi-rural setting plus the opportunity
effectively communicate and educate their own students.
for students to get on with their studies without the
The push for adult vocational training opportunities by
disruptions of city life’ (Uibo, 1993, p. 9). An assistant
the Department of Employment and Youth Affairs led to
teacher training program run at Kormilda College was
Darwin Community College opening offices for adult
also relocated to Batchelor at the start of 1974.The name
education delivery in Katherine and Nhulunbuy in the late
Aboriginal Teacher Education College was coined in
1970s (Darwin Community College, 1979). There were
1974, and training was carried out for first and second
also annexes in operation at Tennant Creek, Pine Creek,
year Assistant Teachers. Third and Fourth year training
Batchelor and Alyangula (Darwin Community College,
was still conducted at Darwin Community College.
1975). In total, vocational non-award courses were being
Vocational courses ceased in 1976 leaving just teacher
delivered in around eight remote communities at this
education.
time (Darwin Community College, 1977).
Within this context of self-determination and equity,
In light of the increasing influence of national
the Aboriginal Teacher Education College began offering
consultative bodies such as the National Aboriginal
its Remote Aboriginal Teacher Education (RATE) program
Consultative Group (NACG) and the National Aboriginal
in 1976. Remote delivery was, in part, a response to the
Education Committee (NAEC), there was an internal
high dropout rates of students required to relocate to
proposal in 1978-79 to set up an Aboriginal Education
Darwin to complete their training (Reaburn, Bat, &
Committee to provide advice to the Darwin Community
Kilgariff, 2015).The aim of this staged program in the first
College Council (Berzins & Loveday, 1999). However, this
instance was to qualify remote school teacher assistants,
proposal did not progress due to what some believed
and then provide a bridge into stage two and three
was ongoing conservatism within the Northern Territory
teacher education programs. In the early years, most
Government and Darwin Community College in regard
students were existing Department of Education staff.
to Indigenous self-determination (Ludwig, 2017). NAEC’s
As Abstudy became more accessible, ‘private’ students
advocacy around Aboriginal education as a subject area
began enrolling. In 1979, the name ‘Batchelor College of
influenced an early proposal for a School of Aboriginal
Technical and Further Education (TAFE)’ replaced the
Studies in the late 1970s, which also failed at this time
previous Vocational Training College and the Aboriginal
(Berzins & Loveday, 1999). Although some early advocacy
Teacher Education College.
efforts to implement strategies put forward at the national level were not successful, there was progress in other areas. An extension to Abstudy, an Australian Government
1980s
scheme established to provide financial support for
Darwin Institute of Technology
Indigenous tertiary education students, allowed for the
The Aboriginal Task Force was launched in 1980 at the
development of specific courses for Indigenous students
Darwin Institute of Technology and had an ‘unwritten
such as the Certificate of General Studies for Aborigines.
policy of Aboriginalisation in teaching, support and
This course resulted in graduates gaining matriculation
administration’ (Calma, 1984, p. 2; Darwin Community
level equivalency and was an enabler for entry to
College, 1980). Key activities of the task force included
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establishing common room facilities, building a number
a full diploma were then required to enrol with the
of student residences and developing more courses
Darwin Institute of Technology. Dissatisfaction with this
specifically for Aboriginal students (Berzins & Loveday,
arrangement led to a partnership between Batchelor and
1999). In 1984, through negotiations with the Northern
Deakin University, discussed later. By 1986, enrolments in
Territory Department of Education, NAEC and Batchelor
Batchelor’s teacher education programs were reported
College, an enclave support system was established
to be 126 (Northern Territory Department of Education,
within the Faculty of Education for Aboriginal students
1986). Enrolments saw a fivefold increase in the period
who were transferring from Batchelor College to
from 1987 to 1991, up to about 700 (Northern Territory
complete their final year of a Diploma of Teaching
Department of Education, 1992).
at the Darwin Institute of Technology – as it had just
Batchelor championed ‘Both Ways’ learning and fostered
become known. This arrangement had been determined
a culture of participatory action research with Aboriginal
through negotiations around 1980 with the Aboriginal
educators in the early 1980s (White, 2015). Both-Ways is a
Teacher Education College, Darwin Community College
philosophy of education that ‘brings together Indigenous
and the Northern Territory Department of Education
Australian traditions of knowledge and Western academic
(Uibo, 1993). In total, over 400 Indigenous students were
disciplinary positions and cultural contexts, and embraces
enrolled in vocational and higher education courses at the Darwin Institute of Technology in 1984 (Calma, 1984). After further internal advocacy Institute
the of
Darwin
Technology,
as it was then, created
values of respect, tolerance
The recognition of Batchelor College as a higher education institution allowed for an expansion in the number of courses and the development of higher level courses. Enrolments in diploma courses increased from 46 in 1992 to 529 in 1996.
the Division of Aboriginal
and diversity’ (Ober & Bat, 2007, p. 69). By of
1988,
two-thirds
Batchelor’s
education
students
teacher were
enrolled in RATE (Kemmis, 1988).
Batchelor
College
recognised the need for
Education in 1988; this later
teacher education programs
became the Centre for Aboriginal and Islander Studies
that in the first instance empowered graduates to be ‘…
(Calma, 1984; Darwin Institute of Technology, 1988).
resources for other community members by extending
It was noted as early as 1980 that although there was
options and assisting their communities make decisions
much activity that focused on Aboriginal education and
more effectively as they move towards self-management’
research, Darwin Community College still had no formal
(Batchelor College, 1985, p. 2). While not explicitly
Aboriginal education policy (Berzins & Loveday, 1999;
mentioning policy, the language of ‘self-management’
Calma, 1984).
reflects the driving policy position of the Australian
Activities to support the bilingual policy were ongoing;
Government in the early 1980s. The 1985 proposal for an
linguistics units offered by the SAL had become a
Associate Diploma of Teaching (Aboriginal Schools), cited
compulsory part of Batchelor College’s teacher training
above, quickly developed with a partnership with Deakin
course.The SAL was then transferred to Batchelor College
University to accredit training at the standard of a three-
in 1989 (Uibo, 1993).The NACG and the NAEC in the 1970s
year higher education qualification (the D-BATE program).
and 1980s emphasised the need to develop the Aboriginal
This ultimately led to Batchelor being recognised as a
education workforce. Equal opportunity legislation passed
higher education institution in 1989 (Batchelor College,
in the mid-1980s and the Report of the Committee of
1988, 1997; Roche & White, 1990).
Review of Aboriginal Employment and Training Programs (Miller, 1985) encouraged the institution to examine staff policies regarding recruitment and promotion, although
1990s
explicit strategies in this area only became discernible in
Northern Territory University
the early 1990s.
The influence of ‘equity’ and ‘access’ policy and policy
Batchelor College
discourse became evident in the late 1980s and early 1990s. An equal opportunity unit was established in 1988
In 1983, Batchelor’s teacher training program included
in response to national equal opportunity legislation
a third year, leading to an Associate Diploma of Teaching
and equity funds were used for setting up initiatives
(Aboriginal Schools). Students wishing to complete
such as Aboriginal Liaison Positions (Northern Territory
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University, 1995). Marking NTU’s first major efforts to
Batchelor College
foster Indigenous self-determination in governance and
The recognition of Batchelor College as a higher education
decision-making, the Aboriginal Advisory Committee
institution allowed for an expansion in the number of
(AAC) and the Aboriginal Liaison Committee (ALC) were
courses and the development of higher level courses.
set up within CAIS, the Centre for Aboriginal and Islander
Enrolments in diploma courses increased from 46 in 1992
Studies. The AAC was to advise Council on Aboriginal
to 529 in 1996 (Batchelor College, 1993, 1997). A 1995
issues, employment and research, while the ALC was set
external evaluation of the College noted the College’s
up to develop the NTU Aboriginal Education Strategic
reliance on National Aboriginal Education Program
Plan, which was released in 1992 and aligned with the
funding, recommending instead pursuit of triennial
National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education
funding similar to universities’ funding arrangements
Plan (Northern Territory University, 1992). CAIS at this
at the time (Baumgart, Halse, Philip, Aston, & Power,
time was delivering a range of TAFE courses and two
1995). However, the evaluation also recommended that
higher education enabling courses through Aboriginal
the College’s status as a ‘continuing entity’ (p. 162) be
Education Strategic Initiatives Program (AESIP) funding.
tied to development of its quality assurance processes,
Aboriginal Student Services was established within CAIS
with a focus on outcomes. Consequently, the language
in 1992 for the provision of academic and personal
of Batchelor Annual Reports subsequent to the 1995
support to students.
evaluation
incorporated
‘outcomes’
and
‘quality’,
In 1993, work began on developing an Aboriginal
where previously these terms were largely missing. The
Studies course and units (Northern Territory University,
evaluation set in train steps towards the establishment of
1993). This evolved in light of then Prime Minister Paul
Batchelor as an independent higher education provider,
Keating’s 1992 Redfern speech, which had brought
which ultimately occurred on 1 July 1999 through passing
‘reconciliation’ to the forefront of Aboriginal affairs
of the Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education
discussions, and several other reports (Department of
Bill in the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in June
Employment Education and Training, 1989; Northern
1999.
Territory University, 1993, 1994; Yunupingu, 1995). By the
The establishment of the Howard Government in 1996,
late 1990s, Aboriginal Studies units had been included in
and its shift in emphasis to a need for accountability
the curricula of degree programs across NTU (Northern
and practical reconciliation raised some concerns for
Territory University, 1999a).
Batchelor College. The first evidence of this came in the
By the mid-1990s, national vocational education
form of changes to Abstudy, which would have adversely
and training (VET) standards had shifted towards
affected remote Batchelor students if they had been
competency-based training. These and other changes to
enacted as originally proposed (Batchelor College, 1998;
VET, increased competition from other higher education
Stanley & Hansen, 1998). According to the 1998 Batchelor
providers, and a reduction in Australian and Northern
Annual Report, the changes implemented in 1997 ‘had
Territory Governments funding had put added financial
a significant and deleterious effect on the operations of
pressure on the university (Northern Territory University,
college courses and students’ capacity to participate in
1997). In line with national requirements NTU established
them’ (Batchelor College, 1999, p. 16). The following year,
a business model to strategically coordinate and report
the newly named Batchelor Institute reported:
against its activities, as demonstrated in various strategic plans (MCEETYA, 1995; Northern Territory University, 1998b, 1999b, 2000b). In 1997, NTU began reporting against access, participation, retention and success for students in equity groups, including Indigenous students (Northern Territory University, 1997). It must be noted that the inclusion of Indigenous Australian people within an equity framework is contentious (see, for example,
In 1999, the Commonwealth agreed to the adoption of an ‘eclectic mode’ of administering the travel and accommodation expenses component of Abstudy grants for Batchelor students. The ‘eclectic mode’ involves funding directly to the Institute and the diversion of some of the funds normally spent on student travel and accommodation towards the provision of more community-based teaching. (Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education, 2000, p. 15)
Bunda, Zipin, & Brennan, 2012), however, this discussion
At the time, this granted BIITE more flexibility to be able
is beyond the scope of this paper. To assist in increasing
to meet the needs of its students. Those who wanted to
revenue, NTU began to develop a stronger focus on
travel to Batchelor to undertake their studies could do so,
international activity.
and those who wanted to stay in their home communities could also still access training and support.’
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policies advocating for leadership opportunities for Indigenous people in higher education, although there is
Charles Darwin University
no particular policy that stands out as being influential. In
With reduced financial support from Australian and
2010, a partnership between CDU and Batchelor Institute
Northern Territory Governments, NTU remote education
was brokered by both the Australian and Northern
and training delivery had retracted by the year 2000
Territory Governments to establish the Australian Centre
(Northern Territory University, 1998a, 2000a).
An
for Indigenous Knowledges and Education (ACIKE). The
increased focus on and investment in the development
ACIKE partnership was created to address institutional
of online learning systems and technology to increase
economic circumstances, rather than in response to
access to a wider range of students was prompted by the
government policy at the time. The ACIKE partnership
Australian Government’s reduced investment in the sector.
was established with $30 million from the Australian
The Our Universities: Backing Australia’s Future review
Government to deliver higher education and other
(Nelson, 2003), reiterated the need for various Indigenous
activities for Indigenous students (Charles Darwin
student support measures to be put in place or supported
University, 2009).
financially to continue. These included the Away From Indigenous Tutorial Assistance Scheme, which were
Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education
coordinated by the Indigenous Academic Support Unit,
The newly established ‘Institute’ resurrected the idea
which was established at CDU in 2004 (Charles Darwin
that Batchelor might become an Indigenous university in
University, 2004). Cadetships, apprenticeships and a
the future. The concept had been discussed in the mid-
work experience program for Indigenous students were
1980s but was soon abandoned for a number of reasons.
also initiated in 2009 with funding from the Australian
A strategic plan developed in 2000 and approved in 2001
Government
the
articulated a goal for the Institute to gain the status of
Indigenous workforce (Charles Darwin University, 2006).
an Indigenous university. It is unclear whether this was
These programs wound down within a few years after
a response to policy or was primarily driven by the
CDU did not allocate ongoing funding. Indigenous student
Institute leadership and the Council. The 2001 Annual
higher education participation - the number of Indigenous
Report stated that ‘The Institute is moving towards
students divided by the number of all domestic students
becoming a university but is taking the steps with caution
- reached its highest point at 6.4 per cent in 2013 and has
as it is and will be fundamentally different from any other
since dropped to 5.6 per cent (Charles Darwin University,
university in Australia’ (Batchelor Institute of Indigenous
2013, 2016). Indigenous higher education student success
Tertiary Education, 2002, p. 42). The first undergraduate
- the student progression rate for Indigenous students
bachelor course was accredited in 2000 with enrolments
divided by the progression rate for all other students -
commencing in 2001. The early 2000s saw a decline in
peaked in the early 2000s at 77 per cent (Charles Darwin
diploma enrolments (possibly transferring to bachelor
University, 2003). From then it declined and in 2015 sat
courses) and a rise in bachelor degree enrolments.
at approximately 58 per cent (Charles Darwin University,
Enrolments in enabling courses also burgeoned in the
2015a).
early 2000s, with 224 the peak in 2003. The cautionary
Base program and Aboriginal Tutorial Assistance Scheme/
encouraging
efforts
to
increase
The Growing Our Own program – a partnership
note about university status quoted above set the scene
between CDU and Catholic Education NT – was
for a deprioritisation of this ambition by 2005 (Batchelor
established at CDU in 2009 with Australian Government
Institute
funds supporting the More Aboriginal and Torres Strait
However, the growth in higher education enrolments was
Islanders Teachers Initiative (MATSITI). The program has
also coupled with a desire to see postgraduate courses
seen some success in training of Indigenous teachers
established (Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary
in Catholic schools across the Northern Territory
Education, 2005) and in 2007 a Division of Research was
(Charles Darwin University, 2009). Pro Vice-Chancellor –
established with graduate certificate and masters courses
Indigenous Leadership position was established at CDU
commencing. In 2008 PhD courses were offered for the
in 2008 and the first appointment made; notably the
first time.
of
Indigenous Tertiary
Education, 2006).
most senior Indigenous academic in the country at that
By 2008 it was clear that the Institute was about to
time (Charles Darwin University, 2008). It is presumed
undergo significant change. The 2008 Annual Report
this role was established in response to a number of
(Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education,
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2009) noted that: ‘The profile of the Institute will
students to enrol in whole courses before being eligible
probably change somewhat in the ensuing years as it
for student allowances. By 2010, three-quarters of all CDU
responds to the challenges it has before it’ (p. 5). These
students studied partially or fully online; highlighting
comments were prefaced with a note about the Global
the university’s efforts in expanding access to interstate
Financial Crisis and mention of the likely impact of the
and international students (Charles Darwin University,
Bradley Review (Bradley et al., 2008). However, Batchelor
2010a). In 2012 the Australian Government signalled its
Institute’s institutional records do not clarify whether
commitment to a process of deregulation within a student
it was national policy, or institutional leadership or
demand driven higher education sector. Significant
management decisions that precipitated the changes that
strategic planning was undertaken in 2014, with the new
the Institute underwent.
Connect Discover Grow Strategic Plan released a year
In August 2009, Brian McMaster, ‘a senior partner at
later, with Indigenous leadership as one of its five key
KordaMentha, a consulting firm specialising in corporate
pillars(Charles Darwin University, 2015b). As of 2017,
reconstruction and reorganisation was appointed by the
operational planning is still underway (Maddocks, 2017).
Council of the Institute as Acting Director’ (Batchelor Vol. 2). This ultimately led to a revision of the Batchelor
Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education
Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education Act in 2012,
For the major part of the 2010s Batchelor Institute has
the partnership with CDU and the establishment of the
delivered Bachelor programs under the ACIKE partnership
ACIKE partnership as discussed earlier.
agreement. Batchelor Institute also maintained its higher
Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education, 2010, p. 10
education focus on its enabling programs through its
2010s
Preparation for Tertiary Success program and through the development of its postgraduate programs. Numbers
Charles Darwin University
enrolled in doctoral programs have been small but
Perhaps influenced by the Indigenous Higher Education
growing, increasing from five in 2009 to 12 in 2016.
Advisory Council strategic plan that prioritised Indigenous
Masters enrolments peaked in 2012 (16) and by 2017 had
decision-making and governance (IHEAC, 2006), the
dropped to five (Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary
Vice-Chancellor’s
Committee
Education, 2017). Batchelor Institute continues to explore
was established in 2010 to provide high-level advice
commercial and international course delivery contracts
to the Vice Chancellor and the University in relation to
that build on the growing expertise being developed
Indigenous matters (Charles Darwin University, 2010b). n
around customisation of accredited training to Indigenous
2012, the ACIKE partnership officially began delivery of
peoples nationally and internationally.
Indigenous
Advisory
tertiary education courses including an enabling program, eight undergraduate courses, five postgraduate courses
Discussion
and three postgraduate research courses. Batchelor Institute continued its VET and higher degree by research
In summary, the histories of CDU and Batchelor Institute
program delivery, but other higher education courses
tell stories that have similarities and differences. CDU
were delivered through the ACIKE partnership and
grew out of adult education centres established in the
qualifications awarded through CDU. Accommodation
1950s and became an institution that would provide both
for 72 students was constructed around this time partly
VET and higher education for residents of the Northern
through the new Centre’s funding. It was during this
Territory in response to a growing population base. Its
period that the Office of Pro Vice Chancellor - Indigenous
efforts in Indigenous education developed momentum
Leadership began to increase its focus on research, with
in the 1980s and early 1990s but have gradually been
the securing of a number of research grants relating to
overshadowed by a growing need to source a broader
Indigenous higher education (for example, Duff, Smith,
range of students from interstate and internationally
& Larkin, 2015; Frawley, Larkin, & Smith, 2017; Shalley &
to sustain its operations. CDU at the present time is
Stewart, 2017; Street, Smith, Stewart, & Girard, 2017).
focusing on ‘growth and sustainability’ (Maddocks,
The mid-2010s onwards has seen a significant withdrawal
2017). Batchelor Institute was established specifically to
of regional and remote service delivery, especially in the
develop the remote Indigenous teaching workforce and
VET space (Charles Darwin University, 2016). This was
has a strong history of education and research in the
partly attributed to changes to Abstudy that required
Northern Territory Indigenous context. It has confronted
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many challenges in its efforts to maintain its position as
funding for equity-based programs is sometimes not
an institution for Indigenous education in a competitive
sustained over the longer term, or their impact is eroded
market. Both CDU and Batchelor Institute continue to
over time as other priorities take precedence.
deliver higher education courses for Indigenous Australian
Accountability in the higher education sector has,
people within the Northern Territory and interstate
in part, improved as a result of increased competition
but are experiencing financial challenges in the face of
brought about by government policy. To continue to be
an increasingly deregulated higher education industry
considered a reputable institution by students, higher
(Charles Darwin University, 2016). It could be argued that
education providers must act responsibly and utilise their
Batchelor Institute and CDU’s current financial concerns
finances effectively. This, in one sense, has positive results
are part of an inevitable cycle caused by real declines
for students as it, in theory, ensures a certain level of quality.
in public funding to the VET sector generally and to the
Accountability in the Indigenous higher education sector
Northern Territory more specifically where in the period
– or rather the means by which it is measured – though,
2011-2015, allocation of government funds declined by 24
can also bring about challenges.
per cent (see Table 5A.10 in additional tables, Productivity Commission, 2017).
Indigenous advocates have called for increased accountability in the education sector so that funding
In terms of policy, the efforts of both institutions to
for Indigenous education is used responsibly (Behrendt
increase opportunities for Indigenous students were
et al., 2012). However, accountability measures utilised
clearly driven by self-determination policies of the 1970s
at present are a narrow range of indicators that do not
and then access, participation and equity discourses
comprehensively assess efforts to retain Indigenous
in the 1980s, with Aboriginal teacher training being a
students and staff. For example, at present participation,
key focus area (Street et al., 2017). CDU and Batchelor
retention and success are the most common indicators
Institute in the early 1990s were implementing innovative
upon which Australian Government funding is allocated.
education and access programs, but changes to the VET
These measures do not demand transparency around
and higher education sectors then occurred in the 1990s
the ‘overall success or otherwise of specific programs’
in parallel with reductions in financial support provided
(Behrendt et al., 2012, p.154). Frawley, Smith and Larkin
by government. This had a significant impact on both
(2015) argue that what is needed is ‘more sophisticated
institutions. After the early 2000s, it is more difficult to
evaluation
draw clear links between national policy and institutional
comprehensive and nuanced understandings of what
strategies focused on Indigenous education, with the
Indigenous higher education trajectories look like, the
exception of some strategies concerning Indigenous
inherent complexities they bring, how they can best be
leadership and governance. From the 2000s onwards, it
navigated, and the tangible outcomes Indigenous-specific
appears that the financial status of both institutions had a
programs can achieve’ (p.10). Further research is required
stronger impact on Indigenous higher education strategy
to determine the impact of the approaches taken at
than the national policies in place at the time. Despite
present to evaluation in this setting and to investigate
good intentions from policy-makers and policy-users alike,
possibilities for implementing more holistic evaluation
it seems that market forces have become the key driver of
frameworks (Smith et al., 2018).
models
that
reflect
more
rigorous,
these institutions. For CDU this is particularly evidenced by increasing international enrolments, increasing from
Conclusion
215 in 2005 up to 2447 in 2015 (Department of Education and Training, 2017).
Over a period of only fifty years or so, CDU and
The promotion and implementation of strategies to
Batchelor Institute have made significant contributions
increase participation and success for Aboriginal and
to increasing the number of Indigenous people who
Torres Strait Islander students, over the last five decades
have enrolled and completed higher education courses.
has often come, not in response to a particular policy, but
Their efforts from the 1970s up until approximately
rather as a direct result of the leadership and advocacy of
the 2000s were clearly linked to by national Indigenous
key Aboriginal activists. At times, policy has enabled and
education and higher education policies. From the
supported this leadership and at other times, it has tended
1990s, the effects of corporatisation of the sector began
to stymie it. Funding is a key instrument of policy and that
to impact on activity around Indigenous education. It
has also tended to either promote or limit opportunities
became increasingly obvious that the two institutions
for Indigenous participation in higher education. However,
were challenged in being guided by national Indigenous
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higher education policy to improve outcomes for the Indigenous population. It appears that at present the more pressing issue is to continue to sustain their own operations. This review has highlighted key actions of CDU and Batchelor Institute throughout each decade since the 1960s. It has also outlined the likely influences on their approaches to policy implementation. More
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Batchelor College. (1985). A Program of Teacher Education Leading to the Award of The Associate Diploma of Teaching (Aboriginal Schools). Batchelor: Batchelor College. Batchelor College. (1988). A Proposal to Develop Batchelor College as an Institute of Aboriginal Tertiary Education. A response to the Commonwealth Government’s Green Paper on Higher Education. Batchelor: Batchelor College. Batchelor College. (1991). 1990 Annual Report. Batchelor: Batchelor College.
research is required to investigate the influence of
Batchelor College. (1993). 1992 Annual Report. Batchelor: Batchelor College.
economic and socio-political forces in higher education
Batchelor College. (1997). 1996 Annual Report. Batchelor: Batchelor College.
in relation to meeting the needs of Indigenous students
Batchelor College. (1998). Submission to the Review of the Aboriginal Study Assistance Scheme (Abstudy). Batchelor: Batchelor College.
and staff to facilitate future success for both institutions
Batchelor College. (1999). 1998 Annual Report. Batchelor: Batchelor College. Retrieved from http://www.territorystories.nt.gov.au/jspui/ bitstream/10070/259217/1/1998%20Annual%20report_Web.pdf.
and their students. Catherine Street is a PhD candidate with the College of
Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. (2000). Batchelor College 1 January-30 June 1999, Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education, 1 July - 31 December 1999 Annual Report. Batchelor: Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. Retrieved from http://www. territorystories.nt.gov.au/jspui/bitstream/10070/259218/1/1999%20Annual%20 Report_Web.pdf.
Indigenous Futures, Arts and Society, CDU. Contact: Catherine.street@cdu.edu.au Associate Professor John Guenther is Research Leader at Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. Professor James A. Smith is Adjunct Professorial Research Fellow, Office of the Pro Vice Chancellor – Indigenous Leadership, CDU, and Adjunct Professorial Fellow, National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education.
Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. (2002). Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education Annual Report 2001. Batchelor: Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. (2005). Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education Annual Report 2004. Batchelor: Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education.
Kim Robertson is Senior Analyst, Indigenous Policies and Programs, Office of the Pro Vice Chancellor – Indigenous Leadership, CDU.
Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. (2006). Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education Annual Report 2005. Batchelor: Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education.
Shane Motlap is Analyst, Indigenous Policies and Programs, Office of the Pro Vice Chancellor – Indigenous Leadership, CDU.
Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. (2009). Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education Annual Report 2008. Batchelor: Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. Retrieved from http://www. territorystories.nt.gov.au/jspui/bitstream/10070/259270/1/2008%20Annual%20 Report_Web.pdf.
Wendy Ludwig is Director of Operations, Office of the Pro Vice Chancellor – Indigenous Leadership, CDU. Kevin Gillan is Adjunct Professor at the School of Education, CDU.
Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education. (2017). Indigenous Student Enrolment Data. Batchelor: Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education.
Acknowledgements Funding for this research was provided by the Australian Government’s
Higher
Education
Participation
and
Partnerships Program (HEPPP). We would also like to acknowledge the contributions of Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education and the project Reference Group to this research.
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Research with former refugees Moving towards an ethics in practice Nisha Thapliyal University of Newcastle
Sally Baker University of New South Wales
Research into issues relating to people from refugee backgrounds has proliferated in line with the explosion in the numbers of people seeking refuge globally. In this think piece, we reflect on what it means to research with former refugees in contexts of resettlement in an academic and social climate dominated by audit culture and austerity politics. Drawing on an interdisciplinary literature and existing institutional ethics standards, we discuss key, often unaddressed, ethical issues which manifest throughout research processes of recruitment, data collection and dissemination. Specifically, we problematise static and decontextualised approaches to engaging with issues of vulnerability, fair selection, informed consent and the burdens and benefits of participation, and point towards the benefits of taking an ethics in practice approach. In doing so, we hope to make a useful contribution to our collective strategic repertoires to carry out ethical research in practice with former refugees. Keywords: refugees; corporate academy; ethics in practice; reflexive research
Introduction
with a racialised moral panic centred on ‘dangerous’ young African-Australian youth and their crime gangs in
We started conceptualising this article in 2017, during
Victoria. At the beginning of this year, we learned that the
one of many flashpoints that have come to characterise
Immigration Department had asked the Australian Security
Australia’s conflicted relationship with refugees and
Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) to delay security checks
asylum seekers – the Coalition Government’s proposal
for asylum seekers who arrived by boat in 2013 so that
to increase English proficiency requirements in the
they would miss the deadline for permanent protection.
citizenship test (Burke, Thapliyal & Baker, 2018). This
And most recently, many asylum seekers living in the
was followed by the permanent and forceful closure of
Australian community have had their income support
the Manus Island detention centre. The dehumanising
slashed pushing them closer to poverty and low-skilled/
treatment of more than six hundred male refugees and
exploitative jobs.
asylum seekers who peacefully resisted this decision
It is in this climate dominated by anti-refugee, anti-
added to Australia’s growing global notoriety with regard
immigrant protectionist and divisive rhetoric in politics
to its policies and practices around people seeking
and media (MacDonald, 2017) in which we reflect on
asylum. Next, the Christmas spirit flourished along
what it means to do ethical research about people from
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refugee backgrounds (PfRBs). We have been inspired
and literature speaking of/to the challenges and
and educated in this enterprise by sustained local and
possibilities for refugee education. From our vantage point,
global academic and community activism to protect
there is a preponderance of research on the educational
and promote the rights of asylum-seekers and refugees
resettlement and transitions of school students from
(Tazreiter, 2010; Block, Riggs & Haslam, 2013; Niggs,
refugee backgrounds. This body of literature has provided
2015; Refugee Council of Australia, 2018). The purpose
valuable insights into the gendered and racialised barriers
of this think piece is not to debate whether it is ethical
to education (basic and tertiary) and employment
to undertake research with PfRBs; rather we hope
including inadequacies in literacy and language education,
to open a space for discussion so as to enhance our
racial/cultural discrimination and exclusion, unresponsive
collective capacity to do ethical research. We approach
and inflexible education and welfare systems, and
this think piece as the beginnings of a dialogue with
persistently under-resourced policies and programs
interdisciplinary colleagues across Australia and beyond,
for resettlement and transition (most recently see for
with a view to provoking discussion and exchange of ideas
example Naidoo & Brace, 2017; Bajwa et al., 2017). While
and experiences. Our hope is to deepen understandings,
we recognise and applaud these contributions, there has
expand our collective strategic repertoires, and extend
not been a similar growth in scholarly engagement with
the case for engaging in ethical reflexivity as educational
ethical challenges of doing sensitive research with former
researchers working with PfRBs.
refugees in educational settings and other contexts of resettlement. With a few notable exceptions, (Sampson,
A context for refugee studies
2015; Lenette, 2016; Sidhu, 2017), the extant literature is largely based on conducting research with people living
Globally, nearly 66 million people are living in situations
in protracted displacement such as Australian detention
of forced migration, seeking to escape persecution,
centres, United Nations refugee camps, and as temporary
violence and famine from the consequences of war
asylum seekers in countries neighbouring conflict zones
and political conflict across the world (United Nations
such as Egypt, Jordan, and Kenya.
High Commissioner for Refugees, 2018). As readers
In the discussion that follows, we foreground
will know, the vast majority of the world’s refugees
educational settings because of the central role that
reside in countries neighbouring their own. While
education plays in the experience of resettlement. In
some countries in the Global North invest resources in
these neoliberal times,educational and other resettlement
highly selective labelling and sorting between worthy/
agencies are key sites for the operationalisation of
unworthy/dangerous migrants, others have opened their
austerity politics and audit cultures. The dominance of
doors wider to offer refuge to those fleeing conflict,
competitive market logics has contributed to the growth
most recently for example, Canada. Similarly, while some
of the ‘shadow state’ made up of non-profit, voluntary
discourses are focused on containing and managing the
and other forms of nongovernmental organisations that
refugee problem, others have sought to understand and
deliver services on behalf of the welfare state. These
resist the demonisation of displaced peoples and people
economic imperatives are closely linked with political
from refugee backgrounds.
imperatives to surveil, discipline, order and otherwise
In Australia, race/ethnicity, religion, class, and gender
manage international migrations.
have influenced the extent to which migrant groups
In the corporate academy, there is a strong imperative to
experience discrimination and exclusion (Watkins &
‘do more with less’ and as quickly as possible. Like Lindorff
Noble, 2013). While the White Australia policy officially
(2010) in this journal, we recognise the persistence of
ended five decades ago, migrant populations continue
managerial agendas, funding and assessment regimes,
to have very different experiences of settlement
and related hierarchical power structures, which operate
particularly in relation to English language learning,
to co-opt research projects with progressive intentions.
education, and other support services (Cuthill & Scull,
Recent cuts to public funding have exacerbated structural
2011; Farrell, 2006; Refugee Council of Australia, 2015;
inequalities in distribution of power and other resources
Terry et al., 2016).
in higher education – for students as well as researchers.
Global policy tensions are mirrored in academic
Now more than ever, those of us doing sensitive research
discourse about refugees, which has seen a resurgence in
with human subjects, including former refugees, must
the last decade. In particular, as educational researchers,
continually engage with the question – research for
we have noted a marked increase in empirical research
whose benefit?
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Ethical research with human subjects: Where is the conversation today?
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recently see Gifford, 2013; Fobear, 2015; Phillip & Bell, 2017). Cumulatively, it has contributed to significant shifts in research practice as well as institutional standards for
The progress made on refining ethical approaches to
ethical research away from assumptions that all ethical
doing sensitive research with human subjects owes a
issues can be resolved at the beginning of the study and
large debt to social science researchers who have made
through establishing participant consent.
the time to publish reflexive investigations of their
Although institutional standards are not a focal point
research experience (Guillemin & Gillam, 2004; Christie,
in this think piece, it must also be acknowledged that
2005; Hugman, Bartolomei & Pittaway, 2011; Block et
Australian human research ethics committees (HRECs)
al., 2012; Gillam, 2013). To begin with, these scholars
and their counterparts in the Northern Academy have
have troubled the capacity of the label ‘refugee’ to
evolved to more nuanced understandings of socio-cultural
encompass the diversity of experiences that accompany
diversity and therefore what constitutes vulnerability and
forced displacement and migration. McDowell (2013)
sensitivity in research with human subjects. In the context
offers an alternative term – ‘refugeeness’ – for a deeper
of Australian education research, for example, there are
understanding of the experience of forced displacement
at least three national frameworks that provide valuable
and migration, which is produced at the intersection
resources for designing and implementing culturally-
of causes of displacement (e.g. armed conflict, natural
sensitive and otherwise ethical research projects. These
disaster, political persecution) as well as the nature/mode
include the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in
of displacement (e.g. official and unofficial refugee camps,
Research (National Health and Medical Research Council,
detention centres, resettlement).
2007), which requires researchers to be responsive to
More complex and situated conceptions of what it
the linguistic and cultural diversity of Aboriginal and/
might mean to be a refugee have also complicated our
or Torres Strait Islander people. It also recognises the
understanding of the multiple risks for enacting symbolic
ethical significance of communicating information to all
violence in sites of refugee research (Block et al., 2012).
participants in first language or dialect (National Health
Feminist, Indigenous, postcolonial, and
qualitative
and Medical Research Council, 2007). The Australian
scholars to name just a few have critically examined
Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
the Enlightenment-modernist paradigm which shape
(AIATSIS) provides more detailed guidelines for doing
dominant conceptions of knowledge production and
research with indigenous populations based on values
institutional ethical standards in the Northern academy
of human rights and full and fair participation (AIATSIS,
(Mohanty, 1988; Collins, 1990; Smith, 1999; Denzin &
2012). The Code of Ethics of the Australian Association
Giardina, 2007; Fischer & Kothari, 2011). This body of
for Research in Education (AARE) reminds researchers to
scholarship has provided ethical researchers with a range
‘inform themselves about cultural, religious, gender and
of strategies to excavate and interrogate the ‘partialities,
other significant differences’ in all research populations
inequalities and techniques of power’ embedded in the
and to ‘be sensitive to and respect these differences in
relationships and discourses that constitute sites and
the planning, conduct and reporting of their research’
processes of academic knowledge production (Christie,
(AARE, 1993, p. 5). In doing research on social groups, the
2005, p. 240). In short, this body of literature has
Code also requires researchers to be vigilant to causing
vigorously questioned key assumptions about value-free
harm through one or more of the following outcomes:
research and relatedly, the nature and purposes of ethics
stereotyping, creation or perpetuation of prejudice, loss
in research. As Edwards and Mauthner (2002) point out,
of privacy and dignity, affront resulting from insensitivity,
we also need to problematise assumptions about when
loss of interpersonal and intergroup relationships (AARE,
ethical issues are likely to occur (e.g. only at the start of a
1993).
project); how informed consent can offset any potential
For logistical reasons, HRECs cannot and do not oversee
harm caused during research; and, of course that a project
ethics in practice; however, researchers can and should
approved by an institutional ethics committee is entirely
(Guillemin & Gillam, 2004). In this journal, Lindorff (2010)
ethical. Whose values determine what counts as legitimate
has similarly argued for non-medical researchers to move
knowledge and legitimate producers of knowledge?
beyond compliance and utilitarian mentalities focused
These are fundamental questions to guide any research
on minimising and/or expediting the review process or
inquiry involving human subjects, as are questions about
even avoiding the unethical. From this perspective, ethics
justice, rights, caring, and democratic participation (most
is not ‘simply a technical matter… to be left to experts
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…but everybody’s business’ (Hugman, Bartolomei &
Let us take an example of a common ethical issue related
Pittaway, 2011, p. 15). We find the concept of micro ethics
to language and recruitment in relation to culturally
particularly useful here in contemplating and being
and linguistically diverse participants, including former
responsive to the ethical dimensions of everyday research
refugees. Potential participants with limited English and/
practice (Guillemin & Gillam, 2004; Doná, 2007).
or literacy in any language are not vulnerable because of some inherent deficiency in ability. Instead, their
Ethics: From procedure to practice
vulnerability is created by a lack of adequate attention or care on the part of researchers who fail to make
A micro ethics approach enables a shift in thinking about
information about the research project available in
ethics in terms of procedures to be completed prior to
an accessible language as well as comprehensible by
commencing research to a more expansive conception of
someone without an academic background (Perry, 2011).
ethics in practice (Guillemin & Gillam, 2004). Here, ethical behaviour takes the form of responding to ongoing ‘ethical
Fair selection
dilemmas’, which occur before, throughout and beyond
Another aspect of recruitment when doing sensitive
data collection components of any research project. In
research in resettlement contexts has to do with fairness
what follows, we briefly unpack the key tenets of human
in selection of participants and being sensitive to
research ethics, using the critical reflexivity offered by
possibilities for coercion and exploitation in recruitment
applying a micro ethics lens.
procedures. There is an increased awareness of how power imbalances can be perpetuated during research
Vulnerability? As
our
understanding
with refugees living in displacement when researchers of
‘refugeeness’
becomes
recruit
through
pre-existing
relationships
with
increasingly complex, so too should the ways we think
service provider agencies. In these contexts, it is not
about what it means to do sensitive research with human
uncommon for people to be recruited simply because
subjects. One way to respond to potentially sensitive
of their availability due to their deep dependence on
research is to rely exclusively on predetermined categories
aid and service providers or advocacy organisations.
of vulnerable groups of people such as those provided by
Clark-Kazak (2017) reminds us that we cannot create
institutional ethical standards. However, to move beyond
a short cut by relying on refugee organisations/
compliance mentalities is to think beyond institutional
advocacy networks solely to seek consent. It is always
ethical standards and checklists of potentially vulnerable
important to ensure that potential research respondents
research problems. Static categories of vulnerable
understand their right to refuse without disadvantage
populations are problematic because ‘[they] imply that
to avoid inadvertently creating conditions conducive to
vulnerability is somehow inherent in a particular type
manipulation or compromised position (Lindorff, 2010).
of person and that it is absent from categories of people
In countries of settlement, the gatekeeping landscape
who are not listed’ (p. 906). Instead, we are persuaded
is different but still present. First, the term resettlement
by Perry’s (2011) argument that vulnerability is ‘not a
is inadequate to capture the complexity of experience
characteristic inherent… but is rather an interaction
that accompanies relocation of refugees to an unfamiliar
between the participant’s characteristics and the nature
country and culture. Resettlement does not begin and end
of the study’ (p. 909). For Perry (2011), all participants
with physical relocation to Australia. It is a complex and
have the potential to be vulnerable not just those who
ongoing process, which every former refugee navigates
belong a priori categories such as pregnant women,
in her or his own way. To be sure, resettled populations
children, and prisoners (Perry, 2011).
continue to rely heavily on relationships with service
On a related note, researchers have become increasingly
providers including health and educational institutions,
sensitive to the possible traumas they could trigger through
social
insensitive questioning, for example, or through probing
positioned as cultural mediators.
workers, translators/interpreters, and
others
past lived experiences of former refugees (BenEzer &
We also need to keep in mind that former refugees figure
Zetter, 2014). However, there are still more questions
prominently in over-saturated research areas and over-
that need to be asked when doing sensitive research.
researched populations in Australia (Clark-Kazak, 2017).
What is key here is developing a situated understanding
This presents an ongoing dilemma for researchers who are
of vulnerabilities in relation to socio-historical contexts
committed to working with socially disadvantaged groups
and the particularity of lived experiences of participants.
but must also navigate unceasing pressure to secure grant
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funding in neoliberal university environments. From
The practice of obtaining oral consent where culturally
an ethical perspective, when choosing the focus of a
appropriate is increasingly validated by HRECs (Tomkinson,
research project, we have an obligation to ‘take account
2015; Clark-Kazak, 2017). However, we have also learned to
of the volume of research being published about a group’
approach oral consent as a process (rather than a one-step
and continually assess ‘the desirability of shifting the
procedure), which can lay the foundation for a mutually
emphasis of their work’ (AARE, 1993, p. 7).
respectful research relationship. A research relationship
Given this context, recruitment and selection strategies
that prioritises obtaining consent through discussion and
therefore need to be highly sensitive to possibilities for
dialogue implicitly and explicitly positions the participant
power dynamics around class, gender, race/ethnicity,
as subject and agent rather than object or somebody that
religion as well as language which can create unintended
research is being done to. It strongly aligns with an ethics of
forms of pressure and coercion to participate in research
care approach and encourages more nuanced conceptions
with unknown but status-laden researchers (Sidhu, 2017;
of researcher obligations to their participants.
Steimel, 2017). In other words, researchers must be alert to
Meaningful informed consent may not only require
relationships of dependency and hierarchy perpetuated by
dialogue and negotiation between researchers and
the outsourcing and privatisation of resettlement services
participants. It may also need to be ongoing and involve
and highly bureaucratic public welfare systems. Given the
collective processes if we recognise that ‘autonomy is a
issues we have just raised about fair selection, how then
capacity that is socially acquired’ (Hugman, Pittaway &
can we approach the process of seeking informed consent?
Informed consent We have previously discussed ethical
issues
related
to
language and recruitment.
Bartolomei, 2011, p. 1280).
...researchers must be alert to relationships of dependency and hierarchy perpetuated by the outsourcing and privatisation of resettlement services and highly bureaucratic public welfare systems.
Decisions about interpreters
The AARE Code of Ethics also promotes an expansive notion of participation as ongoing and often but not always collective: ‘Projects should be discussed with the representatives of the
and translation of documents should not be treated as
group concerned where such exist … before they are
matter-of-factly or as another procedure to be completed
commenced, and the results discussed before they are
for institutional ethics approval. Language barriers to
published’ (AARE, 1993, p. 7). Respectful research with
participation can be navigated in culturally-sensitive
refugee communities thus may require an epistemological
ways by providing information about the research
shift to a collective conception of decision-making
project in accessible, first language of participants as
shaped by the individual’s social contexts – family ties,
well as ensuring that participants become familiar with
community obligations and so forth. It may be desirable
the workings of academic research. Thus, the quality of
to negotiate with individuals along community elders,
translation matters as do power dynamics that may exist
leaders and other forms of community representatives
between the interpreter and participants.
(Hugman, Bartolomei & Pittaway, 2011).
In addition to translation of information statements
To be clear, we do not suggest a mandated process of
and consent forms, which is increasingly prevalent, we
community consultation, not least because of the potential
have found it useful to engage with processes of oral
to perpetuate power and knowledge hierarchies that seek
consent, even where participants are literate. Seeking oral
to control and censor results. As we have learned from
consent through dialogue is an effective way to ensure
the experience of Indigenous populations, there can also
that participants have a full understanding of what the
be a significant risk of creating a sense of research-fatigue
research project will involve as well as their own rights
for some participants and communities. Indigenous
as research participants. Drake (2014) describes his
researchers have proposed multiple ways to navigate this
approach as follows:
dilemma. For example, Stiegman and Castleden (2015)
Following the provision of information, in an accessible manner, the person is able to describe what the research is about, that participation is voluntary, and has the option of withdrawing from the study at any time. The person should also be able to describe any risks or benefits of participation (p. 314).
advocate for building the kind of researcher-community relationships that recognise the autonomy and jurisdiction of indigenous communities and include structures of mutual accountability. Underlying this ongoing approach to consent and participation is the assumption that communities with
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refugee backgrounds are not inherently lacking in some
being attentive to ethical issues embedded in a) framing
way or incapable of solving their own problems. We
of problems and solutions facing PfRB, as well as b)
have ample evidence from practitioners of participatory
presentation and dissemination of completed research.
development and participatory action research that
In both these aspects, the research process should
power imbalances can be transformed once they
not create or perpetuate socio-historical inequalities
are acknowledged by researchers and communities.
in relation to culturally and structurally disadvantaged
Collaborative and culturally-responsive decision-making
groups. How then do we develop research and writing
processes supported by adequate resources can be used
in ways that are accountable to community struggles for
to shape the focus, implementation, and evaluation of
self-representation and self-advocacy? (Tang, 2008).
the research (Cooke & Kothari, 2001). In these scenarios,
As we have previously discussed, a dialogic and
communities have demonstrated the capabilities and
ongoing approach to informed consent creates and
the capacity to address and solve community problems
maintains a space for participants and researchers to
(Hugman, Pittaway & Bartolomei, 2011). An iterative
discuss framings of research problems/questions and
and collective process of informed consent works best
potential ethical issues in relation to research design.
when researchers are committed to sharing control and
These kinds of processes acknowledge that knowledge
strengthening participant autonomy (Hugman, Pittaway
is contested domain and position participants as agentic
& Bartolomei, 2011). These represent significant shifts in
subjects. As Doná states: ‘it is reasonable to ask what role
researchers’ conceptions of research legitimacy, their own
and involvement forced migrants themselves have in
autonomy (or academic freedom), and their identity as the
the process of creation, codification, and reproduction
principal knower and decision maker.
of knowledge of which they are ultimately meant to be
Benefits and burdens of research participation
beneficiaries’ (Doná, 2007, p. 211). Traditions of participatory action research that are
When we recalibrate our assumptions about vulnerability
explicitly oriented towards structural transformation
and autonomy, we can be more reflexive about anticipating
have long engaged with the challenges and tensions of
the burdens and benefits of research participation.
demystifying the research process and co-constructing
Institutional ethical standards are informed by principles
knowledge with research participants (Tang, 2008).
of recognitive and distributive justice. Recognitive justice
Such dialogues are oriented to critically investigate
encompasses demonstration of respect for participant
the conditions of knowledge production, particularly
autonomy, beliefs and cultural heritage of participants;
constellations of hierarchies of knowledge, which
respect for privacy and confidentiality; and respect for
enrich the lives of some and impoverish others (de
welfare of participants and their communities (Lindorff,
Sousa Santos, Nunes & Meneses, 2007 Hickling-Hudson,
2010). Thus, the principle of respect is closely interlinked
2009).
with the principle of justice as also shown by the discussion
technologies have also enabled researchers to expand
in this paper about culturally respectful research in relation
their methodological toolbox with participatory media
to recruitment, selection and seeking consent from
such as digital storytelling, which facilitate counter-
potential participants who are former refugees.
storytelling and agency (for example see Dreher, 2012;
The principle of distributive justice requires researchers
Advances in information and communication
Lenette, Cox and Brough, 2015).
not to place the burden of research disproportionately on
These scholars have also engaged with the challenges
particular groups while others receive benefits (Gillam,
of sharing research findings in ways that do not
2013). Indeed, researchers are increasingly sensitive to
reproduce existing knowledge and social hierarchies.
burdens that take the form of monetary and non-monetary
The AARE Code of Ethics (1993, p. 11) states that
costs, such as time away from work, travel to research sites
researchers are under an obligation to make research
as well as emotional costs of sharing personal experience
findings accessible not only to the academic community
(Lammers, 2007).
but to their participants and indeed ‘the widest possible requires
audience.’ In addition to dissemination through academic
researchers to think more generously about the possible
However, an
publication, researchers and participants can explore
benefits of the research project, particularly when
additional forms of co-authored publication in the public
participants belong to socially disadvantaged groups.
domain as well as strategies to action research findings.
An ethics in practice approach to thinking about the
For instance, education researchers working with
just distribution of the benefits of research involves
refugees have availed themselves of the opportunities
54
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practice
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presented by the Internet to expand public engagement
Sally Baker is a sociologist of education at the University of
through self-publishing online (e.g. professional and
New South Wales, Australia, whose research explores cultural
personal blogs), as well as engaging in policy debates
and linguistic diversity, transition and equity in higher
through social networking media.
education. She is also a co-chair of the national Refugee Education Special Interest Group, supported by the Refugee
Conclusion
Council of Australia.
To conclude, ethical research projects undertake to
References
do research with or produce knowledge with their participants. The ethics in practice approach endeavours to be responsive to the daily complexities and sensitivities of researching with human participants. Participants are viewed as agents rather than objects of research, and research relationships are characterised by mutual respect, care and interdependence rather than distance or hierarchy. Ethics in practice means to continually question assumptions about the shared value for research as endeavour, that consent given once is sufficient, that people’s inner lives are stable enough for continued participation, that the methods chosen do not trigger past traumas or perpetuate more injustice.
We are
inspired here by the AARE Code of Ethics which adopts an expansive rather than reductive understanding of what respect looks like in educational research: Respect for the dignity and worth of persons and the welfare of students, research participants, and the public generally shall take precedence over selfinterest of researchers, or the interests of employers, clients, colleagues or groups. (AARE, 1993, p. 2) As is perhaps obvious by now, to put ethics in practice
Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) (1993). The Code of Ethics for Research in Education. Retrieved from https://www.aare.edu.au Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (2012). Guidelines for Ethical Research in Australian Indigenous Studies. Revised 2nd ed. Canberra: AIATSIS. Bajwa, J., Couto, S., Kidd, S., Markoulakis, R., Abai, M. & McKenzie, K. (2017). Refugees, higher education, and informational barriers. Refuge: Canada’s Journal on Refugees, 33(2), 56–65. BenEzer, G. & Zetter, R. (2014). Searching for directions: conceptual and methodological challenges in researching refugee journeys. Journal of Refugee Studies, 28(3), 297–318. Block, K., Riggs, E., & Haslam, N. (2013) (eds). Values and Vulnerabilities: The Ethics of Research with Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press. Block, K.; Warr, D.; Gibbs, l. & Riggs, E. (2012). Addressing Ethical and Methodological Challenges in Research with Refugee-background Young People: Reflections from the Field, Journal of Refugee Studies, 26(1): 69–87. Burke, R., Thapliyal, N., & Baker, S. (2018). The weaponization of language: English proficiency, citizenship, and the politics of belonging in Australia. Journal of Critical Thought and Praxis, 7(1). Retrieved from http://lib. dr.iastate.edu/jctp/vol7/iss1/ Christie, P. (2005). Towards an ethics of engagement in education in global times. Australian Journal of Education, 49, 238–250. Clark-Kazak, C. (2017). Ethical considerations: research with people in situations of forced migration. Refuge: Canada’s Journal on Refugees, 33(2): 11–17.
encourages researchers to become comfortable with the
Collins, P.H. (1990). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. New York and London. Routledge.
(destabilising) discomfort of engaging in ‘messy’ research
Cooke, B., Kothari, U. (2001). Participation: The New Tyranny. London: Zed.
(Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2007). We cannot rely solely on
Cuthill, M., Scull, S. (2011). Going to university: Pacific Island migrant perspectives. Australian Universities’ Review, 53(1): 5 – 13.
institutional ethics standards and committees. Halilovich (2013) argues, ‘all researchers ‘are ethically obliged – within their power, resources and abilities – to work at actively protecting and advancing the human rights and dignity of their informants’ (p. 146). We hope that this think piece has made a constructive contribution to deepening academic engagement with ethical challenges
Denzin, N.K., Giardina, M.D. (2007) (eds). Ethical Futures in Qualitative Research: Decolonizing and Politics of Knowledge. Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press. de Sousa Santos, B. , Nunes, J.A., Meneses, M.P. (2007). Opening up the canon of knowledge and recognition of difference. In de Sousa Santos, B. (Ed) Another Knowledge Is Possible: Beyond Northern Epistemologies, London: Verso.
in doing research with former refugees.
Doná, G. (2007). The Microphysics of Participation in Refugee Research. Journal of Refugee Studies, 20(2), 210–229.
Nisha Thapliyal (University of Newcastle, Australia)
Dreher, T. (2012). A partial promise of voice: digital storytelling and the limit of listening. Media International Australia, 142, 157-166.
undertakes research in the field of comparative education on social movements for public education and the right to education. Her research and teaching is shaped by intersectional feminist, Indigenous, critical and postcolonial theory.
Drake, G. (2014). The ethical and methodological challenges of social work research with participants who fear retribution: To ‘do no harm’. Qualitative Social Work, 13(2), 304–319. Edwards, R., Mauthner, M. (2002). Ethics and feminist research, in R. Edwards & M. Mauthner (eds). Theory and practice: Ethics in qualitative research. London: Sage.
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Niggs, H. (2015). Sans-papiers on their March for Freedom: how refugees and undocumented migrants challenge Fortress Europe. Interface: a journal for and about social movements, 7(1): 263–288. Retrieved from http://www. interfacejournal.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Issue-7-1-Nigg.pdf
Fobear, K. (2015). “I thought we had no rights”: Challenges in listening, storytelling, and representation of LGBT refugees. Studies in Social Justice, 9(1): 102-117.
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Fischer, A. M., Kothari, U. (2011). A challenge for research in development studies on values, ethics and morals. Journal of International Development, 23(6), 767-770. Gifford, S. (2013). To respect or protect?: Whose values shape the ethics of refugee research?, in K. Block, E. Riggs & N. Haslam (eds). Values and Vulnerabilities: The Ethics of Research with Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press. Gillam, L. (2013). Ethical considerations in refugee research: What guidance do formal research ethics documents offer?, in K. Block, E. Riggs & N. Haslam (eds). Values and Vulnerabilities: The Ethics of Research with Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press. Guillemin, M. & Gillam, L. (2004). Ethics, reflexivity, and “ethically important moments” in research. Qualitative Inquiry, 10(2), 261–280. Halilovich, H. (2013). Ethical approaches in research with refugees and asylum seekers using participatory action research, in K. Block, E. Riggs & N. Haslam (eds). Values and Vulnerabilities: The Ethics of Research with Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press. Hesse-Biber, S. & Leavy, P. (2007) (Eds). Feminist Research Practice: A Primer. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Hickling-Hudson, A. R. (2009) Southern theory and its dynamics for postcolonial education. In Coloma, R. S. (Ed.) Postcolonial Challenges in Education, Peter Lang Publishing Group, New York. Hugman, R.; Pittaway, E. & Bartolomei, L. (2011). When ‘Do No Harm’ is not enough: The ethics of research with research and other vulnerable groups. The British Journal of Social Work, 41(7), 1271–1287. Hugman, R., Bartolomei, L. & Pittaway, E. (2011). Human agency and the meaning of informed consent: Reflections on research with refugees. Journal of Refugee Studies, 24(4), 655–671. Lammers, E. (2007). Researching Refugees: Preoccupations with Power and Questions of Giving, Refugee Survey Quarterly, 26(3): 72-81. Lenette, C. (2016). University Students from Refugee Backgrounds: Why Should We Care? Higher Education Research and Development, 35(6), 1311–1315. Lenette, C., Cox, L., & Brough, M. (2015). Digital storytelling in social work practice? Learning from ethnographic research with refugee women. British Journal of Social Work, 45(3), 988–1005. Lindorff, M. (2010). Ethics, ethical human research and Human Research Ethics Committees. Australian Universities’ Review, 52(1), 51–59. MacDonald, F. (2017). Positioning young refugees in Australia: media discourse and social exclusion. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 21(11), 1182–1195. McDowell, C. (2013). Researching displacement(s), in K. Block, E. Riggs & N. Haslam (eds). Values and Vulnerabilities: The Ethics of Research with Refugees and Asylum Seekers. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press.
Perry, K.H. (2011). Ethics, vulnerability, and speakers of other languages: How University IRBs (do not) speak to research involving refugee participants. Qualitative Inquiry, 17(10): 899-912. Philip, G. & Bell, L. (2017). Thinking critically about rapport and collusion in feminist research: Relationships, contexts and ethical practice. Women’s Studies International Forum, 61: 71–74. Refugee Council of Australia (2018). Refugee Alternatives: Improving policy, practice and support. Conference Program Feb 13–14. Retrieved from https:// refugeealternatives.org.au/ Refugee Council of Australia. (2015). Barriers to education for people seeking asylum and refugees on temporary visas. Retrieved from https://www. refugeecouncil.org.au/publications/barriers-education-seeking-asylum/ Sampson, R. C. (2015). Caring, contributing, capacity building: Navigating contradictory narratives of refugee settlement in Australia. Journal of Refugee Studies, 29(1), 98–116. Sidhu, R. (2017). Navigating unfreedoms & re-imagining ethical counterconducts: Caring about refugees & asylum seekers. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 49(3), 294–305. Smith, L. T. (1999). Decolonising Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. London: Zed Books. Steimel, S. (2017). Negotiating refugee empowerment(s) in resettlement organisations. Papers in Communications Studies, 88. Retrieved from http:// digitalcommons.unl.edu/commstudiespapers/88 Stiegman, M. L. & Castleden, H. (2015). Leashes and lies: Navigating the colonial tensions of institutional ethics of research involving Indigenous peoples in Canada. International Indigenous Policy Journal, 6(3). Tang, S. L. (2008). Community-centered research as knowledge/capacity building in immigrant and refugee communities, in C.R. Hale (ed.) Engaging Contradictions: Theory, Politics and Methods of Activist Scholarship. Berkeley: UC Berkeley Press. Tazreiter, C. (2010). Local to global activism: The movement to protect the rights of refugees and asylum seekers. Social Movement Studies, 9(2), 201–214. Terry, L., Naylor, R., Nguyen, N. & Rizzo, A. (2016). Not There Yet: An investigation into the Access and Participation of Students from Humanitarian Refugee Backgrounds in the Australian Higher Education System, National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education, Perth, WA. Tomkinson, S. (2015). Doing Fieldwork on State Organizations in Democratic Settings: Ethical Issues of Research in Refugee Decision Making, Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 16(1), Art. 6. Retrieved from http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs150168 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2018). Figures at A Glance. Retrieved from http://www.unhcr.org/en-au/figures-at-a-glance.html Watkins, M. & Noble, G. (2013). Disposed to Learn: Schooling, Ethnicity and the Scholarly Habitus. Bloomsbury, London & New York
Mohanty, C. T. (1988). Under Western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses. Feminist Review, 30, 61–88. Naidoo, L., & Brace, E. (2017). The Refugee Action Support program in Sydney, Australia: A bridge between cultures, in L. Hoyt (ed). Regional Perspectives on Learning by Doing: Stories from Engaged Universities Around the World. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.
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Mind the cap? Postgraduate coursework degrees and tuition fees in Australia Nigel Palmer Australian National University
Natasha Abrahams Monash University
Mark Pace University of Adelaide
Emily De Rango University of Melbourne
There has been substantial growth in postgraduate coursework study in Australia since moves towards deregulation began in the early 1990s. This growth in postgraduate coursework education has brought benefits for both institutions and individuals. However, in a deregulated fee environment these benefits now risk being outweighed by the mounting costs of education for those who wish to improve their qualifications. This paper revisits a paper by Smith and Frankland in 2000, regarding the ‘marketisation’ of postgraduate coursework degrees in Australia and addresses the likely implications of recent proposals for a cap on the combined cumulative fee debt for current and prospective postgraduate coursework students. It finds that many of the predictions made by Smith and Frankland in 2000 have been borne out and that the prospect of limits on cumulative debt from multiple degree programs has the potential to have an impact on increasing numbers of graduates with fee debts well in excess of $100,000. Keywords: student fees, postgraduate study, tuition fees
Introduction
supporting participation in higher education that is both effective and equitable.The success of the HECS scheme is
Participation in higher education in Australia is supported
due in part to the fact that, despite increases in cost to the
through loan schemes for domestic students administered
student and other changes to the scheme, the maximum
by the Australian Government. These include the Higher
amount that can be charged for study supported by a
Education Contribution Scheme (HECS) for government-
Commonwealth Supported Place (CSP) under the scheme
supported study (now the HECS-HELP component of the
continues to be regulated. This is not the case with ‘full
HELP loan program, referred to here as ‘HECS’ or ‘HECS-
fee’ courses. The FEE-HELP program allows students to
HELP’) and FEE-HELP loans for ‘full fee’ (predominantly
defer the cost of tuition in much the same way as HECS-
postgraduate coursework) degrees. The HECS scheme
HELP. In this respect, the scheme is also an effective
has received international recognition as a means for
means of supporting participation. However, while the
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maximum domestic charge for undergraduate and CSP-
the primary purpose of education loan programs
supported postgraduate courses is regulated, fees for
supported by the Australian Government in deterring,
other postgraduate courses are not. The difference in fee
rather than enabling, participation among those unable to
levels between the two can be stark. This contrast is also
pay the direct cost of tuition fees in excess of the ‘capped’
reflected in the total loan debt accrued by students who
loan amount. This paper shows how changes proposed
participate in multiple programs of study.
in the Higher Education Support Legislation Amendment
The Higher Education Support Legislation Amendment
(Student Loan Sustainability) Bill 2018 would undermine
(Student Loan Sustainability) Bill 2018 would amend
the primary purpose of education loan schemes supported
the Higher Education Support Act 2003 to introduce a
by the Australian Government and that this negative impact
‘combined cap’ on HECS-HELP and FEE-HELP student loan
is likely to be felt by an increasing number of students
debt. These limits would be $104,440 for most students
across multiple areas of study. Rather than pose a ‘niche’
and $150,000 for those undertaking medicine, dentistry
problem for a small number of students, combined caps
and veterinary science courses. These are ‘combined’
on fee debt would have serious implications for a large
in the sense that they would apply to all loan debts
number of students from diverse backgrounds who aspire
accrued through student loan programs supported by the
to improve their qualifications and acquire technical skills
Australian Government. Loan limits already exist for FEE-
at a professional level.The following provides an overview
HELP debts.The fact that the costs of some very expensive
of postgraduate coursework education in Australia and
and supposedly ‘niche’ degree programs already exceed
outlines some of the implications following from the
the current and proposed fee loan limits has gained some
introduction of a combined cap on cumulative loan fee
attention (Cervini, 2016; Ross, 2018; Senate Education
debt accrued through both HECS-HELP and FEE-HELP
and Employment Legislation Committee, 2018). What
loan programs. This includes the potential for current and
has received relatively little attention however is the
future total cumulative fee debts to exceed the combined
full extent of the potential impact of these limits on the
caps for a great many students.
large number of students pursuing multiple qualifications – qualifications which form part of standard learning pathways and accreditation requirements for many
Participation in postgraduate coursework study in Australia
professional and technical fields. While mounting fee debt and changes to repayment
Coursework postgraduate degrees have long been a feature
thresholds remain important considerations, the prospect
of Australian higher education.There were 674 postgraduate
of a cap on the combined fee debt for multiple courses
enrolments recorded in 1949, representing just two per
of study brings with it a range of negative consequences.
cent of the Australian student population at that time
Chief among these is that this change would undermine
(DETYA, 2001).These effectively pre-date research degrees,
140,000 Domestic Masters by Coursework enrolments 120,000 Domestic Graduate Certificate, Diploma and Qualifying enrolments 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000
0
1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
20,000
Sources: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA) (2001) and Higher Education Statistics (Department of Education and Training 2018a); education.gov.au
Figure 1: Domestic postgraduate coursework enrolments in Australia by broad qualification type: 1979-2016
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55,000 50,000
Society & Culture
45,000
Management & Commerce
40,000
Health
35,000
Education
30,000 Other fields (combined)
25,000 20,000 15,000
16 20
15 20
14 20
13 20
12 20
11 20
10 20
09 20
08 20
07 20
06 20
05 20
04 20
03 20
02 20
20
01
10,000
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Figure 2: Domestic enrolments in postgraduate coursework programs by field of education 2001 - 2016 with the first three PhDs in Australia being awarded in 1948
domestic demand for masters by coursework degree
and a further eight awarded the following year (Dobson,
programs. Fields of education with the highest demand
2012). By 1989 there were roughly 55,000 postgraduate
include Society and Culture, Management and Commerce,
coursework students in Australia. Many of these were
Health and Education. Domestic postgraduate coursework
enrolled with the Colleges of Advanced Education (or
enrolments in these fields are greater than those in all
CAEs) of the time. The majority of these were in graduate
other fields combined. In 2016 these fields accounted
diploma, certificate or qualifying courses (71 per cent)
for 87 per cent of all domestic postgraduate coursework
with the remainder enrolled in a range of coursework
enrolments, as illustrated in Figure 2.
masters programs (DETYA, 2001). The ‘Dawkins’ reforms
Sustained growth in masters by coursework enrolment
of the early 1990s saw CAEs become part of a Unified
has been supplemented by growth in doctorate by
National System for higher education (Dawkins, 1987,
coursework and masters (extended) programs. These
1988). These reforms also opened the way for incremental
feature as a small but growing component of postgraduate
deregulation of postgraduate coursework places (Dawkins,
coursework enrolments, with strong demand in Society &
1988; Smith & Frankland, 2000). There are now close to
Culture, Management and Health disciplines, as outlined
200,000 domestic and 140,000 international postgraduate
in Table 1.
coursework students studying in Australia.
While coursework masters, masters (extended) and
Deregulation in its early stages was accompanied by
coursework doctorates are increasingly popular, they are
increased participation by domestic students. This was
also increasingly expensive. However, the risk of accruing
initially the case for postgraduate coursework degree
very large fee debts is by no means limited to these
programs across the board, but by 1993 enrolments in
programs. In fact, this risk is one shared by a very large
graduate certificate and diploma courses levelled off, while
number of students, particularly those attaining multiple
domestic demand for masters by coursework programs
qualifications. The following section outlines the impact
continued to grow. Between 1988 and 2016 domestic
of increases in fees on overall student debt, and on the
participation in masters by coursework programs has increased tenfold, from 13,921 to 133,184, as illustrated in Figure 1. Domestic postgraduate coursework enrolments between
saw
2001
substantial (84,128)
and
growth 2004
Table 1: Coursework doctorate and Master’s (Extended) enrolments (2016) Course Level Doctorate by Coursework
Health
Society & Culture
121
177
Management & Commerce
Other disciplines
Total
128
34
460
(132,593) and again between 2007
Master’s (Extended)
3,830
1,271
4
11
5,116
(140,318) and 2016 (198,242), with
Total:
3,951
1,448
132
45
5,576
the latter being largely due to sustained
Source: Higher Education Statistics (Dept of Education and Training, 2018a); education.gov.au
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Table 2: Estimated total HECS-HELP student contribution amounts per program) for coursework students graduating in 2018 ($) Band
Field
Bachelor Grad Cert (3y fte) (6 mo fte)
Grad Dip (1y fte)
CW Masters (1.5y fte)
CW Masters (2y fte)
CW CW Doctorate Doctorate (3y fte) (4y fte)
Band 1
Humanities, behavioural science, social studies, foreign languages, visual and performing arts, clinical psychology, nursing and education.
19,049
3,222
6,444
9,666
12,793
19,049
25,201
Band 2
Computing, built environment, health, engineering, surveying, agriculture, mathematics, statistics and science.
27,152
4,593
9,185
13,778
18,235
27,152
35,920
Band 3
Law, dentistry, medicine, veterinary science, accounting, administration, economics and commerce.
31,790
5,377
10,754
16,131
21,350
31,790
42,016
Sources: CSP and Higher Education Loan Program (HELP) Handbook (various years); studyassist.gov.au
potential cumulative student debt accrued through the
the current and previous years and assume ‘shortest path’
attainment of multiple qualifications in a deregulated fee
degree times where students are enrolled full-time for
environment with a scarcity of CSPs.
each program and only undertake the minimum required load. It is important to bear in mind that only a minority
Fees and student debt
of students reflect these enrolment patterns (particularly in the case of postgraduate coursework programs, where
Fees for domestic postgraduate coursework programs
many students enrol part-time). Students enrolled with a
currently contribute over 30 per cent of domestic
CSP have their tuition partially funded by the Australian
higher education teaching revenues for Australian higher
Government with the remaining fees being liable in the
education providers annually (Department of Education
form of a ‘student contribution’ amount. This amount can
and Training, 2018b). These revenues are comprised of
be paid up front or deferred via a HECS-HELP Loan, in much
a combination of direct fees and charges, fees paid up
the same way as the majority of undergraduate degree
front, fees deferred via the FEE-HELP program and those
programs (Department of Education and Training, 2018c).
supported through HECS-HELP CSPs. Domestic students
Access to CSPs for postgraduate coursework study varies
are eligible to apply to defer payment of some or all of
by institution and also varies by degree type. Roughly
their tuition fees via the HECS-HELP (CSPs) and FEE-HELP
35 per cent of masters and doctorate by coursework
(fee-paying program) loan schemes. Policy settings for
students are currently enrolled with a CSP. Seventy-two
these schemes have a significant influence on the costs
per cent of students in masters (extended) programs are
of education for individual students, and the potential for
enrolled with a CSP, while this is the case with only 23
accruing substantial student debt.
per cent of graduate certificate and diploma enrolments.
HECS-HELP and CSPs
Overall postgraduate coursework CSPs account for 16 per cent of the total number of CSPs available nationally
Table 2 shows the total estimated program cost for
(Department of Education and Training, 2018a). Fees for
students graduating in 2018 who are supported through
CSPs are indexed and set by the Australian Government
a CSP. Roughly 32 per cent of domestic postgraduate
each year. Student contribution amounts are arranged into
coursework students in Australia receive support for
fee ‘bands’ which apply equally for both undergraduate
their tuition fees via a CSP. In 2016 65,884 domestic
and postgraduate coursework programs.
coursework postgrads (32 per cent) were supported
The total costs to students for CSP-supported degrees
through CSPs with the remaining 137,991 (68 per cent)
outlined above all fall under $50,000. However, these
reported as fee-paying. Of the fee-paying group 48,953
estimates only refer to the cost of CSP-supported study
(24 per cent) paid up-front, leaving the remaining 91,775
and of individual degree programs. Cumulative costs
(45 per cent) being reported as ‘FEE-HELP’ enrolments
over time for different CSP-supported degree programs
(Department of Education and Training, 2018a). These
will depend on the particular learning pathway chosen
estimates are based on student contribution amounts for
by the student and that appropriate to their chosen
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Table 3: Forward projections for cumulative HECS-HELP (CSP only) fees for Band 3 learning pathways for an undergraduate graduating in 2018 ($) Band 3 Examples
Bachelor (3y fte)
Grad Cert (6 mo fte)
Grad Dip (1y fte)
Masters CW (1.5y fte)
Masters CW (2y fte)
Doctorate CW (3y fte)
Doctorate CW (4y fte)
Total
Example 1
31,790
16,777
48,567
Example 2
31,790
5,505
22,282
59,577
Example 3
31,790
11,010
22,282
65,082
Example 4
31,790
5,505
33,822
71,117
Example 5
31,790
45,637
77,427
Sources: CSP and Higher Education Loan Program (HELP) Handbook (various years); studyassist.gov.au
students often move across different fields of study).
FEE-HELP or ‘full fee’ postgraduate coursework degrees
Table 3 outlines several learning pathway opportunities
Smith and Frankland (2000) correctly anticipated the
available using CSP-supported enrolments. The scenarios
likely impact of a deregulated fee environment for
described are all based on CSP-supported options for a
postgraduate coursework study. They observed that
prospective postgraduate coursework student graduating
initial trends during the 1990s signalled the potential for
from an undergraduate program in 2018. Cumulative
unconstrained growth in the fees charged by institutions
HECS-HELP fees in these examples are projected for
for postgraduate coursework degrees, while at the
learning pathways for Band 3 fields of study (law, dentistry,
same time the availability of tuition subsidy provided
medicine, veterinary science, accounting, administration,
by government would progressively decline. The result
economics and commerce). As Table 3 shows, cumulative
would be mounting cumulative student fee debt. This
HECS-HELP fees can exceed $70,000 despite the fact that
they referred to as the ‘marketisation’ of postgraduate
CSPs are substantially more affordable than full-fee places.
coursework degrees. Much has been made of the growing
It is worth keeping in mind that only 32 per cent of
national higher education student fee debt and the
domestic postgraduate coursework students in Australia
prospect that as much as 18 per cent of it may remain
receive support for their tuition fees via CSPs.The majority
unpaid (Ferguson, 2018; Productivity Commission, 2017).
do not have access to subsidised places for postgraduate
Less has been made of the implications for individuals
study and typically pay exponentially more for the same
with substantial student fee debt and, in the context
qualification. The following section outlines implications
of postgraduate coursework education, unconstrained
for students considering a postgraduate coursework
increases in the fees charged by institutions.
field of study (noting that learning pathways taken by
qualification without the benefit of a CSP and additional
Individual student fee debt amounts continue to grow.
considerations for students relying on the Australian
The total national domestic higher education fee debt is
Government’s FEE-HELP loan scheme.
currently $54.0 billion for the 2016–17 financial year (ATO,
Table 4: Number of individual HELP debts by total debt amount (financial years 06-17) Fee debt per person:
2011-12
2012-13
2013-14
2014-15
2015-16
2016-17
$14,000 and under
944,789
993,154
1,038,865
1,086,347
1,130,198
1,174,695
$14,000.01 to $30,000
544,393
596,124
666,242
764,000
860,396
907,498
$30,000.01 to $50,000
156,389
185,261
225,226
280,355
352,695
417,389
$50,000.01 to $60,000
17,444
23,705
32,258
43,096
56,919
70,265
$60,000.01 to $70,000
7,322
10,589
15,002
21,035
29,235
37,363
$70,000.01 to $80,000
3,507
5,009
7,433
10,629
15,164
19,996
$80,000.01 to $90,000
2,126
2,943
4,147
5,827
8,120
10,809
$90,000.01 to $100,000
1,391
1,851
2,527
3,563
5,216
6,996
$100,000.01 and above
3,339
4,652
6,273
8,189
10,996
14,046
1,680,700
1,823,288
1,997,973
2,223,041
2,468,939
2,659,057
Total:
Source: Australian Taxation Office (ATO, 2018b); data.gov.au vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
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80,000 $50,000.01 to $60,000
70,000 60,000
$60,000.01 to $70,000
50,000 $70,000.01 to $80,000
40,000
$80,000.01 to $90,000
30,000 20,000
$90,000.01 to $100,000
10,000 $100,000.01 and above
0
2010-11
2011-12
2012-13
2013-14
2014-15
2015-16
2016-17
Source: Australian Taxation Office (ATO, 2018b); data.gov.au
Figure 3: Number of individuals with an outstanding HELP debt above $50,000 by total balance (fin. yrs 2006-2017) 2018a; Ferguson, 2018).This total debt amount is shared by
As Table 4 shows, the total amount of HELP debt held by
the 2.7 million people who currently have an outstanding
individuals, in fee debt per person, also continues to rise.
HELP debt. HELP debt amounts indicated here include fee
As of the 2016–17 financial year over half a million
debt balances for individuals as of the 16–17 financial year
Australians have a fee debt in excess of $30,000 (ATO,
from any of the related Commonwealth loan programs
2018b). The number of individuals with fee debts in
including HECS-HELP, FEE-HELP, SA-HELP,VET Student Loans
excess of $50,000 has increased 450 per cent, and those
(previously VET FEE-HELP), and OS-HELP, the latter being to
with debts over $70,000 have increase by 500 per cent
support domestic students defer the cost of overseas study.
since 2012. This group now includes 14,046 individuals
1,200,000
$14,000 and under would include current undergrad & previous graduates
1,000,000
$14,000.01 to $30,000 would include recent bachelor graduates & some coursework postgrad
800,000
600,000 $30,000.01 and over commenced or completed multiple qualifications
400,000
200,000
0
2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Source: Australian Taxation Office (ATO, 2018b); data.gov.au
Figure 4: Number of individual HELP debts grouped by total debt amount (financial years 2006-2017)
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80% 70% 60% $14,000 and under would include current undergrad & previous graduates
50% 40%
$14,000.01 to $30,000 would include recent bachelor graduates & some coursework postgrad
30% 20%
$30,000.01 and over commenced or completed multiple qualifications
10% 0%
2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Source: Australian Taxation Office (ATO, 2018b); data.gov.au
Figure 5: Proportion of individuals with a current HELP debt grouped by total balance (financial years 2006-2017) with an accumulated fee debt in excess of $100,000 each,
of care in providing realistic estimates for the total costs
as illustrated in Figure 3.
of a program of study. Others do not. Many only price
The scale of fee debt at the individual level provides an
their postgraduate coursework offerings at the unit level
indication of how those debts may have been accrued (as
without providing additional program-level estimates.This
illustrated in Figure 4). Debt amounts of $14,000 or under
means that prospective students need to combine many
would include current undergraduate students without a
different course units at different prices to estimate the
prior fee debt and previous students who have either paid
potential overall program cost. Supporting transparency
a significant proportion of their fees or accrued fee debt at
in study choices is important as it helps students make
a lower rate. Debts between $14,000 and $30,000 would
informed judgements about the potential fee debts they
include more recent graduates from bachelor degrees
are likely to accrue and to weight these against the
and both current and former postgraduate coursework
potential merits of different study options. Despite these
students. Fee debts in excess of $30,000 are likely to
challenges, it is possible to estimate the total potential
be accrued by students who have commenced multiple
cumulative fee debt for an individual using the learning
qualifications,
pathway model outlined below.
including
postgraduate
coursework
degrees. This group now accounts for 22 per cent of
Table 5 summarises enrolments in the most popular
all individuals with an outstanding HELP fee debt, as
postgraduate courses. Together these ten narrow fields of
illustrated in Figure 5.
study capture 37 per cent of all domestic postgraduate
Estimating the potential cumulative fee debt of
coursework enrolments. Indicative program cost is
individuals for particular areas of study has its challenges.
taken from the third quartile of 2018 fees advertised for
Complicating factors include patterns in the recognition
these programs from a sample of 2,730 program price
of prior learning, variations in enrolment load and
estimates drawn from 22 Australian universities. Based
mobility between providers, between degree programs
on these program cost estimates it is possible to project
and across areas of study. Perhaps surprisingly, one of the
the potential cumulative fee debt for learning pathways
main complicating factors in estimating the potential cost
typical of each area of study.
of postgraduate coursework degrees is the transparency
Table 6 sets out popular postgraduate coursework study
(and lack thereof) on the part of providers in supporting
options from the perspective of a student graduating from
prospective students in making informed decisions about
an undergraduate program in 2018. The FEE-HELP liable
their postgraduate coursework study options. Some
program costs shown in Table 6 are indexed at 2.38 per
institutions show a high degree of transparency and duty
cent per annum (although annual increases in fees are
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Table 5: Coursework postgraduate programs by narrow field of education (top 1 per cent by enrolment) Broad Field of Education
Course level
Narrow Field of Education
Management & Commerce
Graduate Certificate
Business Management
4,483
Masters by Coursework
Business Management
Masters by Coursework
Accounting
Masters by Coursework Society & Culture
Education Health
2016 enrolments
Typical duration (fte)
2018 program cost (Q3)^
6 mo
$17,115
16,347
2 yr
$67,776
4,003
1.5-2 yr
$60,971
Banking and Finance
3,060
1-2 yr
$61,746
Graduate Diploma
Legal Practice
4,164
1 yr
$20,512
Masters by Coursework
Law
5,470
1-2 yr
$61,832
Masters by Coursework
Psychology
2,961
1.5-2 yr
$57,504
Graduate Certificate
Education
15,864
6 mo
$12,950
Masters by Coursework
Education
14,133
2 yr
$52,400
Masters by Coursework
Public Health
3,084
1.5-2 yr
$55,471
^ Total program cost estimates taken at the third quartile of total program costs for comparable programs advertised by Australian higher education providers (2018 FEE-HELP pricing). Sources: Higher Education Statistics (Department of Education and Training, 2018a) education.gov.au and various university websites.
often far greater than this). It outlines estimated fee costs
Cumulative degree costs and limits on fee debt
for master’s degrees in accounting, banking and finance,
Rather than being a ‘niche’ issue for a small number of
psychology and public health, and aligns successive
professional programs offered by a small number of
qualifications in popular learning pathways for business
providers, the prospect of a combined cap on HECS-HELP
and management, law and education. The HECS-HELP fee
and FEE-HELP loans presents a major threat to the viability
debt from undergraduate study in psychology, education
of postgraduate study for many prospective students as well
and public health are lower than for the other examples
as those who have already commenced these programs
as these fields of study are classified in Band 1 as opposed
expecting to be able to rely on the FEE-HELP scheme. This
to Band 3 as is the case with business, accounting and
is in addition to the 14,000 students who already have
law. The projections outlined below show that even
HELP debts of over $100,000. The enrolment patterns
on conservative assumptions regarding fee levels, and
summarised in Table 5 indicate that a combined cap on
taking the most popular courses into account, the total
HELP debts could potentially impact on a further 30,000
cumulative fee debt is close to or exceeds $100,000 in
students around the country – many of whom have already
three of the six examples. It is important to note that
embarked on a trajectory of study with a view to completing
the estimates projected below entail the same ‘shortest
qualification pathways typical of their chosen field.
path’ assumptions as employed in Table 3, and both sets
While mounting fee debt and changes to repayment
of projections exclude any fee debt which may have been
thresholds remain important considerations, the prospect
accrued through undertaking VET qualifications.
of a cap on the combined fee debt for multiple courses
Table 6: Forward projections for cumulative fees for FEE-HELP learning pathways for an undergraduate graduating in 2018 Examples
Bachelor (3y fte) HECS
Grad Cert (6 mo fte) FEE
Grad Dip (1y fte) FEE
Masters CW Masters CW Doctorate (1.5y fte) (2y fte) CW (3y FEE FEE fte) FEE
Doctorate CW (4y fte) FEE
Total
Public Health
$19,049
$58,143
$77,192
Psychology
$19,049
$60,274
$79,323
Education
$19,049
Accounting / Banking
31,790
Law
31,790
Business Management
31,790
$13,258
$56,231
$88,539
$64,720 $21,000 17,522
$96,510 $66,353
$119,143
$72,732
$122,044
Sources: CSP and Higher Education Loan Program (HELP) Handbook (various years) studyassist.gov.au and various university websites.
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of study risks undermining the primary purpose of education loan programs supported by the Australian Government. In addition to the prospect of accruing very large fee debts, these changes would have a direct deterrent effect on those unable to pay the direct cost of tuition fees in excess of the ‘capped’ loan amount. This paper shows that changes of the kind proposed in the Higher Education Support Legislation Amendment (Student Loan Sustainability) Bill 2018 would impact on an increasing number of students across multiple areas of study. This would have serious implications for a large number of students from diverse backgrounds who aspire to improve their qualifications and acquire technical and professional skills. Changes of this kind would, over time, serve to limit opportunities for career pathways which require these qualifications to those able to afford substantial up-front fees either directly or through other forms of finance. In this respect changes of this kind are regressive in terms of supporting participation through limiting access to the qualifications required in many
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Natasha Abrahams is National President of the Council of Australian Postgraduate Associations (CAPA), a member of the AUR editorial board and a doctoral candidate with Monash University, Australia. Mark Pace is President of the National Union of Students (NUS) and completing a degree in mathematics at The University of Adelaide, Australia. Emily De Rango is Representation Manager at The University of Melbourne Graduate Student Association (GSA), University of Melbourne, Australia.
References ATO. (2018b). Taxation Statistics 2015-16: Outstanding HELP debt by size of outstanding balance (Table 21). Canberra: Australian Taxation Office (ATO); data.gov.au. ATO. (2018a). Taxation Statistics 2015-16: Outstanding HELP debt by state/ territory of residence (Table 22). Canberra: Australian Taxation Office (ATO); data.gov.au. Cervini, E. (2016). Postgraduate course fees are regularly topping $100,000 - and with little scrutiny, Sydney Morning Herald, 25 April.
technical and professional fields.
Dawkins, J. (1987). Higher Education: a policy discussion paper. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Conclusion
Dawkins, J. (1988). Higher Education: a policy statement. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
Deregulation of postgraduate coursework education in
Department of Education and Training. (2017). Annual Report 2016–17: Opportunity through learning. Canberra: Department of Education and Training, Commonwealth of Australia.
Australia has been accompanied by substantial growth in enrolments. This growth has brought benefits for both institutions and individuals. However, benefits now risk being outweighed by the mounting costs of education for those who wish to upgrade their qualifications. Aside from the challenges faced by students in accruing and repaying very large student debts, this paper has shown that changes of the kind proposed in the Higher Education Support Legislation Amendment (Student Loan Sustainability) Bill 2018 would have significant negative implications for a large number of current and prospective domestic postgraduate coursework students in Australia. The attainment of multiple qualifications now forms part of standard learning pathways and accreditation requirements for many professional and technical fields. The loan limits and combined caps on fee debt of the kind proposed in this bill would have serious implications for a very large number of students from diverse backgrounds who aspire to improve their qualifications and acquire technical skills to enhance both their own career prospects and their contribution to society. Nigel Palmer is Executive Director at Collega and a doctoral candidate with the Australian National University. Contact: nigel.palmer@anu.edu.au vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Department of Education and Training. (2018c). CSP and Higher Education Loan Program (HELP) Handbook. Canberra: Department of Education and Training, Commonwealth of Australia. Department of Education and Training. (2018b). Higher Education Statistics (Financial Performance 2016). Canberra: Department of Education and Training, Commonwealth of Australia. Department of Education and Training. (2018a). Higher Education Statistics (Students 2016). Canberra: Department of Education and Training, Commonwealth of Australia. DETYA. (2001). Higher Education Students: Time Series Tables (Selected Higher Education Statistics). Canberra: Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA). Dobson, I. R. (2012). PhDs in Australia, from the beginning. Australian Universities’ Review, 54(1), 94-101. Ferguson, H. (2018). Updated Higher Education Loan Program (HELP) Debt Statistics. Canberra: Parliamentary Library, Parliament of Australia. Productivity Commission. (2017). University Education, Shifting the Dial: 5 year Productivity Review. Canberra: Productivity Commission. Ross, J. (2018). Mortgage-scale student debt on the rise in Australia, Times Higher Education, May 5. Senate Education and Employment Legislation Committee. (2018). Higher Education Support Legislation Amendment (Student Loan Sustainability) Bill 2018 [provisions] (Committee Report). Canberra: Senate Education and Employment Legislation Committee, Commonwealth of Australia. Smith, B. & Frankland, M. (2000). Marketisation and the new quality agenda: postgraduate coursework at the crossroads. Australian Universities’ Review, 42(2).
Mind the cap? Nigel Palmer, Natasha Abrahams, Mark Pace & Emily De Rango
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OPINION
History revisited The system before Dawkins Paul Rodan Swinburne University of Technology
Before the creation of the current unified national system of higher education, a binary system had developed, comprising universities and colleges of advanced education (CAEs), the latter emerging in the second half of the 1960s.
The now defunct CAE system was (on the best
By the mid 1980s, the CAEs were able to take advantage
interpretation) widely misunderstood within much
of the growing numbers of doctoral graduates, and staff
of the university sector or (on the worst) deliberately
profiles (far from the elitist characterisation of ‘trumped
misrepresented to defend a privileged position. That
up tech teachers’) started to change accordingly.
confusion (putting it politely) continues to this day
Granted, this was more the case in some disciplines
with even those too young to have been in the sector
than others, but nor was it true that every university
in the 1980s criticising John Dawkins for dismantling a
academic staff member in that era had a doctorate either,
reasonably well-functioning binary system.
especially those appointed decades earlier. Indeed, in
Closer to the truth, the system was essentially
the late 1970s, I worked in a department where one of
dismantling itself, as the model was frozen in the late
the professors possessed a BA and three journal articles/
1960s. Long before the Dawkins changes (I eschew the
chapters (two, if you don’t count self-plagiarism). But, he
value-laden ‘reforms’), the only way in which the system
thought a lot!
could be accurately described as ‘binary’ concerned the
While some PhD graduates may seek a research-free
distribution of resources, with universities explicitly
life post-graduation, it would be surprising if that were
funded for their research activities.
the norm. In many cases, doctorally qualified CAE staff
In terms of what was happening within the system,
pursued modest research activities within their colleges,
neither universities nor CAEs represented internally
sometimes backed by some level of institutional funding.
homogeneous sectors. Just as older universities (which
While capital-intensive projects could not be undertaken
would become the Group of Eight) saw themselves as
on the same scale as universities, the annual reports of
superior to the newer, so did the larger institutes of
many CAEs in the pre-Dawkins period revealed some
technology see themselves as the cream of the non-
impressive research outcomes from an interesting array
university sector. Indeed, they had established an earlier
of colleges, with some securing research funding from
version of the GO8 – the (eventually nine) Directors of
private industry. In addition, CAE staff were sometimes
Central Institutes of Technology (DOCIT), seeking to act
collaborators with university staff (often their former
as a coherent lobby group and, in the process, put some
supervisors) in externally-funded research projects.
distance between themselves and the other ‘inferior’ CAEs.
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acknowledged, that legacy living on in the ‘Dawkins
1987 by the New South Wales Institute of Technology
universities’. Of course, the definition of ‘vocational’ was
becoming the University of Technology Sydney. This left
reasonably imprecise, since the older universities were
Dawkins to choose between acquiescing in the ad-hoc
surely also involved in ‘vocational’ education – in areas
creation of new universities or attempting to impose an
such as law and medicine. Moreover, in many areas of
orderly national framework.The Green Paper appeared in
study, while the teaching approach may have differed
December 1987 and the White Paper in July 1988.
between university and CAE, the content was similar
Of course, to admit that the system was broken is not to
or virtually identical. I discerned no great difference
endorse every aspect of Dawkins’ version of the solution.
between the syllabus for applied sociology at the CAE
Indeed, one might detect elements of a poor man’s Karl
where I worked and that for the (presumably ‘non-
Marx – a reasonable analysis of the problem, but serious
applied’) sociology ten kilometres down the road at the
questions about parts of the proposed remedy. But,
nearest university.This was gradually evidenced in credit
despite the misrepresentations, Dawkins didn’t kill the
transfer arrangements, albeit granted reluctantly at first,
binary system, which was already on life support, but he
on the university side.
did organise the funeral.
To complete this picture of blurred boundaries between sectors, it should be noted that a number of
Paul Rodan is an adjunct professor in the Department of
CAEs in certain jurisdictions, already offering research
Social Sciences at Swinburne University of Technology and
master’s degrees, gained approval to offer PhD programs
is a member of the Australian Universities’ Review editorial
in designated areas. The CAEs were not a research-free
board.
zone. While the blurred boundaries of the binary system were
This is an edited version of an article which originally
increasingly apparent, a state government decision in
appeared in the website Pearls and Irritations on 9
1986 served as an immediate game-changer.That year, the
February 2018.
Western Australian parliament conferred university status on the former Western Australian Institute of Technology. It became Curtin University of Technology, followed in
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History revisited Paul Rodan
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The benefits & drawbacks of transnational higher education Myths and realities Stephen Wilkins & Katariina Juusola The British University in Dubai, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
The purpose of this article is to analyse some of the key ongoing debates in transnational higher education (TNHE). First, we discuss a selection of the claimed benefits and drawbacks of TNHE for home and host country stakeholders (students, governments and institutions), and then we suggest alternative realities, for which there appears to be evidence in practice. It is concluded that (1) recent TNHE developments on the provision side act as a counterforce to the spread of neo-colonialism; (2) international branch campus development continues but there is evidence that the forms, motives, and markets of these initiatives are changing; (3) distance/online/MOOC programs do not pose a threat to the sustainability of other forms of TNHE; (4) the majority of TNHE programs are of acceptable quality due to high levels of competition in international higher education markets and increased regulatory demands from quality assurance agencies; and (5) these forces also contribute to students generally being satisfied with their TNHE study experience. Keywords: transnational higher education, TNHE, cross-border education, off-shore education, borderless education
Introduction
The main modes of delivering TNHE are distance/virtual education; franchised or partnership programs; joint or
Over the last two decades, transnational higher education
double degree programs; study abroad; and international
(TNHE) has emerged as a major form of internationalisation
branch campuses. The majority of research on TNHE
in higher education institutions. The term ‘TNHE’ refers to
focuses on international branch campuses, which are
all types of higher education study programs or educational
the foreign branches of universities that award degrees
services in which the learners are located in a country
of the home institution. Franchising and various forms
different from the one where the awarding institution is
of partnership/collaboration are arrangements whereby
based (UNESCO/Council of Europe, 2001). In the scholarly
the home university provides the curricula, accredits the
literature,TNHE is also known as cross-border, offshore and
qualifications awarded, and takes responsibility for quality
borderless higher education (Knight, 2016).Together, these
assurance but the students are registered with a local
four terms have created a new thematic field of research
institution that delivers the program in the host country
that comprises nearly two thousand contributions, which
(UK HE International Unit, 2016). In joint or double degree
discuss both the benefits and drawbacks/weaknesses of
programs, students are generally enrolled with a local
TNHE (Kosmützky & Putty, 2016).
education provider for the first part of the qualification
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and then at a foreign partner institution for the final
motive for international expansion, particularly among
part. In a joint degree program, the student receives one
Australian and British institutions. For example, in Australia,
qualification that is accredited by both partner institutions,
Monash University’s development plan of 1999 included
whereas in a double degree program, the student receives
aims for becoming more financially self-reliant, with less
two full degrees, one from each partner institution. Online
dependence on government funding, and pursuing more
and distance education programs, including massive open
entrepreneurial income-generating activities (McBurnie &
online courses (MOOCs) are also nowadays established
Pollock, 2000). As government funding of higher education
parts of TNHE.
has increasingly failed to keep up with expansions in
While TNHE has become a popular and legitimate form
student numbers and rising costs, the revenue generated
of education that has enjoyed well-publicised success
by TNHE has undoubtedly been a benefit to institutions.
stories, it has simultaneously received a lot of criticism. For
For many institutions in the home countries of TNHE,
example, critics have attacked the educational quality and
franchising, joint programs and articulation agreements
student experience in TNHE (Altbach, 2010), and argued
have been easily gained revenue streams that have required
that TNHE is often about soft power manipulation (He
relatively little risk or effort. Also, with widening access to
& Wilkins, 2018), which can be regarded as modern-day
the Internet globally, online and virtual programs gained in
colonialism. In reply, higher education institutions argue
popularity from the early 1990s.
that they are merely fulfilling unmet demand for higher
It is not only institutions that benefit financially from
education, and some even operate with an altruistic
TNHE; so too do the governments of the home countries.
purpose (Wilkins & Urbanovič, 2014). As a consequence,
For example, in 2016-17, over 700,000 students were
there are several contradictions and persistent myths that
studying for a UK degree overseas, which had an estimated
prevail in contemporary TNHE research. We claim that
value of £550 million to the UK economy (Universities
such contradictions and myths exist because previous
UK International, 2018). Several governments globally
research on TNHE has tended to focus on the home
actively encourage higher education institutions to
institutions and countries, and less work has considered
engage in TNHE, particularly to countries where the
the host country’s point of view. To understand these
local government is willing to offer generous funding
contradictions, we argue that one must look through
or operating terms for TNHE. Governments sometimes
multiple lenses, especially when dealing with multiple
publicly acknowledge and reward institutions that have
stakeholders.Therefore, we consider the potential benefits
been proactive and successful in their TNHE ventures. In
and drawbacks of TNHE from the perspectives of a range
the UK, Middlesex University, with campuses in Dubai,
of home and host country stakeholders with special focus
Malta and Mauritius, has twice received the Queen’s
on students, governments and the partner institutions
Award for Enterprise in recognition of its contribution
in the host country, which may all have conflicting
to international trade. Sometimes the motives may be
objectives and agendas. Thus, the purpose of this article
also political. Governments have recognised that TNHE
is to first examine the origins of the contradictions on
delivers soft power, which can generate socio-cultural
TNHE by looking into the claimed benefits and drawbacks
influence (He & Wilkins, 2018).
of TNHE, and then to identify recent evidence, so that the
However, it is clear that not all TNHE operations are
realities can be separated from the prevailing myths. We
motivated by economic or political considerations. The
conclude the article with a discussion of the impact of
attractions of TNHE are also linked to reputation and image.
TNHE for home and host countries in the light of the
Institutions believe that TNHE brings them legitimacy and
apparent ‘realities’ of the TNHE field as it is currently, and
helps in developing global brands and improving status
identify areas for future research.
through international rankings. For example, such motives were expressed when New York University announced its
Claimed benefits and drawbacks of TNHE for home country stakeholders
decision to establish campuses in Abu Dhabi and Shanghai (Krieger, 2008). Institutions that participate in TNHE may benefit from enhanced rankings and perceived brand value,
In many countries globally, it has become an expected
and this in turn may help attract students and research
norm among home country stakeholders that higher
funding. Even lower-ranked institutions with international
education institutions and their academic staff engage
branch campuses can brand themselves as ‘global
with internationalisation issues. Among the early pioneers
institutions’, enhancing their perceived status among key
of TNHE, gaining new revenue streams was a common
stakeholders such as students and employers.
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It is often claimed that TNHE is driven by altruistic
criticised by local politicians for expanding overseas while
motives, such as enhancing internationalisation at home.
shutting down some of its poorer-performing campuses
Home campus staff often interact with institutions abroad
in London (McGettigan, 2011). Critics of TNHE have also
as visiting academics or as managers overseeing curriculum
argued that as universities engage in profit-motivated
design and quality assurance. Hepple (2012) argues that
operations, the quality and standards of education are
work experience abroad can help staff to identify and
often compromised (Sidhu, 2009). The home institutions
question their assumptions about international students
in TNHE arrangements often have little or no control over
and about teaching and learning. Academics may become
the execution of programs overseas (Wildavsky, 2010),
more culturally and globally aware as a result of interacting
and TNHE programs are typically delivered by faculty who
with staff at the foreign outposts, and curricula may be
are not as experienced or qualified as faculty at the home
internationalised to help learners become ‘global citizens’
campus (Wilkins, 2016). Partner institutions frequently
and to satisfy the needs of students arriving at the home
have different and conflicting objectives (e.g. maximising
campus via articulation agreements. TNHE also benefits
student enrolments versus maintaining academic quality),
students as it provides them an opportunity for inter-
which may damage the brand value of the home institution
campus mobility that will enrich the student’s learning
(Healey, 2015a).
experience. Study abroad helps students to develop foreign
It may be argued that rather than ‘internationalising’
language skills, as well as making them more culturally
education, TNHE may actually strengthen the influence of
aware and accepting of other cultures, and the presence
Western culture on host countries,as the flow of information
of international students at the home campus can improve
in such arrangements is often unidirectional. For example,
the learning experience of all students. Australian and
branch campuses are typically teaching institutions and
British institutions have now joined American institutions
only a few of them contribute to relevant local research
in promoting the possibility of inter-campus mobility as a
(Donn & Al Manthri, 2010). Lastly, institutions cannot
benefit that will enrich the student’s learning experience.
escape the fact that they are potentially cannibalising their
Simultaneously, TNHE arrangements have received
own existing markets of foreign students, as they typically
criticism from the home country stakeholders as TNHE goes
offer the same curricula in the home campus and through
beyond the traditional mission of universities as institutions
their TNHE options. Hence, the home campus may lose a
for public good and it involves considerable risks.There are
number of incoming foreign students who decide instead
well-publicised cases of TNHE initiatives that have failed
to enrol in a TNHE program (Healey, 2015b). It is often
and caused reputational and financial damage for the main
difficult to ascertain the extent to which a particular higher
campus and the home country (Alajoutsijärvi, Juusola,
education institution benefits (or loses) from its TNHE
& Lamberg, 2014). When universities, especially publicly
operations, because the data relating to these operations
funded ones, get physically involved with governments
are generally kept confidential.
beyond their own territory it raises questions concerning profit-generating aspects and allocation of home campus resources in TNHE, but also more profound issues when
Claimed benefits and drawbacks of TNHE for host country stakeholders
expanding to controversial countries that may limit or have questionable stances towards civil, political and human
The first, and arguably, the main beneficiary of TNHE in
rights, as well as academic freedom (Wildavsky, 2010). Such
host countries are the students. Without TNHE, many of
limitations of freedoms are often against the principles
these students would be unable to participate in higher
and values of the home campus. For example, academics,
education, usually because of insufficient higher education
students and alumni at Yale raised concerns over such issues
capacity, but also sometimes because of the subject they
when Yale announced its plan to open a branch campus in
want to study, or their level of educational achievement,
Singapore (Lewin, 2012). Although staff members, students
nationality or socio-economic background.TNHE students
and alumni are important stakeholder groups, they are not
often choose to take distance/online programs because
always consulted on TNHE plans.
they are usually cheaper than campus-based programs and
Universities have often been criticised for prioritising
more flexible in terms of time commitment than face-to-
lucrative TNHE arrangements over their home country
face delivery. This is advantageous for TNHE students that
operations to the detriment of local stakeholder groups,
are typically older and in full-time employment (Pieper &
which may be regarded as the institutions’ primary
Beall, 2014). Also, MOOCs now present a viable option
stakeholders. For example, Middlesex University was
for TNHE learners at little or no cost as many universities
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in the United States (US) and Europe already recognise
competition provided by TNHE providers has the
MOOC credits for accreditation of prior learning (Annabi
potential to drive quality improvements throughout the
& Wilkins, 2016).
nation’s higher education sector.
However, it should not be taken for granted that TNHE
Despite the possible benefits of TNHE, there is a lot
ventures are licensed or that their degrees or programs
of criticism that questions the contribution of TNHE for
are recognised by the host country for the purposes of
host country stakeholders, which contradicts many of
public sector employment or for professional accreditation.
the claimed benefits. International branch campuses are
In many countries, foreign distance/online education
often criticised for acting as business entities that do
programs are not recognised at all because they do not have
not necessarily promote the same national values and
a physical local presence (Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011). For
priorities as local institutions. It has also been questioned
example, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) Government has
whether TNHE does, in fact, have a significant impact on
only recently started to recognise certain online programs,
reducing brain drain, as many of the most gifted students
but it still enforces stringent criteria for programs to be
still travel overseas for their higher education rather than
recognised. This has not deterred or prevented TNHE
study in a TNHE program in their native country (Chiang,
providers from operating, but it has shifted the risk to the
2012; Healey, 2015a).
students, who may experience difficulties in getting their degrees attested or recognised by employers.
Local stakeholders are often concerned over the motivations of TNHE; for example, whether financial
Host country governments have noted that TNHE has
opportunism may lead to the lowering of standards and
the potential to increase higher education capacity, satisfy
entry criteria to programs (Ziguras & McBurnie, 2011), or
labour market skills needs, and contribute to knowledge
to offering only programs that are relatively profitable and
creation and innovation. Countries such as Qatar, Singapore
affordable to establish, which may not be the programs
and the UAE have used TNHE to encourage innovation and
that the host country actually needs (Donn & Al Manthri,
the development of knowledge economies. The research
2010; Naidoo, 2003). The sustainability of TNHE programs
output of some international branch campuses is now
is also often questioned, as many TNHE ventures have
comparable with both the leading domestic institutions in
unexpectedly shut down or downscaled their operations,
the host country and the institution’s home campus, and
such as the branch campuses of George Mason University
in Qatar, for example, TNHE accounts for over a quarter of
and Michigan State University in the UAE. Furthermore,
the national scholarly research output (Pohl & Lane, 2018).
as the quality assurance of TNHE often falls outside the
In the Arab Gulf region, TNHE had been used to reduce
control and supervision of home country quality assurance
youth unemployment and to satisfy the labour needs of the
systems, it is difficult to verify whether the quality of TNHE
private sector, which enabled the UAE to increase its gross
programs is similar to the home campus, particularly when
domestic product (GDP) 236-fold between 1971 and 2014
linkages to the main campus may be vague due to lack of
(UAE Interact, 2016). Thus, TNHE can help host countries
collaboration and different student bodies.
implement and achieve their economic development
The critique on the online and virtual provision of
plans, by offering programs that are in demand locally.This
TNHE, including MOOCs, has also addressed issues in
explains why the governments of Abu Dhabi, Qatar and
the quality of the programs, teaching and learning, poor
Singapore have been willing to fund TNHE initiatives.
retention rates as well as lack of locally-tailored content
A further benefit of TNHE for host country governments
(Altbach, 2014; De Freitas, Morgan, & Gibson, 2015; Lane
is that when nationals enrol in TNHE programs rather
& Kinser, 2012). Furthermore, the majority of MOOCs
than at public institutions, the government is not forced
score poorly on most instructional design principles
to bear the cost of tuition (unless it is funding the branch
(Margaryan et al., 2015) and distance-learning courses
campus, as is the case at Education City in Qatar). TNHE
are also vulnerable to online fraud due to difficulties in
may help reduce ‘brain drain’, as students stay in their
verifying who completes the assessments (Healey, 2015a).
native country rather than going abroad, and this also reduces currency outflows. Some branch campuses are
Conflicting claims about TNHE
even successful in attracting international students to the host country, whose spending contributes to economic
The previous sections have characterised a range of
growth. For example, branch campuses in Mauritius target
sometimes conflicting claims about the benefits and
students in several African countries. In countries with
drawbacks of TNHE for the home and host countries. It
less developed higher education systems, the increased
should be noted that much of the discourse on TNHE,
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and particularly on branch campuses, is hypothetical and
providers of TNHE. By the end of 2016, Russia, India and
based on old assumptions rather than recent empirical
China had emerged as key providers of TNHE (OBHE/C-
investigation (Healey, 2015b). For this reason, we regard
BERT, 2016). For example, Russian institutions have
many of the unsubstantiated claims made about TNHE as
already established 21 campuses outside Russia (OBHE/C-
myths.We claim that these myths stem from contradictory
BERT, 2016). Among the most successful non-Western
but yet interrelated interests of the home and host country
operators of international campuses – with the largest
stakeholders. As a consequence, many claims seem logical
numbers of students – are India’s Amity University, which
in isolation but conflicting when viewed from different
has five branches, and Iran’s Islamic Azad University,
perspectives.
which has four branches.
In the following sections, we aim to go deeper in
TNHE hubs such as Malaysia, Singapore and the UAE have
understanding these myths by critically examining
seen significant development of their higher education
the assumptions to construct a more accommodating
sectors and branch campuses are increasing playing an
perception of the opposite views. The assessment of the
important role in human resource development, innovation
success and effectiveness of TNHE is to an extent socially
and knowledge production (see e.g. Lane & Pohl, 2017).
constructed, and what we are proposing in this article is
Several branch campuses now have large numbers of
a set of alternative realities, for which we believe there is
doctoral students (e.g. University of Nottingham’s Ningbo
evidence in practice.The evidence to support our claimed
campus in China) while others (e.g. Amity University) are
realities came from empirical research findings and
registering dozens of patents as evidence of innovation.
statistics compiled by reliable sources, such as government
In addition, the increasing trend in transnational
and quasi-government organisations. In the light of these,
partnership programs in TNHE facilitates local and
we address five of the common myths about TNHE that
joint knowledge production rather than importing it. In
were identified and then discuss the realities behind these
China alone, there were over 1,000 cross-border higher
myths. It should be noted that some of the myths are
education partnerships in 2009 (Altbach, 2009), while 140
specific to only particular modes of TNHE delivery, e.g.,
of the 170 private tertiary providers in Singapore offered
online programs or international branch campuses.
programs in collaboration with foreign institutions in 2003 (Garrett, 2015). Thus, to conclude, recent patterns
The myths and possible realities of TNHE Myth 1: TNHE acts as a form of neo-colonialism
in the provision side of TNHE suggests that the flow of knowledge in TNHE is no longer unidirectional and originating solely from Western countries. Rather, as
It is widely claimed that TNHE acts as a form of neo-
institutions engage more in their operational contexts,
colonialism, particularly in the form of branch campuses,
e.g. by producing local research, TNHE is facilitating the
as it increases the divide between the developed and
joint production of knowledge. Therefore, it is clear that
developing worlds (Altbach, 2001, 2004, 2008; Donn
the current trends discussed in this section indicate that
& Al Manthri, 2010). This divide occurs due to the
TNHE can act as a counterforce for neo-colonialism.
unidirectional relations in knowledge production and benefits the institutions from Western countries and
Myth 2: The trend for establishing international branch campuses is decreasing
increasingly marginalises the institutions in smaller and
By the end of the first decade of the new millennium, the
emerging economies.
legitimacy of ‘bricks and mortar’ TNHE was accepted and
consumption between source and host countries, which
Ten years ago, the US, UK and Australia were the top
branch campuses were able to overcome the challenges
providing countries of TNHE and few could see any
of liability of newness. This initiated a rush to set up
foreseeable change in this status quo. For example, Scott
overseas campuses. However, many institutions have since
(2013) argued that countries such as China and India
discovered that running an overseas branch is a complex
would not replace the existing dominant players in
and usually unprofitable undertaking. In fact, around 10
international education because of political and socio-
per cent of all branch campuses that were established
economic reasons in these countries that would act as
later failed and ceased operations (Lane & Kinser, 2014).
barriers. However, the recent evidence does not entirely
This failure rate resulted in a number of commentators
support such arguments as the patterns of TNHE are
– such as industry journalists and market intelligence
evolving in ways unpredicted by most commentators.
organisations – predicting a downturn in future branch
Western countries are no longer the sole dominant
campus development (ICEF, 2015). In 2015, a study by the
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European Association for International Education found
commentators claimed that the advent of MOOCs would
that among European universities branch campuses
be a turning point in international higher education,
had fallen to the lowest priority among fifteen different
potentially hitting traditional college enrolments. In
internationalisation strategies (EAIE, 2015).
2012, the president of Stanford University referred to
Most international branch campuses have failed due to
MOOCs as ‘a digital tsunami, which threatens to sweep
lack of proper planning and the inability to break-even
away conventional university education’ (Boxall, 2012).
and make a financial return (Wilkins, 2017). For example,
Indeed, some institutions have managed to register
Aberystwyth University’s Mauritius campus was criticised
large numbers of participants. For example, Stanford
for having only 40 students enrolled in its first two terms
enrolled 450,000 learners onto three computer science
(BBC News, 2016), while Glasgow Caledonian University
courses in 2011 (Vardi, 2012). More recently, some MOOC
spent nearly US$12 million on a campus in New York but
providers have also begun offering for-profit programs.
even three years after opening, it had no students due
For example, since early 2017, FutureLearn has offered
to the lack of a necessary operating licence (Campbell,
a number of postgraduate degrees in partnership with
2016). In 2015, Tisch Asia, New York University’s Tisch
Australia’s Deakin University, with tuition fees starting
School of the Arts in Singapore was closed after losing as
at approximately US$21,500. Distance/online programs
much as US$6 million a year (Sharma, 2012).
are popular among TNHE students in many countries,
Despite these well-publicised failures, in the light of
particularly mature working students. However, to date
recent developments, we claim that more international
MOOCs have not taken off to the extent that some
branch campuses are likely to open in the next decade, but
institutions had hoped. Completion rates are very low
there is evidence that the forms, motives, and markets of
in most programs. Jordan (2014) reports an average
these initiatives are changing. First, we expect to see more
completion rate for MOOCs of just 6.5 per cent.
diverse organisational forms in new branch campuses that
There
are
several
reasons
why
distance/online
involve various forms of partnership. It has become clear
programs and MOOCs have failed to achieve their initial
that many high-ranking institutions prefer the partnership
expectations. First, an online degree does not enjoy the
model when expanding abroad, examples being Yale-
same status as a campus-delivered program and most
NUS College in Singapore and Xi’an Jiaotong Liverpool
students want to interact with faculty and other students
University in China. Second, much of the growth in campus-
(Marginson, 2004). Second, they are quite expensive
based TNHE will be driven by host country governments,
to run and difficult to organise (Ziguras & McBurnie,
which will decide what kind of providers they will host.
2011). Third, online education is not well-received and
For example, China’s higher education strategy is to
valued in certain cultures, such as in Asia (Wang, 2006).
encourage more cooperation and relationships with foreign
Fourth, although many online programs such as MOOCs
institutions, but particularly with world-leading institutions
are supposed to be free to users, students are often
(He, 2016). Third, the new markets for branch campuses
expected to pay for individual tutor assessments and/or
will shift to emerging economies that are keen to expand
certification, which most students refuse to do (Daniel
their higher education capacity, promote knowledge
et al., 2015). Students may become confused seeing for-
creation and innovation. At the start of 2017, at least 14
profit programs on a MOOC platform, and this may result
branch campuses were under development in emerging
in them shunning online higher education altogether.
countries, such as Brazil, China, Mexico and Nigeria (OBHE/
To conclude, unless MOOC providers are able to cover
C-BERT, 2016). Emerging countries are expected to attract
their costs, it is unlikely that they will continue to expand
(and maybe also fund) medical schools and institutions that
in future to the extent that they would pose a threat to
specialise in energy or industries that are relevant to the
other forms of TNHE.
local economy. Fourth, more institutions have expressed profit basis (cf.Wilkins & Urbanovič, 2014), such as some of
Myth 4: Quality standards in TNHE are lower than at the home country campuses
the institutions operating in Africa.
According to many critics, TNHE programs, particularly
interest in running branch campuses on an altruist not-for-
Myth 3: Distance/online/MOOC programs will threaten other forms of TNHE
online/distance/MOOCs, are often considered as not offering a high quality learning experience due to the lack of knowledge of contemporary instructional design
Distance/online programs enjoyed a mini boom in the
principles and learning theories among those who
early 1990s, at the height of the Internet boom. Many
manage, design and deliver such programs (Healey, 2016;
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Margaryan et al., 2015). In terms of breadth of curriculum,
the eleven British universities that were operating in the
quality of academic staff or students, physical environment,
UAE could be recognised as campuses in terms of their
learning resources and social facilities, TNHE programs
infrastructure and facilities (QAA, 2014), and this may
are rarely considered comparable with home campus
hinder student satisfaction.
offerings (Altbach, 2010). Maintaining quality standards
Research into student satisfaction at branch campuses
may become problematic when local institutions have
in major education hubs has found mixed results. A study
autonomy over curricula, assessment and the recruitment
in Qatar found that students were dissatisfied with all
of faculty and students, resulting in issues over ethics and
the major services at institutions, including academic,
academic integrity (Wilkins, 2017).
administrative and facility services (Bhuian, 2016). This
Contrary to popular belief, most host countries of
study concluded that branch campuses could not meet,
TNHE now have regulatory bodies and established
let alone exceed, the service quality expectations of
procedures for assuring quality. Quality assurance
students in any of the significant dimension of the service
mechanisms have become increasingly well-developed
quality. However, according to another study (Wilkins et
and, in several countries, institutions that have failed to
al., 2012), students in the UAE were found largely satisfied
meet the expected quality standards have been closed
across the dimensions of program effectiveness, quality
(Lane & Kinser, 2014). In addition, much TNHE provision
of lecturers and teaching, student learning, assessment
must meet the standards of quality assurance agencies in
and feedback, learning resources, use of technology, and
the home countries. For example, the Quality Assurance
facilities/social life. A similar study by Ahmad (2015)
Agency (QAA) conducts quality audits of British TNHE.
also found relatively high levels of student satisfaction at
The audits of both host country and home country quality
branch campuses in Malaysia.
assurance agencies indicate that the vast majority of TNHE
A further study concluded that students as well as
is of an acceptable standard. It should be emphasised
other stakeholders – such as parents and employers – are
that the comparability of student experience in home
generally satisfied with the quality of TNHE (Pieper &
and host countries (based on campus environment and
Beall, 2014).This study involved a survey conducted in ten
physical resources etc.) should not be equated with
different countries globally of students enrolled in TNHE
quality of learning and student achievement. For example,
programs from a range of countries that included the
at the Bahrain Institute of Banking and Finance, students
UK, Germany, Australia and Malaysia. The study found that
on 2+1 partnership programs routinely achieve higher
students were satisfied with their TNHE offering because it
grades than the students studying on the same programs
allowed flexibility not available in other higher education
at the home campuses of the partner institutions.
programs; it helped develop and strengthen intercultural
To conclude, quality assurance has become an
awareness and competence; and it effectively equipped the
established and fast developing part of TNHE, which
student with the knowledge and skills needed to improve
helps ensure that the quality of TNHE programs is of an
their career prospects (Pieper & Beall, 2014).
acceptable standard.
Myth 5: The student experience and student satisfaction is lower in TNHE than at home country campuses
In the light of the recent market developments, we argue that increasing competition in international higher education markets and increased regulatory demands from host country quality assurance agencies has encouraged TNHE providers to further improve quality, which has
There is ambiguity over the student satisfaction and
enhanced the student experience and increased overall
how students perceive or experience TNHE. We know
satisfaction among students.
that completion rates in distance/online programs are generally low and that most TNHE operators claim that
Conclusion
students receive the same program and educational experience as students at the home campus. However,
Over the next decade, it is likely that TNHE will strengthen
when many TNHE programs are delivered at premises
its status as a central feature of higher education in many
that comprise of only a few teaching and administrative
parts of the world, and this mode of operation will evolve
rooms in an office block, it is unlikely that students could
in terms of both supply and demand.We suggest that TNHE
possibly enjoy the same experience as studying at a fully-
has been able to overcome many of its initial challenges
fledged campus in places such as London, Paris or New
and that the field is becoming more complex in terms
York. In 2014, the UK’s QAA concluded that only two of
of operating forms, quality, markets and the scope of
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see clearly that TNHE has advantages and disadvantages,
researcher at the Finnish Institute for Educational Research at the University of Jyväskylä, Finland.
benefits and costs, as well as risks. The question that we
Contact: stephen.wilkins@buid.ac.ae
TNHE activities. When TNHE’s scorecard is examined, we
seek to address here is whether the benefits of TNHE for both the home and host countries exceed the drawbacks. When analysing the current state of TNHE it appears that many of the negative claims and myths of TNHE are unjustified. TNHE is effectively catering for and satisfying a different profile of student, who is typically older and employed. TNHE provides these students with access to higher education when they may otherwise not have had access to it, and it equips these students with the knowledge and skills needed to gain a competitive advantage in local, regional and international labour markets (Pieper & Beall, 2014). TNHE clearly has risks for both institutions and host country stakeholders, but it also offers substantial benefits. Institutions may strengthen their reputations and brands internationally through TNHE provision, but benefits such as these are difficult to measure and quantify. For host countries, it is perhaps much easier to assess the contributions of TNHE to increasing higher education capacity, to innovation and knowledge development (through patents and research output), and to satisfying the needs of the local labour market, which has helped reduce youth unemployment in countries such as Qatar and the UAE. Thus, we argue that overall the TNHE field is becoming more sophisticated, but it remains a complex field to study due to the variety of stakeholders in both home and host countries and their conflicting and changing expectations. To date, few studies on TNHE have addressed various stakeholders, which has contributed to the development of the myths discussed in this article. To facilitate the future development of the TNHE field, Bolton and Nie (2010) call for more critical understanding of sustainable models of TNHE including various stakeholders’ interests in TNHE value propositions.To conclude, we call for future empirical studies on TNHE, addressing such issues from the perspectives of governments, students, employers, institution employees (managers, faculty and staff), and
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Salary diversity Australian universities and their general staff Ian R Dobson Monash University
This statistical note updates earlier work on the salaries paid to general staff working at Australia’s public universities, and the levels at which universities classify those staff. In 2017, higher proportions of general staff in more senior grades could be found at the University of Technology Sydney, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, the University of Canberra, and Monash and Macquarie Universities. Similarly, based on the median salary classification across Australian universities, the universities offering the highest salaries to staff in the median classification were the University of Sydney, the University of New South Wales, Macquarie University, the University of Melbourne and Curtin University of Technology. Keywords: general staff, professional staff, university salaries, non-academics (sic)
Introduction
available until year following that to which they relate.The term ‘general staff’ has been used in this paper to indicate
Several years ago, I did some work that identified the
university staff not employed in academic classifications.
better-paying universities and identified those that
I grew up with ‘general staff’, but these days,‘professional
had more of their general staff classified in relatively
staff’ is also commonly used as the appropriate descriptor.
senior classifications (Dobson, 2009). In one sense,
As an aside, it is a pity that the government department
this paper is an update of that work, and it has been
responsible for universities continues to refer to this staff
based on data from two sources: staff numbers obtained
grouping as ‘non-academic’ staff (sic), thereby failing to
from the Department of Education and Training, and
appreciate that it is not appropriate to describe university
salaries information summarised by the National Tertiary
workers in terms of what they are not. In fact, this
Education Union (NTEU).
observation could also be made about several universities,
Staff expressed as ‘full-time equivalents’ (FTE) were
and many academic staff. There has been a reasonable
provided in table form by the University Statistics Section
amount of commentary on the inappropriate terminology
of the federal Department of Education and Training.
in the past (see for example, Moodie, 1996; Rodan, 1997;
Customised tables had to be obtained because the
Conway, 2000; Dobson, 2000), but it seems that the path
Department’s online uCube system (accessible at http://
to redemption is a slow-moving one. Of course, we
highereducationstatistics.education.gov.au/)
not
should remember that academic staff are in the minority,
provide information on general staff by level, in contrast
representing about 43 per cent of the total university staff
with the more detailed provision on staff with academic
in 2017 (Department of Education and Training, 2018:
appointments. It should also be noted that only staff on
Table 1.2).
does
permanent or limited-term contracts of employment
Most general staff at Australian universities are employed
have been included, and therefore casually-employed staff
according to a schedule of levels from one to ten, generally
have been excluded. Obtaining reliable data on casual
referred to as ‘higher education worker’ (HEW) levels.
staff is difficult, and figures for ‘actual casual’ staff are not
Although the terminology used within an individual
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Salary diversity Ian R Dobson
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university can differ, many describe their general staff
1), and percentages of the same (Appendix 2). The HEW
as being classified in groups from HEW 1 to HEW 10. In
classification tables in this paper have been constructed
addition, staff employed at some universities as trainees or
from those appendices.
apprentices (for example) are employed at ‘Below HEW 1’,
One way to rank universities according to the structure
and senior management staff, employed at salary rates not
of their general staffing is to work out the median HEW
usually reported, are classified at ‘Above HEW 10’.
classification for each university. The median is the point
Information on general staff salary scales by university
at which half of the staff are below, and half are above.
is generally available from university enterprise agreement
Table 1 provides various pieces of information for 2017,
documents, and most universities also provide salary
such as there were 59,905 FTE general staff Australia-
schedules on their institutional websites. In this instance,
wide, excluding casual staff. As can be observed, the
the NTEU provided a summary table of salaries used in this
number of FTE general staff varied from nearly 4,000 at
paper, using data obtained from enterprise agreements.
Monash University, to 506 at Southern Cross University (SCU). Table 1 also shows the median HEW classification
Distribution of staff by HEW level
for each university, that is, the classification within which the 50th percentile of FTE staff falls. The national
One might presume that the nature of work undertaken
median classification is HEW 6, and this average is also
by general staff at one university will closely resemble
the situation at 24 of the 37 universities. However, the
equivalent work undertaken at other universities.
median for general staff occurs at the HEW 5 level at two
Although this is probably true to a certain extent, at the
universities, whilst for the remaining 11 universities, the
margins there are differences between universities. For
median falls within HEW 7.Table 1 is ranked according to
example, some universities are ‘dual sector’ institutions
the proportion of staff employed at classifications above
in which some staff have responsibilities for working in
the national median. The proportion exceeds 50 per cent
vocational education and training which has a distinct
at 11 universities, with University of Technology Sydney,
state/territory-based set of funding and regulatory
(UTS) the University of Canberra and RMIT University at
arrangements for higher education. Other universities
the top. Seventeen universities had between 40 and 50
might be involved more heavily in research, a factor which
per cent at levels above HEW 6. Nine universities had
might also change patterns of hierarchical distribution of
less than 40 per cent of the general staff employed at
general staff. It is also the case that some states (such as
categories above HEW 6, with SCU, Central Queensland
Victoria) are required to describe some ‘research’ roles
University (CQU) and Federation University Australia
as ‘academic’ that in other states would be described as
(FUA) at the bottom of this ranked list.
‘non-academic’ (sic) (Dobson, 2009). It has also been the
About two-thirds of Australian universities (employing
case that some universities have gone down the track of
nearly 78 per cent of the nation’s university general
changing the career path for some senior ‘admin’ positions
staff) have aggregated themselves into university ‘blocs’
(Rodan, 1997). At some universities, positions that for
‘to promote the mutual objectives of the member
many decades would have been the final step into a senior
universities…. the groupings do represent universities
position for a career administrator are now accorded a
which have a similar style and focus, and the formation of
‘Pro-Vice-Chancellor’ title, with people who had spent
these groups will most likely accentuate these similarities’
their previous career as an academic being appointed to
(Australian Education Network, n.d.).These blocs are:ATN,
these senior administrative roles. This manoeuvre has the
the Australian Technology Network (five universities);
effect of reducing the number of career HEW positions
Go8, the ‘Group of Eight’ research-intensive universities;
near the top of some university organisations. Although I
IRU, the Innovative Research Universities (seven);
was never a victim of this three-card trick, one was aware
and RUN, the Regional University Network (six). The
of senior administrative roles going to ‘PVCs’ who had
remaining universities are ‘ungrouped’ (UnG). Given the
excelled in neither academia nor administration.
’self-selection’ of universities into these blocs, and because
That said, there are considerable variations between
the blocs transcend state and territory borders, it seemed
universities as to the distribution of staff from Below
reasonable to investigate differences between and within
HEW 1 to Above HEW 10. Two tables relating to the
them. If universities self-select into discrete groupings,
distribution of general staff by HEW level and university
should we expect similar patterns in the classification
have been included as appendices to this paper. These
of their general staff? Table 2 has been arranged so it is
show the number of FTE staff by HEW level (Appendix
possible to examine inter and intra-bloc variations.
78
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Table 1: Accumulated Proportion of General Staff (FTE) by University, Bloc & HEW Classification. Ranked by % > HEW 6 University
Bloc
UTS
ATN
9%
25%
44%
61%
79%
87%
100%
1714
56%
RMIT
ATN
6%
24%
45%
63%
80%
89%
100%
1895
55%
Canberra
UNG
8%
29%
46%
61%
78%
86%
100%
576
54%
UNSW
GO8
9%
26%
47%
65%
80%
91%
100%
3135
53%
Monash
GO8
9%
29%
47%
68%
83%
93%
100%
3919
53%
Victoria
UNG
9%
24%
47%
67%
81%
91%
100%
798
53%
Macquarie
UNG
7%
23%
48%
67%
81%
91%
100%
1532
52%
WSU
IRU
8%
26%
48%
66%
84%
93%
100%
1503
52%
Sydney
GO8
10%
25%
49%
68%
82%
90%
100%
3658
51%
ANU
GO8
12%
32%
49%
66%
84%
87%
100%
2227
51%
Swinburne
UNG
6%
23%
49%
67%
81%
88%
100%
860
51%
La Trobe
IRU
8%
30%
50%
69%
82%
91%
100%
1586
50%
ACU
UNG
8%
31%
51%
70%
84%
95%
100%
1179
49%
Melbourne
GO8
11%
32%
51%
69%
82%
91%
100%
3632
49%
Deakin
UNG
8%
32%
53%
72%
85%
93%
100%
2043
47%
14%
34%
54%
72%
85%
92%
100%
59905
46%
2348
46%
Australia
<HEW 5
HEW 5
HEW 6
HEW 7
HEW 8
HEW 9
>HEW 9
TOTAL FTE
% > HEW 6
QUT
ATN
14%
35%
54%
70%
86%
92%
100%
USC
RUN
14%
33%
55%
76%
86%
92%
100%
572
45%
Curtin
ATN
11%
36%
55%
70%
84%
93%
100%
1917
45%
Adelaide
GO8
19%
38%
56%
75%
88%
95%
100%
1920
44%
Newcastle
UNG
17%
39%
58%
78%
90%
96%
100%
1658
42%
Wollongong
UNG
20%
45%
59%
81%
88%
94%
100%
1224
41%
ECU
UNG
22%
44%
59%
74%
89%
96%
100%
972
41%
UNE
RUN
15%
39%
59%
76%
85%
91%
100%
672
41%
CDU
IRU
16%
40%
59%
75%
84%
92%
100%
352
41%
Murdoch
IRU
19%
39%
60%
74%
84%
91%
100%
857
40%
Flinders
IRU
18%
42%
60%
76%
90%
95%
100%
1090
40%
UWA
GO8
17%
37%
60%
77%
87%
94%
100%
1891
40%
USQ
RUN
14%
40%
60%
76%
89%
95%
100%
957
40%
Griffith
IRU
23%
44%
61%
76%
88%
92%
100%
2246
39%
UQ
GO8
17%
41%
63%
79%
91%
96%
100%
3841
37%
UniSA
ATN
26%
44%
63%
78%
91%
95%
100%
1473
37%
JCU
IRU
16%
44%
63%
77%
89%
93%
100%
1084
37%
Tasmania
UNG
19%
44%
64%
79%
89%
91%
100%
1404
36%
CSU
UNG
24%
47%
67%
84%
91%
96%
100%
1160
33%
CQU
RUN
25%
47%
68%
83%
90%
94%
100%
770
32%
SCU
RUN
25%
50%
69%
87%
93%
95%
100%
506
31%
FUA
RUN
30%
55%
70%
83%
92%
96%
100%
737
30%
Source: Calculated from tables obtained from the Department of Education and Training. Note: Darker shading indicates the median HEW classification for each university.
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Salary diversity Ian R Dobson
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From Table 2, three of the five ATN universities have
lower end of the scale, the IRU average for staff employed
HEW 6, the national median, as the median classification
at levels below HEW 5 was 15 per cent, with considerable
of their general staff, while at the other two, the median
variations amongst its members. Griffith had 23 per cent
falls within HEW 7. For Go8 universities, the median falls
of its general staff in lower grades, with 19 per cent at
within HEW 6 at four universities, and HEW 7 at four
Murdoch University and 18 per cent at Flinders University.
others. Six of the seven IRU universities have a median
Western Sydney University (WSU) and La Trobe University
classification of HEW 6, and one at HEW 7. Finally, two
had a less immodest eight per cent each in these HEW
RUN universities have a median salary classification of
classifications.
HEW 5, and the other four are at HEW 6. The pattern
Among the Regional Network Universities, two of the
among ungrouped universities is that there are seven with
six had a median appointment level at HEW 5 (SCU and
a median classification within HEW 6, and four within
FUA). No RUN universities had more than 50 per cent of
HEW 7.
their general staff employed at above HEW 6, and the RUN
There is considerable variation within each university
average was only 36 per cent, compared with a national
bloc. Overall, the Australian Technology Network bloc has
average of 46 per cent, and a figure of 48 per cent for the
a higher proportion of its general staff at levels above
ATN and Go8 university blocs. CQU, SCU and FUA also had
HEW 6 compared with the national average, but amongst
the highest proportions of their staff employed in junior
the individual universities, large variations can be noted.
grades, as high as 30 per cent at FUA. CQU and SCU each
Looking at the junior grades (Below HEW 5 for the
had 25 per cent in these lower grades, with only UniSA
purposes of this paper), the University of South Australia
(ATN, 26 per cent) and Griffith University (IRU, 23 per
(UniSA) has 26 per cent of its staff in lower grades, but at
cent) coming close. To reiterate, the national average for
RMIT, the proportion is only six per cent. UniSA also has
staff in classifications Below HEW 5 is 14 per cent.
a relatively low proportion of its general staff classified at
From this brief examination, the bloc universities
grades above HEW 6: 37 per cent, cf. the average for the
have aligned themselves which may not have a strong
ATN of 48 per cent, and far lower than at UTS and RMIT
impact on the distribution of general staff between HEW
(with 56 and 55 per cent, respectively).
classifications.That said, universities in the RUN bloc have
There is also variability within the universities that
only 36 per cent of their general staff employed at levels
make up the Group of Eight. The Go8 universities also
above HEW 6, and 20 per cent below HEW 5. Both these
tend to be the older universities, with Monash, the
figures are considerably adrift of the national average
Australian National University (ANU) and the University
figures of 46 per cent and 14 per cent, respectively.
of New South Wales (UNSW) being ‘newer chums’,
The ‘ungrouped’ universities do not form a ‘bloc’, but it
relatively speaking. The University of Adelaide, University
is interesting to note that there is considerable variation
of Western Australia (UWA) and University of Queensland
among these universities, with the proportion of general
(UQ) all have an average of general staff at levels above
staff occupying positions above HEW 6 varying from
HEW 6 that is beneath the bloc average (48 per cent) and
54 per cent to 33 per cent, and at the other end of the
the national average (46 per cent). Similarly, these three
scale, from six per cent to 24 per cent being classified
universities have a much higher proportion employed at
in positions below HEW 5. Amongst the ungrouped
below HEW 5. The Go8 average for staff in these lower
universities are two universities that were previously
classifications is 12 per cent (national average 14 per
members of the IRU Bloc.
cent), but UWA and UQ each have 17 per cent each and the University of Adelaide has 19 per cent. UNSW and Monash University have only nine per cent of their staff
Which universities pay the highest salaries?
employed at these lower levels. Within the Innovative Research Universities, one of its
This section is based on the variation across universities
seven members had HEW 7 as the median classification
of the annual salary paid to entry-level HEW 6 staff. The
(Western Sydney University), with the other six being
salaries for each university as at June 2018 are presented
at the national average (HEW 6). Looking more closely,
in Table 3. Some of the variation between universities is
only one of the seven universities had more than half
likely to be due to the timing of enterprise bargaining
its general staff classified at levels above HEW 6, and the
rounds, but of course, any university lagging other
other six universities had fewer of their general staff than
universities could choose to institute a ‘catch-up’ that
the average proportion in positions above HEW 6. At the
would eliminate the timing gap.
80
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Table 2: Proportion of General Staff by Bloc, University and HEW Classification. Ranked by %> HEW 6 Bloc / University
<HEW 5
HEW 5
HEW 6
HEW 7
HEW 8
HEW 9
>HEW 9
TOTAL -%
%> HEW 6
TOTAL No.
ATN UTS
9%
16%
19%
16%
19%
8%
13%
100%
56%
1714
RMIT
6%
18%
21%
18%
16%
9%
11%
100%
55%
1895
QUT
14%
21%
19%
15%
16%
6%
8%
100%
46%
2348
Curtin
11%
25%
19%
15%
14%
9%
7%
100%
45%
1917
UniSA
26%
18%
19%
16%
13%
4%
5%
100%
37%
1473
ATN Average
13%
20%
20%
16%
16%
7%
9%
100%
48%
9347
Australia
14%
21%
20%
17%
13%
7%
8%
100%
46%
59905
UNSW
9%
17%
21%
18%
15%
11%
9%
100%
53%
3135
Monash
9%
20%
18%
21%
15%
10%
7%
100%
53%
3919
Sydney
10%
15%
24%
19%
14%
8%
10%
100%
51%
3658
ANU
12%
20%
17%
17%
18%
3%
13%
100%
51%
2227
Melbourne
11%
20%
20%
17%
14%
9%
9%
100%
49%
3632
Adelaide
19%
19%
18%
19%
13%
7%
5%
100%
44%
1920
UWA
17%
20%
23%
16%
10%
7%
6%
100%
40%
1891
UQ
17%
24%
21%
16%
12%
6%
4%
100%
37%
3841
Go8 Average
12%
20%
20%
18%
14%
8%
8%
100%
48%
24221
Australia
14%
21%
20%
17%
13%
7%
8%
100%
46%
59905
WSU
8%
18%
22%
18%
18%
9%
7%
100%
52%
1503
La Trobe
8%
22%
20%
19%
14%
9%
9%
100%
50%
1586
CDU
16%
24%
19%
16%
9%
7%
8%
100%
41%
352
Murdoch
19%
20%
21%
14%
11%
6%
9%
100%
40%
857
Flinders
18%
24%
18%
16%
14%
5%
5%
100%
40%
1090
Griffith
23%
22%
17%
15%
12%
4%
8%
100%
39%
2246
JCU
16%
28%
19%
13%
12%
4%
7%
100%
37%
1084
IRU Average
15%
22%
19%
16%
13%
6%
8%
100%
43%
8718
Australia
14%
21%
20%
17%
13%
7%
8%
100%
46%
59905
USC
14%
18%
22%
21%
10%
6%
8%
100%
45%
572
UNE
15%
24%
20%
17%
10%
6%
9%
100%
41%
672
USQ
14%
26%
20%
16%
13%
6%
5%
100%
40%
957
CQU
25%
21%
22%
15%
7%
4%
6%
100%
32%
770
SCU
25%
25%
19%
18%
6%
2%
5%
100%
31%
506
FUA
30%
25%
15%
13%
8%
5%
4%
100%
30%
737
RUN Average
20%
23%
20%
16%
9%
5%
6%
100%
36%
4213
Australia
14%
21%
20%
17%
13%
7%
8%
100%
46%
59905
G08
IRU
RUN
Note: Darker shading indicates the median HEW classification for each university.
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Table continued overpage... Salary diversity Ian R Dobson
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Table 2 continued... Bloc / University
<HEW 5
HEW 5
HEW 6
HEW 7
HEW 8
HEW 9
>HEW 9
TOTAL -%
%> HEW 6
TOTAL No.
Ungrouped Canberra
8%
21%
18%
15%
17%
8%
14%
100%
54%
576
Victoria
9%
15%
23%
20%
14%
10%
9%
100%
53%
798
Macquarie
7%
16%
25%
19%
14%
10%
9%
100%
52%
1532
Swinburne
6%
17%
26%
18%
14%
7%
12%
100%
51%
860
ACU
8%
23%
20%
19%
14%
11%
5%
100%
49%
1179
Deakin
8%
23%
21%
20%
13%
8%
7%
100%
47%
2043
Newcastle
17%
22%
19%
19%
13%
6%
4%
100%
42%
1658
Wollongong
20%
25%
14%
22%
7%
6%
6%
100%
41%
1224
ECU
22%
22%
15%
15%
14%
8%
4%
100%
41%
972
Tasmania
19%
24%
20%
15%
10%
2%
9%
100%
36%
1404
CSU
24%
23%
21%
17%
7%
5%
4%
100%
33%
1160
UnG Average
14%
21%
20%
18%
12%
7%
7%
100%
45%
13406
Australia
14%
21%
20%
17%
13%
7%
8%
100%
46%
59905
Source: Source: Calculated from tables obtained from the Department of Education and Training. Note: Darker shading indicates the median HEW classification for each university.
It also seems to be the case that some universities
Rank v. Salary
have ‘adjusted’ aspects of HEW levels and the number of increments therein. For instance, ANU reduced the
In this section, HEW 6 salaries paid by each university
number of steps within each HEW in the last round of
(within bloc) are compared with the proportion of staff
enterprise bargaining by eliminating the lowest step. If this
in classifications above HEW 6 (June 2018). In the scheme
is the case, perhaps their HEW 6 entry level is what their
of things, some universities pay higher salaries than others
old second increment of HEW 6 used to be.The University
and have a higher proportion of their staff in positions
of Tasmania has also been ‘adjusting’ increments within
classified higher than the national median classification.
HEW levels. Perhaps trying to compare university salaries
Figure 1 summarises this information and should be
will eventually become as difficult as trying to compare
interpreted as follows. The columns represent the salary
electricity and gas prices in the wonderful privatised
paid by each university (entry level HEW 6), shown within
world of domestic energy supplies!
university blocs (or ungrouped), ranked in ascending
At June 2018, the University of Sydney paid its HEW 6
order. These relate to the left axis. The diamonds indicate
entry level staff the highest salary. The gap between the
the proportion of staff employed in classifications above
highest and lowest-paying university was nearly $11,000,
HEW 6, which relate to the right axis.
or about $211 per week. This represents a gap of around
To take a couple of examples, the university paying
13 per cent. Is this gap too large and how much of the gap
the highest salary (HEW 6 level) in June 2018 is the
is due to the timing of this snapshot?
University of Sydney, as mentioned earlier. This was also
University blocs do not undertake joint or coordinated
shown in Table 3. At the same time, in terms of seniority,
salary negotiations as blocs, but it is interesting to note
the University of Sydney ranked 11th in terms of the
that six of the seven members of the IRU Bloc are among
proportion of its general staff occupying positions higher
the payers of lower salaries. WSU, a recent addition to
than HEW 6 (see Table 1). At the other end of the scale,
the IRU fold, is the exception. The ‘top ten’ universities in
James Cook University (JCU) ranks lowest (37th) in terms
terms of salaries paid in June 2018 includes four Go8, two
of the HEW 6 salaries it pays its staff in June 2018 (Table 3),
ATN and two ungrouped universities, and one each of the
and it ranks 32nd in the proportion of staff in levels above
RUN and IRU universities. Within the Go8 bloc there is a
HEW 6 in 2017 (Table 1). The latter university, therefore,
considerable gap between the University of Sydney and
both remunerates its staff at a lower rate than elsewhere,
the University of Queensland (nearly $9,000 p.a., in fact).
but it also has a lower relative preponderance of general
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Table 3: Entry Level Salary at HEW 6 Level (June 2018), by University, Ranked by Salary; Variation from Highest Salary Paid
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staff in higher-level grades. About 37 per cent of JCU’s staff were employed at levels above HEW 6, compared with 51 per cent of staff at the University of Sydney.
Rank University
Bloc
1
Sydney
GO8
$84,334
2
UNSW
GO8
$83,653
-$681
lower than elsewhere in the sector (except for recent
3
Macquarie
UNG
$81,434
-$2,900
IRU member WSU). Similarly, most of these universities
4
Melbourne
GO8
$79,910
-$4,424
also have a ‘seniority’ pattern that is relatively low in the
5
Curtin
ATN
$79,627
-$4,707
6
UTS
ATN
$79,217
-$5,117
7
SCU
RUN
$78,996
-$5,338
general staff in positions classified at levels above HEW
8
ANU
GO8
$78,956
-$5,378
6. RMIT is an example of this pattern. Charles Sturt
9
WSU
IRU
$78,589
-$5,745
University (CSU) exemplifies a university that pays lower
10
ECU
UNG
$78,578
-$5,756
11
UWA
GO8
$78,222
-$6,112
12
Deakin
UNG
$78,117
-$6,217
is location a major driver? Based on a taxonomy of
13
Swinburne
UNG
$77,616
-$6,718
metropolitan/capital
14
Monash
GO8
$77,511
-$6,823
regional towns and cities, most regionally-located
15
UniSA
ATN
$77,454
-$6,880
universities, as at June 2018 could be found at the
16
Adelaide
GO8
$77,316
-$7,018
17
ACU
UNG
$77,242
-$7,092
18
RMIT
ATN
$77,090
-$7,244
SCU) seem to be near the bottom on both scales. Among
19
USC
RUN
$77,060
-$7,274
metropolitan universities, the University of Queensland
20
FUA
RUN
$76,801
-$7,533
appears to be an outlier, especially when compared with
21
CQU
RUN
$76,692
-$7,642
most other ‘older’ metropolitan universities. Perhaps their
22
Newcastle
UNG
$76,400
-$7,934
23
Wollongong
UNG
$76,180
-$8,154
24
Tasmania
UNG
$76,147
-$8,187
25
Canberra
UNG
$76,007
-$8,327
26
QUT
ATN
$75,502
-$8,832
27
UNE
RUN
$75,418
-$8,916
28
VU
UNG
$75,359
-$8,975
29
UQ
GO8
$75,359
-$8975
are in metropolitan Sydney, with two in Perth, and another
30
Flinders
IRU
$75,223
-$9,111
in each of Canberra and Melbourne. Should staff located
31
La Trobe
IRU
$75,073
-$9,261
in state capitals (or the national capital) expect to be paid
32
Murdoch
IRU
$75,054
-$9,280
more than staff in regional areas? If so, why don’t universities
33
Griffith
IRU
$74,973
-$9,361
34
USQ
RUN
$74,332
-$10,002
35
CSU
UNG
$74,278
-$10,056
universities pay and have relatively low proportions of
36
CDU
IRU
$73,671
-$10,663
general staff employed at levels above HEW 6. UWA seems
37
JCU
IRU
$73,429
-$10,905
to be a relatively better payer, but also has fewer of its
Australia (Average)
$77,169
-$7,165
general staff in classifications above HEW 6.
Source: NTEU. Salaries @ June 2018 vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Salary HEW 6 Variation
V
Other patterns can be observed from Figure 1, such as the salaries paid by IRU universities tending to be
national context, except for WSU and La Trobe University. Some universities appear to pay more modestly than others but have a relatively higher proportion of their
salaries than many others and has relatively fewer of its general staff classified in positions above HEW 6. Are variations between universities random, or universities
cf. universities
in
lower end of the spectrum for both salary paid and the proportion of general staff in more senior positions. For instance, several of the RUN universities (except for
university management thinks that it is possible to attract good staff without paying ‘premium’ salaries.
Discussion Do the data in this paper present a ‘story’, or is what has been presented here merely due to ‘coincidence’? This is perhaps one of several questions that could be addressed. By looking at Table 3, five of the higher-paying universities
in Adelaide or Brisbane feature among the higher-paying universities? For example, the Go8 universities in these two capital cities pay at the lower end of what the Go8
Perhaps the metropolitan/regional nexus is something that could be explored. Speaking as someone who left Salary diversity Ian R Dobson
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100000
E
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100% Salary HEW 6
90000
% > HEW 6
90%
80000
80%
70000
70%
60000
60%
50000
50%
40000
40%
30000
30%
20000
20%
10000
10% 0% QUT RMIT UniSA UTS Curtin Queensland Adelaide Monash UWA ANU Melbourne UNSW Sydney James Cook C. Darwin Griffith Murdoch La Trobe Flinders WSU USQ UNE CQU Federation Sun. Coast S. Cross Charles Sturt Victoria Canberra Tasmania Wollongong Newcastle ACU Swinburne Deakin Edith Cowan Macquarie
0
ATN
GO8
IRU
RUN
UNG
Figure 1: Salary Rank (June 2018) cf. Seniority Rank (% > HEW 6, 2017) by Bloc and University Melbourne for the regional Victorian city of Ballarat about
staff in lower grades, or would this represent a form of
two years ago, I can confirm that the difference in housing
‘bracket creep’?
prices in Ballarat compared with Melbourne is immense.
There is also the matter of ‘has anything changed’?
According to material available from a real estate website,
When I last looked at this topic, many of the higher payers
the median house price in Ballarat was about $403,000
in 2009 were the same as those a decade later, and the
in late 2017, compared with $904,000 in Melbourne
same could be said of the universities at the other end of
(Domain, n.d.a.; n.d.b.). Perhaps this pattern is replicated
the scale. In 2009, the Universities of New South Wales
in the other regional towns which are home to members
(UNSW), Sydney and Melbourne, and SCU and UTS made
of the RUN bloc of universities, for example.
up the Top 5. Back then, the gap between top and bottom
If the university work undertaken by general staff
universities at HEW 6 level was up to 19 per cent, with the
is common across the sector, what reasons could there
gap between the Top 5 and the Bottom 5 being about 12
be for the considerable variety of salaries paid and the
per cent (Dobson, 2009). My methodology when writing
ranks that predominate at different universities? Should a
the 2009 paper was to ‘adjust’ for the timing of the effective
worker be paid more or less because of where they live,
date of enterprise agreements. However, a rethink on this
or because of the labour market situation in that region?
matter over the intervening period inclines me to the view
Should there be loadings that reflect the higher costs in
that those universities that have been a bit ‘slow’ in getting
some areas? What about universities with campuses in
enterprise agreements into place should lift their game.
both state capitals and regional centres?
Staff at those laggard universities might think that catching
On seeing the figures used in this paper, some
up should be a priority. In 2018, the gap between top and
universities might seek to explain the situation by
bottom payers (based on HEW 6 salaries) was around 13
saying that the timing of their own enterprise bargaining
per cent, with the gap between the national average and
situation is behind that of the higher-paying universities.
the highest payer being just over eight per cent.
However, one presumes that if they chose to do so, those universities could start a ‘catch up’ process.
These issues are all part of (university) life’s rich tapestry!
Other questions could also be asked. Should universities aspire to have at least half of their general
Acknowledgements
staff classified in grades above HEW 6, as is the case Reciprocally,
I should like to acknowledge the information provided by
should they be trying to reduce the proportion of
NTEU staffers Renee Veal and Paul Kniest and the helpful
with
84
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better-paying
universities?
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comments and editing from my editorial board colleague Neil Mudford. Ian R Dobson is an honorary associate at Monash University and editor of Australian Universities’ Review.
V
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Dobson, I.R (2000). Them and Us: General and Non-general staff in Australian Higher Education, Journal of Higher Education Policy & Management 22(2), 203-210. Dobson, I.R. (2009). Hey Big Spender! An analysis of Australian universities and how much they pay their general staff. Australian Universities’ Review, 51(1), 39-47.
Contact: ian.dobson@monash.edu
Domain. (n.d.a). Median House Price – Ballarat Central. Retrieved from https:// www.realestate.com.au/neighbourhoods/ballarat%20central-3350-vic
References
Domain. (n.d.b). House Price Report. Retrieved from https://www.domain.com. au/product/house-price-report-march-2018/
Australian Education Network. (n.d.). Australian University Groupings. Retrieved fromhttps://www.australianuniversities.com.au/directory/australian-universitygroupings/
Moodie, G. (1996). Non-people. Letter to the Editor. Australian Universities’ Review, 39(2), 32.
Department of Education and Training. (2018). Selected University Staff Statistics, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.education.gov.au/staff-data
Rodan, P. (1997). We’re in this mess together. Letter to the Editor. Australian Universities’ Review, 40(1), 32.
Conway, M. (2000). What’s in a Name? Issues for ATEM and Administrators. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 22(2), 199-201.
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
Salary diversity Ian R Dobson
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Appendix 1
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Distribution of General Staff 2017 by HEW Level and University. Full-time Equivalents (Numbers)
University
Bloc HEW median
>HEW 10
TOTAL
ACU
UNG
HEW 6
49%
3
27
66
275
231
227
160
130
60
1179
Adelaide
GO8
HEW 6
44%
19
85
253
367
344
365
254
135
45
53
1920
ANU
GO8
HEW 7
51%
18
80
180
441
369
377
401
65
170
126
2227
Canberra
UNG
HEW 7
54%
3
8
35
119
101
85
CDU
IRU
HEW 6
41%
4
8
43
86
67
55
96
49
32
49
576
33
26
20
10
352
CSU
UNG
HEW 6
33%
12
11
43
211
265
241
192
86
55
12
33
1160
CQU
RUN
HEW 6
32%
11
6
44
135
163
168
116
53
29
45
770
Curtin
ATN
HEW 6
45%
3
4
38
172
Deakin
UNG
HEW 6
47%
7
18
146
471
363
297
265
164
57
85
1917
475
430
399
258
166
37
108
2043
ECU
UNG
HEW 6
41%
2
1
16
192
214
149
147
140
75
36
FUA
RUN
HEW 5
30%
21
47
37
116
182
114
98
60
34
9
Flinders
IRU
HEW 6
40%
Griffith
IRU
HEW 6
39%
91
11
55
128
266
196
174
152
53
10
94
310
493
372
332
275
99
JCU
IRU
HEW 6
37%
3
16
30
128
300
208
146
135
La Trobe
IRU
HEW 6
50%
1
5
19
106
343
312
302
Macquarie
UNG
Melbourne
GO8
HEW 7
52%
1
11
17
78
248
377
HEW 6
49%
9
105
297
739
714
Monash
GO8
HEW 7
53%
2
15
86
231
786
Murdoch
IRU
HEW 6
40%
4
2
42
117
Newcastle
UNG
HEW 6
42%
3
16
74
UQ
GO8
HEW 6
37%
27
35
180
QUT
ATN
HEW 6
46%
12
10
RMIT
ATN
HEW 7
55%
1
SCU
RUN
HEW 5
31%
USC
RUN
HEW 6
45%
Swinburne
UNG
HEW 7
51%
Sydney
GO8
HEW 7
51%
Tasmania
UNG
HEW 6
36%
UNE
RUN
HEW 6
UniSA
ATN
HEW 6
UNSW
GO8
HEW 7
53%
USQ
RUN
HEW 6
40%
UTS
ATN
HEW 7
56%
UWA
GO8
HEW 6
40%
Victoria
UNG
HEW 7
53%
W’gong
UNG
HEW 6
41%
WSU
IRU
HEW 7
52%
3
HEW 6
46%
266
Australia
% > HEW 6
HEW HEW HEW 1* 2 3
1
HEW 4
HEW 5
HEW 6
HEW 7 HEW 8
HEW 9
HEW 10
972 19
737
22
35
1090
61
109
2246
43
56
20
1084
217
137
61
83
1586
295
216
152
106
30
1532
631
500
315
239
85
3632
715
835
570
386
204
89
3919
171
179
117
92
54
19
60
857
194
360
321
319
209
96
10
56
1658
408
934
819
616
469
212
140
2
3841
51
255
494
457
358
371
141
117
81
2348
26
91
345
399
335
313
176
137
73
1895
10
116
125
98
90
30
12
9
16
506
23
58
106
126
121
57
34
29
19
572
0
3
49
146
224
155
123
59
45
56
860
5
26
142
181
557
869
690
512
300
67
310
3658
2
6
45
215
344
287
215
135
35
45
76
1404
41%
4
12
85
161
136
112
64
38
12
49
672
37%
4
51
331
258
277
228
194
56
72
1473
20
60
166
531
661
560
480
339
196
94
3135
4
21
110
251
193
150
121
58
27
23
957
0
4
24
124
273
334
279
318
143
215
1714
22
12
77
202
382
444
311
195
138
27
80
1891
2
20
47
123
182
160
112
77
27
48
798
4
60
166
304
171
274
84
69
43
37
1224
58
271
336
269
270
139
71
30
1503
349
1787
5799 12368
11981
10434
8016
4286
2188
29
11
57
2433 59905
# Blocs are: ATN Australian Technology Network; GO8 Group of Eight; IRU Innovative Research Universities; RUN Regional University Network; and UNG Ungrouped. * Below HEW 1 and HEW 1. Minor rounding errors apply
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Distribution of General Staff 2017 by HEW Level and University. Full-time Equivalents (Percentages)
University
Bloc
HEW median
ACU
UNG
HEW 6
Adelaide
GO8
ANU
GO8
Canberra
HEW 1*
HEW 2
HEW 3
HEW 4
HEW 5
HEW 6
49%
0%
0%
2%
6%
23%
20%
19%
14%
11%
0%
5%
100%
HEW 6
44%
0%
1%
4%
13%
19%
18%
19%
13%
7%
2%
3%
100%
HEW 7
51%
0%
1%
4%
8%
20%
17%
17%
18%
3%
8%
6%
100%
UNG
HEW 7
54%
0%
1%
1%
6%
21%
18%
15%
17%
8%
6%
9%
100%
CDU
IRU
HEW 6
41%
0%
1%
2%
12%
24%
19%
16%
9%
7%
6%
3%
100%
CSU
UNG
HEW 6
33%
1%
1%
4%
18%
23%
21%
17%
7%
5%
1%
3%
100%
CQU
RUN
HEW 6
32%
1%
1%
6%
18%
21%
22%
15%
7%
4%
0%
6%
100%
Curtin
ATN
HEW 6
45%
0%
0%
2%
9%
25%
19%
15%
14%
9%
3%
4%
100%
Deakin
UNG
HEW 6
47%
0%
0%
1%
7%
23%
21%
20%
13%
8%
2%
5%
100%
ECU
UNG
HEW 6
41%
0%
0%
2%
20%
22%
15%
15%
14%
8%
4%
0%
100%
FUA
RUN
HEW 5
30%
3%
6%
5%
16%
25%
15%
13%
8%
5%
1%
3%
100%
Flinders
IRU
HEW 6
40%
0%
1%
5%
12%
24%
18%
16%
14%
5%
2%
3%
100%
Griffith
IRU
HEW 6
39%
4%
0%
4%
14%
22%
17%
15%
12%
4%
3%
5%
100%
JCU
IRU
HEW 6
37%
0%
1%
3%
12%
28%
19%
13%
12%
4%
5%
2%
100%
La Trobe
IRU
HEW 6
50%
0%
0%
1%
7%
22%
20%
19%
14%
9%
4%
5%
100%
Macquarie UNG
HEW 7
52%
0%
1%
1%
5%
16%
25%
19%
14%
10%
7%
2%
100%
Melbourne GO8
HEW 6
49%
0%
0%
3%
8%
20%
20%
17%
14%
9%
7%
2%
100%
Monash
GO8
HEW 7
53%
0%
0%
2%
6%
20%
18%
21%
15%
10%
5%
2%
100%
Murdoch
IRU
HEW 6
40%
0%
0%
5%
14%
20%
21%
14%
11%
6%
2%
7%
100%
Newcastle
UNG
HEW 6
42%
0%
1%
4%
12%
22%
19%
19%
13%
6%
1%
3%
100%
UQ
GO8
HEW 6
37%
1%
1%
5%
11%
24%
21%
16%
12%
6%
4%
0%
100%
QUT
ATN
HEW 6
46%
1%
0%
2%
11%
21%
19%
15%
16%
6%
5%
3%
100%
RMIT
ATN
HEW 7
55%
0%
0%
1%
5%
18%
21%
18%
16%
9%
7%
4%
100%
SCU
RUN
HEW 5
31%
0%
0%
2%
23%
25%
19%
18%
6%
2%
2%
3%
100%
USC
RUN
HEW 6
45%
0%
0%
4%
10%
18%
22%
21%
10%
6%
5%
3%
100%
Swinburne UNG
HEW 7
51%
0%
0%
0%
6%
17%
26%
18%
14%
7%
5%
6%
100%
Sydney
GO8
HEW 7
51%
0%
1%
4%
5%
15%
24%
19%
14%
8%
2%
8%
100%
Tasmania
UNG
HEW 6
36%
0%
0%
3%
15%
24%
20%
15%
10%
2%
3%
5%
100%
UNE
RUN
HEW 6
41%
0%
1%
2%
13%
24%
20%
17%
10%
6%
2%
7%
100%
UniSA
ATN
HEW 6
37%
0%
0%
3%
22%
18%
19%
16%
13%
4%
0%
5%
100%
UNSW
GO8
HEW 7
53%
1%
1%
2%
5%
17%
21%
18%
15%
11%
6%
3%
100%
USQ
RUN
HEW 6
40%
0%
0%
2%
12%
26%
20%
16%
13%
6%
3%
2%
100%
UTS
ATN
HEW 7
56%
0%
0%
1%
7%
16%
19%
16%
19%
8%
0%
13%
100%
UWA
GO8
HEW 6
40%
1%
1%
4%
11%
20%
23%
16%
10%
7%
1%
4%
100%
Victoria
UNG
HEW 7
53%
0%
0%
3%
6%
15%
23%
20%
14%
10%
3%
6%
100%
W’gong
UNG
HEW 6
41%
1%
0%
5%
14%
25%
14%
22%
7%
6%
4%
3%
100%
WSU
IRU
HEW 7
52%
0%
0%
4%
4%
18%
22%
18%
18%
9%
5%
2%
100%
HEW 6
46%
0%
1%
3%
10%
21%
20%
17%
13%
7%
4%
4%
100%
Australia
% > HEW 6
HEW 7
HEW 8
HEW 9
HEW 10
>HEW 10
TOTAL
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REVIEWS
If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it Stop Fixing Women: Why building fairer workplaces is everybody’s business by Catherine Fox ISBN 9781742235165, Sydney, 2017, Newsouth Publishing, 214 pp. Reviewed by Kate White
The image of the successful manager in Australia has
The book condemns the deficit model which rests
traditionally been of ‘the happy-go-lucky good-looking
on the belief that women are actually deficient in risk
bloke with a bit of jaunty bravado, good sportsmanship,
taking, assertiveness and courage, and over endowed with
mateship and loyalty’. It is an enduring image that
emotions and caring skills. It lambasts remedial programs
nevertheless is now out of step with the realities of the
to hone women’s networking skills as the ‘sheep dip
current Australian workplace and effective leadership.
method’ which ‘involves dunking women into training
Catherine Fox argues that insisting women fix
and expecting them to come out the other end magically
themselves in the workplace will not fix the system
transformed’. It also criticises over-reliance on mentoring
traditionally built and maintained by blokey men.
schemes for senior women as ‘corporate panacea’ for much
Catherine was formerly a journalist with the Australian
more structural problems, and favours instead sponsorship
Financial Review where she wrote its Corporate Women
where senior staff go out and advocate for an individual.
column for many years. While this is not an academic
The book comments that resistance to quotas for getting
book, it is well written and accessible, and the argument
more women in to leadership positions is shifting. It notes
is underpinned by a wealth of research.
that France successfully legislated for 40 per cent of women
Fox notes that more equal societies score more highly
for the top 40 listed companies and asserts that only quotas
on just about every economic and social indicator and
can ensure that achieving higher representation of women
are more productive and happy. Women are not wired for
in top positions does not fall off the agenda.
inadequacy, she writes, ‘but are coping with routine bias
Fox argues that when gender ‘as an initial sorting
and sexism’ while powerful men set the norms, behaviour
mechanism’ is removed in workplaces, and a broader range
and attitudes in workplaces and therefore need to help
of job requirements, skills and experience is recognised,
change them.
then there can be transformation. She concludes that we
What also needs to change, says Fox, is the outdated
need a new framing of the business and economic case
notion of cultural fit in the workplace. Homosociability
for improving gender fairness and that male leaders need
prevails in most workplaces, evident in the CEO of
to fix themselves rather than trying to fix women.
Goldman Sachs Australia, Simon Rothery’s remark about
What relevance does Stop Fixing Women have to
the firm’s graduate intake: ‘we were selecting private
higher education? Like the corporate sector, the under-
school boys who looked like each other’. Meanwhile
representation of women in leadership roles in universities
women in management jobs often earn less than their
is clear. The average percentage of women across vice-
male peers, and when work places are feminised, the pay
chancellor and deputy vice chancellor positions was
levels decrease.
31.4 in 2016 (White, 2017), and women made up 27 per
The inequity of the Australian workplace is clear: for
cent of full professors, although the percentage of female
example, while women comprise 47 per cent of the paid
professors in some disciplines was much lower. The
workforce, the gender pay gap is around 18 per cent and
representation of women as full professors is important,
almost 35 per cent of women have no superannuation.
as the academic career path is considered the standard
Women make up only 23 per cent of the boards of the top
path into university leadership roles and it can be difficult
200 listed Australian companies and just 17 per cent of
to become a top leader in higher education without being
CEOs across the business sector.
a professor (Burkinshaw, 2015; Bagilhole & White, 2011).
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If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it Reviewed by Kate White
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Leadership training and mentoring programs for women have been popular in higher education, as well as the corporate sector, as a way of fixing the women in universities. But change will only come when the taken for granted nature of the existing paradigm and the male dominated masculinist power structures are challenged (O’Connor, 2017). While Stop Fixing Women focuses broadly on the Australian workplace, its arguments have clear resonance for women in higher education.
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References Burkinshaw, P. (2015). Higher Education, Leadership and Women Vice Chancellors: Fitting into Communities of Practice of Masculinities, Palgrave: Basingstoke. Bagilhole, B. & White, K. (2011). Gender, Power and Management, Palgrave: Basingstoke. O’Connor, P. (2017). Towards a New Gender Agenda and Model for Change. In K. White and P. O’Connor (Eds.), Gendered Success in Higher Education: global perspectives, Palgrave: Basingstoke. White, K. (2017). Women Vice-Chancellors as Change Agents? An Australian Case Study. In K. White and P. O’Connor (Eds.), Gendered Success in Higher Education: global perspectives, Palgrave: Basingstoke.
Kate White is an author and adjunct associate professor at Federation University, Ballarat, Australia Contact: kate.white@federation.edu.au
The impending disruption of Australian higher education The Australian Idea of a University by Glyn Davis ISBN: 9780522871746, Carlton, Australia, Melbourne University Press, 270 pages, 2017 Reviewed by Andrew Gunn
In The Australian Idea of a University Glyn Davis, the
In Chapter 2, The Metropolitan University, the book
outgoing Vice-Chancellor of the University of Melbourne,
turns to focus on Australia, and provides an eloquent
sets out a highly readable and effective combination of
history of the Australian university and how it arose
contemporary debates and Australian history. In short, the
as a variant of the British world model. It accounts for
book establishes two things: first Australian public higher
the emergence of the first wave of institutions which
education lacks institutional diversity, and second the
began with the University of Sydney in 1850 through to
wider world of higher education is changing and forces
the first students attending classes at the University of
of creative destruction are at work. From this the author
Western Australia in Perth in 1913. It explains how these
argues that in the context of the latter, the former is made
initial choices fashioned the model of ‘the metropolitan
more vulnerable.
university’— which can be viewed as an ‘ideal type’ that
The book begins with a Prologue which provides an
was easily transportable to other state capitals.
introduction and sets the scene for the ideas introduced
Chapter 3, Attempts to Leave the Path, considers the
in subsequent chapters. Following this, Chapter 1, End
numerous attempts to nurture novel institutional types
of the Line?, explains how universities everywhere face
that differed from the standard metropolitan model. It deals
imminent disruption. The chapter provides some notable
with the post-war expansion of higher education, through
examples of how established industries were supplanted
an overview of the second wave (New England, the
by what Schumpeter called creative destruction. It
Australian National University, Monash, and the University
also accounts for how higher education worldwide
of New South Wales) and third wave (Macquarie, La Trobe,
is being transformed through new technologies and
Newcastle, Wollongong, Griffith, Deakin and Murdoch)
entrepreneurial activities.
universities. This chapter finds that despite innovative
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founding ideas, these institutions gradually fell into the
The book is not critical of any particular university or
format of the archetypical Australian university, with the
the quality of Australian higher education; rather it argues
only notable differences being the campus architecture.
the single model has endured and served the nation
Chapter 4, A Unified National System, explains how the
well. As Davis points out: ‘It is great to be an Australian
single metropolitan model which dominated for more than
University, but not enough’ (p. 110). The core argument
a century was written into law by the Dawkins reforms of
of the book is that standardisation is a weakness, where:
the late 1980s. Here John Dawkins, minister in the Hawke
‘In an age of regulated assimilation to a standard model,
Government, used the power of federal public policy to
Australian universities have become more alike over time.
shape the higher education sector. In addition to producing
In a world of global opportunity and flexibility, this makes
a fourth wave of universities, the chapter explains how
them vulnerable’ (p. 103).This vulnerability is exacerbated
these reforms left Australia with not just a unified but an
by new pressures and competition:
increasingly uniform system. In the final chapter, What Next?, the core argument of the book comes to fruition as it sets out the ramifications of the lack of institutional diversity. The chapter looks to the challenges ahead and makes a series of observations and recommendations.
‘As choices widen and a single system fragments, it will be dangerous for all Australian public universities to be stretched out in single file along a narrow road to the deep north. A capacity to meet the market matters if the public sector in education is to prosper amid change’ (p. 110).
The book convincingly makes the case that Australian universities are all quite similar – the argument that
The book is critical of the idea of a university being
Australia only has one university which is located across
wrapped in a single straightjacket.This uniformity has been
220 campuses. To illustrate this Davis references the
particularly entrenched since the Dawkins reforms which
Carnegie
(http://carnegieclassifications.
demanded all universities undertake research and imposed
iu.edu) of seven institutional types. When applied to
size requirements resulting in mergers.The book is therefore
Australia, every public university, and even private sector
advocating some sort of shake-up of the university and a
institutions such as Bond and Notre Dame, fall into one
new direction in higher education policy. Specifically, it
category.This is because the combination of shared origins,
calls for a policy environment that allows innovation and
student expectations, academic culture and government
rewards difference. Davis also talks positively of a possible
policies have all contributed to the ‘single idea’ of an
new wave of universities. He argues that it’s now time to
Australian university. This singular understanding of
think again as even successful industries face disruption,
the university produces a narrow range of institutions
and that although ‘previous attempts at diversification did
nationally. Scholars of political science will appreciate
not bear enduring results, circumstances on the ground
this aspect of the book as a beautiful illustration of the
demand that we try again’ (p. 125).
Classification
concept of path dependency.
A limitation of the book is that it could perhaps benefit
An interesting feature of the book is the account of how
from greater explanation of what constellations of public
the third wave universities began as distinctive from their
institutions would be less vulnerable to the looming
established counterparts – in areas such as governance,
disruption and why. These wouldn’t be prescriptions
internal organisation, curriculum design, and subject mix
– as a more diverse landscape would be the aggregate
– but then evolved to be more like the standard model.
of innovation and choices – but merely examples to
In this section, Davis draws on the example of Griffith
help those less familiar with the subject or without the
University, where he was the third Vice-Chancellor, to
necessary knowledge and imagination.
explain how innovative ideas were replaced by orthodox practices.
The final chapter of the book presents four initiatives which could change the rules governing public
The book also notes the changing landscape of
universities and their contribution to the nation. The first
institutions, lamenting the demise of smaller specialist
contends that post-school education should be viewed
colleges. Although I would argue, as is also the case in
as a single sector, which would help students navigate
England, one of the reasons for this is that shorter post
between different institutions. This would be challenging
compulsory education qualifications were supplanted
to achieve as despite the growing overlap between further
by longer higher education courses as many occupations
and higher education they remain distinct entities in many
became fully fledged graduate professions – such as
ways. Other initiatives include revising the funding streams
teaching and nursing – and the need for places that
for teaching and research to reduce cross subsidisation
delivered the former declined.
between high and low cost subjects, and relaxing the
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requirement that all universities must do research. These
regulation is the same and that ‘the practice of regulation
changes would remove barriers which currently hamper
has changed greatly in recent decades’ (p. 123). Details
specialisation. The final recommendation argues for a
such as these give the book additional credibility as a
revival of the Australian Tertiary Education Commission
work of higher education policy scholarship.
which would be a national and sector-wide body, enabling
This also relates to another strength of the book, how it
it to rise above local jealousies. It would also place
explores a range of substantive themes in higher education
ministers in an oversight role by relieving them of day to
– public accountability, institutional isomorphism, state
day involvement in governing the sector.
steering – without losing momentum or getting too
The author’s background as a scholar of politics and
tied up with terminology or theoretical approaches. For
government is evident in these intelligent recommendations,
example, in Chapter 2 as Davis plays historian telling
which are grounded in an appreciation of machinery
the story of the University of Sydney’s foundation, the
of government and policy theory. For example, when
discussion brings out the enduring key issues of who
considering the role of the federal government in system
should pay, what is the place of religion, a residential or
design, Davis notes the important, but often overlooked,
commuter arrangement, who should it report to, should it
issue of ‘institutional memory’ within government and cites
be about teaching or research or both?
the University Grants Committee (UGC) of Hong Kong as an example of good practice: ‘Over many decades, UGC staff have developed detailed knowledge about universities in Hong Kong, and so create institutional memory about policy logic. This intellectual capital encourages reflection on lessons learned and thoughtful consideration of future prospects’ (p. 121).
The book remains well written and entertaining throughout, meaning it will carry the interest of not just hardened higher education specialists. It works well, the modern university would be more widely appreciated, and higher education policy better understood, if there were more books in this highly readable style. Andrew Gunn is a postdoctoral researcher specialising in
Moreover, a discussion on the likely objections to a new regulatory agency acknowledges that not all government
higher education at the University of Leeds, United Kingdom Contact: a.s.gunn@education.leeds.ac.uk
POP goes the weasel? Publish or Perish: Perceived benefits versus unintended consequences by Imad A. Moosa ISBN: 978 1 78643 492 0 (cased), Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham UK, 232 pp., 2018. Reviewed by Arthur Shulkes
According to the 21st century Bible, Wikipedia, Publish or
Moosa has created a detailed, well documented
Perish (POP) is ‘a phrase coined to describe the pressure
monograph on the perils of the POP phenomenon ranging
in academia to rapidly and continually publish academic
from the history, effect on publications practice, research
work to sustain or further one’s career’. Imad Moosa, a
ethics, and the rankings of articles, journals, people and
Professor of Finance, at Royal Melbourne Institute of
institutions. This is a well-tilled field and as noted by
Technology University, has written a polemic on the perils
Moosa, POP is its own mini-industry with more than 20
of the POP phenomenon.When the monograph begins (p.
articles per year published on the topic between 2009
10) and ends (p. 182) with statements ascribing the rise of
and 2013. Accordingly, the advantage of this monograph
POP to Reaganism–Thatchererism and pressures from the
is bringing all the alleged deficiencies of POP into one
military-industry complex, then the term polemic is used
document in an entertaining manner. The chapters on
advisedly and is not meant to be derogatory.
journal and article ranking and the development of
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research evaluation schemes are well documented and of
of research performed as evidenced by universities
interest.
forming themselves into blocs of like-minded institutions:
However, there is much in this monograph that this
the Group of Eight, the Australian Technology Network,
reviewer finds annoying. Firstly, it should come with a
the Innovative Research Universities and the Regional
disclaimer such as ‘The examples and perspective in this
Universities Network. The proliferation of Australian
monograph deal primarily with the university disciplines
Universities (currently 43, depending on what one
of finance, business and economics and do not necessarily
includes in the count) with differing attributes required
represent the activities of other disciplines such as health
increased measures of performance to determine
and biomedical research’. Moosa treats the university
research and teaching budgets across the tertiary sector.
as a single homogeneous entity while it is more like a
I also found it particularly galling and irrelevant for the
series of villages each with their own characteristics
frequent references to Einstein who published in journals
and obligations. While many of the issues are common
that did not have peer review as an example of how the
to all disciplines, such as the proliferation of journals
universities should function.
of questionable quality and the pressure to publish for
My third annoyance is that nearly all the monograph
career advancement, the imperative to communicate
is devoted to the ills of POP, and there is only cursory
one’s findings is more focussed in health and biomedical
attention on how the excesses could be fixed or indeed
research with the ultimate objective of achieving better
alternatives developed. Chapter 10, The Way Forward, is
health outcomes. There is no mention of the National
predominantly a reiteration of previous chapters and only
Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) funding
the last two pages are devoted to the way forward which
and peer review system which distributed in the order of
basically states that the POP culture should be abandoned,
$800 million in 2017-18 mainly to universities and their
and that there should be a return to the pre-Thatcher-
affiliates, a similar quantum to the Australian Research
Reagan era. Best of luck with that! A detailed consideration
Council. The NHMRC peer review system, although
of the development of teaching specialists who are judged
subject to vigorous criticism including from this reviewer,
on their scholarship in relation to teaching and learning
specifically excludes journal rankings, and has multiple
would have been of interest. Such career paths as well as
measures
quality, significance,
research specialists and academic specialists focussed on
innovation, impact, team quality and capability. In any
engagement and/or leadership have been introduced at
case, I would argue that the health and biomedical
University of Melbourne, for example.
including
scientific
industry incorporating big pharma, biotechs, medical
Finally, while railing against the excesses of POP, it is
devices, private health providers, medical insurers and
somewhat ironic that Professor Moosa is a very, very active
pathology providers would be larger, better organised
participant in the POP industry. From his Curriculum Vitae
and more powerful than the military-industry complex,
on the RMIT website, he is ranked sixth among the world’s
so it is a major omission not to consider the health and
500 most published economists and according to Google
biomedical sector of the university system.
Scholar (August 2018) he already has 18 publications for
A second annoyance is ascribing all the ills to neoliberalism as promulgated by Thatcher and Reagan
2018. I guess the rationale is that you have to succeed in the system in order to have the freedom to criticise it.
and ignoring how the university system has changed from
Rather than publish or perish, I remain of the view that
an activity of the relatively few to that of a mass market.
what is not published will perish and it is beholden on
Much of this change commenced with the reforms of
academics involved in research to publish their work in
the Australian Labor Party’s Employment, Education and
reputable journals, subject to review by their peers. To
Training Minister John Dawkins (admittedly accused of
finish with a cliché, let us not throw the baby out with
being a neoliberal) in 1989 when colleges of advanced
the bath water or even worse, keep the bathwater and
education and technology institutes were repurposed as
throw out the baby.
universities either through rebadging or merging or both. Accordingly, the university sector as measured by student
In a previous life, Arthur Shulkes was a NHMRC Senior
enrolments more than doubled and has continued
Principal Research Fellow and an Associate Dean (Research)
to increase in size. Similar increases have occurred
in the Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences,
internationally. Suddenly academics employed for their
University of Melbourne, Australia. He is now a Professor
teaching skills were expected to be ‘research active’. The
Emeritus at the University of Melbourne.
universities also became more specialised in the nature
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‘With gods on the side…’ (misheard lyric, Bob Dylan) Religion and Education: comparative and international perspectives by Malini Sivasubramaniam and Ruth Hayhoe (Eds.). ISBN 978-1-910744-01-7, Symposium Books, 388 pp., 2018. Reviewed by Neil Mudford This volume’s primary focus is the role of religious
policy. She says, ‘The chapter’s core argument is that…
organisations in the provision of primary and secondary
religious institutions should be engaged as significant
school education around the world. The main discussion
players for achieving global education goals’ (p. 32).
points concern how and why the many education
One of the reasons Marshall cites for governments
systems run by religious bodies operate worldwide, what
generally
they provide for their communities and how they interact
representatives on policy making bodies is the fear that
not
including
religious
organisation
with government education policies, practices and school
religious organisations cannot separate education from
systems.
proselytising. Reports in chapters throughout the rest of
The book’s discussions of matters at a state scale are
the book confirm repeatedly that proselytising is one of the
sprinkled with some intriguing insights into the many
main roles of the educational institutions run by religious
ways of life, cultures and attitudes of people in the
organisations. This is hardly surprising but, when your
countries discussed. In Australia we rarely hear any detail
educational network is a vehicle for your organisation’s
about these people’s lives despite seeming to have access
growth then, in my view, you undoubtedly have a
to a mountain of information. When we do hear of them,
conflict of interest if you are helping design government
it is almost never about intimate and personal matters
policy. Marshall gives the impression she believes that
such as the educational hopes and opportunities parents
religious organisations could set aside considerations of
have for their children and how they choose between the
recruitment to their religion and provide valuable and
available options.
objective input to policy formulation. Whether this is the
As is easily appreciated, this is a highly complex topic for a whole range of reasons. For one thing, religion is
case or not, the conflict of interest remains, as conflicts of interest are wont to do.
an emotionally charged feature of human existence and
A related and more prevalent issue is the reverse
culture. For another, the diversity of human social systems
question of government intervention in the religious
and widely varying economic circumstances together
school systems. In several chapters in this book, there are
with the diversity of religious belief across the world
reports and discussion of governments requiring teaching
creates a huge variety of complex educational systems.
in certain subject areas or specifying other requirements
In amongst this mix there are several constant themes,
for faith-based schools. This is usually in cases where the
such as the tension between proselytising and delivering
government is contributing financially to the schools.
secular education.
I think it is safe to say that the religious organisations
To begin near the beginning, Katherine Marshall points
responsible for the schools are not terribly happy about
out in Chapter 1 that religious organisations provide a
being told what to do in several areas although the extra
very considerable proportion of the world’s education.
resources are no doubt welcome.
As she points out, data are scarce and unreliable, but
Herzog and Adams discuss this topic in detail in their
the overall proportion could be up to 50 per cent.
Chapter 10 entitled ‘Modernizing Islamic Education:
Marshall argues that those who frame governmental
Bangladesh and Senegal’. Both these countries are poor
and international education policy do not take sufficient
and are keen to boost their economies by improving
account of religious organisations’ views and that religious
education. The Bangladeshi government offers funding to
organisations ought to have an active role in framing
madrasas (Islamic educational institutions) in exchange
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for increased secular course content and increased
the national, secular state school system and receiving
government oversight.
a religious education has resulted in the fashioning of a
The Alia stream of madrasas accepted the government offer whereas the Quomi stream rejected it and retained
hybrid system with ‘Chinese and Muslim characteristics’ (p. 168).
their comprehensive and strongly religious courses. With
Thus, although we don’t hear about many individual
the extra resources, the Alia madrasas have improved
cases, we do sense from several chapters in this book
the quality of their educational offerings and this, with
some of the strong feelings and worries over the secular,
their increased secular course content, has strengthened
economic, religious and other tensions parents face in
the secular employment prospects of their graduates. By
choosing a school system for their children.
contrast, the Quomi institutions’ qualifications are less
Quite a number of chapters concern school systems in
effective as a ticket into secular employment while their
poor countries. In many of these countries, governments
religious education value greatly exceeds that of the Alia
lack the resources to create and run a universal education
system. As a result, the Quomi madrasas are now seen as the
system, even to the end of primary level, irrespective of
‘seat of Islamic authority and true Islamic scholarship’ (p.
whether they would wish to do so. In these countries
208) in Bangladesh and consequently have the monopoly
and even in those with a significant state-run system,
on training Islamic clergy. So, in some ways, both streams
faith-based bodies often make an important and sizable
benefited from their respective, opposite decisions. It is
contribution to the total education supply.
interesting to wonder whether this outcome could have been foreseen.
For the countries or regions without a public education system, it is tempting to conclude that
Herzog and Adams provide an interesting and quite
any education is better than none and leave it at that.
detailed account of the deeper historical background of
With the complications of proselytising and cultural
the two madrasa systems that help explain the Alia and
transmission effects, however, it would seem wise to
Quomi decisions. These include the Quomi history of
look the gift horse in the mouth after all and know
strong opposition to British rule in colonial times and
what you are dealing with, even if there is practically no
their suspicion of secular education as an expression of
choice in the matter.
western cultural imperialism.
I am not sure whether the chapters in this book provide
To return to the subject of proselytising, while non-
a truly critical analysis of the pros and cons of having your
religious people, or even those of a different religious
school system dominated by religious organisations. One
persuasion, would probably see proselytising as a
thing I have noticed, though, is that no one points out any
negative, or at least neutral, feature of a school, many
serious negative effects of having such a school system.
chapters in the book report that inculcation of religious
Maybe there just aren’t any negatives to speak of?
beliefs, knowledge and practices are exactly what
Sivasubramaniam and Sider, in Chapter 11, examine
many communities want from their religious schools.
the issue of the operation of Low Fee Private Schools
Such communities value the religious education for its
(LFPS) in Haiti and Kenya. These schools are private
perceived effect of instilling worthy moral values into
schools which cater to the slightly better off segment of
their youth and developing and reinforcing their cultural
a country’s poor and charge particularly low fees for this
identity where this is seen as entwined with their
service. Some of the providers are faith-based groups and
religion.
these organisations are the focus of the chapter which
Herzog and Adams report that the populations in
examines and contrasts their behaviour and their effects
both Bangladesh and Senegal value religious education
on their communities between the two countries. The
highly, seeing it as important to ‘…mold youths into
authors tell us that LFPS numbers are growing quickly
“good Muslims”, “good citizens” and “good wives” who
in the Global South and that they have caused some
fulfil responsibilities to family and community…’ (pp.
controversy, partly over the question of the motives for
215-216).
their establishment.
Xinyi Wu reports similar sentiments concerning the
Throughout the book there is tension between faith-
preservation and continuation of cultural identity in his
based educational providers’ motives of proselytising and
chapter on Muslim Hui students, most of whom live in
philanthropy. For religious organisations, philanthropy
the Ningxia Autonomous Region in north-western China.
most often arises out of religious belief that helping
Here the tension between the national government’s
the needy is praiseworthy and moral behaviour. In the
requirement of a compulsory nine years of schooling in
case of LFPS, however, the possibility that profit is also a
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significant motivator becomes a stronger possibility than
reintroduction to Russian schools is not being strongly
it usually is for non-government organisations (NGOs),
welcomed somewhat surprised me. On top of that, she
religion based or otherwise, even though the customers
says parents’ initial unconcern ahead of the revival is
are poor.
increasingly turning to opposition. It appears then that
In examining motives of this kind, Sivasubramaniam and
people brought up as believers might hang on to their
Sider spread the net beyond ‘business’ entrepreneurialism,
religion with some tenacity but those raised as atheists
that is taking the initiative for purposes of money-making
will also hang on to their atheism.
and business growth. Following the literature, they expand
Further, Lisovskaya writes that the religious education
the concept of entrepreneurialism to include social,
revival is driven by an alliance of the national government
cultural and public variants. The authors describe these
and the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC), specifically
and distinguish between them, but in essence, all three are
the ROC’s Moscow Patriarchate. A further surprise is
concerned with strengthening and enriching community
that the ROC and State have always have had a symbiotic
and culture. The authors then proceed to produce a view
relationship that the Revolution hardly interrupted.
of this class of motives beyond simply declaring whether
Marxism where is thy sting?
or not the LPFS are in it for the money, so to speak. The authors conclude first that the profit motive is not dominant and second that even their broadened spectrum
While recognising that such a complex topic cannot be completely covered in a single book, there are a few seeming omissions that intrigue me.
of entrepreneurialism does not capture all the motives of
First, there seems to be little or no distinction made
the LFPS leaders.What is missing, they say, is the motive to
between the nominally god-free religions, Buddhism
‘share God’s love and to live out a personal commitment to
and Confucianism, and god-intensive religions which are
biblical social action.’ (p. 241). This puzzles me somewhat
all the others. Although I cannot claim expertise in this
because the authors state at the outset that observers
area, it seems to me that Buddhism and Confucianism,
acknowledge that philanthropy is a LFPS motivator and
though treated as religions, are more moral codes or wise
that the question in people’s minds was more about how
suggestions about a mental attitude to life and living. Such
philanthropy sits with business and other elements of
codes and mental attitudes are also an integral component
entrepreneurialism. Surely the faith-driven incentive to
of god-containing religions but the extra feature of having
help the poor and needy is an accepted and expected part
a god or gods who rule the world and decree how you
of philanthropy for faith-based organisations rather than a
should live (sometimes with an added ‘or else’) seems to
missing element of entrepreneurialism.
me to put quite a different light on it all. To say that an
In an interesting sidelight, Sivasubramaniam and
omniscient and omnipotent being demands whatever-it-is
Sider report that those who can afford to take the LPFS
is quite a different proposition to a proposed way of life
private option often do so based on the perception
standing or falling on its own merits.
that the private option offers better ‘quality, access,
As to my claim of a second omission, there are several
affordability and reliability’ than the state system, even
instances where schools in a country are run by religious
though the evidence for this contention is ‘conflicting
organisations based outside the country. Given the book’s
and inconclusive’ (p. 228). I think I have heard that story
many discussions of strong community feeling about
before somewhere or other…
religious education as a vehicle for culture transmission,
There are a few mentions throughout the book of the
it seems odd that no one has considered the cultural
notion of desecularisation. This is mostly discussed in a
effects of having foreign religious organisations deliver
positive tone with what seems to me to be a quiet sigh
education. In several chapters, the educational landscapes
of relief that a century of increasing secularism is over,
of former colonial times are described, usually to help
and religion is being joyfully resurrected, as you might
explain the present form of the educational system and
say. Consequently, it was with considerable interest that I
cultural dynamics. It is clear from these accounts that the
read Elena Lisovskaya’s Chapter 15 on ‘Religion’s Uneasy
colonisers shaped education to suit their purposes and
Return to the Russian School’ in which the subject is
that religious players were involved. There is, however,
tackled head on.
little or nothing said about neo-colonial echoes of this
The propaganda of my youth kept up a steady insistence that the USSR was ruled by awful, godless Communists
practice, that is today’s foreign providers transmitting their own cultures in the educational process.
who denied the people their innate religious desires.
The exception is Jun Li’s chapter on Confucius Institutes
Therefore, Lisovskaya’s report that religious education’s
and Classrooms in Africa, although this work presents
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
‘With gods on the side…’ (misheard lyric, Bob Dylan) Reviewed by Neil Mudford
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only the positive, international development benefits of
mentioned in the book. It would seem to me to be a
the arrangements. Coincidentally, at the time of writing,
fascinating topic – how First Peoples educate their
UK, USA and Australian government unease is growing
young and transmit their religions and cultures. I wonder
concerning the establishment of Confucius Institutes in
whether we can look forward to a volume that examines
Higher Education in these countries. The reasons cited
this topic in the already extensive Comparative Education
for concern in Australia are fear of Chinese espionage
series?
and cultural influence and even keeping a watchful eye
To sum up, it is a complex and informative book. Well
on their citizens studying here! It set me to wondering
worth reading but, for me, with some lingering questions
whether Australia’s unease in this matter is fired by the
about its objectivity and comprehensiveness.
memory of our early, and more recent, years of white settlement and the profound effects white missionaries
Neil Mudford is an Honorary Senior Lecturer with UNSW
had on our Indigenous Peoples. I quickly dismissed this
Australia, an Adjunct Senior Fellow with the University
notion; we white settlers are past masters (so to speak)
of Queensland Australia, and a member of the Australian
at erasing those memories. It is probably just racism – the
Universities’ Review editorial board.
subject of more of our intentional forgetting.
Contact: neil.mudford@bigpond.com
This leads me into another omission, as I see it. There are no First Peoples’ religions or religious education
96
‘With gods on the side…’ (misheard lyric, Bob Dylan) Reviewed by Neil Mudford
vol. 60, no. 2, 2018
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