Engineering Reports and Theses W. Hallett
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
1. Outline of Typical Report - I Title page Abstract (1-2 paragraph summary) Table of Contents List of Figures* List of Tables* Nomenclature (if you have many symbols or acronyms, otherwise define them in the text) *not needed for short reports or reports with few figures and/or tables Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
1. Outline of Typical Report - II 1. Introduction (brief - set context) 2. Literature Review, Background or Theory - show what has been done before and how your work continues or complements this - highlight original contribution to be made by your work 3. Methods and Procedures - experiments, analysis, design work as appropriate - can be several chapters if needed Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
1. Outline of Typical Report - III 4. Results and Discussion 5. Conclusions and Recommendations - conclusions are NOT the same as the summary - summarize what has been learned, what is new, where to go from here - do NOT summarize methods, etc. again 6. References
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
1. Outline of Typical Report - IV Appendices - information to support report, but not needed by all readers - examples - tables of data - construction drawings - detailed mathematical derivations - computer codes - instrumentation, calibrations - identify as Appendix A, Appendix B, etc. - each must have a title (e.g. Appendix A: Instrument Calibration) Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
1. Outline of Typical Report - V Section numbering (example): 2. Pyrolysis (chapter) 2.1 Thermal Decomposition of Lab Reports (section) 2.1.1 Role of Moisture and Alcohol Content (sub-section) 2.1.2 Contribution of BS to Heat of Pyrolysis (a) Pure BS (sub-sub-section) (b) Artificial BS 2.2 Products of Lab Report Pyrolysis 2.2.1 Chemical Reactions 2.2.2 Role of Heat Transfer Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
1. Outline of Typical Report - VI FGPS Thesis Format: - must be double-spaced why? so examiners can add comments and corrections - must be printed one side of paper only why? to make it easier for examiners to look at several pages at once
LMake your document as “user-friendly� as possible. Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
2. Presenting Data in Graphs General principles: - measured data are presented as points (use symbols such as Q, O, L, Â , Â?, etc., not dots) - exception: trace produced by continuously recording instrument (e.g. tensile test) - theory or calculations are presented as lines or curves (unless they are really only single points) - measured points should not be connected by lines - if curves are drawn to show trends (use only if necessary) they should not join all the points Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
2. Graph Examples theory - take out points
As plotted by Quattro or Excel: 60 50 40 30
exp’t - take out lines
20 10 0 0
10
20 30 radius (mm)
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
40
50
2. Graph Examples Cleaned up 60
theory line only
measurements points only
40
take out grid measurements lines but leave ticks on axes vertical title is OK for report (but not for oral presentation)
20
0 0
10
20 30 radius (mm) Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
40
50
2. Graph Examples Cleaned up, with trend line for experimental data: 60
theory measurements
40
can sketch in curve if necessary to show that points belong to same series - but tell readers in caption that this is NOT a fitted curve, and do NOT join all the points
20
0 0
10
20 30 radius (mm) Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
40
50
2. Graph Examples Exception: continuous trace produced by instrument 300 Solder A T (EC)
Solder B
200 Solder C
100
0
80
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
160
time (s)
240
2. Graph Examples Calibration data with line fitted by regression: 1200 line fitted by linear regression (give fitted equation)
1000 800 600 400
P (Pa) = 240 V
200 0 0
1
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
2 3 voltage (V)
4
5
2. Graph Examples Presentation of theory and measurements together: 40
15A220S
2400
CO T TG
T
20 O2
arrow indicates axis for this curve
1200
TS
CO2 0
5 10 height Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa above grate (cm)
15
0
2. Graph Examples Presentation of several different theoretical results: 1 baseline (05A520L) åA = 0.6 0.5
ñA = 1600 kg/m3 dPA = 0.5 mm ÖSA = 0.5
0
1
2 3 4 height above grate (cm) Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
5
2. Graph Examples Use of error bars for replicate measurements: 3
each point is mean of several measurements at same conditions - error bars show Âą one standard deviation from mean (state this in caption)
2
numerical model
1 9
10 -1 4 1/T (K x 10 ) Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
11
2. Presenting Data in Graphs General principles: - each graph or figure must have a detailed caption, which should: - state what graph shows (e.g. velocity vs radius) - give conditions or values of variables (e.g. T, P, etc.) for results shown - identify parts, special features Caption and graph together should contain enough information that they can be understood without looking at the report text. Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
2. Presenting Data in Graphs Logarithmic scales - principle: - powers of 10 evenly spaced on scale - log of numbers on scale progress linearly - plot actual numbers - do not show log of numbers - no. of “cycles” = no. of powers of 10 - example: 3 cycle log scale
x: 1 (log10 × 0
10 1
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
100 2
1000 3)
2. Presenting Data in Graphs Logarithmic scales One Cycle: 1
2
5
10
N.b. A log scale does not have a 0 (because log(0) is undefined) - do not use for data that go to 0 or < 0. Logarithmic Scales - Uses: (a) for data that cover a large range of values - log scale expands region of small values and compresses region of large values Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
2. Graph Examples Boiling Curve - linear plot 100 80 60 40 20 0 0
20
40
60 Ă&#x201E;T (EC) Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
80
100
120
2. Graph Examples Boiling Curve - log-log plot (i.e. both axes logarithmic) 100 can add connecting curve to show relation of two groups of points (in this case nucleate and film boiling regions)
10
1
10
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
100 Ă&#x201E;T (EC)
1000
2. Presenting Data in Graphs Logarithmic scales - Uses: (b) to show particular relationships: e.g. Arrhenius reaction rate becomes straight line if plotted as r on log scale versus 1/T on linear scale (semi-log plot), because E ln ( r每 ) ' ln ( AyO2 ) & RT (CONSTANT) ln ( r每 ) ' Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
A
- B (1 / T )
2. Graph Examples Linear graph - gives a curve 3
2
1 9
10 -1 4 1/T (K x 10 ) Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
11
2. Graph Examples Semi-log graph - straight line 10
1
0.1 9 Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
10 11 -1 4 1/T (K x 10 )
2. Presenting Data in Graphs e.g. power law relationships in log-log graph: take log of both sides: (CONSTANT)
therefore y = axb will plot as straight line with slope b on log-log paper (Note again: you do not have to take logarithms of data - just use log scale) Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
2. Graph Examples Power law relationships on a linear graph: 1000
4
3
x
800
3 %x
600
2 400 1
x3
200 0 0
2
4
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
6
8
x
0 10
%x
2. Graph Examples Power law relationships on a log-log graph: (note again that graph cannot go to 0) 1000
y 100 x3 10 %x 1 1 Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
x
10
3. Experimental Errors You must state honestly the precision and/or accuracy of each instrument/measurement “accuracy” = how close measurements are to true value - established by calibration against known standard “precision” = how reproducible measurements are - high precision = small degree of scatter
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
3. Experimental Errors Significant Figures - all numbers without exception must be given with a number of significant figures representing the true accuracy or precision of the quantity - round off final results (but NOT intermediate steps) of all calculations to reflect this - do rounding only on final answers, after carrying out all arithmetic operations - rounding of intermediate steps will introduce more errors Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
3. Experimental Errors Significant Figures in Arithmetic Operations - general rule: - addition or subtraction - result has same no. of decimal places as least precise input - round up or down as appropriate 25.1 + 22.43 + 1.235 + 1.90 = 50.665 50.7 - note that 1.90 (not 1.9) has two decimal places final 0 included if the number is precise to 0.01 Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
3. Experimental Errors Significant Figures in Arithmetic Operations - general rule: - multiplication or division - result has same no. of sig. figures as least precise input: 1.2 Ă&#x2014; 25.4 / 745 = 0.040913 0.041
You cannot make numbers more precise by doing arithmetic operations on them! These rules are based on the theory of error propagation Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
4. References Purpose: to identify the source of any non-original material in the report You must give a reference for - any quotation, figure, etc. taken directly from another work - failure to give a reference for copied material is plagiarism - information and ideas from other works, such as - properties data - equations or theories (unless widely known donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t give a reference for Bernoulliâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s eqâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;n!) - ideas or explanations for physical phenomena Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
4. References (a) the author-date system - one citation, 1 or 2 authors: where ø(á) is the digamma function, tables and approximations for which are given by Abramovitz and Stegun (1970) and other standard works.
- one citation, > 2 authors: ....the choice for most spray computations even today (Lippert et al. 2000). “et alii” (Latin, = and others)
- multiple citations:
semicolon
... in which the droplet composition is assumed uniform in space, leading to evaporation as a batch distillation process (Newbold and Amundson, 1973; Law, 1978; Law and Law, 1981).
- references are listed alphabetically by first author in the list of references at the end of the report Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
4. References (b) the number system - references numbered in the order that they are first cited - if you cite the same work again, use the same number. Number given as [21] or superscript21 - one citation: The theory required for multiple distribution functions was developed recently [31]; it is here simplified by assuming .....
- multiple citations: These fuels are typically denser and more viscous than petroleum fuels, with a specific gravity typically around 1.2 [5,6,10,22-25].
Advantage: compact, BUT references must be listed in numerical order in list of references - if you have to add new references later you will have to re-number a lot of references both in the list and in the text. Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
4. References - citing specific page, etc.: Properties are given by Smith and Jones (1970, Table I)....
or Properties are given in several standard references [4, p. 25; 17, p. 30].
(c) footnotes for references - often used in the humanities, rarely in engineering1 1
footnotes in engineering are generally used for explanatory notes ONLY, not for references
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
4. References List of references - list all references cited - in alphabetical order (for author/date system); - or in numerical order (number system). - ALL references listed must be cited in the text Format - reference to paper in journal:
date
Smith, A., Jones, B., and Bloggs, W. (1993), High temperature decomposition of lab reports. Can. J. Chem. Eng 24, 36-44. pages journal title - abbreviations volume see Web of Science list
(exact format not critical - use that of a standard journal in your area) Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
4. References Format - reference to paper in conference proceedings: Blow, J., and Snow, M. (1996), Toxic emissions from incineration of lab reports, Conference on Incineration, Toronto, p. 25-36.
- reference to book: Ă&#x2030;tudiante, A., and Schueler, M. (2001), Handbook of Lab Report Recycling, University of Ottawa Press, Ottawa, Canada.
- reference to manufacturerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s data: Standard Stoker Co. (1942), Instruction manual for the Standard BK stoker. New York.
- reference to verbal or private information: Mulroney, B. (1993), personal communication. Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
4. References Format References to web material: Hallett, W.L.H. (2005), Packed bed combustion, http://by.genie.uottawa.ca/~hallett/packedbd.html
- use as little as possible, because web postings change and go out of date. Give the date that you accessed the site, unless the material is literature with its own date. - all web references must be to authoritative and reliable sources (e.g. university researchers, manufacturers, government labs). Avoid Wikipedia. N.B. The use of unreliable or dubious sources reduces the credibility of your own work! Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
4. References The “bottom line” for references is that readers must be able to easily find all material you have used.
Note: References Bibliography. A bibliography lists works for further reading, which may or may not have been cited in the report. MS Word makes this error automatically.
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
5. Language and Style 1. Use the passive voice (”something was done”), not the active (“I did something”), in a formal report The pressure was measured I measured the pressure with a capacitive transducer It was believed We believed that droplets of this fuel would show disruptive burning.
2. Keep your personality out of it I feel that I did an excellent job of conducting the experiment this is for others to decide! Stick to facts such as % error avoid personal reactions Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
5. Language and Style 3. Verb tense - past or present? - use present for things that still exist now, or exist in a diagram in the report: The combustor is connected to the fuel supply by a ½" pipe [a piece of equipment that still exists, or referring to a figure which is being discussed. Use “was” if combustor no longer exists.]. The velocity rises steadily with distance from the wall (Fig. 6). [Fig. 6 exists in the report now.]
- use past for completed actions: The temperature was measured at several points in the combustor, and the measurements showed a continual rise downstream from the burner. [BUT it would also be correct to write: Fig. 5 shows that the temperature rises continually.... if one was discussing a graph.]
- be consistent - don’t keep changing tense Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
5. Language and Style 4. Avoid excessive use of acronyms (unless very familiar) and jargon. Define all acronyms in the text and in the nomenclature. The output from the linear displacement transducer (LDT) went through a low-pass filter (LPF) and a high frequency amplifier (HFA) before being transmitted by coaxial shielded cable (CSC) to the data transducer, filter and amplifier acquisition system (DAQ). The LDT, LPF and HFA were designed cable and built in-house, while the CSC and the DAQ were purchased from Acme Circuits.
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
5. Language and Style 5. Placement of equation in text: The fuel composition is described by the distribution f(I), which is defined by
where á, â, and ã are the parameters of the distribution. number if you want to refer to equation later do NOT capitalize (MS Word always makes this mistake)
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
define all variables, either here or in Nomenclature at beginning
5. Language and Style 6. “As such” does not mean “therefore”.
Therefore The transducer was calibrated against a water manometer. As such, it was very accurate.
- the correct use of “as such” (if you must use this silly expression) must answer the question “as what?”: The transducer was a high-grade capacitive instrument with a standardized calibration; as such, it was very accurate. She was the senior engineer; as such, she was responsible for the running of the plant.
7. “Data” is plural (singular is “datum” - rarely used) were The experimental data was plotted on a log-log graph. Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
5. Language and Style 8. Change of subject - be careful
the data The software is used to plot the data collected and can be viewed on a three-dimensional graph.
9. Avoid vague statements The instrument used was accurate.
(give numbers, or state how instrument was tested)
It was believed that....
(give reasons for your belief)
The theory fits the data well.
(how well? to within how much error?)
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
5. Language and Style 10. Incorrect use of “like” as if (“like” is not a conjunction, cannot be used to start a clause) It looks like the transducer is defective. but this is OK (used as a preposition): It looks like a defective transducer. He said... He was like ...
For extensive discussion of style, see series in Can. J. Chem. Eng.: (2015), 93, 1889-1890, 2095-2097; and (2016) 94, 3- 6, 205-208, 405-407, 713-715.
Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa
Happy writing!
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Reports and Theses - W. Hallett - University of Ottawa