Emerald and Sapphire City - Resiliency Fellowship by Michael J Stelfox

EMERALD AND SAPPHIRE CITY A community-based resiliency design

This document contains copyrighted images and drawings that are intended for reference purposes only. They are not to be reproduced without consent from Clark Nexsen.

EMERALD AND SAPPHIRE CITY A community-based resiliency design

MICHAEL J. STELFOX

Clark Nexsen is a full-service architecture, engineering, planning and interior design firm with offices in Virginia, Georgia, North Carolina, Texas, and Washington, DC. Founded in 1920, today the firm has 450 employees and a list of projects that covers the Southeast and Mid-Atlantic States and 41 countries around the world. The firm has designed major projects for the federal government, state and local governments, as well as major corporations and all markets in the private sector.

4525 Main Street, Suite 1400, Virginia Beach, VA 23462

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757.455.5800

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www.clarknexsen.com

The mission of Virginia Sea Grant is to enhance the ecological, economic, and social sustainability of coastal and ocean communities and the ecosystem services they depend upon, through university-based research, extension, education, and communication that provide science-based information to decision makers. VASG serves the Commonwealth of Virginia, the region, and the nation.

P.O. Box 1346, 1208 Greate Rd., Gloucester Point, VA 23062 â&#x20AC;˘ 804.684.7248 â&#x20AC;˘ vaseagrant.vims.edu

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project was sponsored by Clark Nexsen in partnership with Virginia Sea Grant. It was completed under the mentorship of Paul Battaglia (Department Head of Architecture), David Pryor (Director of Waterfront Engineering), Walt Cole (Department Director of Planning), J.C. Douglass (Project Manager of GIS), and David Keith (Design Director) from Clark Nexsen, as well as Troy Hartley (Director) and Sam Lake (Fellowship and Research Program Coordinator) of Virginia Sea Grant. â&#x20AC;&#x2039; Thank you to everyone who informed the research: at Clark Nexsen, Virginia Sea Grant, the Virginia Beach Environment & Sustainability Office, the Hampton Roads Planning District Commission, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Virginia Institute of Marine Science. Thank you as well to all individuals who were personally involved in this research.

Prevent - Adapt - Learn - Enjoy

A community-based design for a resilient city

DESIGN PROCESS TRUTH FACTS

DESIGNERâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S BELIEF UNDERSTANDING

OBJECTIVES CONCEPT

CONNECTION ANALYSIS

District

ANALYSIS Community ANALYSIS

Site

MITIGATION

ENGAGEMENT

CASE STUDIES

PRESENTATION

IMPLEMENTATION

OBSERVATION

VISION

REFLECTION

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

to the initial initial hypothesis hypothesisand andan an overview of resiliency strategy overview of resiliency strategyand and design. design.

TRUTH

UNDERSTANDING

based upon the facts. of these facts and their application to the region, community, and site according to the designerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interpretation.

OBJECTIVES

from the challenges addressed in Vision 2040.

CONCEPT

showing how other projects have connected communities while addressing similar issues.

62 of conditions in the FEMA floodplain between Mt. Trashmore and Bow Creek Recreation Center.

SITE ANALYSIS

IMPLEMENTATION

PRESENTATION

OBSERVATION

VISION

108

of the specific site for planned intervention. of proven design solutions from previously-designed projects.

of a city connected by water.

CASE STUDIES

of the city as a whole.

COMMUNITY ANALYSIS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

of the project within the book.

DISTRICT ANALYSIS

to the community members for participatory design.

of group and individual responses to the presentation.

based on how citizens envision their future community.

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INTRODUCTION From the outset of this research, the initial hypothesis was that the current infrastructure of Hampton Roads can be retrofitted with sustainable urban drainage systems and various green infrastructure in order to connect the watershed to its larger body of water and protect the city from future hazards while promoting stewardship within the communities surrounding such areas. By extending greenspace into the neighborhoods throughout Virginia Beach, people will have the opportunity to enjoy the outdoors, and travel around the city without coming into contact with the highways. This will work to achieve the aspirations of Virginia Beach, which were developed in Vision 2040. In the year 2040, Virginia Beach will be “the most livable coastal community in the world located within the southern Chesapeake Bay region [that] is defined by its rich natural resources and exciting, diverse, and interconnected neighborhoods”(Envision Virginia Beach 2040).

A RESILIENCY STRATEGY

- From the Resilient Design Institute Resilience is the capacity to adapt to changing conditions and to maintain or regain functionality and vitality in the face of stress or disturbance. It is the capacity to bounce back after a disturbance or interruption. At various levels â&#x20AC;&#x201D; individuals, households, communities, and regions â&#x20AC;&#x201D; through resilience we can maintain livable conditions in the event of natural disasters, loss of power, or other interruptions in normally available services. Relative to climate change, resilience involves adaptation to the wide range of regional and localized impacts that are expected with a warming planet: more intense storms, greater precipitation, coastal and valley flooding, longer and more severe droughts in some areas, wildfires, melting permafrost, warmer temperatures, and power outages. Resilient design is the intentional design of buildings, landscapes, communities, and regions in response to these vulnerabilities.

RESILIENT DESIGN PRINCIPLES - From the Resilient Design Institute

1 Resilience transcends scales. Strategies to address resilience apply at scales of individual buildings, communities, and larger regional and ecosystem scales; they also apply at different time scalesâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;from immediate to long-term. 2 Resilient systems provide for basic human needs. These include potable water, sanitation, energy, livable conditions (temperature and humidity), lighting, safe air, occupant health, and food; these should be equitably distributed. 3 Diverse and redundant systems are inherently more resilient. More diverse communities, ecosystems, economies, and social systems are better able to respond to interruptions or change, making them inherently more resilient. While sometimes in conflict with efficiency and green building priorities, redundant systems for such needs as electricity, water, and transportation, improve resilience. 4 Simple, passive, and flexible systems are more resilient. Passive or manual-override systems are more resilient than complex solutions that can break down and require ongoing maintenance. Flexible solutions are able to adapt to changing conditions both in the short- and long-term. 5 Durability strengthens resilience. Strategies that increase durability enhance resilience. Durability involves not only building practices, but also building design (beautiful buildings will be maintained and last longer), infrastructure, and ecosystems.

6 Locally available, renewable, or reclaimed resources are more resilient. Reliance on abundant local resources, such as solar energy, annually replenished groundwater, and local food provides greater resilience than dependence on nonrenewable resources or resources from far away. 7 Resilience anticipates interruptions and a dynamic future. Adaptation to a changing climate with higher temperatures, more intense storms, sea level rise, flooding, drought, and wildfire is a growing necessity, while non-climate-related natural disasters, such as earthquakes and solar flares, and anthropogenic actions like terrorism and cyberterrorism, also call for resilient design. Responding to change is an opportunity for a wide range of system improvements. 8 Find and promote resilience in nature. Natural systems have evolved to achieve resilience; we can enhance resilience by relying on and applying lessons from nature. Strategies that protect the natural environment enhance resilience for all living systems 9 Social equity and community contribute to resilience. Strong, culturally diverse communities in which people know, respect, and care for each other will fare better during times of stress or disturbance. Social aspects of resilience can be as important as physical responses. 10 Resilience is not absolute. Recognize that incremental steps can be taken and that total resilience in the face of all situations is not possible. Implement what is feasible in the short term and work to achieve greater resilience in stages.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Prevent - Adapt - Enjoy- Learn An Emerald and Sapphire City will realize the current Vision 2040, while becoming more resilient in the process. Today, Virginia Beach is enriched by the lively culture of beach, military and family life that thrive in this southern-most region of the state. In order to respond to changing global conditions such as sea level rise and increasing temperatures, the this city plan addresses how goals such as the Vision 2040, and A Community Plan for a Sustainable Future, among others might be realized and amended to resolve common issues across all 15 districts, by focusing in on the recurrent flooding issue in a particular community. To date, there are currently 452,745 people living in Virginia Beach, most of whom live in medium to low density residences. Nearly 39,881 of these homes in the city were constructed prior to 1970 (roughly 22% of the 178,753 homes)(U.S. Census Bureau). Typical development trends during the late 20th century were single-family residences with a yard, and either a driveway, garage or both. The street patterns between these homes in the city consist largely of disconnected cul-de-sacs. For a city to develop well, all of its components must work in harmony. In order to achieve this, an interconnected set of transportation networks, sound infrastructure, and linked parks are of the utmost importance as they can enhance the quality of life for the people of Virginia Beach. This study investigated the particular hazard of recurrent flooding in Virginia Beach and provides a design for how communities might thrive when connected to each other and to the natural resources that define this city. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Resilience is about surviving and thriving, regardless of the challengeâ&#x20AC;? (100 Resilient Cities).

Research

Case Studies

City Strategy

Site Design

Research

Case Studies

City Strategy

Site Design

WHAT TO ADDRESS

- From 100 Resilient Cities This project shows how improvements to the individual systems that constitute the fabric of Virginia Beach, can increase the overall resilience of city under a uniform vision. The specific design shown within plans to withstand, respond to, and adapt to the shocks and stresses that this city faces, while improving the quality of life for residents in the future. Two main areas that resilient strategies address are chronic stresses and acute shocks. CHRONIC STRESSES

ACUTE SHOCKS

Stresses weaken the fabric of a city on a daily or cyclical basis.

Acute shocks are sudden, sharp events that threaten a city.

In Virginia Beach • Degrading Infrastructure • Increasing Temperatures • Insufficient Public Transportation System • Recurrent Flooding • Sea Level Rise • Unaffordable Housing • Violence

In Virginia Beach • Heat waves • Hurricanes • Lightning Fire • Nor’easters • Torrential Rains

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THE FACTS

- From National Climate Assessment

Global sea level rose about eight inches in the last century and is projected to rise another 1 to 4 feet in this century. Large numbers of southeastern cities, roads, railways, ports, airports, oil and gas facilities, and water supplies are vulnerable to the impacts of sea level rise. Major cities like New Orleans, with roughly half of its population below sea level, Miami, Tampa, Charleston, and Virginia Beach are among those most at risk.

1. New Orleans 2. Virginia Beach 3. Miami 4. Charleston 5. Tampa

Virginia estimated rise of 1.5 feet in 20-50 years. HAMPTON ROADS - From National Climate Assessment

Estimated rise of 1.5 feet in 20-50 years

2. Virginia Beach

Home to 1.7 million people, Hampton Roads is the second-most vulnerable area in the country to rising seas behind New Orleans

So what does this mean for Hampton Roads? Since the 1970’s, 12 storms have been declared national disasters by the White House. The most significant of these storms, in terms of one time property damage, were Nor’easters in 1998 and 2009. Total cost of these two storms to Hampton Roads = $113,750,000

PREDICTIONS By the year 2100, the sea levels in Virginia Beach are predicted to rise by 31 inches (based on the low projection shown on the right). If this trend continues, Virginia Beach must look at the areas most frequently flooded and assess what measures can be taken to resolve current issues, and what areas people should begin moving away from. Observed and Projected Sea Level Change at Sewells Point Tide Gauge, Norfolk, VA (1930-2100)

The model below demonstrates what could happen if we do not consider how the landscape adapts to changing climatic conditions. However, marshlands and other important coastal ecosystems change with rising seas and could protect our shorelines and communities. Tamara Dietrich of the Daily Press reported on March 19th that the coast from Virginia through Canada is “likely to shift rather than drown”. She writes, “Barrier islands will migrate landward, get carved into dunes or split into inlets...” Low-lying forests will evolve into salt marshes, and salt marshes will build up and, in some cases, even expand”. This is good news for the shores of Hampton Roads. Matthew Kirwin of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, told Deitrich that “what motivates much of our work is the fact that we know that coastlines aren’t stationary” (Study: 70 percent of coastal Northeast could adapt to rising seas).

SL 2010

SL 2050 + 15 in.

SL 2100 + 31 in.

Note: The model above was generated from a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with elevated sea levels (SL) based on the intermediate prediction from the graph on the previous page.

A FREQUENT PROBLEM

- From Understanding Virginia’s Vulnerability to Climate Change

“Flooding is the most frequent and costly of all natural hazards in the United States, and has caused more than 10,000 deaths since 1900. Approximately 90 percent of presidentially-declared disasters result from flood-related natural hazard events. Taken as a whole, more frequent, localized flooding problems that do not meet federal disaster declaration thresholds ultimately cause the majority of damages across the United States” (Virginia’s Vulnerability to Climate Change). In the Tidewater region of Virginia, the factors that contribute to flooding are two-fold. First, the runoff from storms is mostly collected along the curb cuts of paved roadways, which accelerate the speeds of water rushing into storm pipes. Second, these same pipes drain water into the surrounding bays and ocean, but the high tides fill the pipes from the other end.

Between the years 1995 and 2015 alone, 29 significant flood events have been recorded. The amount of damage from these storms will increase with rising temperatures and rising sea levels, so it is imperative to take action in the areas shown in red below.

Hampton Roads Storm Surge Zones

ROADWAYS Are Heavily Used by the Residents in Virginia Beach Who Live in Frequently Flooded

Suburban Neighborhoods

The Development of Virginia Beach Year

1970

Population

150k

1980

1990

2000

2010 450k

2020

2030

2040

2050

500k

Typical development trends during the late 20th century were single-family residences with a yard, and either a driveway or garage or both. The street patterns city consist largely of disconnected cul-de-sacs. Due to this type of development pattern, travel times are lengthened and the stormwater runoff is directed to the streets. This diverts the rainfall away from homes, but renders the streets impassable for vehicles. So how did this problem come about?

THE SOURCE OF THE PROBLEM In 1908, the Town of Virginia Beach mostly extended across a portion of the oceanfront, but in 1963 the Town of Virginia Beach merged with Princess Anne County to form the City of Virginia Beach. In the images below, we can see that a â&#x20AC;&#x153;green lineâ&#x20AC;? was established to preserve the farmland and open space in the lower portion of the city. As the black masses on the map show, the built environment in Virginia Beach is expanding to the degree that little land is left for future development. As the city continues to grow today, however, development is stretching more into the a transition zone (shown in pink) in this area and thus, moves the green line lower.

1910

1950

Most of the 452,745 residents of Virginia Beach live in single family homes. The large majority of the neighborhoods here are arranged around cul-de-sacs and disconnected street patterns. These streets can be imagined as branches on a tree that stem from a trunk of I-264 and Virginia Beach Blvd. This street arrangement increases travel times and the amount of impervious pavement. Both of these factors lead to greater quantities of greenhouse gas being emitted into the air and increased flooding.

1970

2000

OUR RESIDENTS SubregionCommunity Community Subregion

Total Total

Younger Younger

Years 6565 Years

Median Median

Persons Persons in

Total YoungerCommunity 65 Years Total Median Younger Persons in 65 ni18 snosreand Pand n aidin eMAge 6Poverty r Subregion Years Median Persons in 5Poverty Subregion Community Total Younger Subregion Community Total Younger 65 Years 65 Years Median Persons Population than Older AgesraeY Population than 18 Older Population than and OlderPopulation Age Poverty y t r e v o P e g A r e d l O d n a 18 and Older Age Poverty Population than 18Yearsthan Community Total18 Younger 65 Median Persons in Population than 18 and and Older Age Poverty Years (%) (%) (%) Years (%) Years (%) (%) Years (%) (%) (%) )%( )% Population than 18 Years and Older Years (%) (%)Poverty (%)Age Years (%)

(%)

The 288,8 The 288,819 people The 288,819 (65%) people (65%) (65%) The (65%) )%288,819 56( elpoepeople p 918,8 82 ehTThe 288,819 people between between 181a between 65 years 18 old and 65 years ol between 18 and 65 years old between 18 and 65 years old dlo sraey 56 dna 8The 1 ne288,819 ewteb people (65%)

between 18 and 65 years old Mostly families recently Mostly families in in recently Mostly Mostly in recently Mostly families in recently Mostly families yltfamilies nececonstructed r constructed niinserecently ilimafhomes ylhomes tsoM constructed constructed homes constructedshomes constructed homes emoh detcurtsnoc Mostly families in recently Low DensityDevelopment Development Low Density Low Density Low Development Density Development Low Density Development constructed homes ow Density Development tnemp Neighborhoods Suburban Suburban Neighborhoods Suburban Neighborhoods Neighborhoods Suburban Neighborhoods Suburban Suburban Neighborhoods sHome diso o Average Hom Average Low Density Development Average Homeowner 30 Average Homeowner is 30 years Average is e30 sra ey 03 sHomeowner i renwoemoH garyears evA Suburban Neighborhoods from Retirem from Retirement from Retirem from Retirement

Average is 30 years from Retirement tn emeriteHomeowner R morf from Retirement

Community Total Average Median Occupied Housing Subregion Subregion Community TotalCommunity Average Subregion Community Average Median Occupied Median Housing Occupied Total Median Subregion Community Total Average Median Occupied Housing Housin Subregion Total Average Total Average Median Household Occupied Housing deipuccOUnits gniSize suSize oHValue Housing Household Size Units Structures Housing Size Household Value Size Value Units Structures Housing Value Housing Household Value UnitsnaideMStructure Structu Housing Household Housing Household Size Value Units Structures tcurtS Built Before stinU Built Before eulaVBuilt eBuilt ziSBefo dBe l Units Units Community Total Average Median Units Units OccupiedseruHousing Units Units Built Before erofeB tliuB 1970 (%) 1970 (%) 1970 Household Size Value Housing Units Structures 1970 (% (%)

Units

1970 (%)

)%Built ( 079Before 1 1970 (%)

www.census.gov/aian/census_2010/

The Future of Virginia Beach Year

1970

Population

150k

1980

1990

2000

2010 450k

2020

2030

2040

2050

500k?

Virginia Beach consists of a number of suburban neighborhoods, where residents are 35 years of age on average; therefore the average homeowner is about 30 years from retirement. This begs the question: do these homeowners in neighborhoods that are susceptible to flooding stay where they are after retirement, or look to move elsewhere? If most residents will be moving out of the frequently flooded areas in the city, then affordable housing should be provided by future development projects. The properties sold in these neighborhoods will present opportunities for appropriate action to take place. The Hampton Roads Planning District Commission has assessed specific locations where property damage is greatest within Virginia Beach. These are the areas of focus for resilient efforts in this study.

CIP STRATEGIES IN THE FLOOD ZONES

- From the Virginia Beach Capital Improvements Program

The City of Virginia Beach Capital Improvements Program (CIP) is focusing efforts in many of these areas and is estimating that more than 40 million dollars will be spent on flood mitigation improvements in the Windsor Woods and Princess Anne Plaza communities which lie on either side of S. Rosemont Road. â&#x20AC;&#x2039; The image of these two communities to the right shows how S. Rosemont Road runs in a vertical line from I-264 along the highpoint of the watershed where the floodwaters on this map join during even the most moderate storm events. The city must address the areas framed by the magenta outline on the map, as it prepares for changing climatic conditions and looks to secure its vision for the year 2040.

Total Project Cost >$40 M

Total Project Cost $3.0 M

Total Project Cost >$100 M

Total Project Cost $16.34 M

Note: The magenta outlines on the map above show areas of repetitive losses from infrastructure damage due to flooding. There are 4 of these areas designated on the map, each of which should be analyzed for current and future ability to withstand storms. 29

GOALS FOR VIRGINIA BEACH

- Based on challenges addressed in Vision 2040

• Increase economic diversity by attracting new businesses to vibrant working areas • Provide more affordable housing to a greater number of people • Improve degrading infrastructure • Promote a healthier lifestyle through active travel and recreation • Enhance and increase local community

GOALS FOR AN EMERALD AND SAPPHIRE NECKLACE - Based on coastal and waterfront smart growth strategies

• Provide physical and visual access to waterfront resources from walkable communities through a linear park system • Reduce flooding in communities by redistributing runoff to waterways within parks • Enhance and increase sense community by capitalizing on coastal heritage • Utilize low maintenance infrastructure adaptable to changing future conditions • Promote stewardship of local natural resources by engaging the community in the design, implementation, and maintenance of the park • Encourage collaboration between the community and other stakeholders to assure the rights of the public to natural resources and amenities for future generations • Provide a variety of transportation options by both water and land • Reduce urban heat island effect through transpirational cooling in vegetated areas

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH - Based on coastal and waterfront smartgrowth by NOAA •Map the region of Hampton Roads and locate areas susceptible to sea level rise. •Assess future land uses and planned development within the region to identify potential relationships between threatened areas and economic potential. •Designate a site for implementing stormwater and hazard mitigation as well as smart growth strategies within a threatened area. Once locating these intersections, as the roundtable of partners from NOAA, the EPA, and Sea Grant College Programs identified them in the Coastal and Waterfront Smart Growth and Hazard Mitigation Roundtable Report, it will possible to evaluate the strategies found for their benefit to each specific location. These are listed in the chart to the right: •If it is found that the site is located within an established community, then it will be useful to engage the people here in the design of the project for its eventual success. •Design and install new green infrastructure along drainageways that connect to the eventual body of water as well as the buffer zone along the shoreline that will protect the marine terrestrial ecology, while mitigating regional hazard risks.

Potential Intersections Green infrastructure has multiple benefits, including mitigating flood impacts, heat island effects, and other climate change risks, as well as providing open space for recreation. Keeping development out of flood-prone areas protects lives and property and allows alternative uses of the land, such as public waterfront parks and recreation areas. Protecting key natural resource areas supports and enhances ecosystem services and restricts development in hazard-prone and environmentally sensitive areas. Elevated buildings may counter efforts to encourage walkability and preserve historic character, and they may be difficult for elderly and disabled people to access. Infill development may increase risk if existing development is in a hazard-prone location, while relocation may encourage disinvestment in existing communities. Smart growth + Hazard mitigation Smart growth - Hazard mitigation

coastalsmartgrowth.noaa.gov/pdf/hazard_resilience.pdf

Above is the initial idea for the City of Virginia Beach. By tracing the 100 year flood plains, many of the waterways connected. This prompted the idea of a city connected by water. 34

CONCEPT Water is a part of the fabric that makes up Virginia Beach, so letâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s take advantage of it.

A short story: As the sea rises, waterways will connect in the lowlands of Virginia Beach. It is here that people will be able to travel through the city on water, either in small boats, canoes, kayaks, or paddleboards, while others enjoy walking or biking through the lush park system that runs along the banks of these sapphire trails. Enthusiasts launch a kayak from the pocket beaches along the banks to journey upon the waters until they reach one of the many shopping destinations along this route. Later they dock the kayak and walk over to choose between grabbing a juicy burger, or sitting with a glass of wine at a local restaurant to watch the sunset. Behind them, the kayak taps on the pilings, while the tides subside for the day.

Research

Case Studies

City Strategy

Site Design

RESILIENCE IS ACTIVE

theresilienceprogramme.co.uk

NOT PASSIVE

The following case studies set a precedent for how Virginia Beach can actively prepare for future challenges.

chasetechconsultants.com

THE EMERALD NECKLACE BOSTON, MA

THE BIG U NEW YORK CITY, NY

THE URBAN WATER PLAN NEW ORLEANS, LA

THE GREENWAY AND BLUEWAY PLAN VIRGINIA + NORTH CAROLINA

THE EMERALD NECKLACE BOSTON, MA Summary - Frederick Law Olmsted had recently designed Central Park for New York City when the City Council of Boston decided in 1870 that it too was overcrowded and did not have enough pleasant fresh air for its citizens. Olmsted designed what he initially designated the “Green Ribbon” as a series of linked parks that was accessible to a large majority of the city’s residents. This later was named the Emerald Necklace, which Bostonians still enjoy today as a retreat from the city. Key Vulnerabilities - The City of Boston believed that its residents could greatly benefit from a park to escape and exercise in improved individual health. At the time the residents here were overly concentrated in loud and unsanitary conditions that were largely the result of an Industrial Revolution. Many of the people within the city did not have the means to travel outside the city limits and into open countryside so it seemed that a park might be the best resolution. Olmsted later argued that a series of parks would be more interesting and overall more suitable for the City of Boston than a single park. This design allowed its visitors to explore within Boston under the greenery of its tree lined parkways as they moved between the larger parks such as the Boston Common, Public Garden, and Commonwealth Avenue. About the Plan - Boston’s unsanitary species. The city decided to convert this conditions were largely the result of the Industrial Revolution and the mismanaged development that took over in many places. On the edge of the city expanded the Back Bay, where people would dispose of sewage so that it would wash out with the incoming tide. When Roxbury Dam was constructed, the sewage would not be washed away, but rather collect and produce a foul smell and disseminated populations of wild

area into the Public Garden by filling it in and turning it into a flowering park. The people of the city saw that some of the other cities nearby had been implementing more extensive park systems, which led to a push for the same in Boston. The Park Act was passed for Boston in 1875, and soon the city council called for Frederick

Law Olmsted to study the sites proposed for Boston. Here he saw that it would be more advantageous for Boston to connect the proposed sites by parkways that follow the Muddy River as they connect the Back Bay Fens

to Franklin Park. These parkways proved vital to the integrity of the Emerald Necklace and the goal of letting people put the city behind them.

Today – The six parks that make up Olmsted’s design for Boston are now managed by the Emerald Necklace Conservancy. Visitors enjoy an arboretum and zoo that are within the park as well as the multitude of “recreational activities like sailing, hiking, golf or softball”. These simple luxuries of shaded seating alongside extensive walkways remain intact today.

Before

After

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerald_Necklace

THE URBAN WATER PLAN NEW ORLEANS, LA Summary - The city of New Orleans assessed the key elements of flooding, subsidence, and wasted water throughout the city district and targeted strategic locations to retain stormwater, recharge groundwater, and incorporate â&#x20AC;&#x153;natural elements and processes into the operation of an integrated living water systemâ&#x20AC;?. Key Vulnerabilities - Previous approaches to draining stormwater within New Orleans led to flooding, subsidence, and wasted water. Flooding - The catch basins, pipes, and pumps within the city could not handle the amount of rain that was improperly diverted from both the street and surrounding properties. This then damaged the streets and properties near flooded drainage systems and amassed large quantities of insurance claims as well as increased flood insurance rates. Subsidence - The drainage systems also pumped from low water tables and caused the land to sink, which led to broken infrastructure and building foundations. Wasted Water - The unfriendly and typically overgrown drainage canals that this water all diverted to was used purely for drainage and spatially divided communities. When the water did not flow through the canals, it pooled, becoming stagnant, and mostly collected trash. About the Plan - The city had a 100 year hurricane protection system, but was overcome by devastating storms that are predicted to be more intense in the future. Subsidence became an issue since the current drainage systems simply diverted stormwater as quickly as possible, leading to less stable grounds and fractured infrastructure. When the area took on large rainfall events, the pipe systems, pumps, and canals were not able to move the water

away from impervious surfaces quickly enough, causing flash flooding in numerous areas as well as sinking soils. The Urban Water Plan sought to implement smart stormwater and groundwater management practices in order to resolve these issues and enrich the public life by attracting people to these installations and turning the issue into and asset. The design group focused on three major principles for this plan: which were

water, ecology, and people. Water - The key factor here was to “Slow and Store” the water when it rained. By withholding and slowing the runoff, designated locations were able to manage the water more easily through infiltration. This allowed less frequent use of the pumps and led to balanced groundwater, better water quality, and a healthier regional ecology. Ecology - The natural environment has always been the best at processing water by filtering it, storing it, and using it to grow, so the Urban Water Plan decided to incorporate it into its

infrastructure. This brought the regional landscape back into the city and its people as an asset for everyone to enjoy. People Neighborhoods and cultures needed to work together for this plan to become a success and continue to provide for people from a range of different interests and goals. This design made sure that the surrounding communities got involved in the decision-making process so that the end product was valuable to all people within the city.

Today - Waggonner & Ball Architects continues to design for pleasing water management

in New Orleans where they are located, and recently released a plan for the “Mirabeau Water Garden” that they hope will influence a “more positive relationship between the community and its water”.

Before

After

LivingwithWater.com

THE BIG U NEW YORK CITY, NY Summary - The “BIG Team” planned for adaptable reuse of roughly 10 miles around Manhattan that encompasses an area known as “the Battery”. The key to this design was to make sure that any protective measures were designed as much for the social and experiential qualities as they were for stormwater management and hazard mitigation around the waterfront. Through public participatory design the team was able to determine the best relationship between these two principles and followed in the ideologies of Robert Moses and Jane Jacobs to ensure that “...the elements will become attractive centers of social and recreational activity that enhance the city and lay a positive groundwork for its future.” Key Vulnerabilities - After Hurricane Sandy, a large portion of the city succumbed to

infrastructure damage and many people were kept in their homes by the intense flooding that shut down the Financial District for a week. If the city’s many organizations were to rebuild independently, the urban fabric would likely be pieced back together at the expense of the communities’ rich character and connection to the waterfront. A plan that is not well conceived could also infringe on lower income communities and lead to worsened economic conditions.

About the Plan - For a design competition, and recreational opportunities with a series “Rebuild by Design”, the Bjarke Ingels Group designed a set of disconnected flood and hazard protection zones that would independently survive future conditions, and could be installed in phases. The three zones of this design are C1: L.E.S. North-East River Park, C2: Two Bridges, and C3: Battery-Financial District. C1 is designed to increase commercial

of pavilions with deployables between and a berm park separating the buildings from the waterfront. C2 looks at the close proximity between the waterfront and FDR Drive, as well as many buildings that could be waterproofed at the bottom-most levels by, what the group termed, “wet feet”. The underside of the FDR was retrofitted with deployables in case of a

emergency, but in stable conditions can be used for leisure and recreation activities. C3 is proposed to provide park space within a berm as a protective measure and a floodwall with an elevated plaza and pedestrian and bike throughways that sit atop the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Reverse Aquariumâ&#x20AC;?. Throughout these three protection zones, green infrastructure such as bio-swales,

rain gardens, and street plantings will help to clean runoff stormwater, provide transpirational cooling for people walking and for the city as a whole, capture excess CO2 and other gasses within the cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s air, as well as provide many other benefits from thriving vegetation in the landscape.

Today - The team is in the second year of design and permitting stages, while they continue

with community engagement efforts throughout all three communities in the BIG U. This design has gained the support of Senator Schumer, the Borough of Manhattan, the Council of the City of New York, as well as numerous other individuals and organizations that wish to see the completion of this design.

Community Design

Response

www.rebuildbydesign.org/project/big-team-final-proposal/

THE GREENWAY AND BLUEWAY PLAN VIRGINIA + NORTH CAROLINA Summary - In the southern-most parts of Virginia Beach and in Chesapeake, Virginia and

Currituck, North Carolina there are 50 thousand acres that contain valuable natural resources and habitats, as well as recreational opportunities for people to enjoy. The Green Sea Blueway and Greenway Management Plan aims to strategically protect, conserve, and manage these lands for future generations through cultural and recreational resources, outreach, and education.

Key Vulnerabilities - There is a deep cultural history within this proposed swampland and marsh area that should be preserved and appreciated. Protection - Tidal and non-tidal wetlands, and low-lying floodplains within close proximity to agricultural lands calls for a strategy to protect a diverse ecology that contains many rare plant, animal, and wetland species. By developing a blueway and greenway in the Green Sea area, people will be able to participate in recreational and educational activities that cultivate stewardship and appreciation for the conserved waterways and species. About the Plan - The Hampton Roads Planning District Commission developed a strategy that would help to protect and enhance the natural resources, sensitive lands, and water supplies among the three counties that surround an area known as the Green Sea. This area is along nearly 30 miles of the Intracoastal Waterway System and is host to a number of important species of both plants and animals. There were already about 50 thousand acres of protected land in the three involved jurisdictions, of which a sixth of the proposed

landmass for the Green Sea was already protected within Virginia Beach. Because of this, the HRPDCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s strategy for these three counties outlines a set of eight goals to be accomplished so that the overall plan can be implemented. These goals address the administration by stakeholders and agencies to manage and gather funds for the plan, promotion of the plan, management of the natural resources, protection of the lands for thriving ecosystems and recreation,

management of the facilities on the land, educational opportunities through programs in

in the green sea area and partnerships with other organizations.

Today - The plan was implemented in the middle of 2015 and has been presented to both the Currituck County Board of Commissioners and the Chesapeake City Council who have adopted the resolution to endorse this plan, and the Virginia Beach City Council has adopted this plan.

The Greenway in Section

www.vbgov.com/government/offices/eso/Pages/north-landing-river-study.aspx

Research

Case Studies

City Strategy

Site Design

EMERALD AND SAPPHIRE CITY The City of Virginia Beach is committed to the community, environment, lifestyle, and economy that all thrive in this region. The city is “united by [the] broad social, cultural, and recreational offerings, a thriving economy and life-long learning opportunities that create a synergy where all citizens can live healthy lives, grow daily, continually reinvent, and prosper” (Envision Virginia Beach 2040 Committee Report) Today, opportunities such as the Strategic Growth Areas, light rail, and tourism all provide ways that the city will continue to realize the Vision 2040, while taking advantage of key assets such as the natural environment, good neighborhoods, parks and recreation centers, and a unique culture. Currently the city looks to reach the “Triple bottom line”, that meets the needs of the present population without compromising the needs of future generations -- the definition of sustainability. This means that decisions will be made based on balanced economic, social, and environmental needs and can be achieved “...through a range of actions that might include concepts such as weighing various options, trying to accomplish multiple outcomes, conserving natural resources, evaluating life cycle costs…”, as well as many others (A Community Plan for a Sustainable Future). As the city grows further toward the Vision 2040, while taking advantage of its opportunities and protecting its key assets, it must overcome pressing challenges such as unaffordable housing, demographic changes, and governmental funding. At the same time, we must understand the threats of sea level rise in conjunction with increasing global and local temperatures. People are central to the development of any resiliency strategy. The vision for an Emerald and Sapphire City is based on the belief that people deserve to be connected with each other and enjoy the outdoors in their city. The streets, parks, and waterways will protect communities against sea level rise and flooding while strengthening core values that such communities are built upon. Water is a part of the fabric that makes up Virginia Beach, so let’s take advantage of it.

CONTEXT Virginia Beach consists of 248 square miles of relatively flat land with an average elevation of twelve feet above sea level and 249 square miles of inland water. It lies to the east of the city of Norfolk and Chesapeake county, and to the north of Currituck county, North Carolina. Virginia Beach dates back to 1621 when settlers first lived on the Lynnhaven Bay. Centuries later, in 1908, the area became a town that spanned a portion of the oceanfront. In 1963 the Town of Virginia Beach merged with Princess Anne County to form the City of Virginia Beach (Virginia Beach Comprehensive Plan). Since the city lies along the mid-Atlantic coastline, and upon two ecologically significant estuaries, the Chesapeake Bay and the Pamlico Sound, it is home to several state parks and several protected beach areas. It also hosts four military bases, a number of large corporations, and two universities. Much of the land area in Virginia Beach remained undeveloped until World War II when the Navy built Oceana Naval Air Station, followed by three more military bases, including Little Creek, Fort Story, and Dam Neck. Today the city is best known as a major resort destination with miles of beaches lined with hotels, and restaurants. After WWII, the city continued to grow as single-family homes were developed in typical suburban neighborhoods with low connectivity. The suburban sprawl consumed a large majority of the landmass because of this development. Today, a large portion of these neighborhoods flood from fairly moderate storm events, and it becomes a major problem when severe storms impact the area. If the city wishes to continue its growth, future development must take a different approach than it has in previous years, and the existing problems that communities face today must be resolved. In the year 2040, Virginia Beach will be â&#x20AC;&#x153;the most livable coastal community in the world located within the southern Chesapeake Bay region [that] is defined by its rich natural resources and exciting, diverse, and interconnected neighborhoodsâ&#x20AC;? (Envision Virginia Beach 2040 Committee Report).

GOALS FOR EMERALD AND SAPPHIRE NECKLACE - Based on coastal and waterfront smart growth strategies

• Provide physical and visual access to waterfront resources from walkable communities through a linear park system • Foster a strong sense of place by enhancing coastal heritage • Reduce flooding in communities by redistributing runoff to waterways within parks • Enhance and increase local community by capitalizing on coastal heritage • Utilize low maintenance infrastructure that can adapt to changing future conditions • Promote stewardship of local natural resources by engaging the community in the design, implementation, and maintenance of the park • Encourage collaboration between community and stakeholders to assure the rights of the public to natural resources and amenities for future generations • Provide a variety of transportation options by both water and land • Reduce urban heat island effect through transpirational cooling in vegetated areas 56

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

• Map the region of Hampton Roads and locate areas susceptible to sea level rise. • Cross list this against community locations and future land uses. • Designate overlapping areas from the categories above as sites for implementing stormwater and hazard mitigation as well as smart growth strategies. • If it is found that the site is located within an established community, then it will be useful to engage the people here in the design of the project for its eventual success. • Design and install new green infrastructure along drainageways that connect to the eventual body of water as well as the buffer zone along the shoreline that will protect the marine terrestrial ecology, while mitigating regional hazard risks.

THE FLOODPLAINS

- Based on coastal and waterfront smart growth strategies

“Approximately 90% of presidentially declared disasters are associated with floods. However, the majority of damages across the United States are due to more frequent, localized flooding events that do not receive federal disaster declarations”. In Virginia Beach, the two main flood types are coastal flooding and urban flooding: Coastal flooding is typically a result of storm surge, winddriven waves, and heavy rainfall produced by hurricanes, tropical storms, nor’easters, and other large coastal storms. Urban flooding occurs when manmade development obstructs the natural flow of water or when impervious surfaces significantly decrease the ability of natural groundcover to absorb and retain surface water runoff In the map shown to the right, the 100 year floodplains are highlighted in blue, with the areas of recurrent loss outlined in magenta (as shown on page 27). These regions may be more or less adaptable to recurrent flooding and future sea level rise based on the cover types within them.

THE MARSHLANDS

- From Nature Climate Change

“Nearly 70% of this coastal landscape has some capacity to respond dynamically to SLR” according to an Evaluation of dynamic coastal response to sea-level rise modifies inundation likelihood. Marsh lands specifically are able to adapt to rising seas and flooding through sedimentation that in turn builds up the banks along open waters. The marshlands of Virginia Beach are shown on the map to the right in green over the FEMA 100 year floodplains that from the previous map. If inundated enough over the years from recurrent flooding, might the marshlands, that exist at lower elevations than the floodplains now, extend into the floodplains in future years? If this is true, then these such areas might benefit now from solutions that mitigate flooding issues in the present, but can adapt to become the increasingly more important marshland ecosystems. Today traditional engineering solutions to flood control are becoming more expensive and while “nature-based solutions are largely self-sustaining and cost-efficient”, as argued in Building land with a rising sea.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

COMMUNITY LOCATION

The chosen area of study is within the magenta recurrent loss outline shown above. It lies south of the Strategic Growth Areas (SGAs) of Pembroke (1), Rosemont(2), and Lynnhaven (3) in purple and to the west of the Special Economic Growth Area (4), near the Lynnhaven Mall, in red.

1 2

When looking back at the map of marshlands along with the parks of this area, shown in green, possible connections arise for intervention within the floodplain. The two largest parks within the floodplains are Mt. Trashmore (1) park and the Bow Creek Golf Course (2).

LONDON BRIDGE CREEK TO THALIA CREEK

London Bridge Creek and Thalia Creek are both main waterways for stormwater disposal, but they are also planned greenways for recreational opportunities and ecological improvements. Shown within the map to the right is the location of the London Bridge Creek Bridge Greenway, which connects to Wolfsnare Creek in the north and to London Bridge Creek in the south. On the other side of the map is Thalia Creek (directly above Mt. Trashmore Park), in a green outline that runs through the Pembroke SGA. These greenways are a sign that the Emerald and Sapphire Necklace of Virginia Beach already exists, though it is largely disconnected today. However, they could connect as a viable option for pedestrian travel and recreation as well for an urban floodplain that will restore marine habitats and water quality treatments

THALIA CREEK MASTERPLAN

The first phase of the Thalia Creek Greenway provides an idea of what a connected park system in the Emerald and Sapphire City could be in the future. Thalia creek runs underneath I-264 from this location, through Lake Windsor, and into the Windsor Woods community. In this masterplan, the creek is a wide marshland where the tide rise and fall out of the vegetated banks. Trails run alongside the marsh in some spots, but they extend out over the marsh on pedestrian bridges similar to the one shown below. This greenway could extend below I-264 and provide a means of connecting Pembroke to the communities south of the this major freeway.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

Virginia Beach Blvd

I 264

Holland Road

THALIA CREEK IN WINDSOR WOODS

To the south of I-264, Thalia Creek runs through a shallow, wooded canal between the backyards of the Windsor Woods homes. Over the course of this study, dredging projects have worked to clean the canal of trash and debris. The maintenance here will be ongoing and over time, cost more as the trees and shrubbery begin to die out from rising water levels and more frequent flooding. Today the pipes in this canal sits low in relation to water levels, which provides insight to why flooding is an issue in the surrounding area.

LONDON BRIDGE CREEK IN PRINCESS ANNE PLAZA

The banks of London Bridge Creek are restrained by heavy structures that do not allow the creek to overflow into the adjacent roadways. This may be suitable for high tides, but they do not provide any ecological benefits and will ultimately fail in due time. There was significantly less trash present in the London Bridge Creek system when compared against the Thalia Creek waterway. This may be because the canal here was deeper, allowing the trash to flow out into the larger creek. However, there were a moderate degree of small fish and other aquatic species here. Since the water flows through the Bow Creek Golf Course, it can overflow into this larger landmass during flood events.

WHAT HAPPENS WHEN IT FLOODS?

The most dramatic flooding takes place in the Princess Anne Plaza community, which is shown in each of these images. The image below and at the top of the next page shows a typical streetscape during a storm event where the roads will flood first. In Plaza Park, shown in the middle image, the canals fill from Forest Tr. and overflow into the park here. The bottom image is of Hannibal St., where water is directed off of S. Rosemont road and back into these homes. This road is frequently inundated to under multiple feet of water. Due to the degree of flooding experienced here and its proximity to Thalia Creek and London Bridge Creek, this area was selected as the site for intervention.

This map, taken from Google Earth, shows the recurrent loss outline from the FEMA maps, as well as pinpoints that were marked out to designate areas where the roads were impassable after Tropical Storm Bonnie on 78

29 May 2016. The markings aligned with the floodplains that extended through the low lying areas between Thalia Creek and London Bridge Creek. If these areas flood most, what did they look like in the past? Google Earth

The watershed in this area was delineated by S. Rosemont Rd. in a few locations, based on this USGS map from 1955, but still connected between the two creeks. The main channels, are shown with the dashed blue lines, 80

www.vbgov.com/government/departments/communications-info-tech/maps/Pages/Historic-Maps.aspx81

In 1965, however, the suburban developments gave dissected this watershed with paved roadways, but later worked to put the water underground in a more â&#x20AC;&#x153;out of sight, out of mindâ&#x20AC;? fashion. 82

www.vbgov.com/government/departments/communications-info-tech/maps/Pages/Historic-Maps.aspx83

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METHODOLOGY

Coastal flooding, storm surges, Norâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;easters, and choke points along the watersheds are the main issues that the initial green infrastructure projects can begin to protect these two communities against. Once these primary issues are taken care of, property values will increase, and people may move back into the area. Over time, continued efforts can strategically align to resolve the issues of the long commute times that derive from the nature of the disconnected suburbs. The cohesive community structure of interconnected streets and free flowing water amenities within the linear park system will allow for more convenient recreation and commuting for residents in the area. It will also allow for adaptable spaces that can handle the brunt impact of major storms, if not the entirety of a storm. The particular issues to be resolved in this area are listed on the following page:

Inundation and structural damage in

low-lying neighborhoods

Impassible roadways and risks to cars and people trying to pass flooded roads Infrastructure damage, such as sewers, bridge embankments, and drainage ways Inundated critical facilities such as fire and police stations and public shelters

Disconnected suburban neighborhoods Main arterials heavily used and potentially overused Limited space for future development

Low number of people walking or biking to work High flood insurance rates causing low property values

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

COMMUNITY WORKSHOP

Henery Sanoff noted that community participation does not necessarily provide automatic success, but certainly reduces the margin of error. He stated that, 1. “Participation is inherently good” 2. “It is a source of wisdom and information about local conditions” needs, and attitudes, and thus improves the effectiveness of decision making”, 3. “It is an inclusive and pluralistic approach by which fundamental human needs are fulfilled and user values reflected”, and 4. “It is a means of defending the interests of groups of people and of individuals, and a tool for satisfying their needs that are often ignored and dominated by large organizations, institutions, and their inflated bureaucracies”. To garner feedback from the attendees of the workshop, each person was given a set of pink and green stickers to place on the examples and the current plan. We took the figures for the current plan, the four precedents, and Votes For the combined approach, then plotted Votes Against them next to each other on the chart to the right: 92

CURRENT PLANS AND BUDGET ISSUES

•Flood Control (FC) is becoming more complicated and more expensive •Storm Water and Surface Water Quality (WQ) regulations are more demanding •More complicated FC and more demanding WQ regulations are increasing Operation and Maintenance (O&M) requirements •Sea Level Rise is compounding FC, WQm and O&M requirements •Existing funding will not be adequate as we move forward in future years In order to resolve the issues faced by public works, we must rethink how our infrastructure is designed and how it will last in the future.

Total Project Cost >$40 M

www.vbgov.com/government/departments/public-works/storm-water/Documents/PA%20Plaza% 2012-15/plaza-civic-league-mtg-11-9-15.pdf

S. Rose m

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STUDY OF CURRENT PLAN

Votes For Votes Against

Overview The current plan for this area calls for a number of pipes (the magenta lines) to be replaced and enlarged in both neighborhoods, as well as the installation of more inlets, two ponds (new ponds in light blue) in the Bow Creek Golf Course, and two sluice gates and pump stations (not shown). In addition, the proposal calls for cleaning and dredging the existing canals, and elevating S Rosemont Road. What alternative strategies would better suit this situation?

PRECEDENT STUDIES

S. Rose

mont R

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Green Street - Cloudburst Mitigation, Copenhagen

Votes For Votes Against

Successes •Wide enough to account for amount of runoff from adjacent streets •Community periods

amenity

during

dry

•Rain gardens on sides filter first flush of runoff as inset bump-outs, and then lawn retains and filters excess flooding •Blends urban and natural environment together •Biodiverse for increased ecological benefits along roadway

www.dreiseitl.com/en

PRECEDENT STUDIES

S. Rose

mont R

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Urban Stream Bed - 21st Street, Paso Robles

100

Votes For Votes Against

Successes •26,000 square foot reduction of impervious pavement •dedicated infrastructure for cyclists •wider sidewalks for pedestrians •infiltrating bioretention areas that incorporate native plantings •a stream-bed transforms a perceived liability—the high-volume, high velocity storm flows coming from watershed— and celebrates the creek while allowing for increased groundwater recharge.

http://www.svrdesign.com/blog/2014/12/innovation-that-infiltrates-21st-street-recognized-forpioneering-sustainability

101

PRECEDENT STUDIES

S. Rose

mont R

oad

Streetside Dry Well(left) Catchment and Cleaning(right) - Street Creeks

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Votes For Votes Against

Successes

• Linear Dry well functions in narrow space and cleans debris from runoff with large aggregate base

•Bioswale cleans the first flush runoff

•Filled up, it provides amenity for pedestrians walking alongside •Simple amusements from water flow along street

•Cistern slows runoff before release into bioswale •Street channel collects runoff •Pervious planting absorbs runoff from sidewalk •Catch basin collects debris and floatables

http://www.svrdesign.com/blog/2014/12/innovation-that-infiltrates-21st-street-recognized-forpioneering-sustainability

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PRECEDENT STUDIES

S. Rose

mont R

oad

Regenerative Step Pool(Left) Rain Garden(Right) - Maryland DEP

104

Votes For Votes Against

Successes

•Water directed to continuous rain garden

•Water is slowed before reaching Sligo Creek. •Pollutants collected in channel instead of creek. •The channel complements forested setting.

mygreenmontgomery.org

105

A COMBINED APPROACH

S. Rose

mont R

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Unimpeded Waterway for Flexible Adaptation

106

Votes For Votes Against

The combined approach pieced together certain components from the precedent to develop an unimpeded waterway that can expand in strategic areas to adapt to increased flooding.

www.landezine.com, www.getty.edu

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Research

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Case Studies

City Strategy

Site Design

109

A DESIGN FOR TODAY

110

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112

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A DESIGN FOR TOMORROW

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115

A DESIGN FOR YEAR 2100

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AN EMERALD AND SAPPHIRE NECKLACE

119

WORKS CITED www.google.com/ search?q=Flooding +Virginia+Beach

upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/ commons/0/04/ Hurricane_Isabel_ from_ISS.jpg

www.google.com/ search?q=heatwave +virginia

ceramictattooart. com/Templates/ Nature2.html

www. rebuildbydesign. org/project/ big-team-finalproposal/

landscapeperformance. org/case-study-briefs/ napa-river-floodprotection

120

www.google.com/ search?q=protest

www.google.com/ search?q= foreclosure

landscapeperformance. org/case-study-briefs/ napa-river-floodprotection

http:// landscapeperformance. org/case-study-briefs/ sidwell-friends-middleschool

http://landscape performance.org/ case-study-briefs/ palmisano-park

www.hrpdcva.gov/uploads/docs/ DRAFT%20HAZ%20MIT%20PLAN%20 MAY%202016.pdf

tidesandcurrents. noaa.gov/ stationhome. html?id=8638610 www.hrpdcva.gov/ page/maps-andgis/

www.vbgov.com/ government/ departments/ communications-infotech/maps/Documents/ Reference-Maps-andReports/vb_100years_ Change.pdf

gis.data.vbgov.com

www.vbgov.com/ government/departments/ public-works/stormwater/Documents/PA%20 Plaza%2012-15/plaza-civicleague-mtg-11-9-15.pdf

www.vbgov.com/ government/departments/ parks-recreation/designdevelopment-projects/ Documents/outdoorsplan/outdoors-plan-2008. pdf

www.flickr.com/ photos/lynnmohd/ 315497425/in/ album721575944129 98821

gis.data. vbgov.com/ datasets?q=LiDAR

www.google.com/ earth

www.trulia.com/ VA/Virginia_Beach/

nca2014. globalchange.gov/ highlights/regions/ southeast

web1imcloud1. amec.com/6466/ Hampton/ 121

EMERALD AND SAPPHIRE CITY ONLINE

122

ResilientVB.wix.com/ESNecklace

123

THE ORIGINAL PROPOSAL