form & content
form & content What Is Shown Is What Is Said
Lori Claricoates
Contents introduction | 7
one Historical Synopsis of MetaPlus two Space
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three Structure
four Form and Counterform
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bibliography | 62
index | 64
Introduction
Without rhythm there would be no life, there would be no creation at all. Each creature passes rhythmically through its stages of growth; under the wind’s influence, forests, corn fields and the shifting sands move in rhythm. The advent of the machine has brought home to us again the value of a working rhythm, and we know that the health of the worker, his mental equilibrium, depends on his working in rhythm. Every shade of rhythmic awareness can be seen reflected in works of art down the ages. And in the twentieth century in particular, artists have again become alive to the significance and power of rhythm in design. In typography there are many opportunities of working with rhythmic values. Take a typeface for instance. The straights and curves, verticals and horizontals, sloping elements, starts and finishes work together to produce a rhythmic pattern. There is an abundance of rhythmic values in an ordinary piece of composition: ascenders and descenders, round and pointed forms, symmetry and asymmetry. The word spaces divide the line and type matter into words of
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unequal size, into a rhythmic interplay of varying lengths and values of different weight. Break and blank lines also add accents of their own to the pattern of composition, and finally the graded sizes of the type are another excellent means of bringing rhythm into the typographer’s work. If a simple piece of text is well composed, it will of its own accord give the work a rhythmic appeal. The format of the paper is another rhythmic pattern, whether it is the symmetry of the equilateral square, or the stressed rhythm of the edges and sides of the rectangle. The typographer has endless possibilities of creating rhythms by the way he disposes his composition on the page. The shape of the composition can harmonize or contrast in its rhythm with the format of the paper. In designing composition, the typographer should examine every possible means of getting away from the rigid systems of dull repetition, not merely for the sake of vitalizing the form but also in the interests of legibility.
—Emil Ruder typographie 1967
chapter one
  Historical Synopsis of MetaPlus
stamps created by Erik Spiekermann in FF Meta for the Bundespost.
1| Historical Synopsis of MetaPlus
Meta and it’s numerous descendants, including MetaPlus, were conceived and designed by Erik Spiekermann. Born in 1947, he grew up with an attraction to typography. At the age of twelve he taught himself how to set type and even owned a small printing press. In Berlin, he studied Art History and English. Spiekermann is a man of many faces, so to speak. As an information architect, as he sees himself, he works as a graphic designer, type designer, and author. He founded MetaDesign in 1979. Designing for companies such as Volkswagen, Coca-Cola, and SanDisk, MetaDesign is considered Germany’s largest design firm. In 1984, Spiekermann approached the Deutsche Bundespost with an idea for a cohesive typographic branding. He persuaded them to commission a single typeface for all of their printed materials: brochures, phone books, stamps, etc. At this time, Bundespost was using a wide array of typefaces resembling Helvetica. Spiekermann believed that a consistent typographic theme would bring a coherent look and control the current chaotic typographic system (or lack thereof).
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in 1988 FF Meta was digitized on mainframe computers in 1988.
today Fontshop continues to produce and distribute typefaces to the public.
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As the comprehensive design program commenced in 1985, Spiekermann defined his objectives for the typeface that would become Meta. This face was meant to be legible in small sizes, economical, unmistakable, and available on all systems. The typeface started with two weights: regular and bold. By the summer of 1986, the face was digitized on mainframe computers, and several publications (phonebooks and brochures) had been created. The Deutsche Bundespost aborted the commission at a late stage in its development for, as many would argue, “political reasons” and “out of pure laziness.” Despite the new concept, Bundespost continued to use members of the Helvetica family. This divorce sparked Spiekermann to start his own type company, FontShop, in 1988. The company released FF Meta in that same year, as it’s first typeface. At the time, FontShop was on the cutting edge of digital typographic design. It was not until 1988 that software was even available to digitize typefaces. FontShop continues to produce and distribute electronic fonts.
It did not take long for FF Meta to climb the charts in the world of typography. In 1990, MetaPlus was released as a new version of FF Meta. By 1998, FF Meta was re-released an extensive collection of sixty weights between MetaPlus and Meta faces. Meta has appropriately been acclaimed as “the typeface of the nineties.” FF Meta began as a typeface meant to be legible in small
sizes and printed on bad paper. In many ways, Meta was an answer to the demands of poor paper quality. It accounted for the spreading of ink, texture of various papers, and legibility at small sizes. Spiekermann notes, “We assessed what makes a typeface legible under certain conditions, and developed what still appears to be a coherent theory.” In addition, FF Meta was designed with strong vertical proportions in an effort to be economical. While Meta was intended to be solely practical, it takes on unique characteristics and a “rugged charm.” Meta sets itself apart from novice faces (those looking to seduce for seduction’s sake) through its clear purpose and solution to a specific problem.
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g
g | Tapered joinery |
g | Broken loop |
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So what gives MetaPlus its honest appeal and rugged charm? Let’s start with the basics. MetaPlus is considered a Humanistic Lineale typeface. This means that while it lacks serifs, it still references characteristics of old faces. This classifcation was first introduced with the creation of Gill Sans in 1927. Similar to the way in which the “g” of MetaPlus is a broken loop, MetaPlus breaks with the tradition of serif faces while referring back to its serif parent. Like the Old Face classification, MetaPlus employs subtle modulation. In the graphic to the right we can see its modulation at the joinery. Of course, there are practical reasons for this decision. In smaller point sizes, thinner strokes would not disappear, but become more undistinguishable from thicker strokes. The face applies the concept of “pseudo serifs.” The ends of the strokes are dynamically angled off while the tips curve ever so slightly outward so they feel as if the letter has a serif. This idea increases readability and flow within texts. While MetaPlus is designed under a logical and practical theory, it utilizes a naturalistic approach and alludes to the human hand.
metaplus
Humanistic Lineale Erik Spiekermann 1990
g
g | Angled Ear |
chapter two
  Space
movement
in typographic design, space is defined by two horizontals and two verticals, which may be the edges of a page or a frame.
2| Space
In typographic design, typographic elements and two-dimensional space interact with one another in a figure/ ground relationship. This relationship between typographic form and its background is fundamental to design. Equal consideration must be given to each: the interaction between them is mutual and mutable.
space can be imagined without elements, but elements cannot exist without space. Space provides the frame of reference for typographic elements. In space, the size of the elements becomes relative: two identical elements appear differently depending on the size of the space they are placed in.
Space is the common ground for all elements; it provides a frame of reference and significantly affects the expressive qualities of the elements placed within it. Depending on their placement within a given space, the same elements will assume different visual aspects of weight and movement. The visual expression of space is determined by both the characteristics and the placement of elements within it. Space is visually subdivided by the tension that develops between an element and the boundaries of space. Inherent in every text, typeset or handwritten, is a basic shape that is determined by the size, spacing, and organization of elements. The shape of the negative space always develops from the composition of these elements.
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metaplus has vertical proportions. Rectangular space has specific visual forces. Vertical space is active while horizontal is passive.
unlike metaplus, Faces such as Helvetica Neue occupy a nearly square space.
Space has two fundamental characteristics: size and proportion. Rectangular space and square space are delineated by two horizontals and two verticals, which determine its size and proportion. A square, because of its equal horizontal and vertical delineations, is visually neutral. A rectangular space has specific visual forces—horizontal space is passive, vertical space is active.
chapter three
  Structure
design inspired by Erik Spiekermann’s concept sketch of the capitol “Q” in Meta.
3| Structure
A fundamental structure is inherent in all typography. Even a single word or line of type placed on a blank sheet of paper subdivides the space and creates a simple visual structure. Because a structure is always present to some degree, it serves as a powerful element in design. Typographic design can proceed from two types of structure: an optically improvised visual structure, or a predetermined structure—the grid system. An optically improvised visual structure results from arranging typographic elements according to aesthetic criteria. The size and shape of letters, words, and lines of type determine the subdivision of space. Like building blocks, the individual elements are highly dependent on each other: if one element is changed, other elements need to be adjusted, either in placement or size, to balance the composition. Since there are virtually no limitations to the arrangement of a given set of typographic elements, this visual structure is essentially on open system.
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Typographic design based on empirical criteria is a personal expression of the designer, and demands creativity, sensitivity, intuition and judgment. To maintain design integrity, the designer must be constantly involved throughout the entire design and production process. This improvised visual approach can yield interesting and unique solutions. For complex, extensive assignments, a pre-determined structure—the grid system—is necessary. In contrast to the optically improvised structure, the grid is a closed system that is implemented consistently once the structure has been developed. Modular grids consist of a series of modules separated by a consistent space and organized into columns and rows. Modules determine the dimensions and placement of graphic and typographic elements, which may include pictures, headings, text, captions, and page numbers. In this way, the grid serves as a strong organizational device, providing unity between page elements and the pages themselves, while at the same time allowing for a vast number of variations.
The grid functions strictly as an organizational device, one that provides order but is itself invisible. Graphic and typographic elements are guided by, but never subordinated to, the grid. Although it facilitates order, using a grid does not necessarily yield unimaginative and rigid solutions. Like any systematic approach, it can lead to lively results if used with imagination and applied to the right task. Grid systems also make it easier for several individuals to collaborate on a large project. The design of a publication, for instance, is frequently a team effort, and benefits from the organized structure a grid system provides. Working with a grid involves two phases: developing a structure that accommodates all the elements, and organizing those elements following that structure. Each phase is equally important. When devising a grid, the designer must not only take into account the idiosyncrasies of the typographic material but also anticipate all the possible problems of working with the material, for example the
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cropping of photographs. For this reason, the development of a grid must always proceed from an analysis of all the visual material that will be included in the design: the more thoroughly the structure is related to the given material, the more rigorous the visual solution will be.
 —Willi Kunz typography: macro- and microaesthetics 1998
chapter four
  Form & Counterform
g b
ab g when letter forms are combined, new counterforms emerge between them. The background now becomes the form as the let-
ter’s original form submerges. The counterforms between letters are a rich vocabulary of new
visual signs that are ultimately determined by the structure of language and grammar.
4| Form & Counterform
The most fundamental aspect of typographic design is the interplay between letterform and background. Against its background, every letterform defines a particular counterform. Form and counterform are interdependent, reciprocal values, each integral to a letter’s design. The counterform is not simply the reversal of the form: it is a new entity, the part of the background that emerges through interaction with the form.
When combined, letterforms create new counterforms between them. Tight spacing intensifies the counterforms between letters, while open spacing emphasizes those in the individual letter. The counterforms created by varying line lengths, make ragged right composition visually lighter and more playful than justified type.
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Typographic design depends on the synergy of form and counterform. Elements must be arranged so that counterforms are clearly defined. The qualities of the background— its size and shape—are vital for expression of any design. In judging design, evaluations must consider not only form but also counterform.
—Willi Kunz typography: macro- and microaesthetics 1998
in the construction of ff meta is based on a contrast between outer and counter shapes. While the outside shapes are ovals, the counterform shapes are rounded-off rectangles.
in the counterforms of letters there exists a fascinating new world of forms. Some counterforms are clear and simple, immediately revealing the character of a particular letter, while others are ambiguous or mysterious.