Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

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ISSN: 2249-8389

Lokāyata Journal of Positive Philosophy Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013) Chief-Editor: Desh Raj Sirswal

Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS) Milestone Education Society (Regd.), Ward No.06, Pehowa (Kurukshetra)-136128

http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389) Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy is an online bi-annual interdisciplinary journal of the Center for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS). The name Lokāyata can be traced to Kautilya's Arthashastra, which refers to three ānvīkṣikīs (logical philosophies), Yoga, Samkhya and Lokāyata. Lokāyata here still refers to logical debate (disputatio, "criticism") in general and not to a materialist doctrine in particular. The objectives of the journal are to encourage new thinking on concepts and theoretical frameworks in the disciplines of humanities and social sciences to disseminate such new ideas and research papers (with strong emphasis on modern implications of philosophy) which have broad relevance in society in general and man’s life in particular. The Centre publishes two issues of the journal every year.

Each regular issue of the journal contains full-length papers, discussions and comments, book reviews, information on new books and other relevant academic information. Each issue contains about 100 Pages. © Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies, Pehowa (Kurukshetra)

Chief-Editor: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal (P.G. Govt. College for Girls, Sector-11, Chandigarh) Associate Editors: Dr. Merina Islam, Dr. Sandhya Gupta Editorial Advisory Board Prof. K.K. Sharma (Former-Pro-Vice-Chancellor, NEHU, Shillong) Prof.Sohan Raj Tater (Former Vice-Chancellor, Singhania University, Rajasthan) Dr. Anamika Girdhar (Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra) Dr.Ranjan Kumar Behera (Patkai Christian College (Autonomous), Nagaland) Fr. V. John Peter (St. Joseph’s Philosophical College, Nilgiris, T.N.) Dr. Aayam Gupta (Kurukshetra, Haryana) Dr. Geetesh Nirban (Kamala Nehru College, University of Delhi) Dr. Vaishali Dev (Mahamakut Buddhist University, Thailand) Dr. Narinder Singh (GHSC-10, Chandigarh) Dr. Vijay Pal Bhatnagar (Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra) Mr. Praveen Kumar Anshuman ( Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi, Delhi) Declaration: The opinions expressed in the articles of this journal are those of the individual authors, and not necessary of those of CPPIS or the Chief-Editor.

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In this issue……………..

P.Kesava Kumar: Against Brahminical Tradition: A Dalit Critique of Indian Modernity (4-17) Nirmala V.: Influence of Spandasastra on Abhinavagupta’s Philosophy (18-20) Shruti Rai : Philosophy of Language in Siddhnta aiva Philosophy (21-28) Bhumika Sharma : Relationship Between Dharma and Justice: An Indian Perspective (29-41) Reni Pal: Ahimsa and Satyagraha: Gandhi and the XIV Dalai Lama (42-48) Bhddhiswar Haldar: The Necessity of Gandhian Ethics for Better Future(49-52) Sima Baruah: What Makes Gandhi a Mahatma? (53-59) Jatinder Kumar Jain: Jainism in a Globalised World (60-66) Rinky Chowdhury: Evolution of Varna-srama System into Caste-System (67-69) K.J.Sandhu & Khusboo: Conceptual Framework of Acculturative Stress in relation to Organizational Integration of Employees (70-80) Dinesh Chahal & Nidhi Mehta: Motivation: An Easy Way to Learn (81-86) EMPIRICAL PAPERS Shalini Sisodia & Ira Das: Construction of a Scale for Measuring ‘Egotism’ (Ahamkaar) (87-95) P.K.Mona & Prachi Sharma: Psychological Determinants of Hypothyroidism(96-103) Surila Agrawala & Nidhi Gurbaxani: Quality of Life of Employed and Unemployed Married Women (104-109) NEW PUBLICATIONS (110-111) PHILOSOPHY NEWS IN INDIA (112-114)

CONTRIBUTORS OF THIS ISSUE (115-116) http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.4-17

AGAINST BRAHMINICAL TRADITION: A DALIT CRITIQUE OF INDIAN MODERNITY P. Kesava Kumar ‘I don’t know when I was born/but I was killed on this very soil thousand years ago/ ‘dying again and again to be born again’/ I don’t know the karma theory/I am being born again and again where I was dead.’ 1(Kalekuri Prasasd) History!/ all these years how could you hide/ the fire in our mouth…./how could you tolerate/inequality and inhumanity.2 (Juluri Gowrishankar) With a smile on his face/Shambhuka is slaying Rama/ with his axe/Ekalavya is cutting Drona’s thumb away/with his small feet/ Bali is sending Vamana down to pathala/ With needles in his eyes/ and lead in is ears/Manu, having cut his tongue is seen rolling on the graveyard/standing on the merciless sword of time/and roaring with rage/The Chandala is seen hissing four houndson Sankaracharya/ Oh..!/ The History that is occurring today/Is the most Chandala history3 (Siva Sagar) ‘The burden of reason, dreams of freedom, the desire for power, resistance to power: all of these are elements of modernity. There is no promised land of modernity outside the net work of power. Hence one can not be for or against modernity; one can devise strategies for coping with it. These strategies are sometimes beneficial, often destructive; sometimes they are tolerant, perhaps all too often they are fierce and violent.’4

Introduction Dalits are oppressed people for many generations due to the caste system of India. Dalits are the worst victims of the caste system. In the name of caste, they are often degraded, discriminated, humiliated, insulted and exploited. Caste is an elaborated social system that influences all other institutions of the society. Caste is an important marker of traditional Indian society. Caste is carried through the religion. In India, the caste system and the hindu religion, is interlinked and inseparable.

There are various attempts to reform or transform the Indian society to make humane, democratic and modern. The intellectuals of social reform and Indian nationalist movement forced to negotiate with colonial modernity on many accounts. The nationalist social aspirations are articulated by the elite and liberal intellectuals on behalf of the nation, happened to be the people of brahminical class.

They seem to be modern in their appeal and traditional in practice. Through their literary, cultural and philosophical discourses shaped the Indian modernity. This modernity definitely differs with the http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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western modernity. To certain extent, they overcome the western imposed tradition-modern dichotomy. The Indian thinkers like Gandhi and Ambedkar, offers new way to look at Indian self and essentially differ from western modernity. The contemporary Dalit movement, which is inspired with the philosophy of Ambedkar is not only critical about the hindu brahminical tradition and also exposes the Indian modernity for its brahminical bias. The very notion of modernity keeps on changing with the articulation of the respective social agency. The meaning of modernity undergoes a significant change with the assertion of dalits in public space, in which the access to these has been denied for centuries. In this paper I would like to illustrate the complexity and ambiguity of modernity in relation to dalits through the writings of telugu Dalit literature. In other words, the paper highlights the distinctive modernity of dalits in contrast with western liberal, colonial and brahmical modernity. Dalit modernity too attacks the liberal modernity which is based on mere individualism of western liberalism. Dalit modernity is located in embedded self. In other words, it argues for reflexive individualism. The source for this kind of individualism is the moral community based on equality, liberty and fraternity. Dalit modernity even projects different kind of communitarianism based on the principle of social justice. The communitarian Dalit modernity attacks the conservative communitarianism of brahminism. However, Dalit modernity mediates both liberal and communitarian philosophies by showing its limitations and also appraising their strength in a novel way.

Dalits Entry into Public Sphere The decade of eighties in Andhra Pradesh is known for a radical assertion of Dalits, women, adivasis and the Telangana people. These struggles are not only critical about dominant philosophical thinking, but also put a responsibility to record the past based on these foundations. They made a conscious attempt to interrogate the dominant traditions in order to liberate them. They have raised several questions relating to the nature of State and developmental strategy pursued by it. They created a new universe with alternative value system. Mostly, the knowledge about them could be in their literary and cultural articulation. Their literature is overshadowed by the philosophical inquiry into the conditions of the good society, the good person and, the good life. Literature is a primary means by which a community situates itself in place. The literature in the written form as established ‘the literature’ with the advent of print technology. The print culture not only succeeded in marginalizing the oral forms of larger social groups and also facilitated modern public sphere. For a long time this sphere is mostly dominated by educated brahminical class, though theoretically this space is available to everybody. The recent entry of dalits in to this modern space not only created tension, but also provides alternative philosophical insights through literary and cultural works. This gives the opportunity to read the politics of modernity in Telugu literature. On one hand, Dalit literature blatantly opposed the brahminical tradition, and other hand further radicalized the politics of alternative struggles.

The Karamchedu massacre of 1985 and the Pro-Mandal agitations in 1991 shattered the modern secular pretensions of various social and political institutions. One of the features of contemporary Dalit movement is that engaged with the politics of modern public sphere, which is seen as secular space (in the spheres of literature, cinema, university and political party etc.). It is the Dalit struggles http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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and their assertion that showed the casteist brahminical character of these spheres. From the decade of eighties onwards, a considerable number of Dalit middle class is visible in Indian society. Their presence was felt in the public sphere for the first time. They are resisting the hegemony of the upper castes in these spaces by asserting themselves in all possible ways. For the upper caste people, it was as if the space which was so far reserved for them exclusively, suddenly became uncomfortable and they are becoming irritated with the entry of Dalits into their spaces. One can see the antagonism between these two in Universities, literary and cultural fields. The University, the city, cinema and literature are predominantly urban spaces where the above said encounters are very often witnessed.

The upper castes have suddenly picked up a liberal language to corner the Dalits.

With the entry of Dalits into the various public institutions, one common response is that the objectives of these public institutions have been subverted. To put it in other words, the universe of values constituting these public institutions has been thwarted. To make sense of this, one has to find a relevant conceptual framework. Partha Chatterjee offers one. According to him, there are two worlds: a world of middle class constituted by modern norms of freedom of speech, voluntary associations and individual capable of choice; another is a world of subalterns constituted by other concepts which does not come under this modern bourgeoisie rubric. There is a relationship of pedagogy between the former and the latter. The entry of Dalits into modern public institutions, cause a rupture between two universes. The universe of public institutions is underpinned by modern rationality and concomitant values as created by modern-nation-State. The introduction of the universe of Dalits into public institutions results in, broadly, two consequences. It questions the nature of translation and application of modern values of liberty and equality in modern public institutions. Secondly, the visions of public institutions enter into a phase of crises of understanding and coherence. This interpretation helps us to understand the nature of hatred and conflict in public institutions. But, it also sets in other agendas of shedding the potential of modernity to liberate Dalits from the shackles of tradition. Dalits share an ambiguous relationship with modernity.

When modernity entered India, the Indian traditional intellectual community had seen it as a threat to the Indian social structure. To protect the age old brahamnical societal structure, the upholders of the tradition moved to keep the tradition intact. They started the process of monopolization of modernity by embracing the epistemologies of modernity - such as the basic sciences and technical education.

Initially, when modernity opened up new opportunities, with its inherent economic viability, the Brahmin intellectuals given up traditional epistemologies and embraced modern epistemology purely for the material prosperity.

The writings reveal that Dalit relation to modernity is complex. It is also, in some sense critical about the general understanding of modernity, i.e., modern development, science and reason. Dalit politics refuses to get incorporated into the binaries of nationalism/colonialism and secularism/communalism. It also resists Universalism, the unmarked and abstract citizen as a centre of the emancipatory discourse of modernity. It is equally critical about the abstract 'working class'. In other words, it constantly speaks with and against both the liberal and the radical conception of man and society. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Ambedkar’s conception of Modernity Ambedkar is a culmination of all alternative movements of his time. He is the source and inspiration of contemporary Dalit movement. Like the elites of his time, Ambedkar, too, tried to overcome the tradition-modernity dichotomy. His critique of tradition is accompanied by his refusal to accept ready-made alternatives manufactured in the West. He is critical of both modernity and tradition. He attacked Hinduism and its claims as religion, but at the same time, he keeps away from the western thought. He believes that legal and political institutions do not have the capacity to reconstruct social solidarity, and therefore tries to provide a social basis for a liberal and political ethos. In this sense, he is critical of modernity. But, at the same time, he highlighted that a social reconstruction cannot be achieved without taking into account the legacy of tradition. He further considers that legal and political institutions do not have a capacity to reconstruct social solidarity, and therefore tries to provide a social basis for the liberal and political ethos which does not mean an uncritical acceptance of western modernity or indigenous traditionalism.’5 Ambedkar does not believe in mere individualism, whereas the individual is the center for liberal and modern life. He emphasizes community life but disagrees with other communitarians like the conservative Hindutva forces and Marxists. His philosophy is essentially ethical and religious. He upholds the moral basis of life while allowing critical reason to operate. Therefore he visualizes a moral society that is based on the ideals of modernity. He considers Buddhism as the only religion which can respond to the demands of modernity and culture. Buddhist teachings, he believes, appeal to reason and experience.

Dalit Critique of Modernity When modernity entered India, the Indian traditional intellectual community had seen it as a threat to the Indian social structure. To protect the age old brahamnical societal structure, the upholders of the tradition moved to keep the tradition intact. They started the process of monopolization of modernity by embracing the epistemologies of modernity - such as the basic sciences and technical education.

Initially, when modernity opened up new opportunities, with its inherent economic viability, the Brahmin intellectuals given up traditional epistemologies and embraced modern epistemology purely for the material prosperity. At this juncture, the whole process of embracing modernity by the intellectual community of the times, raises very interesting questions. For instance, it asks why Brahman community embraced modernity? What were the reasons for the monopolization of modernity? Did they allow modernity to go into corners to transform the basic structure of the society? If it was not the case, was it the fault of ‘other’s, who were not able to absorb modernity?

If we asses the impact of modernity on Indian society, the under-privileged sections of the society hardly benefited from it. If one thinks of possible reasons for this, one can easily come to the conclusion that the modernity project, in the nineteenth century, was monitored by the social elites of the times, and came from the Brahmin community. Apart from monitoring and controlling the whole process of modernization, there were constant conscious interventions by this community to ensure their interests are secure by not allowing the fruits of modernity into other sections of the Indian society. This resulted in the halting or postponing of societal transformations. To reserve the fruits of http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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modernity for them, they constantly realized the price of modernity. Apart from providing new avenues, modernity has implications for social transformation. The elites have to overcome their own traditions and cultural beliefs. To resolve this kind of a situation they had started defending their cultural traditions and simultaneously enjoying the material benefits of the modernity at colonial times.

The relationship of the Dalits to the modern State, both colonial and post colonial, is ambiguous. It is important to re-look at political /cultural practices of Dalits to understand the Dalit response to State and modernity. If one emphasises the discursive aspects of modernity, it offers enormous possibilities to talk about Dalit suffering/ humiliation and oppression. It can also be said that Ambedkar’s argument for creating a moral community is possible only if one emphasizes the discursive aspects of modern experience.

Further, modernity, as imposed on the third world countries has been attacked from many fronts.

Modernity is considered as a necessary extension of colonialism. Modernity in India came as a package with colonialism. There is an attack on the general philosophical beliefs of modernity such as notions of Universalism and its truth claims. There is an attack on the very values of postEnlightenment thought, on its conception of secularism and rights etc. As observed by Javeed Alam, people readily reject terms like secularism on the grounds that they are alien to and lack any affinity with ‘Indian culture or traditions. However, other terms such as democracy or equality are readily acceptable.’6 This may give a clue to understand modernity which has taken roots in the Indian context and its complexity.

Modern is historically embodied form of enlightenment. Whatever is entailed under enlightenment as values, beliefs, principles, ethics, morality and so on, has been thought of as universal – not just in an abstract sense but as something universalizable in the thinking and practices of all human beings.

Colonialism has a historical connection with capitalism and therefore also what we have referred to as entrenched modernity. The capitalism in the colonies have demonstrative with all the features of distorted consciousness, racial superiority, arrogant cultural exclusiveness, and intellectual condescension over and above political control of those inferiors whom it has subjugated.

The writings reveal that Dalit relation to modernity is complex. It is also, in some sense critical about the general understanding of modernity, that is modern development, science and reason. Dalit politics refuses to get incorporated into the binaries of nationalism/colonialism and secularism/communalism. It also resists Universalism, the unmarked and abstract citizen as a centre of the emancipatory discourse of modernity. It is equally critical about the abstract 'working class'. In other words, it constantly speaks with and against both the liberal and the radical conception of man and society. Ambedkar doesn't believe in mere individualism, whereas the individual is the centre for liberal and modern life. He believes in community life that is rooted in a moral society and is based on the ideals of modernity. He makes differences with other communitarians like conservatives (Hindutva forces) and Marxists. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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The trajectory of modernity in post-colonial India is a very complicated one. The Brahminical Hindu elite's engagement with the modernist project is quite interesting. The liberation of the self/nation is imagined in the spiritual and cultural domains. In its initial phase, Hindu nationalism started internal social reforms. The project of modernity pursued by these social elites of post-colonial India has ended up as anti-modern . As Partha Chatterjee notes: “…the search for the post colonial has been tied, from its very birth, with its struggle against modernity'. The modernization process carried the tag of the tradition. This ultimately led to the confrontation of secular state and the Nehruvian ideal of modernity by the Hindutva forces in contemporary times. In Post-independent India, the Nehruvian project of 'modernity', 'development', and ' progress’ through big dams, heavy industries and scientific institutions benefited the upper caste groups more than anybody else. This lead to the generation of capital in India but it did not develop a capitalist culture and its values. The upper caste groups didn't come out of their feudal mindset. On the other hand, Dalits are marginalized and dislocated. This situation often meets with conflicts and tensions in the nation. Any radical assertion of Dalits is suppressed by the State. The political institutions become oppressive. Secular democracy may become a farce. Further, the governability for ruling class becomes a serious problem until and unless it attends the situation in a real democratic spirit.

On the other hand, the Dalit’s involvement with the colonial-mediated modernity project was too complex. In a feudal set up, where Dalits are degraded and humiliated in the name of caste and social norms, colonial modernity, to a certain extent, facilitated to become conscious of their objective condition. The institutions set by the colonialsts promised political, legal and social equality at least theoretically, if not practically. In this respect, Ambedkar is in favour of the active intervention of the State to bring Dalits into the modern sphere. In early days, Brahminical social elite too felt the need for modernizing Dalits. For this, they prescribed habits of 'purity' and the need for 'education' for Dalits. When more Dalits are entering the public space so far reserved for upper castes, through State-sponsored developmental programmes, it creates antagonism and conflict. With an increased assertion of Dalits and their struggles, and the marked visibility of Dalits in postindependent India has frustrated the upper castes. They pick up a new liberal language to counter the Dalits against the spirit of liberalism. For instance, when Dalits are fighting against the hegemony of caste, the upper castes dismiss this struggle as casteist. Dalits talking about caste is considered as parochial and anti-modern by them. Further, they argue for an economic basis for any emancipatory project of the State. In the anti- Mandal agitation this attitude can be witnessed. Upper castes find various strategies like this to maintain the status quo in society. Casteism of the upper castes took modern incarnation in the public sphere, and started articulating their interests in modernist discourse like, purity and pollution, 'hygiene', 'efficiency' and 'merit'.

One more interesting point is that, the upper castes started discrediting the modern political institutions in the context of the entry of Dalits into it. They go on propagating that these institutions got 'corrupted' by blaming the lower caste people. They even go on opposing the very foundations of the secular democratic State of the nation. They argue that this secular democracy based on the 'rationality' of western colonial model, is not based on indigenous cultural and philosophical traditions. At this point, Dalits came to the rescue of secular democracy. The Upper caste http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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intellectuals, by taking the post- modernist position, that 'science is a social construct', started justifying the philosophies of irrationality and dogmatism as science. It had a negative implication for Dalits. In this context, Ambedkar and Dalits of post-colonial India, are arguing in favour of the 'scientific reason' of modernity that is rooted in indigenous traditions. This could be seen in the literary and cultural narratives of dalits of contemporary writings. The modernity manifested in Dalit literary narratives is different from the reform oriented (brahminical) modern telugu literature.

Telugu Modernity: A Brahminical Intervention Historically, the social groups, which had acquired political and economic dominance, enjoyed the privilege over cultural production and others got silenced. Western influenced middle class, those who later played a major role in molding the nationalist struggles, involved in the production of literary writings. It is obviously, the upper caste group’s ideals and aspirations and their worldview reflected in literature too. In the post independent India, modern State was unable to uphold the promised ideals of good life and better society to the vast number of the oppressed of this country. In the political writings of literature of this time, there emerged an upper caste middle-class man as a protagonist. He is sympathetic to the lower classes and he articulates their needs and is seen to be mobilizing the oppressed masses. There are very few writings which talk about dalits and their life.

Those that exist come out as the sympathy of the upper caste writers towards labourers as a part of the class struggles. The protagonists in the literary writing are always from the upper caste groups.

They are portrayed as shouldering the responsibility to reform/educate dalits. This completely lacks knowledge about the authentic dalit life and their experiences. These upper caste writers have constrains to perceive the lives of other communities. These socially sensitive upper caste writers could not mobilize the support of their communities to their imagined ideals and many of them moved towards spiritualism. Most of the writers came from Brahmin middle class families. In latter days, the intensified struggles aspiring the communist ideals too failed to capture the dalit imagination and the question of caste remained immune to their discourses. Till the 1980s, the entire literary discourse centered on the concept of the abstract human being, erosive of all cultural markers like caste, color, religion, region and gender.

However, the modernity in Telugu literature reflected through the reformist agenda of intellectuals of Telugu society. Modernity is identified with the spoken language than textual language. The modernity articulated through the genres like drama, novel, short story and free verse than classical poetry. The issues identified are practice of untouchability, problems of women, importance of education. For this, either they negotiated within tradition or to reform the tradition in the backdrop of colonial education. In later days, the progressive agenda of the communist movements are taken up the project of the modernity in the name of class struggle. They are not explicit in their articulation about caste or patriarchy. Special reference to this considered as pre modern and celebrated an identity of the class. The idea of class not only conceals these realistic social identities but also indirectly helps in maintaining the hegemony of caste and patriarchy. The social agency mediated the modernity through their writings is mostly brahminical class or broadly upper caste men. With the emergence of conscious intellectuals from the lower castes and women exposed the http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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shallowness of the above said modernity. They problematized the writings of their predecessors on the issues of “authenticity” and “representation.” They evaluated them from the unchanged social life of contemporary times. In other words, the new intellectuals are assessing the literary modernity through its social functioning. In this process, not only questioned the canons of literature but also dismissed the celebrated telugu modernists like Gurujada and Sree Sree. Celebration of Jashua, the dalit writer could be seen as a Mahakavi as against the progressive writer Sree Sree. Normatively the modernity manifested through the dalit literature is different from the earlier Telugu literary writings.

In telugu society, in the medieval time witnessed the emergence of non Brahmin intelligentsia, like Vemana, Potuluri Veerabrahmam and argues in favour of denouncement of caste system, social inequality and oppression.7 Both the nationalists and liberals of later times, fail to understand the caste system, since most of them are drawn from upper caste. The social reformers such as Veerasalingam and Gurajada Apparao are considered as the ‘founders of new epoch in modern telugu’ literature are confined to the problems of the Brahmins only. While they sought to reform certain evils of the hindu social system, they failed to grapple with the ideological and institutional framework of brahminical Hinduism. And these social reformers did not inherit and continue the medieval bakti tradition, it was discontinued. Given their social background and intellectual and cultural tradition, they could not profess anti-feudal and anti colonial/caste ideology and consciousness. Unlike the saint poets they did not revolt against all kinds of social evils. They were selective in philosophical and ideological standpoint. In that sense they failed to generate and build a popular cultural and ideological movement against caste system. 8 In the nationalist and postindependent times, Dalit scholars took inspiration from this medieval bakthi tradition.

Manifested modernity in Dalit Literature Dalit intellectuals negotiated their philosophical views to the larger society through the medium of literature than any other form. They are organic intellectuals in strict sense of Gramsci, having the elements of thinking and organizing the community as against the traditional brahminical intellectuals. In this sense Dalit literature has to be seen as the process in creation of counter hegemony against brahminical hegemony. Dalit literature has significant in many ways-culturally, historically and ideologically. Dalit literature enriched with content and description of dalit struggles for human dignity. There has been constant effort from dalit writers in translating the condemned life styles and practices of marginalised people into symbols of protest and pride. Dalit writers gave rich meaning to dalit life that brought respect for them. In the process of writing their own history, they thoroughly interrogated the existing histories of dominant caste/class groups in their literary writings.9 An ideal society should be mobile and it should be full of channels for conveying a change taking place in one part to other parts. In an ideal society there should be many interests consciously communicated and shared. There should be varied and fee points of contact with other modes of association. In simple terms, Ambedkar viewed that an ideal society would be based on liberty, equality and fraternity.’10 Ambedkar favors for a democratic tradition that stand for reason rather negating it. He felt for hindu religious tradition need to undergo a radical reform. Caste is a natural outcome of certain religious beliefs which have the sanction of shastras. To abolish the sanctity and http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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sacredness of caste, one has to destroy the authority of the shastras and Vedas. For this, one has to destroy the religion of both sruti and smriti. Ambedkar not only proposing the indigenous tradition that stand for reason, but also tries to link up that tradition with the governing principle of politics.

As Ambedkar is the source of inspiration for Dalit movement and so reflected his thought in dalit literature.

In the process of writing their history, are collecting the memoirs of the collective suffering. Dalit writer through his writings interrogates the brahminical past, which has the character of humiliation, atrocious for dalits.11 The suffering of the dalits for generations is identified with the very nature of brahminical society. The struggle for the human dignity and self respect could be seen as in all the writings of dalit literature. Human dignity and self respect are the primary source of modernity. The Human dignity could be attained only through fulfilment of social and economic equality. In democracy, citizenship is prerequisite for its functioning. In case of dalits, it is negated due to its casteist nature. The craving for the citizenship could be seen in the writings of dalit literature. 12 Against the monopoly of knowledge by the brahminical class, dalits argues that ‘Knowledge is nobody’s property; It is the wealth of all jatis’. In fact, Dalits are productive class. The real knowledge produced out of their collective labour.13 Dalit Novel and Modernity Chilukuri Devaputra’s Panchamam, Vemula Yellaiah’s Kakka and G. Kalyana Rao’s Antarani Vasantham are historic dalit novels of contemporary times, written by the dalits in late nineties. The commonality of these novels is depiction of dalit life, and argues for the liberation of dalit community. But these novels are not only located in three different regions ( Rayalaseema, Telangana and Coastal Andhra respectively), and represents three different political positions. The imagination of community and the construction of the dalit self too varies. However, struggle against caste hegemony and assertion of dalits of post colonial India is the common theme of these novels.

These novels inform dalit discourse of modernity.

The novel Panchamam is the story of a dalit becoming a Revenue Divisional officer (RDO) and a victim of hegemonic social system of upper castes. The hero of the novel Sivayya belongs to a Madiga community of a village in the Rayalaseema, and his father is an illiterate cobbler. He is a staunch Gandhian and later attracted towards communism, under the influence of Suresh. Suresh, dalit youth came to the village of Sivayya as a teacher in a school exclusively run by an NGO for dalit children. He rebelled against the caste system by organizing dalits against the everyday insults and humiliations by the upper castes in public space. He quit the job in NGO, and decided to lead the underground life by joining the Naxalite party for the cause of dalits. At one particular moment, Sivayya too decided to go in the line of Suresh, but dropped that idea on the advice of his well wisher and civil rights activist Purushottam. He becomes a Deputy Collector and posted as RDO in his own region. His sincerity towards his duty and commitment to his community often puts him into trouble.

On one hand, the upper caste landlords are intolerant to this dalit bureaucrat and on the other make all attempts to bring him under their control. But he stands independent, assertive, truthful and http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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always committed to justice. He becomes a checkpoint to unlawful exercise of the power of the upper caste, since he is not obeying for the re- convey of ceiling land in favour of upper caste surpanch, Seetharamappa. By using his political nexus to his upper caste community in the government, implicate him in a corruption case. The author argues for the real political power for the emancipation of the exploited lives of the dalits as in the line of Ambedkar. The novel came to the conclusion that in a system, dalit even become a big officer like Sivayya or a deputy chief minister like Krupakararao could not do anything, in a system which favors the upper class. This ‘inability’ is effectively used by the upper caste in their favor.’14 Further, the novel conveys that there is no other world (maro prapancham, maro prastanam, these phrases are popular with the progressive writer, Sree Sree) or Ramarajyam (dream of Gandhi). Dalit people has to struggle by standing the edges of the untouchability, have to think on standing on the edges of the exploitation, the treatment of inferiority, get the fistful of self respect from poverty ridden life, and has to learn revolt from the untouched helplessness.15 The upper caste writers, reformers, nationalists or progressive, often felt the need of the education as an ideal to resolve all the problems of the dalits. This novel too carries with this ideal, a dalit boy believes that he can emancipate his community through education and by reaching the highest job.

Soon he realized that it difficult to do stand with his community even constitutionally, unless until caste and class ridden system collapses. Dalits have to be conscious of the caste exploitation and has to assert for the rights. In other words, the novel reflects on the shallowness of the promised modernity in its practice as in the case of dalits. Caste has constrained the freedom of the dalits. So Dalits anticipating political power based on the total freedom and liberty. Dalit modernity internalizes the equality and so the rights through struggle. The central character Sivayya symbolizes the dalit self, as educated, conscious, commited, quest for the justice and even looks coward and inferior in particular situation due to the caste system. The dalit self travels from the Gandhian to communist, but not committed to both. In practical life, feel suffocated, isolated, and helpless, though successfully reached the highest position from an ordinary poor rural dalit life. The modern secular democracy becomes farce in a caste ridden society. It is believed that whole social system has to be changed for real democracy. In case of dalits, it is possible only through the collective struggle against the dominance and exploitation of the upper caste. The author indicates indirectly that Sivayya and Suresh are complementary to each other in marking the dalit idenity.

Kalyana Rao’s novel Antarani Vasantham(2000)16 is a landmark in Dalit literary and cultural history from the Dalit point of view. The novel recorded the collective social experiences and struggles of Dalit community. The social memory of a community, transmitted over generations, has been put in a written form. The novel is a written social document of Dalit culture, which is predominantly in oral tradition. This novel is an attempt to search a collective identity of the Dalit community. It is the chronicle of life of six generations of Dalits. This records a hundred years’ struggle of the Dalit communities. In the context where the elite scholars do not consider lower caste peoples’ struggles, culture, philosophy, life styles and history, this novel becomes the source book for culture, history, politics and philosophy of Dalits. Kalyana Rao explained how the Dalit culture is born from the lower caste peoples’ involvement in labor. They spontaneously and naturally composed the songs http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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from their life. Apart from the value of entertainment, the Dalits used cultural performance symbolically as a social protest against the dominance of hegemony of upper caste social groups. It explains Dalit struggles in various forms in a given social conditions. The novel depicts not only the sufferings of Dalits but also joyful moments in their life. This novel is an attempt towards writing history, philosophy, politics and culture of Dalits in a comprehensive form. In Antarani Vasantham, constraints to freedom of Dalits, comes from an enemy who is an upper caste. The idea of freedom itself indicates for Kalyana Rao, a perpetual flow of resistance by Dalit community to an upper caste community. Dalit community has been described as a focal point of creativity, resistance to oppression and a character of purity. This is effectively indicated through central character Yellanna who eloquently represents a creative, upright and assertive individual. This is one way of expressing dalit freedom or a mode of being dalit. One of the characters, in difficult times of community life says, we have born just not to be killed but to live too.17 Antaraani Vasantam is a story of seven generations of dalits. More than that, it is a struggle of dalits at different points of time. In this novel the lead character named Ruthu is a writer. The novel runs with the recollection of her memories. The story of dalits narrated for the period of more than hundred years in the form of women's memories. Her memories go back to four generations before and two generations after her. The memories are loaded with suffering, pain, agony, anguish and struggle. This is the case with every dalit life. Precisely because of this, author hints that memories are of not the past but they have their continuity in present and also projected into future. This novel is a significant piece of dalit literature to trace back the dalit struggles to generations. The novel focused on a point that dalits have no freedom without struggle. History reveals for dalits, struggle is not an idea, but a necessity for the survival of dalits. This has been illustrated by considering different historical contexts, with different strategies employed by the dalit. The constraint to freedom of the dalits comes from an enemy who is an upper caste. The novel projects the dalit universe that is filled with both pleasure and pain. Generally, in the upper caste writings, dalit is a subject of misery and suffering. The writer’s strategy is to generate sympathy towards dalit condition. On contrary to this, Kalyana rao depicts the dalit self as assertive and resists any kind of dominance and exploitation. This Dalit self directly set against the caste hegemony.

The author tried to show that dalit subjectivity is authenticated and had a moral worth since their involvement in a labour and production process. The dalit culture has lived through the collective social experiences and continued to the present through oral form. This has been performed through social memory.18 The novel proves that life, struggle, culture, literature, philosophy and politics are not different for dalits. Moreover, this novel constructs the history of dalits, which is not available either in official history or in achieves.

Kakka is the novel about the Madiga community of Telangana region. In the history of Telugu literature this novel has multifold significance. This is the first novel on Madiga community as such by a Madiga writer Vemula Yellaiah. At his 40s Yellaiah started writing dalit poetry in late the 1990s. The author's quest to capture dalit life as a whole he opted the form of novel as a medium of expression. This piece has been written in the backdrop of Madiga Dandora movement. This novel projects madigaisation (dalitisation) as an alternative to the predominant upper-caste ideology. It also opens up the internal contradictions and violence within the community. The other striking feature is that the whole story runs http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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in Telangana dalit dialect. So far the dominant dialect of costal Andhra has been used in writing of novels. This novel came from the place where revolutionary struggles are prominently took place. The writer seems to be uncompromising with radical dalit identity and indirectly criticizes the prevailing left culture and tries to critically read the left tradition. This novel ends up with conscious educated dalits along with civil-rights groups together fighting for the cause of dalit struggles of village.

On the other hand the idea of being dalit in Kakka is different. It identifies that constraint to freedom to dalits is not just from an outsider but also from the very community. The central character kakka faces too many hardships from within community as well as outsiders. For instance, the mother of kakka was accused of an illicit relation and was subjected to social boycott by the community. Kakka was denied an opportunity to take up the duty to perform madigarikam (caste profession) that is considered a honour in the community. Thus the constraint within the community has projects a different community and a different kind of self- awareness. And of course, he has to fight a valiant battle against the other communities, which has traditionally been dominant in the village. It is also shown that in times of struggle against upper castes, dalits came together and fought valiantly.

These three novels are significant because they involve a deep exploration into dalit culture. They tried to bring out various positive aspects of dalit culture to the fore. Antaraani Vasantam has celebrated rich and vibrant cultural traditions of dalit community by going to origins. The novel Kakka could effectively brought out some of the inhuman social practices of dalit communities, which may be helpful in reforming of them. Thus a deep exploration of dalit life through novel may result in strengthening of dalit cultural identity. There is a scope to come up with much more serious dalit novel in future by touching all aspects of dalit life. The novel Panchamam shows the limitation of liberal modernity adopted by the constitution of the nation, and felt that it failed to protect the aspirations of educated dalits in practice. The novel goes back to the Dalit tradition of madigarikam.

It is another kind of protest to assert the Dalit identity against the dominance of the upper caste. The novel Antarani Vasantham constructs the Dalit identity only through rebellion against the caste and class dominance.

The above mentioned writings reveals that the dalit writers have definite image of moral order through which they understand dalit life and history. The dalit modernity proposed by the dalit writers is based on a social imaginary, which is obviously different from the both colonial and dominant modernity of the Indian nation. The understanding of a person, dalit selfhood and morality are shaping the modern identity of dalits through their narratives. Morality has to be articulated through the respect for others, dignity, integrity, well being and common good. The moral world of dalit writer has not just emerged out of the ideas of sense of respect for human agency but also from the fuller understanding of life. Dalit self can be described or evaluated only with reference to the upper caste people who are surrounded him. In assessing dalit identity, one has to look into from where he is speaking and to whom. In defining identity, ones moral concern of a subject is not enough, and also demands a reference to the community. Our being selves are essentially linked to our sense of the good, and that we achieve selfhood among other selves. We understand ourselves inescapably in narrative. There is a close connection between the different conditions of identity, or http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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of one’s life making sense. The qualitative distinctions play a crucial role in defining our identity and making sense of our lives in narrative. The qualitative distinctions give the reasons for our moral and ethical beliefs. The modern sense of the Dalit self not only linked to and made possible by new understandings of good but also are accompanied by new forms of narrativity and new understandings of social bonds and relations.

Conclusion Modernity has connoted with many meanings such as ‘value’, ‘rationality’, ‘western’, ‘colonialism’, ‘development’, ‘capitalism’, ‘secularism’ ‘humanism’ and so on. Dalit relation to modernity is complex and even ambiguous. Dalit modernity has to be understood in the context of Dalit liberation from humiliating, exploitative, oppressive brahminical tradition. Dalit modernity centred on the value of human dignity and self respect. In persuasion of this, it interrogates the irrational, unjust and dogmatic practices of hindu social order on the basis of scientific reason. And at the same time tried to assert its own self, upholds its indigenous tradition by claiming the elements of humane democratic practices. Dalit modernity overcomes the tradition –modernity dichotomy that has been set in the interests of the Western. In India, the fruits of modernity is enjoyed and monopolized by the brahminical class in the material level, and at the same time maintained intact with their traditions in spiritual / religious level. This has been continued from colonial to post colonial times. Dalits are systematically excluded in this project. Dalits as the victims of the project of ‘development/ progress’, of post independent India, are negotiating with larger nation from its fringes. The modernity appropriated by dalits is ‘rights’ centred and argued in favor of democratization of indigenous tradition. They are negotiating with the ideals of modernity to overcome the social exclusion, exploitation, suffering and humiliation imposed by hindu tradition. The Dalit modernity has very much mediates the liberal, radical and communitarian philosophies in its own way, both by associating and differentiating from these political traditions on different points. It is a critique of Indian modernity essentially carried by liberal Brahmin elite. The dalit modernity proposed by the dalit writers is based on a social imaginary, which is obviously different from the both colonial and dominant modernity of the Indian nation. The social imaginary in Dalit intellectuals ignites the sense of identity to recapture their own history, which is marginalized so far.

Notes & References: 1. Prasad, Kalekuri. (1995). ‘Pidekedu Atmagouravam Kosam Talettinavadni’ Am Raised for a Fistful of Self-respect) (Translation Lakshminarasiah) In Kesava Kumar and K. Satyanarayana (Eds.), Dalit Manifesto. Hyderabad: Vishphotana, 20 2. Gowrisankar, Juluri.(1994). Padamudralu. Tenali: Poetry circle.

3. Sivasagar, a dalit writer marking the assertion of dalits in writing their own history against the brahminical history centred around advaita of Sankara. See Sivasagar. Nadustunna Charitra (Tr. Laxminasaiah) G.Laxminarasaiah, The Essence of Dalit poetry; A sociophilosophic study of telugu Dalit poetry, Hyderabad: Dalit Sana publications, 34. And also see Sivasagar (2004).Sivasgar Kavitvam, Hyderabad: Bahujana Book syndicate, 263.

4. Chatterjee, Partha.(1999).Talking about our modernity in two languages, A Possible India, The Partha Chatterjee Omnibus, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 280.

5. Kesava Kumar .P., Jiddu Krishna Murti’s Conception of Tradition and Revolution : A Critical Study. (Doctoral dissertation , University of Hyderabad, 1997), 232. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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6. Alam, Javeed. (1999). India: Living with Modernity, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 4.

7. Vemana and Veerabrahmam are non Brahmin philosopher saints and yogis of pre modern times and confronted the brahminical Hinduism.

8. Satyanarayana. A.(2005). Dalit Protest literature in Telugu : A historical Perspective, Dalits and upper Caste, Esays in Social History , New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers, 81-82.

9. See Sivasagar. (2004).Sivasgar Kavitvam, Hyderabad: Bahujana Book syndicate, 263.

10. Ambedkar, B.R. (1989).(Moon, Vasant. (Comp.)).Dr. Baba Saheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, Vol.1, 57.

11. Yendluri Sudhakar in his poem : ‘I am still a prohibited human being/Mine is an expelled breath/ Trying a barb tree leaf to my aist/And a tiny spittoon to my mouth/Manu made me a wretched human animal among others/The moment he left a mark of prohibition on my face/My race/Was gradually murdered… history pinched my thumb/Present history is asking all the fingers/Now we want a voice of our own/We want a voice that can choose what can do good to ourselves’.

12. In this Country we want a piece of land/These clouds has to be vanished/These walls must be collapsed/This silence/ must be bursted / this gum/ must be dried up/ O man/ I want real citizenship /Could you give me! ..what do I want/I want you/ I want a place/ In your heart/ I must wash my hands/ at your home/you must come to my hut/ and ask our girl for marriage/we must become /relatives/friend! This country/must become ours/as we walk hand in hand/this uneven earth/must become smooth/will you come? What we want now is not bloody cash/ A fearless voice that discerns what we want/ A new constitution, a new state/A new earth and a new sky. See Nagesh Babu, Madduri.(1998). Yem kavali, Meerevultu (tr.Laxminarasaiah), Narasaraopet: Sreeja Publications, 74.

13. ‘When hands/ From over the ‘Mala’ hamlets/ and ‘Madiga’ huts / Throw themselves on the fields/Banks of the fields blossomed/Trees flowered/And fields fragrant with crops’. See Gowri Shankar, Juluri. Padamudralu. (Tr. Laxminarasaiah) In Kesava Kumar and K.Satyanarayana (Eds.) (1995).Dalit Manifesto, Hyderabad: Vishphotana, 35-36.

14. Devaputra, Chilukuri.( 2000).Panchamam, Hyderabad: Lifeline Communication, 262.

15. Ibid., 272.

16. Kalyana Rao, G.( 2000).Antarani Vasantham(Untouchable Spring), Hyderabad: Virasam.

17. Kesava Kumar, P. (2005). Emergence of Dalit Novel : An overview, In I.Thirumali (Ed.) South India – Culture, Sagas, New Delhi:Biblimatrix.

18. Kesava Kumar, P. (2005).Performance of Social Memory, In Contextualization of Vikalp, Alternatives August. http://www.vakindia.org/archives/Vikalp-Aug2005.pdf

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01(March, 2013), pp.18-20

INFLUENCE OF SPANDASASTRA ON ABHINAVAGUPTA’S PHILOSOPHY Nirmala.V. Kashmir Saivism in its most recognized sense denotes the monistic philosophy originated and developed in Kashmir-the northern part of India. The system itself is a later development of the Sivacentered religious cult which comes under the realm of enormous Tantric tradition. Many branches and sub- systems were commenced within the wide area of Tantric Saiva Philosophy. Among the streams of Kashmir Saivism, Spanda- the doctrine which expounds the dynamic nature of reality- has a significant role. Since it trails an independent nature, most of the scholars considered Spandasastra as a separate branch1 of Saiva philosophy. Spandakarika is the fundamental treatise of this particular school and is generally attributed to Vasugupta. The four commentaries viz., vrtti by Kallata; vivrti

by Ramakantha; spandapradipika by Bhttotpala; spandasandoha and spandanirnaya by Ksemaraja made the theory of spanda more popular and established. In the workshop on Trika Philosophy, 2011, Dr Navjivan Rastogi’s comment on spanda could be viewed as an extended version of his anxiety expressed in his Introduction to Tantraloka in 1987.2This depiction indicates that the very topic is discussed hardly yet. Though the mutual relationship between different streams of the same area is uncommon, the influence of Spandasastra in the later developments of Kashmir Saivism should be treated seriously and this paper focuses especially in its influences on Abhinavagupta, the eleventh century synthesizer of the monistic Saiva philosophy.

Abhinavagupta’s inevitable contributions were the milestones in the history of Kashmir Saiva philosophy. His foremost uniqueness is the thorough and deep knowledge in different streams simultaneously with which he produced such an irreplaceable work- Tantraloka, which actually is a source book of the new insights in Indian philosophy and the history of Kashmir. Apart from this magnum opus Abhinavagupta propounded his novel ideas through the commentaries of postscriptural saivite sources as well as various independent works. Like other thought systems 3, spanda theory also contributed much to the development of his new amalgamated philosophy. Although Abhinava never wrote a commentary on spanda and he nevertheless used to develop this concept.

In particular situations, Abhinava used to define the term Spanda based upon its technical nature. For eg, in Tantraloka the term is defined as: “This is a slight movement, sphurana, scintillating, not dependent on any other. It is a wave in the ocean of consciousness and consciousness cannot be without waves.”4 While in Paratrisikavivarana, he frequently uses the notion as well as the idea of spanda. According to the monistic saivism, whole universe is the manifestation of the supreme realty and habitually this is used to define as the creative power which situates in the same, omnipotent reality, Siva. So the universal nature of everything is clear from this. To establish the same, Abhinavagupta seeks the help of spanda theory: “All this universe consisting of 36 categories, though created by Siva who being of supreme Sakti, is of the nature of universal creative pulsation ( http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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samanya spanda) rests in that consciousness itself in its own form which is predominantly sakti, ie., characterized by particular creative pulsation (visesa spanda).” 5 The same thing is discussed in the interpretation of Isvarapratyabhijnakarika 1-14 where spanda is identified with the imperceptible eternal stir- sphuratta, being the essence of all beyond the limitations of time and space.6 Cognition has an important role in the philosophy of saivite monism. In the system the cogniser, the cognized and the cognition are same as well as supreme reality ie. Siva. As the process of creation, realization also related with the dynamic force which known through various terms and basically with the nature of spanda. Abhinava technically call this as Vimarsa and find similarities with spanda. Bettina Baumer says that: “If we deny self-shining nature to subject, there remains no room for question and answer. In the cognitive experience such as “I Know” there is consciousness (not only of self-luminous self but) of association with a stir (spanda) also. It is self because of this stir that self is admitted to be of sentient nature…” 7 The creativity and cognition in case of poetry is also considered as spanda .

Discussing the crux of a text in its very opening part is the uniqueness of Abhinavagupta’s style of interpretation. Almost such discussions also reflect the essence of his philosophical outlook. In Vimarsini, the commentary of Isvarapratyabhijnakarika, Siva (who is omnipotent as well as omniscient) is prayed who in the form of ‘I’ consciousness, changes himself to the consciousness of ‘this’ with the help of an external pulsation connoted as spandana: “anantabhavasambhavabhasane spandanam param/ upodghatayate yasya tam stumah sarvada sivam//”8 The notion of ‘Svasvabhava’ is another term which is very common in spanda texts and to be connected with Abhinava’s principle of ‘Ahambhava’. Apart from the usage of technical terms, sometimes he compares the idea of Visarga of kula tradition with spanda and makes his Agamic exegesis easier9.

In sum, Abhinavaagupta manipulate the theory of Spanda in different manners though he admirably avoided the question about the independent nature of Spandasastra. Conversely he tries to incorporate this concept within his highly philosophical school of Kashmir Saivim- Trika. The causes of this predilection may be viewed as: The lack of establishment of spandasastra, as a cult like krama or kula. Abhinavagupta was not ready to consider spanda doctrine- explicated very recently- as a well-organized philosophy, and since the concept basically encompasses some openings, it couldn’t be denied completely.

NOTES: 1. Spanda is considered as an individual system by some scholars while others make an utterly distinct opinion about its separate existence.

2.“….There was an acute controversy with regard to the exact status of spanda system i.e., whether it was a separate system or a part of Trika system.”

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3. Rastogi says, “His references to some Naiyayikas (Kesamcana Naiyayikanam T.A. 2.12-44), Vairinca Brahmavadins (T.A.V., III, p. 25), Nastika philosophers subscribing to the negation of soul and not to the denial of the authority of the Veda (T.A. 6.19-20) invite us to explore this unexplored area. Similarly his presentation of the Kaumarila view on Vedyata and its lengthy masterly refutation (T.A. 10.21-57) adds new dimensions to our understanding of Kumarila. Abhinava's presentation of Siddhanta Saivism in the 4th Ahnika in contrast to the sister systemsopens a new vista of information throwing new light on the evolution of the dualistic Saivism in Kashmir. He is an invaluable source of information on Buddhism. He practically refers to all sects of Buddhism so much so that he remains the only source of many exclusive theories of Buddhists.”

4. Tantraloka 4.184-186. See Samanya and Visesa spandas in Mark Dyckscowski, The Doctrine of Vibration, p.107-109.

5. Isvarapratyabhijnakarika, 1-2.

6. Bettina Baumer, Abhinavagupta’s hermeneutics of the Absolute, p. 87.

7. ibid, p. 17.

8. Bhaskari vol.1, p.47 9. See Jaideva Singh, Abhinavagupta- The trident of wisdom, p.37.

REFERENCES: Dyczkowski, Mark S.G.(1989). The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Saivism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Baumer, Bettina. (2011). Abhinavagupta's Hermeneutics of the Absolute Anuttaraprakriya. New Delhi: D K Print world.

Dyczkowski, Mark S.G. (1994). The Stanzas on Vibration. Varanasi: Dilip Kumar Publishers.

Padoux, Andre. (1992). Vac: The Concept of Word in Selected Hindu Tantras. Delhi: Sri Sadguru publications.

Pandey, K.C. (2006). Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Amarabharati.

Raffaele, Torella. (Ed.) (2002). Isvarapratyabhijnakarika. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Rastogi, Navjivan.(1987). Introduction to The Tantraloka. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Singh, Jaideva (Ed.) (1988). Paratrisikavivarana of Abhinavagupta. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Spandakarika of Vasugupta with Nirnaya by Ksemaraja. KSTS XLIX . Srinagar. 1925.

Tantraloka of Abhinavagupta with the commentary Viveka of Rajanaka Jayaratha. KSTS 23,28,30,35,29,41,47,59,52,57,58, Bombay and Srinagar, 1918-1938.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.21-28

Philosophy of Language in Siddhnta aiva Philosophy Shruti Rai ABSTRACT Philosophy of language is the centripetal in the schools of Tantra. In the realm of tantric schools, the non-dualistic philosophy- Kashmir Śaiva and Śākta philosophical branches examine the concept of vk and establishes the identical relation between language, thought and reality. At the same time, Dualistic philosophy of Siddhanta Śaiva explains the doctrine of language with dualistic approach. In this context, bindu is one of the key concepts of this school in the context of philosophy of language also. The ontological aspect of bindu is the main problem of the thesis. This research article is an attempt to examine the philosophy of language from the Siddhānta Śaiva philosophy, the dualistic branch of Tantra tradition.

Key words- Bindu, pati, paśu, nāda, māyā and pāśa.

Philosophy of language is the centripetal in the schools of Tantra, either non-dualistic or dualistic. In the realm of non-dualistic philosophy of Tantra, Kashmir Śaiva and Śākta philosophical branches examine the concept of vk and establishes the identical relation between language, thought and reality. Dualistic philosophy explains the doctrine of language in a quite different way. Bindu is one of the key concepts of this school in general and in the context of philosophy of language also. It is the source for the descending levels of sound, which are related to the nda, tattvas, padrtha and so on. Francesco Sferra throws light into some important observations about the development of principle of languageThe differences we find in Āgamas and in early Śaivasiddhānta literature regarding the status of words/sound and its differentiation in levels, undoubtedly reflect those extant in other Indian traditions and, to some extent, reveal a desire and an effort to test and develop the śaivasiddhānta in the arena of the dialectical debate with other traditions. With regard to speculation on vāc, Śrikaņţha addresses his critique implicitly to Bhartŗhari (c.450-510) and/or his followers and explicitly to advaita thinkers, while Rāmakaņţha and Aghoraśiva, especially in the Nādakārikā and its commentary, also confront their ideas with those of the mīmāmsakas and the naiyāyikas. 1 The literature of Siddhnta aiva provides the rich material for the philosophy of language. In the continuation, the article provides translation of unpublished commentary Ullekhini of Ratnatrayaparīkşā. There are argumentative concepts which are parallel to the philosophy of language of Bharthari.

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The concept of bindu is crucial in the context of the most of the theories in this school. Different connotations of bindu are the attestation of its variation for different conceptions in this philosophy.

It is called 1. abda tattva, 2. amogha vāk, 3. brahma, 4. kundalini, 5. vidyā, 6. akti, 7. para nāda, 8. mahāmāyā, 9. anāhatavyoma. In the context of creation, it is the material cause of the world as well as it is the cause of the impurity. The school stands for three primary categories, pati, paśu and pāśa, where language is presented in the form of bindu and becomes the chain or thread between the pati and paśu to connect them. Whereas bindu as concept is used under the realm of parā vāk in the Kashmir Śaiva and Śākta philosophy, contrarily, bindu is an independent category in Siddhānta Śaiva. The first primary category śiva (Paramaiva)2 is addressed as para bindu. The third category pāśa binds the soul and is responsible for the distinction of paśu from pati. Its fifth and the last category is bindu. Francesco Sferra indicates towards the references and sources, related to bindu and levels of sounds in Śaiva-Siddhānta in this way: References to different levels of sound (nāda) or of word (vāc) appear in several early Śaivasiddhānta scriptures, commentaries and independent works. The argument is usually treated when dealing with principles (tattva) or categories (padārtha) in particular bindu, or mahāmāyā, and while explaining the nature and formation of mantras. Scriptural sources differ to various degrees in their accounts.

Apart from the context and from the coverage that each work devotes to this topic, the main difference between texts lies in the name and the numbers of the levels of sound and, in general, the way in which the sonic emanation is described.3 The tattvas are significant to the philosophy of language. Numbers of tattvas are thirty-six4, which emerges at two levels of śuddha and aśuddha adhvā. It is the level of indeterminate and determinate.

These are the stages of creation, not forms of language. Bindu is the material cause of the śuddha adhvā i.e. pure world. It is also cause of the nāda. In relation to nāda, bindu is called para nāda5.

The theory of nāda, as elaborated by Rāmakaņţha, can be seen as the result of an attempt to assimilate the sphoţa theory according to Śaivasiddhāntin tenets. Anyway, uddhādhvā6 is the direct creation of Śiva. The material cause is bindu. Bindu is the source wherefrom tattvas are emerging.

Here, vidyā evolves out of bindu, through the successive stages of modification such as nāda etc.

Language stays here but not in emerged form, this is the reason that it is called indeterminate.

Indeterminate word shows the existence of language in essence, not as developed form. The pure creation is characterized by indeterminacy, because it belongs to a higher level than that at which language evolves. And because determinacy consists in the affection of citi by the words i.e. so long as the affection of consciousness is not associated with the words, there is no determinacy. Therefore, the pure creation belongs to the level of indeterminacy. Here, the affection of consciousness by language is not possible. Bindu as the first dependent category is called śiva. The word śiva, however, is very often used for the first primary category, pati, also. Bindu or śiva, the first dependent category, is the material cause of the pure creation and as such it is also called mahāmāyā.

It is eternal like māyā. The four categories (tattva) śakti, sadāśiva, īśvara and vidyā7 are the effects or evolutes of it. It pervades the entire creation, it is one. It reveals the powers of knowledge and action to those who enter into the pure world by subjecting themselves to spiritual discipline. The sphere of śuddha adhvā is unlimited. Indeterminacy shows again pati as limitless, extremely subtle as determinate language always indicates limitedness. Impure world is the realm of material world. Its http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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material cause is māyā and also herein the bound live. It is characterized by determinacy, because it evolves after the evolution of language Pāśa is defined by its fivefold categories and bindu is the fifth of the categories of in this way- 1. mala, 2. rodhaśakti, 3. karma, 4. māyā, 5. bindu. But a dispute arises regarding the categorization of pāśa, ordinarily, it is said fivefold and at times it is said fourfold 8 by excluding bindu. There is a lack of definiteness, precision and uniformity in all the statements about pāśa. But at some places bindu is not included and the number is stated to be four. And the reason for its non-inclusion is of the two types of liberation, which is said mukti (liberation), which is para and apara.1. Para, higher 2. apara, lower.

The latter is attended, even when there is the bondage of bindu. And the liberated souls with this bondage are called mantra and the mantreśa etc., who belong to the pure creation. Even after a soul has got freedom from the bondages of karma and māyā, it is not perfectly free. It has freedom of the lower type only. The impurity of mala, which is also called paśutvamala, is still here. The souls, who get freedom from the bondages of māyā and karma, are called vijñānākevalas, live in them. Such souls are of three types9, according to the higher stages of maturity of their paśutvamala. They are called, Mantramaheśa, Mantreśa, Mantra.

Nādakārikā throws questions and possible solutions for arising of meaning in the words and sentences. K.C. Pandey elaborates three possible solutions1. The letters of a word, which are the objects of sense of hearing, come in succession one after another, are lost no sooner than they are uttered and do not affect one another. They therefore cannot be spoken of as the cause of the rise of the consciousness of meaning.

2. Nor can word or sentence be said to be the cause. For the words and sentences have no being apart from the letters, such as may be the object of perception.

3. For a word is said to be a collection of letters. But the letters being successive and momentary, there can never be a collection of them. And because word and sentence are never perceived, they cannot, therefore be known through inference either 10. Nor can the rise of the consciousness of meaning be said to be due to the last letter of a word11. Śaiva Siddhānta philosophy accepts nāda as basic element for the theory of meaning. An external object, which is grasped by the determinative judgment, is related to the buddhi, but, is not the product of the buddhi itself. On the contrary it has external existence and as such is perceived through one of the senses. The internal object, which is the reflection of an external object on buddhi, is determinately judged by the buddhi. Therefore, it must be something that has already been indeterminately grasped. The object has two aspects1. External http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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2. Internal Word has direct relationship with the internal meaning, which is also determinative. Here, object or meaning has two aspects1. Indeterminate 2. determinate But word has capacity to grasp only determinative aspect of object. The process of getting meaning passes from the indeterminate to determinate. Nāda12 gives the subtle inner word to buddhi, by means of which it determinately grasps the object, reflected it in. The nāda is the cause of inner speech, which is nothing more than akşara bindu. Nāda really arouses the consciousness of meaning because it is the cause of inner speech, in terms of which the determinative judgment is formed. The external articulated sounds are only external forms of it. Therefore they are not real causes of rising of the consciousness of meaning in the hearer. Thus, nāda is an undifferentiated cause of the subtle inner speech. It is nothing but an embodiment of all the words and their meanings. All of which exists in the state of undifferentiated unity, exactly as the different colors exists in the yolk of peacock’s egg. After the affection of a sense by an external object, nāda that is in the speaker and objects that is undifferentiated unity of the word and its meaning, presents for the determinative judgment of the buddhi in the form of inner speech. The buddhi judges. The judgment is expressed in articulated audible sounds. They manifest the nāda in the hearer. It presents an object which is undifferentiated unity of subtle word and the indeterminate object to buddhi. Buddhi judges in as far as, it differentiates between the two, and relates them as signifier and signified. This arouses the consciousness of meaning. This judgment is expressed in articulated sounds. Similarly at the stimulation of the sense of hearing by an uttered word, the corresponding word and its meaning as an undifferentiated unity is given rise by the nāda. This forms the object of judgment by buddhi and the consciousness of definite meaning as distinct from the word arises. Speaker determinately apprehends objects by means of buddhi13, recollects the word that stands for it and then utters the gross word. Thus, a form of buddhi which is due to its affection by an object is associated with the remembered word that stands for it. It is the cause of the utterance of the gross word. It is ‘arouser’ of the meaning in the consciousness of that hearer, in whose mind the heard word is associated with the particular meaning. The dualistic Śaiva holds the soul to be different from the nāda. It is because of this nāda, that is the cause of akara bindu, that there is no confusion in the meaning. It is separate in the case of each individual. It is not identical with the self or its powers, because they are unchanging, but the nāda changes. It is a distinct associate of each limited self.

Dualistic Śaiva asserts that the one who grasps the statement of the Āgama thoroughly, realizes Śabdabrahman. Śabdabrahman is nothing more than nāda, an embodiment of all words and their meanings in an undifferentiated unity. There are innumerable nādas, as innumerable are the souls.

Nāda is the necessary condition of each soul. Theory of nāda-brahmanvāda develops the philosophy of music. Siddhāntin holds nāda to be reality, which is to be grasped through the medium of music. It is the original motion. It is the unity of all thoughts and expressions. It is the root or the seed, from which all words and meanings spring or to put it in terms of music, it is the original vibration from http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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which all musical vibrations and their meanings arise from. Nāda is the original vibration that the art of music represents and suggests.

Dualistic Siddhānta-Śaiva philosophy keeps some different notion in the context of the relation between the individual-self and the empirical knowledge. K.C Pandey explains epistemology of the same school through the comparing with dualistic Nyāya-Vaiśeika14. Accordingly, the relation cannot be admitted to be that of inherence, since knowledge of the same individual grows and decays. The admission of the relation of inherence between knowledge and soul, as admitted by the Vaiśeika, therefore, would mean that soul changes and therefore is transient. This is against the fundamental assumption of the eternality of the soul. Siddhānta Śaiva dualism therefore maintains that the growing and decaying empirical knowledge of the individual subject belong to him, not directly or inherently, but to a condition of his and that this condition is constituted by nāda15. Nāda, as a condition of the individual, is an evolution of bindu. It is as innumerable as are the souls, a limiting condition of each of which it forms separately. It is like a seed of knowledge which is signified by words at the empirical level. The power of knowledge of each individual self is related to the nāda and as it grasps the objects determinately at the level of māyā. The determinate knowledge cannot be explained in terms of buddhi, because determinacy is found in those levels, which are beyond to my also. Ananta for instance, belongs to the level of iśvara, but he also has a kind of determinate knowledge, otherwise the creation of the empirical world would not be possible.

Further, buddhi employs words and presupposes their existence. Bindu, as the cause of the words, through nāda and lower bindu is necessary.

Siddhānta Śaiva accepts the same hierarchical four levels which are accepted in the Kashmir Śaiva philosophy also. Śrikanha deals with the different stages of separation of meaning and expression from the stage of their undifferentiated unity in nāda, under the nāda, akara-bindu and varņa.

Similarly, he deals with the problem of the rise of gross audible word from the most subtle, through different stages of grossification, under sukmā, paśyant, madhyamā and vaikharī.

Francesco comments on the theoretical development of these levelsCommentarial tradition from Śrikaha (9th -10th cent.?) to Nārāyaņakaņţha (first half of the 10th cent.), his son Rāmakaha (c. 950-1000) and later, Aghoraśiva (12th cent.), attempts to systematize the doctrine on the emanation of sound in accordance with the Śaivasiddhānta explanation of principles, and by fixing four levels of it. The standard series is bindu/kundalini=> nāda=>bindu=>śabdarāśi/arņa, however, as far as we can say at that moment, this does not correspond perfectly to any of the lists given in the scriptures.16’ The levels are significant in the context of manifestation of language. Bindu, nda, bindu, abdar are showing the systematic order of the appearance of language. In the terminology of Śrikaha, sūkmā is the highest. He identifies parā as sukmā, with nāda17. Sūkmā stands for highest aspect of speech that is distinct from the higher than paśyant. Francesco notices this theoretical development, in his wordsEspecially Śrikaha and later masters of the 14th century-adopt another series, the one starting with http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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sukmā and ending with vaikharī, referred to above. This series was probably already widespread in advaita circles of time. Since all the Śaivasiddhānta authors that make use of it, whether they adopt it or simply mention it, refers to its ‘wrong’ interpretation in an advaita perspective, equating the higher level with Consciousness. In point of fact this series is the most frequently used in Pratyabhijñākārikā (1.5.13) by Utpaladeva (c.925-975), where we usually find parā instead of sūkmā.18 As it has been already said that the schools of Tantra use same nomenclatures in general, the term skam is one of them. The term skam is used in both the schools of Kashmir Śaiva and Siddhnta-aiva, which comes at the level of par in Kashmir Śaiva philosophy. Bharthari identifies sukmā with paśyant, holding that the word sukmā does not stand for an aspect of speech, higher than paśyant, but it is simply an adjunct, qualifying paśyant. Paśyant is identified with akarabindu19. It is exactly what nāda is according to the rikaţha. According to Bharthari, it is sentiency itself (savidrupa) while Śrikaha says it as insentient, because it is an evolution of mahāmāyā.

Further, Śrikaha identifies paśyant with akara-bindu. His conception of paśyant is fundamentally different. It is unity not of all words and meaning but of a particular word and its meaning. And the word also at this stage is not split up into letters. It is therefore marked by the absence of all duality and succession. It is what is manifested by nāda, in consequence of affection of a sense by an object.

It is responsible for the sound picture of a particular word, detailed into distinct letters, which controls the movement of vital air to definite places of articulation, the speech-organs. It is the cause of madhyamā. Paśyant, that is identical with nāda, is the first evolution of bindu or mahāmāyā. It is insentient because the principle of sentiency, paśu, is a distinct and separate entity from it. Bharthari holds that the realization of paśyant is the realization of the ultimate, because paśyant is the Brahman. But Śrikanha holds that the realization of distinction of sukmā from purua frees a man from subjection to limited experiences. Madhyamā is nothing but a clear mental picture of the successive letters, which constitute the word. It is prior to the activity of the vital air, which is the cause of the gross audible word. Similarly vaikharī, the gross audible word, is due to vital air, which being checked at different places of articulation and then let off, produces the word, which is audible.

Siddhānta Śaiva philosophy presents the concept of language with dual approach. Here, Language is structured in the form of bindu. It is the cause of the bondage and of the freedom from pāśa. Thus, at the one side, it is the central part of the ontology, cosmology and liberation, at the other side it becomes cause to represent the world and bind with the language and thought.

References: 1. Sferra, Francesco, “Material for the study of the levels of sounds in the Sanskrit sources of the Śaivasiddhānta” in ‘Tantric Studies in Memory of Helene Brunner’, p. 447.

2. Tattva Prakik, 26: Evambhūtamupādānārūpam mahāmāyākhyam śivatattvamācāryā jagaduriti. Natviyamāryā Paramaśivavișayatayā tacchaktivișayatayā vā vyākhyeyā. Śivādipŗthivyantatāttvalakșaņaprastāve tattvātītayoratrāprastuttatvāt.

3. Sferra, Francesco, “Material for the study of the levels of sounds in the Sanskrit sources of the Śaivasiddhānta” in ‘Tantric Studies in Memory of Helene Brunner’, p. 443.

4. Tattva Prakik, 56: Apralayam yattiţha sarveșām bhogadāyi bhūtānām,Tattatvamiti proktam na śarīraghatādi tattvamatah. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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5. Ratnatrya, 11: Sa binduh paranādākhyah nādavindvarņakāraņam. Vinduśca tatkāryah mayūrāņdarasabinduvadavyapadeśyah parāmarśajñānarūpa akșarabinduh tatraiva sūkșmatvenoktah arņaśca varņa.

6. Tattva Prakik, 9: uddhe’dvani śivah kartā prokto’nanto’site prabhu.

7. Ibid, 22: ivatatvam bindvātmakam ādyam pradhānamupādānam smaranti pūrvācāryāh.

Paramopādānatvenaiva cāsya māyāvannityatvam siddhamittyuktam ataścānyāni catvāri tāni tatkāryāņīti bhāva.

8. Ibid, 18: Nanu prāgarthapañcakam pāśā ityuktam atra caturvidhatvoktirviruddheti cenna.

Bindormahāmāyātmanah paramuktyapekșayā pāśatvepi taddyogasya vidyeśvarādipadaprāptihetutvenāparamuktitvādatra pāśatvenānupādānamityavirodhah.

9. Ratnatrya, 12: Uttīrņamāyāmbudhayo bhagnakarmamahārgalāh, Aprāptaśivadhāmānastriyā vijñānākevalah.

10. Ndakrik, 3: Padavākyaikadeśabhūtānām varņānām kșaņavidhvamsitvena parasparopakārakatvābhāvasyoktatvāttadvyatiriktayośca padavākyayorbhedenādarśanānna tayorapi abhidhāyakatvamiti pratyakșanirākŗtatvenānumānenāpi na tayoh sadbhāva.

11. Ibid, 3: Gauriti nāmādipadam śrotryagrāhyam sadasti cennaivam.

Na gakāraukāravisarjanīyabāhyam yadato’nyadatrāsti.

Teșām yugapadbhāvābhāvāt paropalambhe na pūrvayorbhāvah.Prāptādvisarnīyāt khurakambalalakșaņā na cidvyakti.

12. Ibid, 8, 94.

13. Ibid, 6: Vyaktam hi tāvatkhurakambalādilakșaņamartham buddhyā’dhyavasya tadanuguņam gaurityādi padam cintayaivānusamdhāya tatah sthūlaśabdam prayunkte.

14. An Outline of History of Śaiva Philosophy 15. Ratnatrya, 23: Kiñca upādānam hi pariņāmena vā karyamutpādayati yathā kșīrasya dadhibhāvah. Vŗtirūpeņa vā yathā paţasya gŗhādibhāvah. Śivādīnāmeșām tu vŗtipariņāmau na sambhavatah avikāritvāt, vikāritve jadatvānityatvādidoșaprasangāt.

16. Sferra, Francesco, “Material for the study of the levels of sounds in the Sanskrit sources of the Śaivasiddhānta” in ‘Tantric Studies in Memory of Helene Brunner’, p. 446.

17. Ratnatrya , 32-33: Ātmasvarūpavidastu śaivā tām sūkșmākhyām bindukāryabhūtām Śabdavŗttimeva manyante na tu purușasamavāyinīm.

18. Sferra, Francesco ,“Material for the study of the levels of sounds in the Sanskrit sources of the Śaivasiddhānta” in ‘Tantric Studies in Memory of Helene Brunner’, p. 446.

19. Ratnatrya, 31: Avibhāgena varņām sarvatah samhŗtikramāta’ Svayamprakāśā paśyantī mayūrāņdarasopamā.

Iyam ca akșarabindurūpetyuktam.

Bibliography: Primary: Abhinavagupta, r r Partrinikvivaraa,with Vivti, (Hin. trans.), Nilkantha Gurtu Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi:1985. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Bhskararya, Varivasyrahasyam, Chaukhamba Surbharati Prakashan, Varanasi: 2005.

------------------, Yoginhdayam, Chaukhamba Krishnadas Akadami, Varanasi: 2007.

Bhsarvaja, Ratnaik, (ed. by C.D. Dalal), G.O.S., Broda: 1920.

Haradatta, Ganakrik, (ed. by C.D. Dalal), G.O.S., Baroda: 1920.

Rāmakaņţha, Tattva Prakik, G.O.S., Baroda: 1923.

Sarasvati, Madhusdan, Siddhntabindu, G.O.S., No. 64, Baroda: 1933.

Secondary: Alston, William P., Philosophy of Language, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited: New Delhi: 2003. Chaturvedi, Mithilesh, Bharthari: Language, Thought and Reality, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, Delhi: 2009.

Dunuwila, Rohan A., aiva Siddhnta Theology: A Context for Hindu-Christian Dialogue, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Limited, Delhi: 1985.

Goodall Dominic and Andre Padoux, Tantric Studies in Memory of Helene Brunner, Institute Francais De Pondichery, Pondicherry: 2007 Mishra Kailashpati, Shaivasiddhanta Darshan, Ardhanarishwar Prakashan, Varanasi: 1982.

Pandey, Kanti Chandra, Shaiva Darshana Bindu, Varanaseya Sanskrit Vishvavidyalaya, Varanasi: 1968.

------------------, An Outline of History of Śaiva Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidaa Publishers Private Limited, Delhi: 1999.

Paranjoti, V., aiva Siddhnta in the Meykaa stra, Delhi: 1993.

Raja, K. Kunjunni, Indian Theories of Meaning, The Adyar Library and Research Centre, Chennai: 2000.

Sinha, Jadunath, Schools of aivism, Sinha Publishing House, Calcutta: 1970.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.29-41

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DHARMA AND JUSTICE: AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE Bhumika Sharma Dharma is the sacred law, invested with divine authority, based on the Vedas, sacred scriptures revealed by the Divine to highly qualified sages. Dharma on the human plane is more than organic and social as in case of plants and animals. There is a class of sacred law-books, "dharma-scriptures" known as dharma-sastra, or in the plural, dharma-sastrani. Manu, Atri, Vishnu, Harita, Yajnavalkya, Usanas, Angiras, Yama, Apastamba, Sanvarta, Kdtydyana, Brihaspati,1 The subject being divided into Ritual and moral conduct (dchdra) ; Law and judicature (vyavahdraj) ; and Expiations (prdyaschitla). 2 The entire universe is a living body, of which Dharma is the soul.3 All these laws expounded by them embody the sense of the veda are the laws for the four ages, the Krita, the Treta, Dvapara and Kali In conformity to the character of the age, the rules of law (suitable) for men differ from age to age. The rules for the Krita differ from the Treta rules; the Dvapara laws are not identical with the Kali rules.4 The Sruti, the Smriti, & the practice of good men, what seems good to one’s self, and a desire maturely considered are declared to be the root of Law. 5 The Nāradasmiti has been called the “juridical text par excellence” and represents the only Dharmaśāstra text which deals solely with juridical matters and ignoring those of righteous conduct and penance.

1.

Concept of Dharma

The pan Indian term dharma has acquired a variety of meanings and interpretations in the course of many centuries. It is derived from dhri meaning to sustain, to hold together. Dharma is an omnibus concept with multiple shades of meaning. Dharma in ancient Hindu tradition was a system of injunctions and prohibitions in order to ensure the harmonious functioning of various elements in the life.6 Only Veda, Smriti and Shista-acara are sources of Dharma.7 Thus legal procedure with its manifold ramifications has been represented by the sages. The system of dharma asserts that all dharmas are universally obligatory being absolute, unconditional and infallible. 8 The concept of Dharma as understood in its collective aspect is the foundation of all Hindu ideas of progress and social order, which have to be construed in the light of higher ends of man.

Dharma or rules of righteous conduct were evolved as a solution to this eternal problem arising out of the desire for material pleasure. Dharma can be categorised as Rajadharma as highest dharma for ruler and Ashrama and Varna dharma as highest for the ruled. What was good for the people was to be regarded good for King irrespective of any disadvantage or inconvenience caused to him as per Rajadharma. Ashrama Dharma deals with the conduct of an individual during different stages of his life. In the first stage, as a brahmacarin, he devotes himself to studies in a gurukula. In the second stage, as a youth, he takes a wife, settles down in life and begets children. In the third, as he ages, http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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further, he becomes a forest recluse and, without much attachment to worldly life, engages himself in Vedic Karma. In the fourth stage, he forsakes even Vedic works, renounces the world utterly to become a sannyasin and turns his mind towards the Paramatman. During each one of these, greater importance was required to be given to one particular obligation while discharging other obligations as well. The aim of Varna Ashram Dharma is to promote the development of the universal, eternal Dharma. It is not a social arrangement or segregation; it is rather a statement of how any society is arranged. The four castes (varnas) have to feel that the social order has been designed with the overall aim of maintaining worldly dharma (lok dharma). If each caste adheres to its duties, the welfare of the world will doubtless be assured; besides, each will be able to win what is even more important, the bliss of the Atma.

Kautilya: Dharma is eternal truth holding its sway over the world; Vyavahára, evidence, is in witnesses; Charitra, history, is to be found in the tradition (sangraha), of the people; and the order of kings is what is called sásana.9 The triple Vedas definitely determine the respective duties of the four castes and of the four orders of religious life, they are the most useful.10 Harmlessness, truthfulness, purity, freedom from spite, abstinence from cruelty, and forgiveness are duties common to all. 11 2. Justice as Envisaged by Dharma: Traditional and Present Standards The Latin form of the term justice is Justus or justia having varying meanings such as righteousness, impartiality etc. The notion of justice varies with time and place. The human idea of justice contains two elements viz. positive element, implied by each man’s recognition of his claims to unimpeded activities and the benefits they bring and negative element implied by the consciousness of limits which the presence of other men having like claims necessitates.12 Justice as impartiality entails equality of valuable endowments and the enforcement of that equality over time. Social justice is the yuga dharma and its sap is spiritual.13 Justice is never non-aligned, never value- free.14 The encounters between human beings due to prominence of ego often lead to disputes between the people. Narada has beautifully explained the origin of lawsuits.

Narada: When mortals were bent on doing their duty alone and habitually veracious, there existed neither lawsuits, nor hatred, nor selfishness.15 The practices of duty having died out among mankind, lawsuits have been introduced; and the king has been appointed to decide lawsuits, because he has authority to punish.16 2.1 Role of King in Administration of Justice King in the modern times has been replaced by Sovereign – the President and the Prime Minister under the constitutional system. Our Constitution provides for separation of power between all three organs, so sovereign has hardly any role to play in the administration of the justice.17

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Rajdharma regulated the power and duties of the King. The mere creation of kingship was not enough, that the most excellent Dharma (law), a power superior to that of the king, was created to enable the king to protect the people.

Manu:The king has been created (to be) the protector of the castes (varna) and orders, who, all according to their rank, discharge their several duties. 18 King is declared to be a just inflicter of punishment, who is truthful, who acts after due consideration, who is wise, and who knows (the respective value of) virtue, pleasure, and wealth. 19 A king who properly inflicts (punishment), prospers with respect to (those) three (means of happiness); but he who is voluptuous, partial, and deceitful will be destroyed, even though the (unjust) punishment (which he inflicts).20 Knowing what is expedient or inexpedient, what is pure justice or injustice, let him examine the causes of suitors according to the order of the castes (varna).21 Let him act with justice in his own domain, with rigour chastise his enemies, behave without duplicity towards his friends, and be lenient towards Brahmanas.22 As a hunter traces the lair of a (wounded) deer by the drops of blood, even so the king shall discover on which side the right lies, by inferences (from the facts). 23 When engaged in judicial proceedings he must pay full attention to the truth, to the object (of the dispute), (and) to himself, next to the witnesses, to the place, to the time, and to the aspect. 24 Depending on the eternal law, let him decide the suits of men‌ 25 Having fully considered the time and the place (of the offence), the strength and the knowledge (of the offender), let him justly inflict that (punishment) on men who act unjustly. 26 Vishnu : Let him inflict punishments according to justice (either personally or through his attendants).27 Let him smile before he speaks to anyone.28 Let him not frown even upon (criminals) doomed to capital punishment.29 Let him inflict punishments, corresponding to the nature of their offences, upon evil-doers.30 Let a king in his own domain inflict punishments according to justice, chastise foreign foes with rigour, behave without duplicity to his affectionate friends, and with lenity to Brâhmanas.31 A king) who knows the sacred law, must inquire into the laws of castes (gati), of districts, of guilds, and of families, and (thus) settle the peculiar law of each.32 Yajnavalkya: When possessed of this, let a monarch cause punishment to fall on the guilty; for, of old, justice was created by Brahma under the form of punishment. 33 Let the monarch, rejecting subtleties, conduct the trial of suits upon the merits: even merits, in the absence of proof, must fail of success in the suit.34 Let the monarch, free from anger or thought of gain, in conjunction with learned brahmaijs, adjudicate law-suits, according to the Dharma Sastras.35 Every day should the monarch, pondering on his reward (such as sacrifices gain), himself investigate law-suits in their order with the judges around him.36 The monarch having informed himself of the crime, the place where, and the time when committed, the strength of the criminal, his age, calling, and means, shall cause punishment to fall upon the guilty.37

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Brahspati: King should be equitable towards litigants, and should pass a just sentence, discarding avarice and other (evil propensities). 38 Gautama : The king is master of all, with the exception of Brâhmanas.39 He shall be impartial towards his subjects.40 His administration of justice (shall be regulated by) the Veda, the Institutes of the Sacred Law, the Aṅgas, and the Purâna.41 Having learned the (state of) affairs from those who (in each class) have authority (to speak he shall give) the legal decision.42 A king and a Brâhmana, deeply versed in the Vedas, these two, uphold the moral order in the world.43 Vâsishtha: When two parties have a dispute, let the king not be partial to one of them. 44 Let him reason properly regarding an offence.45 Let him punish those who stray from (the path of duty).46 Men who have committed offences and have received from kings the punishment (due to them), go pure to heaven, and (become) as holy as the virtuous and the he guilt falls on the king who pardons an offender.47 If he causes him to be slain, he destroys sin in accordance with the sacred law.48 Narada: Justice is said to depend on them, and the king is the fountain head of justice. 49 A veracious man, who pays obedience to the judges, should be appointed (by the king) as his own officer, to summon and to keep in custody the witnesses, plaintiff, and defendant. 50 There a king who acts justly must neglect error when it is brought forward, and seek truth alone, because prosperity depends on (the practice of) duty.51 Attending to (the dictates of) the law-book and adhering to the opinion of his chief judge, let him try causes in due order, adhibiting great care.52 Avoiding carefully the violation of either the sacred law or the dictates of prudence, he should conduct the trial attentively and skilfully. 53 That king, however, who is intent on doing his duty, must be particularly anxious to discover what is right and what is wrong.54 Kautilya : In virtue of his power to uphold the observance of the respective duties of the four castes and of the four divisions of religious life, and in virtue of his power to guard against the violation of the Dharmas, the king is the fountain of justice (dharmapravartaka).55 As the duty of a king consists in protecting his subjects with justice, its observance leads him to heaven. He who does not protect his people or upsets the social order wields his royal sceptre (danda) in vain.56 The king who administers justice in accordance with sacred law (Dharma), evidence (vyavahára), history (samsthá) and edicts of kings (Nyáya) which is the fourth will be able to conquer the whole world bounded by the four quarters (Chaturantám mahím).57 In those times, the King acted as per the duties prescribed by dharamshastras and the adherence of the duties regulated his relationship with his Ministers/ Council as well as his subjects. Whereas in present times, we lack such detailed elaboration of the duties of the government. The functions assigned to the government may be on paper but the rules of moral conduct are absent. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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2.2 Significance of Judicial Assembly Judicial assembly, (present day benches of the Courts) was considered significant for rendering of justice under the hands of the King.

Manu: That (man) shall enter that most excellent court, accompanied by three assessors, and fully consider (all) causes (brought) before the (king), either sitting down or standing.58 Where three Brahmanas versed in the Vedas and the learned (judge) appointed by the king sit down, they call that the court of (four-faced) Brahman.59 Yajnavalkya: King shall appoint judges perfect in the Vedas and in science, versed in the Dharma Sastras, as speak truth and bear themselves alike to friend and foe. 60 The cases should be decide according to law, uninfluenced by agreed or anger.61 Brahspati :The judges are both arms; the law is both hands; the accountant and the scribe are the legs; gold, fire, and water are the eyes and the heart; and the king's own officer is the feet.62 When litigants are quarrelling in a court of justice, the judges, after examining the answer, shall adjudge the burden of proof to either of the two parties. 63 The judges having heard both the plaint and the answer, and determined to which party the burden of proof shall be adjudged, that person shall substantiate the whole of his declaration by documents or other proofs.64 In expounding a rule of law, authorities should be sought, and consulted anew; sin is in terror from persons who do the same ; for law declared by them is essentially right.65 Table 1: Qualities prescribed for members of Judicial Assembly 66 Law giver Manu

Composition of Court King, Brahmanas experienced councillors.

Vishnu

King, well-instructed Brâhmanas.

Qualifications (if any) and Three persons who each know one of the three principal Vedas, a logician, a Mimamsaka, one who knows the Nirukta, one who recites (the Institutes of) the sacred law, and three men belonging to the first three orders shall constitute a (legal) assembly, consisting of at least ten members.

Men of good families, for whom the ceremonies (of initiation and so forth) have been performed, and who are eager in keeping religious vows, impartial towards friend and foe, and not likely to be corrupted by litigants either by (ministering to their) lustful desires or by (stimulating them to) wrath or by (exciting their) avarice or by other (such practices). http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Vasistha Yajnavalkya

King (or) his ministers King and

Brashpati

King, his chosen representative (the chief judge), the judges, the law (Smriti), the accountant and scribe, gold, fire, water, and the king's own officer are ten members of legal procedure.

King (or) his minister An assembly consisting at least 'Four men, who each know one of the four Vedas, of ten members a Mîmâmsaka, one who knows the Aṅgas, one who recites (the works on) the sacred law, and three Brâhmanas belonging to (three different) orders, King and honourable men Men, of tried integrity, who are able to bear, like good bulls, the burden of the administration of justice King and other members Three members acquainted with Sacred Law , Three ministers of the king (amátyas)

Vasistha

Nârada

Kautilya

Perfect in the Vedas and in science, versed in the Dharma Sastras, as speak truth and bear themselves alike to friend and foe.

Men qualified by the performance of devotional acts, strictly veracious and virtuous, void of wrath and covetousness, and familiar with (legal) lore, should be appointed by the ruler as judges (or assessors of the court).

Narada: The members of a royal court of justice must be acquainted with the sacred law and with rules of prudence, noble, veracious, and impartial towards friend and foe.67 He is called a (Prâdvivâka or) chief judge who—fully acquainted with the eighteen titles (of law) and with the eight thousand subdivisions thereof, skilled in logic and other branches of science, and thoroughly versed in revealed and traditional lore—investigates the law relative to the case in hand by putting questions (prât) and passing a decision (vivekayati) according to what was heard or understood by him.68 Kautilya: In the cities of Sangrahana, Dronamukha, and Stháníya, and at places where districts meet, three members acquainted with Sacred Law (dharmasthas) and three ministers of the king (amátyas) shall carry on the administration of Justice. 69 The modern time qualifications for judges are the educational and experience based, on the other hand dharma gave more importance to the sound character of the persons to be included in the judicial assembly.

2.3 Eligibility for Witnesses Manu: The Soul itself is the witness of the Soul, and the Soul is the refuge of the Soul; despisen not thy own Soul, the supreme witness of men.70 Trustworthy men of all the (four) http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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castes (varna) may be made witnesses in lawsuits, (men) who know (their) whole duty, and are free from covetousness; but let him reject those (of an) opposite (character).71 But the (judge) should consider the evidence of infants, aged and diseased men, who (are apt to) speak untruly, as untrustworthy, likewise that of men with disordered minds.72 Vishnu: Nor can one man alone be made a witness.73 (The evidence of) a witness is (of two kinds): either of what was seen, or of what was heard.74 Witnesses are free from blame if they give true evidence.75 Let the judge summon the witnesses, at the time of sunrise, and examine them after having bound them by an oath.76 Yajnavalkya: There should be at least three witnesses, such as observe the rites prescribed by the Sruti and the Smriti, and are of a class, whether mixed or unmixed , corresponding with that of the person who produces them: otherwise, any person may be a witness for any person.77 In case of conflicting testimony, what is stated by the majority [of the witnesses] must be credited ; if the numbers be equal, then those of the witnesses who are of distinguished qualities must be credited ; if again, these are in contradiction, then the most distinguished shall be credited.78 Apastamba :A person who is possessed of good qualities (may be called as a witness, and) shall answer the questions put to him according to the truth on an auspicious day, in the morning, before a kindled fire, standing near (a jar full of) water, in the presence of the king, and with the consent of all (of both parties and of the assessors), after having been exhorted (by the judge) to be fair to both sides.79 Brahaspati: A subscribing witness, one caused to be written, a secret witness, one who has been reminded, a member of the family, a messenger, a spontaneous witness, an indirect witness, a stranger who has accidentally witnessed the deed.80 A witness should be exhorted by judges acquainted with law, by speeches extolling veracity and denouncing falsehood. 81 After putting off his shoes and his turban, he should stretch out his right hand, and declare the truth, after taking in his hands gold, cow-dung, or blades of sacred grass.82 Gautama: Reasoning is a means for arriving at the truth.83 If (the evidence) is conflicting, he shall learn (the truth) from (Brâhmanas) who are well versed in the threefold sacred lore, and give his decision (accordingly).84 Witnesses shall not speak singly or without being asked.85 Heaven is their reward, if they speak the truth; in the contrary case hell (will be their portion).86 A witness must be reprimanded and punished for speaking an untruth.87 Kautilya: Judges are superior in authority to (meetings of) kindred and the rest; the chief judge is placed above them; and the king is superior to all, because he passes just sentences.88

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The Indian Evidence Act, 1872 under Chapter IX deals with Witnesses. A great similarity is found in the criteria for a person to be a Witness under dharma as well as The Indian Evidence Act, 1872.

2.4 Truth and Falsehood Manu: Either the court must not be entered, or the truth must be spoken; a man who either says nothing or speaks falsely, becomes sinful.89 Evidence in accordance with what has actually been seen or heard, is admissible; a witness who speaks truth in those (cases), neither loses spiritual merit nor wealth.90 A witness who deposes in an assembly of honourable men (Arya) anything else but what he has seen or heard, falls after death headlong into hell and loses heaven.91 Yajnavalkya: Know that whatever good has been done by thee in a hundred former births, all shall become his whom thou defeatest by falsehood.92 Gautama: No guilt is incurred by giving false evidence, in case the life (of a man) depends thereon.93 The king, or the judge, or a Brâhmana learned in the Sâstras (shall examine the witnesses).94 To speak the truth before the judge is more important than all (other) duties.95 Vâsishtha: Men may speak an untruth at the time of marriage, during dalliance, when their lives are in danger or the loss of their whole property is imminent, and for the sake of a Brâhmana; they declare that an untruth spoken in these five cases does not make (the speaker) an outcast.96 Section 193, The Indian Penal Code, 1860 provides for punishment for false evidence imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to seven years, and fine.

3.

Justice and Dharma : Brief Study Justice, being violated, destroys; justice, being preserved, preserves: therefore justice must not be violated, lest violated justice destroy us.97 For divine justice (is said to be) a bull (vrisha); that (man) who violates it the gods consider to be (a man despicable like) a Sudra (vrishala); let him, therefore, beware of violating justice.98 The only friend who follows men even after death is justice; for everything else is lost at the same time when the body (perishes).99 Brahman is the root of the tree of justice; the sovereign prince is its stem and branches; the ministers are its leaves and blossoms; just government is its fruit. 100 The insight of princes surpasses by far the understandings (of other persons), in the decision of the highest, lowest, and middling controversies.101 Justice is virtuous conduct consistent with dharma and the Hindu tradition linked it with performance of duties prescribed by dharma or universal moral order.102 Dharma as applicable in Hindu society was comprehensive code http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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extending beyond justice and laid principles for efficient living. On account of its antiquity, utility and universality the very mention of that word rouses the conscience of an individual in this land.103 3.1 Wide Ambit of Dharma: Inclusion of Justice “Dharma is not an outer thing, like the law, or righteousness, or religion, or justice, it is the law of the unfolding life, which moulds all out- side it to the expression of itself.”- Annie Besant It is dharma that provides the guidelines for proper and productive living for social organisation and interaction.104 As a reaction to the tendency of social crystallization, Dharma caused a breaking up of most rigid manifestation of social constitution. There was cyclic rebirth of Dharma from ideal to a system of compromise and from moral norm it became convention and law.105 The strength of dharma lies in the fact that it is preventive rather than punitive. This is the only reason dharma is still relevant to a modern day context. The vyavaharic prescriptions sought to impose the external social framework on civil society by prescribing and regulating the inter-relationship between various races and groups; sustain a particular power and property structure ; the State is recognised as a juridical institution; and freedom to religious institutions to develop their rules.106 The sastric concept of law adumbrated rules behaviour which had to be read with religious injunctions.107 Dharma possesses a secular nature, where all explanations of man are found to be located in man himself, binding different men together.108 Similarly the connotation of social justice requires secularism.

3.2

Basic Laws based on Dharma

Our laws have not been inherited from English legal system rather our texts. Since natural law guided the legal procedure and same is continuing without substantial change.

The first five words –We, the people of India are descriptive of the consumers and creators of the values of the paramount law.109 This shows that our Constitution is based on Dharma which recognises the people as end and law as means. The Apex Court was of the view in Aruna Roy And Others v. Union Of India And Others110 that the essential aspect of our ancient thought concerning law was the clear recognition of the supremacy of dharma and the clear articulation of the status of 'dharma' which is somewhat akin to the modern concept of the rule of law, i.e. of all being sustained and regulated by it.

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Conclusion Dharmam Kshatrasya Kshatram.

S.Radhakrishnan laid emphasis on Dharma111, “Much has been said about the sovereignty of the people. We have held that the ultimate sovereignty rests with the moral law, with the conscience of humanity. People as well as kings are subordinate to that. Dharma, righteousness, is the king of kings. It is the ruler of both the people and the rulers themselves. It is the sovereignty of the law which we have asserted.”

The far vision of ancient law gives has been accepted in modern legal system. The laws enacted by Britishers i.e. Civil Procedure Code and Indian Evidence Act are largely based on the laws laid down by Narada, Brashpati and Kautilya. Even after centuries those laws have not lost their relevance. The Dharamsastras not only prescribed punishments to offenders but also linked offence with effects on their moral life. Existence of proper administration of laws can guide people towards Dharma based life where laws are obeyed not because of fear of punishment rather due to their general acceptability in the society.

Rajdharma laid down duties of King whereas the State today is seen as crossing its ambit as each organ has failed to fulfill the role assigned to it by the Constitution. With development in society, norms of justice change, dharma also changes with age (yug).

Certain principles of dharma are for all times such as value of truth, loyalty for the State (country), duties of husband - wife for each other etc. We don’t need to modify our laws to be in conformity with dharma rather adopting a mode prescribed by it. The practices and rules of applied dharma might change according to changing causes; but even then, the practices have to be tested on the basis of the sastras, not on the basis of advantage.

References: 1. Roer , Edward and W.A.Montriouy . (1959). Hindu law and Judicature from the Dharma-Sastra Of Yajnavalkya. (trans.), Book One Achiara Adhiyaya : I,4.

2. Ibid.

3. Yajurveda, 5,27.

4. Dutt, M.N. (1979). The Dharamshastra . (trans.) , Vol.III, New Delhi, Cosmo Publications , I, 22.

5. Supra note 1 , Book One Achiara Adhiyaya , I, 7.

6. Kuppuswamy,B. (1977). Dharma and Society: A Study in Social Values. Delhi, The Macmillan Company of India, 34.

7. Lingat, Robert. (1998). Classical Law of India . New Delhi, Oxford University Press,7-14.

8. Pal, Jagat,.(January - April 2000 ) Dilemma of Dharma , Indian Philosophical Quarterly, XXVII No. 1& 2, 113. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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9. Shamasastry , R. (1915). Kautilya's Arthashastra, (trans.), Book III-Concerning Law, Chapter 1.

10. Id .Concerning Discipline- Chapter 3 .10.

11. Id .11.

12. Spencer ,Herbert. (1891). Justice. New York, D.Appelton and Company, 36-37.

13. Iyer, V.R.Krishna. (1979) , The Social Dimensions of Law & Justice in Contemporary India-The Dynamics of a New Jurisprudence. Nagpur, All India Reporter, 95.

14. Id . 139.

15. Jolly, Julius. (1981). Naradiya Dharamsastra or Institutes of Narada. (trans.), Delhi, Takshila Hardbounds, I,1.

16. Id .I,2.

17. Article 50 ,The Constitution of India, 1950 specifically mandates The State to take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the State. The various organs under the constitutional scheme are organized so as to separate interference in each others’ working. The check by one organ on the other should in no case to be considered interference.

18. Buhler, George .(1969). Laws of Manu. (trans.) . Oxford , Clarendon Press , VII,35.

19. Id. VII,26.

20. Id. VII,27.

21. Id. VIII, 24.

22. Id. VII,32.

23. Id. VIII, 44.

24. Id. VIII, 45.

25. Id. VIII ,8.

26. Id. VII ,16.

27. Jolly , Julius. (1969). The Minor Law Books ,Part I - The Institutes of Vishnu.(trans.), Delhi , M. Banarsidass, III , 92.

28. Id.III , 89.

29. Id.III , 90.

30. Id.III , 91.

31. Id.III , 96.

32. Id.III , 41.

33. Supra note 1, Book One Achiara Adhiyaya :XIII,353.

34. Id. Book Two Nyaya Adhiyaya :I,9.

35. Id. Book Two Nyaya Adhiyaya :I,1.

36. Id. Book One Achiara Adhiyaya :XIII , 359.

37. Id. Book One Achiara Adhiyaya :XIII,367.

38. Jolly ,Julius. (1969). The Minor Law Books, Part I-Brahspati . (trans.) ,Delhi ,M. Banarsidass, I,36.

39. Bühler ,George. (1969). The Sacred Laws of the Âryas, Part I- Guatama. (trans.) .

Oxford , Clarendon Press ,XI,1.

40. Id.XI,5. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

Id.XI,19.

Id.XI,22.

Id.VIII,1.

Bühler ,George. (1969). The Sacred Laws of the Âryas, Part II-Vâsishtha.(trans.).

Oxford , Clarendon Press , XVI,3.

Id.XVI,4.

Id.XIV,8.

Id.XIV,45.

Id.XIV,46.

Supra note 15,III, 6.

Id. I,15 .

Id. I,31.

Id. I,35.

Id. I,37.

Id. I, 68.

Supra note 9. 213.

Id. 217.

Id .218.

Supra note 18 , VIII, 10.

Id. VIII, 11.

Supra note 1, Book Two Nyaya Adhiyaya :I,2.

Id. Book Two Nyaya Adhiyaya :I,1.

Supra note 38 , I,10.

Id.V,1.

Id .V,2.

Id.VIII,8.

Compiled by the Researcher.

Supra note 15 , III, 5.

Id.I,1.

Supra note 9.213.

Supra note 18, VIII, 84.

Id. VIII, 63.

Id .VIII, 71.

Id. VIII,5.

Id. VIII,13 Id. VIII,14.

Id. VIII,19.

Supra note 1.Book Two Nyaya Adhiyaya :I,69.

Id. Book Two Nyaya Adhiyaya :I,78.

Bühler ,George.(1969). The Sacred Laws of the Âryas ,Part I- Âpastamba . Oxford, Clarendon Press, (tans.) II, 11, 29 ,7.

Supra note 38, VII,1. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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81. Id .VII,19.

82. Id .VII,23.

83. Supra note 39 ,XI,23.

84. Id.XI,25.

85. Id.XIII,5.

86. Id.XIII,7.

87. Id.XIII,23.

88. Supra note 9. I ,31.

89. Supra note 15, VIII, 13.

90. Id. VIII, 74.

91. Id. VIII, 75.

92. Supra note 1, Book Two Nyaya Adhiyaya :I,75.

93. Supra note 39. XIII,24.

94. Id.XIII,26.

95. Id.XIII,31.

96. Supra note 44.XVI,35.

97. Supra note 18, VIII, 15.

98. Id. VIII, 16.

99. Id. VIII, 19.

100. Id. I,34.

101. Id .I ,32.

102. Jain, Nilanjana. (2005). The Problem of Justice in Political Theory & State Practice.

New Delhi, Anamika Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd, 21.

103. Jois, M. Rama . Dharma -The Global Ethic, Retrieved November 20, 2012, from http://www.vhp-america.org/dynamic_includes/ebooks/DHARMA_Ram_Jois.pdf.

104. Olivelle, Patrick .(1999) The Dharmasūtras: The law codes of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vasiṣṭha . Oxford: Oxford University Press,xxxvii –xxxviii.

105. Mess, Gualetherus H. (1986) Dharma and Society. New Delhi, Gyan Publishing House, 87,124.

106. Dhavan, Rajeev .(1992) . Dharamshastras and Modern Indian Society: A Preliminary Exploration, Journal of Indian Law Institute 34 (2) , 519-523.

107. Id. 108. Badrinath,Chaturvedi. (1993) Dharma, India and The World Order . Scotland, Saint Andrews Press, 41.

109. Supra note 13. 9.

110. AIR 2002 SC 3176.

111. Constituent Assembly of India Debates, 20th January, 1947.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.42-48

AHIMSA AND SATYAGRAHA: GANDHI AND THE XIV DALAI LAMA Reni Pal Social Philosophy claims to have prominent places for Ahimsa (non-violence) and Satyagraha. The objective of this paper is to mention the affinities between Mahatma Gandhi and the Fourteenth Dalai Lama His Holiness Tenzin Gyatso regarding these topics.

If philosophy is wisdom, Mahatma Gandhi (1869 - 1948) was among our foremost philosophers. In Gandhi’s philosophy, we cannot compartmentalize the ethical, social, political and economic issues.

He was not a conscious philosopher. Gandhian philosophy is certainly considered as a universal and timeless philosophy. The ideals of truth and non-violence which underpin his whole philosophy are relevant to all humankind. Gandhi’s thought is equally a philosophy of self-transformation. The individual’s task is to make a sincere attempt to live according to the principles of truth and nonviolence.

In Gandhian thought truth is the ultimate thing or end while non-violence or ahimsa is the means.

What is truth from one side is non-violence from another side. They are inseparable. Where there is ahimsa, there is truth and truth is God. Gandhiji was an apostle of non-violence and love because, while violence and hatred brutalized men, love ennobled them and brought out the best in them.

The usual meaning of ahimsa is non-killing or non-injury. Gandhiji used this word in a special sense.

He does not deny the traditional sense but he emphasized certain aspects of ahimsa which have not been given that importance by any other believer in ahimsa. So there has emerged a Gandhian sense of the word which has some distinctive features of its own.

In conceiving ahimsa Gandhiji was influenced by Jainism and Buddhism. He used the word with both positive and negative imports. The positive aspect of its meaning is more fundamental. In negative aspect it is conceived as the opposite of himsa or absence of overt violence. Accepting this sense Gandhiji added some more. “He also accepts that himsa means causing pain or killing any life out of anger, or from a selfish purpose, or with the intention of injuring it. Refraining from doing all this is Ahimsa.”1 In its negative form, it means not injuring any living being whether by body or mind. Again, ahimsa is understood by Gandhi to denote active love. In its positive aspect ahimsa means the largest Love, the genuine charity. Love is a kind of feeling of oneness. Ahimsa demands a genuine effort to free our mind from ill-feelings like anger, malice, jealousy, revenge, hatred etc. because these create obstacles in the path of love. “Love, according to Gandhi, is the energy that cleanses one’s inner life and uplifts him, and as such, love comprehends such noble feelings as benevolence, compassion, tolerance, generosity, kindness, sympathy etc.” 2 The active ahimsa http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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necessarily includes truth and fearlessness. This is the positive import of the term. He believed that ahimsa is the most powerful force in existence. He recommends the practice of ahimsa in thought, speech and action.

He opines that killing or injury to life can be an act of violence under certain conditions like anger, pride, hatred, bad intention, selfishness etc. Any injury to life done under these motives is himsa.

Thus the negative meaning ahimsa is non-injury or non-killing.

But for Gandhi, the positive aspects of ahimsa are more basic than its negative characters. It is not merely refraining from causing injuries to life, it stands for certain positive attitudes towards other living beings that one must cultivate. Ahimsa represents one of the basic and essential qualities of mankind.

Gandhi believes that violence is essentially an expression of weakness. One who is inwardly weak and gets frightened takes the shelter of arms. Violence seems apparently to have strength but it is born out of fear and therefore it is a sign of weakness. Only one who has conquered fear can truly be non-violent.

Non-violence involves sacrifice and suffering. According to Gandhi, sacrifice is an indispensable companion of Love. Love demands going beyond, a self-transcendence. Love never claims. It ever gives selflessly. The test of love is self-suffering. The non-violent person practices forgiveness in the maximum degree and he should practice it universally.

Gandhiji adds a point here. He mentioned that the practice of ahimsa requires an inner strength which can be generated by a living faith in God. A sincere faith in God will make man see that all human beings are fellow-beings and essentially one. Thus the love of God would turn into a love of humanity which alone can make possible the practice of ahimsa. If according to the Divine Reality all life is one, then all violence committed towards another is violence towards oneself.

Like all Buddhist leaders, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama His Holiness Tenzin Gyatso has a strong commitment to action in society. His ethical teachings have gained recognition the world over. His views on human rights, religion, and non-violent conflict resolution remind us of Gandhiji. It would be natural to compare him with Mahatma Gandhi, one of the century’s greatest protagonists of peace, and the Fourteenth Dalai Lama likes to consider himself one of the Gandhi’s successors. According to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, non-violence and religious harmony are the two treasures of India. He also opines that the concept of non-violence or ‘ahimsa’ itself was an ancient Indian philosophy.

Buddhism is generally seen to be deeply associated with non-violence and peace. Both Gandhiji and the Fourteenth Dalai Lama were influenced by Buddhist conception of Ahimsa. Like Gandhiji, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama also considers human nature as intrinsically non-violent, with a pre-existing http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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sense of peace. He regards any violence as contrary to these intrinsic human qualities. Agreeing with Gandhiji’s approach to non-violence, he accepts that his own Buddhist conceptualization of nonviolence is deeply influenced by Gandhiji’s thought. Although the Fourteenth Dalai Lama acknowledges the deep influence of Buddhism on his thought, he also recognizes the influence of Mahatma Gandhi on his views on non-violence. Gandhiji in turn has acknowledged the influence of Buddha on his thought. The Fourteenth Dalai Lama considered that non-violence as an idea is original to Gandhi because he gave to it a social status in reality rather than mystical status.

Both Gandhiji and the Fourteenth Dalai Lama give stress on the point that by understanding the impermanent nature of phenomena one can avoid violence. It can be noted that impermanence, as a concept, referred to in Buddhism stresses the phenomenon of transitoriness, which entails that nothing is permanent and therefore could suggest the rectitude in violence. Gandhiji is also of the opinion that even when violence appears to do some good, the good that results is very temporary.

He says that nothing permanent can be built on violence.

Gandhiji recognized that violence is born because men see themselves as being separate with exclusive individual concerns and as striving for personal benefits at any cost. For Gandhi, “Ahimsa is important not just as a desirable virtue or merely as the means for the purification and ennobling of the soul but even more as the fundamental and perhaps the only way in which we can express respect for the innate worth of any human being. It is an essential and universal obligation without which we would cease to be human.”3 Like Gandhiji the Fourteenth Dalai Lama also distinguishes between positive and negative meanings of ahimsa. According to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, non-violence is not only just restraint from harming others but keeping a compassionate attitude towards them. His Holiness clarified that genuine non-violence is not the mere absence of violence. The demarcation between violence and non-violence depends less on the kind of action involved and more on the motivation or attitude with which we act. According to him, violence is destruction while non-violence is construction.

According to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, the boundaries between violence and non-violence cannot be determined simply by observing actions on their surface. A harsh action done out of compassion and the intent to protect others is better than the use of nice words of an individual to cheat or exploit others. Genuine non-violence will come only after the inner disarmament of our mind and only with inner disarmament, we can bring outer disarmament.

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Another strong point of affinity claims to have between Gandhiji and the Fourteenth Dalai Lama on the basic non-violent nature of man. Gandhiji insists that ahimsa is natural to man. Man is both body and spirit. Body represents physical power and therefore can commit violence sometimes. “A simple evidence of this is the fact that while body or the senses can be injured, the soul can never be injured.

Himsa, therefore, is alien to man’s nature.”4 The same thought seems to be echoing in the Fourteenth Dalai Lama’s view that human nature is actually compassionate and gentle. Like Gandhiji he is of the opinion that all human beings are essentially alike. We make divisions among them which produce violence. Says Gandhi, “The basic principle on which the practice of non-violence rests is that what holds good in respect of oneself, equally applies to the whole universe. All mankind in essence are alike, what is therefore possible for one is possible for everybody.” 5 The Fourteenth Dalai Lama says, “Human beings by nature want happiness and do not want suffering … Basically, from the viewpoint of real human value, we are all the same … We fabricate distinctions based on colour, geographical location, and so forth, and then on the basis of a feeling of separation, we sometimes quarrel with each other, sometimes criticize, and sometimes fight. From a broader viewpoint, however, we are all brothers and sisters.”6 The basic principle of non-violence stands on the feeling by which one views others as being equally or even more important than oneself. “For Gandhi, ahimsa entails the ability to treat all beings, as one’s very self.”7 The Fourteenth Dalai Lama clearly reiterates the Gandhian idea. When he says: “I began to think less of myself and more of others and became aware of compassion.” 8 The Buddhist interpretation of compassion is based on a clear acceptance or recognition that others, like oneself, want happiness and have the right to overcome suffering. “Genuine compassion is not pity or a feeling that others are somehow lower than oneself. Rather, with genuine compassion, one views others as being more important than oneself.”9 For the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, “Compassion is action”.10 The Fourteenth Dalai Lama holds the view that dignity is a common designator to all human life. Like Gandhiji, he too considers ahimsa not only as a means of purifying the souls, rather, as the only way to respect the inner worth of any human being.

Both the Fourteenth Dalai Lama and Gandhiji are of the opinion that non-violence is not an attitude of indifference as or passivity. “However non-violence does not mean abdicating moral responsibility, either for the Dalai Lama or for Gandhi.”11 According to Gandhiji, the really strong person is he who wins not by brute force, but by fearless love. Ahimsa, far from meaning mere peacefulness or the absence of overt violence, is understood by Gandhiji to denote active love. For Gandhiji, non-violence does not mean weak submission to the will of the evil-doer. “It is true that http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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non-violence requires extreme patience on the part of one, who is using this method, but this patience is not a sign of inactivity, it is an expression of a conscious and inner effort to force the so called opponent to see and realise his own mistake.”12 Just as it is for Gandhi, ahimsa for the Fourteenth Dalai Lama does not mean detachment or inactivity. According to the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, nonviolence does not mean we have to passively accept injustice. Rather, we have to fight for our rights.

We have to oppose injustice, because not to do so would be a form of violence.

A very relevant as well as debatable question can be raised here. Is violence, under no situation or circumstance, permissible? Can’t there be exceptional cases? Actually Gandhiji seems to have a stand for permitting violence in some limited cases where situations demand this. “The greatest apostle of non-violence, it has been argued, also permitted violence, even if limited, for the sake of one’s honour, justice, freedom and dignity.”13 According to him, an agriculturist cannot allow his crops to be eaten up by the pests. In order to protect his fields as well as crops he has to use pesticides to kill the pests. This use of minimum violence cannot be avoided and this is not a sin. Evil and good, according to him, are relative terms. What is sin or evil in a certain situation can turn into good under a different sort of condition. Gandhiji again expressed his wish to put one ailing calf to death instantly to give it relief and to rescue it from having miserable pain. This, according to him, is an instance of purest ahimsa. Ahimsa implies an inability to witness another’s pain or suffering.

The Fourteenth Dalai Lama also, like Gandhiji, is willing to compromise where non-violence entails a threat to one’s life. He opines that in such a situation non-violence can no longer be regarded as strength. He is very much practical in his approach to certain things. For example, to the question ‘what would you do with parasites in our stomach?’, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama says: “I think we have to follow doctor’s advice” 14. From this remark it becomes clear to us that he permits the killing of parasites in order to save a human being. But it is true that he advocates restraints and caution in the use of violence depending on its motive.

The remaining central concept in Gandhi’s philosophy is Satyagraha which is translated in English as Truth-force, or even, at times, as Soul-force or Love-force. Truth, according to Gandhiji, is God, and Satyagraha is ‘agraha’ of ‘satya’ and then it means holding fast to truth. It therefore, demands a deep sincerity and a vigorous love for truth. Satyagraha is itself a whole philosophy of non-violence.

Defined most narrowly, it is a technique or tool of non-violent action. A satyagraha campaign is undertaken only after all other peaceful means have proven ineffective. Gandhiji described satyagraha as a force against violence, tyranny and injustice. The aim of satyagraha is not to http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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embarrass or showing fear to the wrong-doer. It appeals to the heart and to the good sense of the wrong-doer. Its intention is to bring about, what Gandhiji calls a change of heart. In fact satyagraha is essentially based on love. That is why satyagraha has been described as a method of conversion rather than a method of coercion. A satyagrahi must be completely fearless.

The Fourteenth Dalai Lama sometimes refers to ‘peaceful means’ and no-violent means’ interchangeably. Hijrat, which means voluntary migration or temporary withdrawal out of the boundaries of a state, which is said to have been adopted usefully by the Tibetans, was initiated by the Fourteenth Dalai Lama. He has thus earned the title of ‘satyagrahi’. Gandhiji advocated hijrat, or voluntary negotiation or temporary withdrawal out of the boundaries of a state, to the Bardoli peasants in 1928. “In case of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, it would be accurate to say that he has adopted the method of satyagraha completely.” 15 The Fourteenth Dalai Lama, in consonance with Gandhiji’s view, describes the expressions like prayers, hunger-strikes, and demonstrations without violence as meaningful.

To sum up, Gandhian philosophy is not only simultaneously political, moral and religious; it is also simple and complex. Perhaps his philosophy is best seen as a harmonious blend of the traditional and modern. And at the heart of his philosophy is non-violence. It can be seen that the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, like Gandhiji, recognizes the enormous power of ahimsa or non-violence and continues his attempts to reduce violence and replace it with non-violence.

This discussion would be incomplete without mentioning the following. Gandhiji did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated in 1937, 1938, 1939, 1947 and, finally, a few days before he was assassinated in January, 1948. The omission has been publicly regretted by later members of the Nobel Committee. When the Fourteenth Dalai Lama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, the Chairman of the Committee said that this was “in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi”.16 Notes: 1. Lal, B. K. (1991). Contemporary Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., p.108.

2. Ibid, 111 3. Iyer, Raghavan (1983). The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi. London: Concord Grove Press,p. 184.

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4. Lal, B. K. (1991). Contemporary Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., p.110.

5. Tendulkar, D. G. (1952). Mahatma: Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Vol. 4, 19341938. Bombay: Vithalbhai K. Jhaveri and D. G. Tendulkar, p.353.

6. Gyatso, Tenzin, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama His Holiness (1984). Kindness, Clarity and Insight. (edited by Jeffrey Hopkins and Elizabeth Napper, trans. Jeffrey Hopkins). New York: Snow Lion Publications,p. 158.

7. Puri, Bharati (2006). Engaged Buddhism – The Dalai Lama’s Worldview. New Delhi: Oxford University Press,p. 23.

8. Lama, the Dalai of Tibet, His Holiness (1997). My Land and My People: Memoirs of His Holiness the Dalai Lama of Tibet. New Delhi: Srishti Publishers and Distributors, p.48.

9. Puri, Bharati (2006). Engaged Buddhism – The Dalai Lama’s Worldview. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, p.22.

10. Lama, the Dalai (1978). The Four Noble Truths. New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers India, pp.147-8.

11. Puri, Bharati (2006). Engaged Buddhism – The Dalai Lama’s Worldview. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, p.22.

12. Lal, B. K. (1991). Contemporary Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., p. 112.

13. Puri, Bharati (2006). Engaged Buddhism – The Dalai Lama’s Worldview. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, p.25.

14. Lama, His Holiness the XIV Dalai (1997). Path for Spiritual Practice. New Delhi: Tushita Mahayana Meditation Centre, p.17.

15. Iyer, Raghavan (1983). The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi. London: Concord Grove Press, p.305.

16. Tonnesson, Oyvind (1999). Mahatma Gandhi, the Missing Laureate. Retrieved January 16, 2012, from http://www.nobelprize.org

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.49-52

THE NECESSITY OF GANDHIAN ETHICS FOR BETER FUTURE Buddhiswar Haldar ABSTRACT In this paper, it has been highlighted that the Gandhian philosophy of ethics has special significance to protect our better future and to save humanity today from intolerance and disintegration and to save the world which is full of tension and conflicts because of troublesome tendencies. Instead of technological advancement the spirit of morality can save us from the pawn of intolerance and distrust. Our conviction is that there is no alternative to the ideal of ethics and non-violence that is the ideal of love as a means to overcome the social evils like violence and terrorism. In this way, the importance of ethics has become extremely urgent and imperative now. In this context that the present paper seeks to discuss the necessity of Gandhian ethical approach is most important for the betterment of human society.

Keywords: Ahimsā, Fearlessness, Non-possession, Self-restraint, Self-realization.

Gandhian ethical philosophy is not merely an academic philosophy but a philosophy of action, a philosophy of transformation of individual as well as social life is only due to the ideal of nonviolence. Portraying man as a spiritual being Gandhi considers non-violence to be the law of the human being. The ideal of non-violence, for Gandhi, is the only ideal by adopting which permanent peace in social-political and ethical life can be achieved. Although the application of this ideal in our practical life needs sacrifice, self-suffering and faith in God in can be practised universally by all people as a surest means for the solution of any and every problems of our social life.

To Gandhi religion, ethics and spiritualism are all one. He holds that religion and ethics are for life and them from a sort of means to the spiritual attainment in the form of self-realization that is the end of life. He expects not only the learned and enlightened to seek perfection; he seeks perfections for the ordinary men and women. Man’s life has as its ultimate aim, self-realization and self-realization is possible only through a religious and moral life. It explains the all pervasive influence of morality on man’s life. No life in conceivable without religion and morality on which stands man’s life as a human. In Gandhian opinion a good life a life led on the percept of Ahimsa together with a constant service to the people to the society. Life is worth living when it is a life of service to God. According to Gandhiji, our main object is to realize Truth and for this the path of non-violence is to be resorted to. “…Without ahimsā it is not possible to seek and find Truth. Ahimsā and Truth are so intertwined that is practically impossible to disentangle and separate them.” 1 To him the imperatives like the truth, non-violence etc. come as the direction of the inner heart and the mental firmness in practicing the vows like truth; non-violence etc. is the penance for remaining in the path of morality. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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To Gandhiji morality is the basis of all things, and that truth is the basis of morality. He remarks“But one thing took deep root in me- the conviction that morality is the basis of all things and truth is the substance of all morality.”2 One who remains firmly in the path of morality without any fear can realize the grace of the Truth in the long run because he believes ‘Fearlessness is the first requisite of spirituality. Cowards can never be moral’.3 Gandhiji ethical approach is related to peace against war and democracy against dictatorship.

Violence destroys both. Hence, non-violence is the key to progress and peace. The practices of the non-violence save human beings from exploitation, environmental pollution4 evil relation actions against the will of the superiors, etc. All these lead to the social peace and harmony. The nonviolence is the means through which peace or śānti is attained. It helps to fulfil the mission of Gandhiji to establish an Rāmarajya, an ideal state, free from all kinds of oppression and unfairness and full of peace. Even today if non-violence is taken as a means, peace must come into being in the modern society as shown by Gandhiji. The word śānti comes from the root śaṁ meaning ‘to restrain’. Restraining our sense organs from external objects follows from the practice of nonviolence. The present word is ‘Hiṁsāy unmatta prtthī nitya niṭhura dvandva’ (i.e. the world is full of envy- here we find discontent full of envy and full of constant cruelty) and Gandhiji’s policy of nonviolence can alone bring peace after removing violent activities- mental or non-mental. Ultimately, non-violence teaches forgiveness and forgiveness is a quality of the brave only. There is no cowardice in non-violence and non-violence is a means of correction and conversion. It helps to change the heart of wrong doer. It is an active force, force of the soul or the power of the Godhead within us, which provides peace through rectification or correction.5 To Gandhiji a human beings body is meant for serving others. Following the line of the Bhagavadgītā it is said by him that one who takes something without offering that to others is a thief (apradāyaibhyo yo bhūṅkte stena eva saḥ).6 Every moral action performed by an individual is a kind of sacrifice or yajña. Gandhiji has taken the meaning of the term in a wider way. To him it means an action performed for the welfare of others without expecting any return from them. If this habits is cultivated regularly and deliberately, our desire for rendering selfless service to others will grow stronger, resulting in our own happiness as well as that of the world at large.

This principle is quite opposite to the utilitarian one, which advocates the greatest good of the greatest number, Gandhiji as a follower of Ahimsā principle cannot support this. If he wishes for some (not all), it will go in favour of himsā against a section of people. He always advocates the greatest good of all and ready to embrace even death for the realization of this ideal. An individual may embrace even death so that others may live happily. He believes in the principle of Tyaktena bhuñjīthāh (i.e. one should attain enjoyment through renunciation). An individual believing in utilitarianism, on the other hand, does not want to sacrifice for the sake of others. Gandhiji says- “I do not believe an individual may gain spirituality and those who surround him suffer. I believe in Advaita. I believe in the essential unity of man. Therefore, I believe that if one man gains spirituality, the whole world gains with him and, if one man falls, the whole world falls to the extent”.

A virtue is virtue in the true sense of the term if it is connected with the welfare of an individual as well as other social being. There is not a single virtue, which is connected with one’s own welfare http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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but not with others. In the same way, there is not a single vice, which can affect many offenders apart from the actual person. Whether a man is good or bad is not an individual’s concern, but concern of the whole community. Just as an infectious virus in an individual being affects not only him but also all, this type of bad quality cannot affect a man but the community as a whole. Hence, our ideal or ethical principles are connected with the welfare of all. In fact, the definition of Dharma given in the Mahabharata tells us that to think welfare of all is Dharma (Mānasaṁ sarvabhūtānāṁ dharmamāhurmaņişinaḥ/ yasmāt sarveşu bhūteşu manasā śivamācaret//).7 Mahatma Gandhi, the pioneering votary of humanism, believed that man is Truth and man is God in divine ascent and excellence. Gandhi loved man not because of his respect towards humanism but because he believed man as the best creation of the world. For true humanism Gandhiji wanted to cultivate and disseminate the education of the heart. Ha had profound love towards all the basic human values. To him, Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam- everyone is my friend-was the spirit which prompted Gandhi to fight for the establishment of human dignity. Gandhi, with his ideas of Truth and Love, with Sarvodaya, with Satyagraha, with education for human rights and democracy, practised his humanistic ideas. In the moment of crisis, to save humanity today from intolerance and disintegration and to save the world which is full of tension and conflicts because of troublesome tendencies Gandhian philosophy of ethics and humanism has special significance. Instead of technological advancement the spirit of humanism can save us from the pawn of intolerance and distrust. Our conviction is that there is no alternative to the ideal of non-violence that is the ideal of love as a means to overcome the social evils like violence and terrorism. Here lies the relevance of Gandhi’s ideal of non-violence and ethical doctrine. Thus, the spirit of Gandhian ethical approach, philosophy of Truth and Non-violence is the best alternative for the safety of humanity.

Gandhi did not like to restrict morality to the inner life of man. He did not place to responsibility of social evils on God or on the individual but on society. The deepest wounds on humanity inflicted by the present society could be healed by society alone. Social and economic evils are the products of a determinate organization of society and the eradication of evil from social life coincides with a radical transformation of man’s perspective of his existence and his conception of life. The subject matter of Gandhian ethics is therefore not only the individual but also human society.

Gandhi holds that in order to lead a good life we must have to fulfil two basic needs: celibacy and non-possessions, absence of the cultivation of these two needs leads man to a very ordinary, worldly selfish life full of moral attachment. In order to cultivate the celibacy and non-possession, restraint and self-control is absolutely necessary and this will become possible only by rigoristic performance of duty. Man becomes man by restraint and self-control. Man will become divine bathe in favour of God by this. This is a real purusartha in life. Although morality presupposes on inward development in Gandhi’s view and self control in regarded by Gandhi as necessary precondition to social control; man cannot realize his true nature by retiring into a cave or a forest. Gandhi holds that it is necessary for man to engage in the task of social transformation in terms of truth or its value components, Nonviolence, Freedom and Equality. Man’s life is valuable; his personality is unique and meaningful; but this meaningfulness can be experienced only by establishing unity and equality with other men. In

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committing himself to the ultimate values man also commits the whole of humanity to these values and the moral progress of entire humanity logically involves the moral progress of the individual.

References: 1. The Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. 4, Navajivan, 1968, pp. 213-215.

2. Gandhi. M.K: My Experiments with Truth, Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmedabad, 1948, p.40.

3. Young India, 13-10-21.

4. Manusaṁhitā, 8/285.

5. Ghosh. Raghunath : The Gandhian Concept of Morality: In the Light of Advaita Vedanta, Gauhati University Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 2, No.1, 1995.

6. Śrīmadbhagavadgītā, 2/3.

7. Mahābhārata, 193/31.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.53-59

WHAT MAKES GANDHI A MAHATMA? Sima Baruah ABSTRACT This paper attempts to show why Gandhi is known as Mahatma or a great soul throughout the world.

Gandhi was a great saint, social reformer, leader, an economist and an advocate of ‘Non-violence’.

Gandhi was a “Practical Idealist”. Gandhi gave utmost importance to the concept of ‘Truth’. Truth was the policy of his life. Through his principles of ‘Non-violence’ and ‘Religion’ Gandhi wanted to eradicate hatred in the relation between man and man. Through his principles of ‘Economic ideas’, ‘Bread labour’, ‘Basic education’ and ‘Trusteeship’ he wanted to make every individual selfdependent and establish a classless society. By the principle of ‘Swaraj’ Gandhi wanted to bring a feeling of patriotism among the people to fight for the freedom of their country. And by the concept of ‘Sarvodaya’ Gandhi aimed at the alround development of all sections of people. This paper shows that one can practically implement all the principles of Gandhi and make oneself better member of the society. If every people practises the principles of Gandhi and transform oneself to a better individual then it will equally transform the nation to a better nation as the Eden of heavens full with love and peace.

Rabindranath Tagore wrote about Mahatma Gandhi, “He stopped at the threshold of the huts of the thousands of dispossessed, dressed like one of their own. He spoke to them in their own language.

Here was a living truth at last and not only quotations from books. For this reason ‘the Mahatma’, the name given to him by the people of India is his real name. Who else has felt like him that all Indians are his own flesh and blood? At Gandhi’s call India blossomed forth to new greatness, just as once before, in earlier time, during the time of Buddha”.

Mahatma means a great soul. Gandhi is remembered throughout the world as a great soul and an apostle of peace. Rabindranath Tagore honoured him ‘Mahatma’ because Tagore thought Gandhi was the best leader for India at that time because of his altruistic philosophy, dedication to society and more for following dharma.

In April, 1921 the Reverend Dr. John Haynes Holmes minister of the community church of New York, introduced Gandhi to the American people in a sermon, “Who is the greatest man in the world today?” Without equivocation, Dr. Holmes named Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was a great saint, social reformer, leader, an economist and an advocate of non-violence. His principles of truth, faith, simplicity, tolerance, non-violence has no match binding whole India as one against mighty British Empire. His constant efforts on increasing economic self-reliance, woman’s right, ending

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untouchability, promoting handlooms tell that not only he was fighting against British rule but also recognised the weaknesses of our society and tried his best to improve them.

In Gandhi’s philosophy we find an unique combination of politics, ethics and sociology. He called himself a “Practical Idealist”. He was an idealist on account of his theoretical views, as he believed in an ideal that was completely spiritual. But he was also a practical philosopher who always tried to put his ideas into practise. He tried to show that society and state could very well be shaped in accordance with his philosophical and religious views.

TRUTH: Adherence to truth in absolute terms irrespective of personal loss or gain is the central policy of Gandhism. Though his autobiography is alternately titled “The Story of my Experiments with Truth”- Gandhi was not a philosopher in the technical sense. He did not analyse truth for the sake of understanding it. He was connected with it as a policy of life. That is why he was less concerned with truth as such but with truth of a given thing or situation at a given time. According to Gandhi “This truth is not only truthfulness in word, but truthfulness in thought also, and not only the relative truth of our conception, but the absolute truth, the eternal principle that is God”.

Gandhi held truth in such a high esteem that it was for him the ultimate value in life and experience.

To that extent he did not distinguish between truth, beauty or goodness. They were the same for him.

He saw beauty in truth and truth in beauty, much like Keats (though the ways they came to such a view might be different). For Keats beauty might be the obsession and hence explanatory of all; for Gandhi, truth is “All truths, not merely true ideas, but truthful faces, truthful pictures or songs are highly beautiful. The people generally fail to see beauty in truth, the ordinary man runs away from it and becomes blind to the beauty in it. When man begins to see beauty in truth, then true art will arise.” Truth is only an epistemic value and is irrelevant in the field of aesthetics. It is not an insult to truth, but its proper evaluation: That it is non-aesthetic. It should remain silent where art is concerned. It is a totally different domain of discourse.

NON-VIOLENCE: Gandhi gives very much importance to the concept of ahimsa and he declares like the Jainas that ahimsa or non-violence is the greatest religion, “Ahimsa Paramo Dharma”.

Gandhi says that non-violence is meant for the strong and not for the weak. It is easy to hate, but it requires supreme energy and strength to love. Gandhi believes that violence is essentially an expression of weakness. Violence is a way of thought and action. It disrupts breaks and destroys. In some circumstances violence may be justified today. But an eye for an eye makes the whole world blind. If something is done through violence, which only means disruption and destruction of sorts and if it is proved false after a time, we realise that the original act was a mistake. How can we go back and correct the past mistakes? If we forgive someone by mistake and get to know in future that, that was a mistake-we are happy. But if we punish someone by mistake and realise it in future, we are terribly unhappy. Therefore violence which only destroys, disrupts, kills, spreads conflicts, can hardly be justified. We cannot take actions based on violence for those cannot be revised. It is impossible for someone to be violent as well as truthful or non-violent and a liar. Non-violence is only a corollary of deliberate and consistent truthfulness.

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Gandhi was very much influenced by the Gita. In the Gita there is the example of Kurukshetra which is violence. But according to Gandhi Gita is not a book which supports violence, but it was a battle between good and evil and it was necessary to suppress evil. Again the concept of Niskamakarma of Gita can only be attained through non-violence. Gandhi said “Niskamakarma and Ahimsa were so closely knit together that one cannot separate the two. It implies that a man who has renounced the fruit of action has not been left with any ground to commit violence.”

“Ahimsa” Gandhi observes, “Is always infallible. When, therefore, it appears to have failed, the failure is due to the inaptitude of the votary.” Without violence or bloodshed Gandhi fought the fight of independence and at last carried it through to victory.

RELIGION: Religion for Gandhi, was not a peripheral thing. He says, “I am a man of religion” but adds, “I believe in the Religion of religions”. Religion was the core of his being and it was the inspiration for all his activities in various field of his life. Gandhi said, “I could not live for a single second without religion. My politics and all other activities of mine are derived from religion.” By religion Gandhi meant an universal religion. To quote Gandhi, “Just as a tree has a single trunk and many branches similarly there is one religion which underlies many particular religions”. Religion is not equitable with particular religions, it transcends Hinduism, Christianity, Islam and other religions and yet it harmonises them all and gives them reality. By the expression “Religion of Religions” Gandhi seems to talk about the essence of religions. For him, all religions are essentially alike.

Gandhi’s religion was a humanitarian religion. Like Tagore, Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan, Gandhi proclaimed a humanitarian view of religion. The service of humanity therefore is the greatest religion according to Gandhi. There are certain points of similarity between Gandhi’s religion and Buddhist religion. Gandhi was very much attracted to the simplicity of life preached by Buddha.

Buddha lead a life dedicated to the cause of society. Gandhi also wanted to dedicate his life for the cause of society.

Gandhi wrote in “Harijan” that “Religion is a very personal matter”. Everyone should be free to choose his own. What was fundamental was a personal realisation of the religious truths. It was ridiculous to fight in the name of religion. All religions, barring certain differences in emphasis believed in the same fundamental maxims and postulates of the moral code. Hence Gandhi wanted the end of all religious struggles. He said in a prayer meeting in Noakhalion January 8, 1947. “All religions are equal,.... Religions were like leaves of the same tree. There was nothing to quarrel among Hindus, Muslims, Christians and others.”

Gandhi gives much importance to the concept of tolerance when he talks about religion. Tolerance is linked with non-violence. Tolerance as a virtue is necessary, because it encourages harmony and cooperation for common ends between different religions. Thus tolerance does not mean indifferent to one’s own religion, it is a clear and deeper understanding of one’s own religion by having a clear comprehension and understanding of other religions. People are attracted by the ritualistic or the formalistic aspect of religions and forget its essence. As for example, Hindu religion is said to be based on tolerance, Islam on justice, Christianity on love. But, today it is observed that those who claim to be true Hindu, true Muslim or true Christian lack tolerance, justice and love. Gandhi stood http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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not only for tolerance of all faiths (sarva dharma sahisnuta) but also for the equal validity of all faiths (sarva dharma samata). Gandhi has the famous verse for his inspiration.

“Iswara alla tera nama mandir masjid tera dham Sabko sanmati de bhagavan” According to Gandhi, true religion and true morality are inseparably bound up with each other. If religion denies any of the virtues we normally associate with morality it does not deserve to be called religion. Moral life of man must be fully concerned with one’s relation with one’s fellows. In Gandhi’s view the noblest of all aims is the worship of God. And the highest form of worship consists in doing the work of God by living in obedience to moral law and by rendering disinterested service to humanity. For him a man of religion must have a firm belief in Sarvodaya or well-being of all. So he says, “I am endeavouring to see God through the service of humanity”.

Gandhi like Swami Vivekananda, understood religion in terms of the relation between man and man.

Both saw God in the eyes of the poor. Both were men of great moral fervour. In an age of rising expectations Gandhi shifted the discussion from right to duties. The minimum need of all must be satisfied before the special needs of a few could be catered to. Expectations should be directed to ourselves, to what we could do to ‘change reality’ rather than to what the government or those in authority would do for us.

ECONOMIC IDEAS: According to Indian Philosophy there are four ends of human life. They are; Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa. Artha or wealth is only a means to the ultimate end which is Moksa. So Indian Philosophy teaches that we must not take wealth as the ultimate goal of our life.

Too much indulgence of wealth is a vice according to Indian Philosophy and this tradition is supported by Gandhi. One principle which played a significant part in Gandhi’s life was ‘Simple living and high thinking’.The ancient Indian Upanishads teaches us that human wants are unlimited.

The first sloka of the Isopanishad says, “ Isa vasya midam sarvam Yatkincha jagatyam jagat Tena tyaktena bhunjitah Ma gridah kasyacit dhanam”.

“With that renounced thou mayest enjoy. Cavet not the wealth of anyone at all.” (Isopanishad chakra-1, sloka-1) The teaching of the Isopanishad that speaks of sacrifice and renouncing of wealth is an important teaching of Indian Philosophy and this tradition of Indian Philosophy has greatly influenced the thought of Gandhi. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad says, “the mind is like a restless bird, the more it gets the more it wants”. Gandhi said that satisfaction and happiness are mental conditions and there is no end to the multiplicity of wants. Gandhi therefore supported the view that we must keep satisfied with the minimum of our requirements. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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BREAD LABOUR: Gandhi realised the dignity of human labour. He believed that God created man to eat his bread by the sweat of his brow. According to Gandhi as far as practicable everybody should earn their own bread. That is everybody should indulge in the minimum of physical activities as far as practicable to earn his or her own bread. Therefore Gandhi was in favour of the farmers and the labourer class who work very hard to earn their own bread. According to Gandhi those who eat without indulging in any physical activity in earning his or her bread is like a thief. Gandhi made use of the concept of ‘Bread Labour’ to tell people to utilize their idle hours which in villages are equal to the working days of six months in the year. Gandhi preached and practised the gospel of manual work.

BASIC EDUCATION: Gandhi’s concept of ‘bread labour’ underlies his system of Basic Education.

Basic Education is an activity method. It is really a production oriented system of education. It emphasises on learning and doing simultaneously. The Basic Education Scheme of Gandhi was the result of his philosophy of truth and non-violence. Development of good citizenship qualities for a strong nation was the prime mission of Gandhi’s Basic Education. He planned Basic Education for the eradication of illiteracy among the masses so as to help to understand the mission of life. The primary aim of Basic Education was the alround development of human personality. He did not neglect bread and butter aims of education. The primary emphasis of Basic Education was on three aspects, i.e. development of Head, Heart and Hand, so as to help to think better, feel better and do better for life and society. Basic Education put importance on imparting vocational training to link education with self-dependence and socio economic development. To Gandhi, real education means self-sufficiency. His Basic Scheme of Education emphasised on the development of the spirit of cooperation, discipline, sacrifice, integrity, fearlessness etc. The fundamental goal of Basic Education in brief, was self-reliant citizen with well-balanced personality.

After completion of formal education most of us automatically think like employees, looking at which company to join, who to work for...But we never think like employers. Being an entrepreneur involves risks, but it also makes one self-reliant and able to empower many others. An entrepreneur creates economic activity, instead of just participating in it. If more youngsters thought about building their own start-ups, we would have so many fresh ideas flowing into our society!

TRUSTEESHIP: According to the Jaina theory of Aparigraha we should put a limit to our wants and should not use the extra wealth or income for our enjoyment or pleasure. So Aparigraha or abstinence is one of the most important principles of Jainas by which Gandhi was very much influenced. It had been said that Gandhi wanted to transform the capitalist class to the socialist class by trusteeship.

Trusteeship is a method or principle according to which we can change the society not by force or compulsion but by the change of one’s heart. By the theory of trusteeship one voluntarily declares his extra wealth or income and allows it to be used for the greater interest of the society.

Gandhi wanted all people should be equal more or less from the economic standpoint. Gandhi wanted to abolish the distinction between the rich class and the poor class in the society. In the aspect of economic equality Gandhi was influenced by the book “Unto the last” by John Ruskin. In this book John Ruskin has mentioned that all should get equal wages as far as practicable. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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SWARAJ: The ultimate aim of every activity, according to Gandhi, is the realisation of spiritual freedom. Swaraj is a step towards it, because it enables an individual to realise at least political freedom.

We have the mention of the word ‘Swaraj’ in Taittareya Upanishad; “Pranara mana anandam Santi samriddham swarajyam” Swaraj is that which gives happiness and bliss to the mind.

According to Gandhi also swaraj is the basic necessity of the individual. Without Swaraj or self-rule there can be no peace and happiness in the society. Gandhi says, “The Swaraj of my dream is the poor man’s Swaraj. The necessity of life should be enjoyed by you in common with those enjoyed by princes and monied men”. Gandhi compared Swaraj with ‘Ramraj’. ‘Ram’ according to Gandhi stands for the qualities of justice, equality, truth, honesty etc. Therefore by ‘Ramraj’ Gandhi meant the rule which should be the ideal rule having these qualities.

SARVODAYA: Swaraj leads to Sarvodaya. The etymological meaning of Sarvodaya is the ‘rising of all’. As an universal ideal, Sarvodaya aims at not only fulfilling the material needs but also developing the ethico-spiritual aspect of all people. The revival of ancient philosophy of Sarvodaya is his greatest contribution to the world of thought. Gandhi attempted the synthesis of the ideas of Vedanta, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity and the teaching of people like Tulasidas, Tolstoy, Thoreau, Ruskin and national leaders of Indian Renaissance Movement. The philosophy of Sarvodaya takes up the Gandhian synthesis and tries to work out the implication of their ideas at more critical and analytical levels.

In order to realise Sarvodaya Gandhi was in favour of the upliftment of the village people. He wanted to develop the cottage and small scale industries because they are labour intensive in the sense that they can absorb a large number of labourers. He encouraged the handicraft industries which produces articles of daily needs like leather sandals, mats, utensils, bags and so on and on. Gandhi was in favour of ‘production by masses’ rather than ‘mass production’. A centralised economy according to Gandhi is the root cause of concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few individuals. So according to Gandhi the means of production must be decentralised and it should reach every village in every corner of India.

SATYAGRAHA: Gandhi says, “There is only one whom we have to fear, that is God. When we fear God, we shall fear no man, and if you went to follow the vows of truth, then fearlessness is absolutely necessary”. This doctrine of fearless pursuit is called Satyagraha. Satyagraha means persistence in truth. It is also called truth force. The philosophy of Satyagraha is thus the natural outcome of the concept of truth. It is a non-violence method to eradicate injustice, exploitation etc.

Gandhi believes that truth can never be failed and it is not confined to any particular religion. It is the utmost moral urge of all human beings. Our vedic risis have also worked for it. Gandhi acquired this technique of Satyagraha with the help of non-violence and non-co-operation where a Satyagrahi punished himself instead of the opponent and cherished love and non-violence attitude to enjoy legal and moral rights. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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According to Gandhi, a Satyagrahi must observe five vows of Truthfulness, Non-violence, Nonthieving, Non-possession and Sex-control. Nowadays we also observe that some of the organisations of our country has obeyed Gandhian ideal of Satyagraha like fasting, non-co-operation etc. against the government and most of them got successful result. We also perceive everywhere the enormous crisis of moral values and love. Gandhian act of Satyaghaha is the easiest instrument to solve various problems of the present world conflicts.

CONCLUSION: Gandhi’s philosophy teaches us to pay more and more attention to the positive aspect of things which can be used for the spreading of universal brotherhood and love by breaking the barriers of space and time. Because as Gita says “Vasudeva Kutumbakam”, which means all the people are our brothers and sisters and we must use relation for our peace and prosperity. The very first piece of advice that a vedic teacher has given to his students returning home after graduation is this ‘Satyam Vada, Dharman Chara’, “speak the truth, act according to dharma”. Their advice rendered over five thousand years ago is valid even today.......

In the matter of practising truth, there is no compromise. They will invariably tell that they know to be true and face the consequence, however severe. They often end up by antagonising people and inviting dangers for themselves. But they are courageous. Life becomes an endless possession of activities based on truth. Upholding truth becomes the mission of life. Life itself becomes of minor importance. Death loses its awesomeness. There are examples of people dying for the security of their country or dying for other noble causes. These Gandhian type thinkers believe that truth is a cause noble enough to die for. They do not of course kill others. But they do not bother if they will be killed. They are really killed too! Socrates got killed. Jesus got killed. Bruno and Bonhoeffer got killed. Gandhi too got killed. They pay the price for their deep convictions with their lives. They never regret that. That is why they are Mahatmas.

With the help of Non-violence and Satyagraha a new world order of peace and universal brotherhood of man can be established in the globe of mankind and that can change the earth of man full with violence and hatred to the Eden of heavens full with love and peace.

REFERENCES: Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1940). An Autobiography Or The Story of My Experiments with Truth (2 ed.). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House.

Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand(1962). The Essential Gandhi. Ballantine Books, Vintage Books.

Parel, Anthony J., ed. (2009). Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand, ‘Hind Swaraj’ and Other Writings Centenary Edition, University Press.

Kuruvila Pandikattu(2001). Gandhi: the meaning of Mahatma for the millennium, CRVP. Gandhi, M.K :“Some Rules of Satyagraha” Young India (Navajivan) 23 Feb., 1930.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.60-66

JAINISM IN A GLOBALISED WORLD Jatinder Kumar Jain Globalization in a literal sense is international integration. It is a process of unifying of the people with different backgrounds into a single society and functioning harmoniously. The advocacy of globalization is called globalism which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to consume and enjoy foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices and participate in a “world culture”.

Globalists argue that globalization has helped in optimum utilization of resources, price reduction, more employment, higher output, a higher standard of living and civil liberties.

In the era of globalism, science and technology has made the life of man very comfortable materially.

But unfortunately man has lost faith in spiritual and human values. With the advent of new electronic means of communication, the world has shrinked into a global village. The physical distance between nations, cultures, religions, races, civilizations and languages and consequently among people have gone, but the distance between the hearts is increasing. Atmosphere of hatred and hostility has developed between divergent viewpoints. The values of co-existence and co-operation are being ignored, which are essential for the very existence of mankind. It has led to emergence of hegemonical tendencies among certain nations, races, castes, religions, civilizations which has put a question mark of the very existence of mankind. The atmosphere of hatred and hostility has led to production and proliferation of weapons of mass destruction like nuclear weapons. The race for such weapon is putting a question mark on the very survival of mankind.

According to Huntington, "Clashes of civilization are the greatest threat to world peace, and an international order based on civilization is the surest safeguard against world war." 1 World, that is comprised of divergent value-structures, norms and behaviors, ethnically of many races and their inter-mixing, multi-cultural and multi lingual, of different religious communities, adhering to different political ideologies of extreme right, extreme left and uneven economic development of different regions resulting in uneven employment opportunities, in this era of globalization there is a need of such a comprehensive philosophy which can help in achieving mental peace and equilibrium and also help mankind in evolving a atmosphere of mutual respect and harmony between different races, religions, nations, civilizations, castes and classes and promote world peace, coexistence, equitable distribution of wealth and readdress ecological and environmental issues.

Principal of ahimsa advocated in Jainism offers a wholesome and integrated solution. The doctrine of non-violence occupies an important place in Buddhism as well as Yoga system of Patanjali, but the type of importance it is given in Jainism is unparallel. It is central in Jaina religion. Ahimsa is so http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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central in the Jaina faith that it may be called the beginning and the end of Jaina religion. According to Jainism, ‘non-violence is the highest dharma.” It is the essence of religion.2 In nutshell the Jain philosophy can be summed up as : the contact of living and non-living result in the formation of Samskaras i.e. energies causing birth, death, pleasure, pain and other such experiences of life. The process could be stopped called samvara in Jainism. By nirjara the already formed samkaras can be destroyed liberation could be attained by these types of austerities. There are seven tattvas, which are: (1)

Living (Jiva)

(2)

Non-living (Ajiva)

(3)

Contact of the two

(4)

Contact leading to the formation of Samkaras

(5)

Process of formation could be stopped (Samvara)

(6)

Existing samkaras could be exhausted (Nirjara)

(7)

Salvation (Moksha)

According to Huntington, the post-cold war world would regroup into regional alliances, which are based on religious beliefs and historical attachments to various civilization. These religio – political barrier would severely constrains the progress of globalism. In the clash of civilizations, Huntington says religious differences play a most important part as "religion is a central defining characteristic of civilizations”3 About religious differences in different religions, John H. Hick says, “different religions seen to say different and incompatible things about the nature of Ultimate Reality, about the modes of divine activity, and about the nature and destiny of human race.”4 Jain’s philosophy of Anekantavada and Syadavada which teaches one can be respectful to other view points while professing his own, as reality is too complex to be comprehended by single view point.

Such a doctrine helps in promoting mutual respects in heterogeneous groups of people with multiracial background, living in multi lingual society professing different religions, inhabiting diverse geographical regions with diverse cultural background. Jainism whose motto is: “all life is interrelated and it is the duty of souls to assist each other,” can help in Jain's doctrine of Anekantavada offers a rich philosophical resource for addressing the question of the conflicting truth claims of different religion. In the domain of philosophical thought, Jainism has given rise to the attitude of non-absolutism (Anekantavada) or the doctrine of explanation by division (Vibhajyavada). Obstinate insistence on one's own attitude and way of thought, considering them as complete and ultimate truth, is an enemy of the attitude of equality. So the attitude of other person should be given due respect and attention. As reality has innumerable aspects and no single aspect can comprehend it in totality, so innumerable aspects are required to comprehend it. Anekantavada is the "theory of http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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manifoldness of reality ", according to B.K.Matilal, who again says, “the term Anekantavada is also used for the Jain philosophical method – as a method which allows for reconciliation, integration and synthesis of conflicting philosophical views.”5 According to this view, reality is extremely indeterminate in its nature. There are innumerable ways of looking at reality and each view yields different conclusion. The nature of reality is expressed completely by none of them, for in its concrete richness it admits all predicates. Every proposition is therefore only conditional.6 According to the twin doctrine of Anekantavada and Syadvada each view-point is only conditional and is characterized by ‘may be’.

We cannot absolutely affirm or deny anything of any object. There is nothing certain on account of the endless complexity of things. It emphasizes the complex nature of reality and its indefiniteness. It does not deny the possibility of predication; through it disallows absolute or categorical predication.

The dynamic character of reality can consult only with relative or conditional predication. Every proposition is true, but only under certain conditions, i.e. hypothetical.7 Jain thinkers illustrate this position by means of a story of the five blind men, who put their hands on the different parts of the elephant and each tried to describe the whole animal from the part touched by him. All philosophical, ideological and religious differences and disputes are mainly due to mistaking a partial truth for the whole truth. The different judgments represent different aspects of the many-sided reality and can claim only partial truth. This view makes Jainism catholic, broad minded and tolerant. It teaches respect for others' point of view. The doctrine indicates extreme caution and signifies an anxiety to avoid all dogma in defining the nature of reality. 8 The doctrine of Anekantavada brings the spirit of intellectual and social tolerance, which is the need of the hour. The spirit of tolerance was maintained in Jainism from the very beginning. In the 6th century B.C., when there were different religious and philosophical ideologies prevalent in India, 24 Tirthankara Lord Mahavira asserts in Sutrakritanga, “Those who praise their own faiths and ideologies and blame those of their opponents and thus distort the truth will remain confined to the cycle of birth and death". Jain philosophers always maintained that all viewpoints are true in respect of what they have themselves to say, but they are false in so far as they totally refute other viewpoints. Jain thinker of 8th century A.D. Haribhadra says , “I bear no bias towards Lord Mahavira and no disregard to Kapila and other saints and thinkers, whatsoever is rational and logical ought to be accepted.” About the epistemological importance of Anekantavada, B.K. Matilal says, “The philosophical position of the Jains in this way found expression in the Anekanta doctrine, a doctrine that was characterized by toleration, understanding and respect for the views of others. This is a unique character of Jain philosophy and religion, which I found most (admirable). For very seldom (has) such a sincere attempt been made to understand the position of the adversary.” 9 Practice of Panchmahvrattas is central for the attainment of liberation in Jainism. These are : 1. Ahimsa (Non-violence) 2.Satya (Truthfulness) 3.Asteya (Non-Stealing) http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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4.Brahmacharya (Chastity) 5.Aparigraha (Non-acquisition) 1.Ahimsa (Non-violence) : It is central and fundamental virtue. All the rest are regarded as the mean for it proper sustenance, just as the field of corn requires adequate fencing for its protection 10.

Nonviolence is regarded as the highest dhrama in Jainism. Its scope is much wider in Jainism. It is not harming by thought, speech and action any living creature (including not only human beings, animals but also plants and vegetables and even elements of water, air, earth etc.). According to Jainism all living beings from one-sensed to the five sensed are basically like our own self. 11 Consequently it is not justifiable to injure them, to rule our them and to torment them. 12 About this vow of non-violence, Maurice winternitz quotes from Acharanga Sutra as : “I speak thus. All saints (Arhats) and Lords (Bhagavats) in the past, in the present and in the future, they all say thus, speak thus, announce thus and declare thus : one may not kill, nor ill-use, nor insult, nor torment, nor persecute any kind of living being, any kind of creature, any kind of thing having a soul, any kind of things. That is the pure, eternal, enduring commandment of religion, which has been proclaimed by the sages who comprehend the world.”13.

Violence has been categorized into four kinds : 1.

Accidental

2.

Occupational

3.

Protective

4.

Intentional

1.

Accidental Violence is injury to small living beings, unavoidable in walking, bathing, preparing food, eating, cleaning and other similar activities of daily life.

2.

Occupational Violence is when a soldier has to fight and cause physical harm to enemy or when a former has to cause physical violence to living being while performing farming operation.

3.

Protective Violence is when we kill a living being which otherwise might itself kill us or become an instrumental in killing or harming us like killing poisonous snake, dacoit, mosquitoes etc.

4.

Intentional Violence is when we kill living beings simply for the sake of killing or for fun.

A householder is required to abstain fully from the fourth kind of injury, and he should take as much care and caution against loss of life in the other forms as it is possible for him. He should cause violence to the minimum for his sustenance of life and discharge of duties. Piercing, binding, over loading and starving animals are all forms of violence and should be avoided.

If mankind has to survive, there is a urgent need of a firm belief in the principles of non-violence. In Acharanga Sutra, it is said , “There are weapons superior to each other, but nothing is superior to non-violence.” Peace and prosperity can be secured through the principle of Ahimsa (non-violence).

It is an inevitable principle for the existence of human society in present era.

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The implication of Ahimsanuvrata in solving social, national and international problems is that the principle of mutual understanding should be adhered to. “Life should be elevated altogether from the plane of force to that of reason, persuasion, accommodation and mutual service.” 14 The maintenance of universal peace and the promotion of human welfare can only be affected by suffusing world’s atmosphere with the spirit of Ahimsa.

The doctrine of Ahimsa takes the form of forgiveness in social sphere, which is very vital for the peaceful co-existence of mutually contradictory viewpoints. A Jain muni forgives each and every creature every day, including those who intentionally or unintentionally might have harmed him.

This attitude of forgiveness promotes general peace in society along with providing mental peace to the practioner.

2.Satya (Truthfulness) : One should not utter false and even truths injurious to others. One should neither speak falsehood himself, nor induce others to do so, nor approve falsehood of others. Other forms of untruth are-spreading false ideas, divulging the secrets of others, back-bitting, forging documents, and breach of trust. They are to be avoided.

3.Asteya (Non-Stealing) : Steya (Stealing) means appropriating things not lawfully belonging to us.

This vow is extension of the vow of non-violence as things constitute the external pranas of a man and he who thieves and plunders them is said to deprive a man of his pranas.

Appropriating to oneself what another man has forgotten or has dropped or accepting what he knows to be stolen property, instructing another person in the method of stealing, adulteration and use of false weights and measures are all forms of theft and should be abstained from.

4.Brahmacharya (Chastity) : Sex passion is abhrahma. It is expected of muni that he should be completely free from sexual inclination. But for a householder keeping himself satisfied with his own wife is observing the vow of celibacy. He should keep himself away from prostitution, adultery, unnatural methods of sexual enjoyment and the like.

5.Aparigraha (Non-acquisition) : Acquisition of things is parigraha. It is a form of himsa. A householder should limit the possession of wealth and other material things. This vow can help in reducing economic inequalities rampant in the society. It will lead to a situation where everybody will be able to get things of at least daily necessity. If he earns more than he should spend it away in charities like distribution of medicines, spreading knowledge, supporting teachers, helping those in danger, feeding the hungry and the poor.

Globalization has created a situation in economic field where the developed economies were able to exploit the less developed. The multinational companies are dominating every sphere of life. This has led to a situation where some have grown very rich and a vast majority has slipped to abject poverty.

According to human development report of United Nation development programme 1992, 20% rich has 82.7% income while 20% poorest has mere 1.2% income. According to The UN Report on the World Social Situation 2010 released globally in New Delhi on 30/01/2010 over 40% of people in India still lives on less than $ 1.25 [around Rs 60] a day. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Often recourse to communalism and regionalism is taken whenever vested interests are involved.

These vested interests are mostly economic in nature. Economic disparity and unemployment are two biggest causes of religious fundamentalism and terrorism. According to Engels,“the ideas of each historical period are most simply to be explained from the economic conditions of life and from the social and political relation of the period, which are in turn determined by these economic conditions.”15 This unequal distribution of wealth has led to unrest among masses, which need to be addressed immediately, otherwise the whole system will collapse leading to large scale violence. Here we need such a view of life which teaches haves to voluntarily share their wealth and riches with have nots.

The rich should limit their greed and possession. Rather, there is a need of philosophy of life which teaches them (the rich) to work for general welfare instead of their own selfish interests. The vow of Aparigraha teaches such a philosophy.

Jain's doctrine of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Anekantavada (non-absolutism) preaches a broader outlook and open-mindedness, which is essential to solve the conflicts caused by differences in ideologies and faiths. This spirit is very much necessary in contemporary arena when conflicting ideologies are trying to assert supremacy aggressively. In globalized world the basic problems are mental tension, violence, unequal distribution of wealth, and the conflicts between different ideologies, faiths, civilizations etc., which is threatening world peace and harmony. Jainism has tried to solve these problems of mankind through the basic tenets of Ahimsa (non-violence), Aparigraha (non-acquisition) and Anekantavada (non-absolutism). If mankind observes these principles, peace and harmony can certainly be established in the world. Jain’s philosophy of Anekantavada and Syadavada which teaches one can be respectful to other view points while professing his own, as reality is too complex to be comprehended by single view point. Such a doctrine helps in promoting mutual respects in heterogeneous groups of people with multi-racial background, living in multi lingual society professing different religions, inhabiting diverse geographical regions with diverse cultural background. Jainism whose motto is: “all life is inter-related and it is the duty of souls to assist each other,” can help in the process of globalization.

References: 1. Huntington, Samuel P. (1997). The Clash of Civilization and Remaking of World Order Penguine Books, New Delhi, p. 13 2. Sutrakrtanga-sutra, 1.1.4.10.

3. Huntington, Samuel P ; op.cit, p. 47 4. John H. Hick (1990). Philosophy of Religion Englewood Clifs, New Jersy, Prentice Hall, p.109 5. B.K.Matilal (1981). The Central Philosophy of Jainism (Anekantavada)L.D.Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, p. 23.

6. Hiriyanna, M. (2000). Outlines of Indian Philosophy, MLBD Publishers, Delhi, p. 163.

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7. Radhakrishnan, Dr. S.(1941). Indian Philosophy, vol. I, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, p. 302.

8. Hiriyanna, M. : op. cit., p. 163.

9. B.K. Matilal, op. cit., p. 6.

10. Sarvarthasiddhi VII.1.

11. Dasavaikalika Sutra 1.5.5 12. Acharanga Sutra 1.79 13. Maurice Winternitz (1972). History of Indian Literature Oriantal Books reprint corporation, New Delhi, p.436.

14. Prasad, Beni: World Problems and Jaina Ethics, Jain Cultural Society, Banaras, p.9.

15. Engels,F. (1975). “Karl Marx”, Selected Works, Progress Publishers, Moscow,p.372.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.67-69

EVOLUTION OF VARNA-SRAMA SYSTEM INTO CASTE SYSTEM Rinky Chowdhury In ancient India, the social structure was based on scientific principle. Varnasharma system was based on the classification of a general distribution of wealth, promoted mental and moral progress, made tranquility compatible with advancement and also ensured material efficiency.

In the Rigvedic period, mankind was divided into two classes – the Aryas or the civilized or the white and the Dasyus or the savage or the black. Later on, in the light of the Yajurveda Samhita mankind was divided into four classes –    

The Brahmanas, who devoted themselves in the acquisition of knowledge and learning and following the liberal arts and sciences.

The Kshatriyas, who devoted themselves in the theory of war and arts of war. The executive government of the people was entrusted to them.

The Vaisyas, who devoted themselves to trade, business and other like professions. They are the producers of wealth, distributors of wealth, keepers of wealth and the sustainers of wealth.

The Sudras, who were entrusted to serve the other three classes. Those who could not choose for himself a respectable place on account of his own weakness or idleness and are treated a man of low capacities.

In other words, the social stratification or the varna system in the vedic period can be compared to the four parts of the body. A Brahmana was like the head of the body(society), a Kshtriya was like arms, a Vaisya like thighs and the Sudra was like the feet. Head leads the entire body by sending signal to specific parts and safeguards the interest of every parts of body. Similarly, the objective of acquisition of knowledge of the Vedas to be achieved by Brahmana is not for himself but for the whole society and its people. Kshtriyas who are the arms of the society, protect the other three varnas from evil force or deeds and defends the country like soldiers. Vaisya, who was like thighs, act as an agent to carry the produced goods in the society from the place of their production to the place where these are needed. Sudra, who was considered as feet of the human body but a useful member of the society. Just as man cannot stand upon his legs without feet, society cannot continue to exist without the service and help of the men of low capacities. As the human society needs many things, which no single person can do efficiently, so it leaves every man to choose his own line of works.

If we retreat back to the pre-vedic period and see the panaromic view of the Varnasrama system in ancient India, it is found that Varnasrama was not rigid. It may be regarded as an instrument of social tolerance and adjustment, because it sought to find a place, however lowly, for every social element and every social functions. To find a place for every manifestation of life was one of the main http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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endeavors. But with the by-gone times, people in the society made it rigid i.e. one will categories to a particular class by his birth only and attains the varna nature from hierarchy and leads to caste system of the present day. It originally started from classes but with the passage with time it has become very complicated and rigid. In the early days of the human race, there was no class distinctions as all are born from the supreme. In ancient vedic era, it was acceptable that by the first or physical birth all are born as sudras, but become regenerate (Dvija) by the second or spiritual birth or by actions. It was by their actions that mankind was divided into different varnas or classes. No Brahmana was a Brahmana by blood nor a Sudra was made a Sudra by the society; but he was considered a sudra because of his own karma (action).Everybody belong to the order to which his merits fitted him to be. A brahmana becomes a brahmana by gaining a knowledge of the veda and if God. He should perform sacrifices, worshiping God on behalf of others, should teach others the knowledge of veda and lead a simple life void of wealth and kept distance from all sorts of material pleasure and honours as well. He must devote his whole life in the study of Vedas and to teach others. If a brahmana ceases to be the trustee of the interests of the whole society and omitting the study of Vedas, soon becomes a sudra along with his family. A brahmana who does not study the Vedas and does not perform any tapas and yet receive charity is like a stone float in the water who will sink deeper and deeper in the quagmire of sin.

Some good examples can be put down in the form of writing in relation to these four clases.Jabala, who is otherwise called Satya-Kama jabala, born of a slave girl, had no gotra or family name. He is known so after his mother Jabala, was the founder of a school of the Yajur veda. Rhisi Balmiki, surd by birth, was the author of the Ramayana. Kavasa, son of a low-caste woman, Ilusa, and sudra by birth, by learning and wisdom, distinguished himself as a Rhisi. He was greatly respected for his attainments in various literary fields. He was admitted into the class of Rhisi’s for some of his contributions of the hymns of the Rigbeda. Some of the kings like Asvapati of Kekayas, Ajata satru of kasi, Janaka of videha and Prabhu Jabala of Panchala become brahmanas through learning and even instructed brahmanas in the lore of the Brahma.

Therefore, it is aptly clear that the original classification was based not on mere birth but were separated by virtue and action. Neither through ancestors nor through color can the spirit worthy of a Brahmana be generated. There is no difference between one man and other. The people enjoyed the advantages and disadvantages of his good and bad actions (karma). The son of a Brahmana sometimes become a kshatriya or a vaisya, or a Sudra depending on his karma. And at the sametime, a sudra could become a brahmana or a kshtriya. Knowledge and wisdom was looked upon as the primary qualification of a person. But with changes of time, things have changed. The class system in its earlier form had proved beneficial to the contemporary society, as it was based on the theory of karma and on the basis of birth. But now its present form is very harmful for the Indian society. In fact, it has done more harm than worth more to the Indian community. The serious drawbacks of a rigid system of caste based on birth took place in the place of flexible Varnasrama system of the ancient time. Knowledge is still given more importance but the people were irrevocably walled in by castes were not free to rise to the higher social level nor were sinked to the lower position of their bad actions. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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In the education programmes of the Brahmanas, it was highly philosophical and less practical for the discharge of their duties as leaders of the society. But the education of the kshatriyss was highly technical and less philosophical as a preparation for the discharge of their duties both as rulers and defender of their state and government from the foreigh invaders. In the case vaisyas, education was highly practical and less philosophical as to serve their interest and also the interest of the state.

Historians have divergent opinions on its origin. Some scholars opine that the varna of ancient Indian and the caste system are two names of one system but there is great difference between the two.

Varna was decided by occupation while the caste was determined by birth. For a long time, men could change their occupation and enter another caste on the basis of change of occupation, but with passage of time it becomes improbable to enter another caste. Scholars have contended that the caste system originated as a result of division of society into four groups on the basis of their duties and professions. For the convenient transaction of various duties the people adopted different professions which in course of time developed into separate entities. With the passage of time these professions grew hereditary and assumed the shape of present day caste system.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.70-80

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF ACCULTURATIVE STRESS RELATION TO ORGANIZATIONAL INTEGRATION OF EMPLOYEES

IN

K.J.Sandhu & Khusboo ABSTRACT The present paper focuses on acculturative stress in relation to organizational integration.

When a person moves from on state to another state, one culture to another culture due to any specific reason then acculturative stress is evolved. Acculturation has four orientations: (i) integration (ii) assimilation (iii) separation (iv) marginalization. If employees prefer integrated and assimilated acculturation orientation, then they experience less acculturative stress and their organizational integration is better. If employees prefer separated and marginalized acculturation orientation then they experience more acculturative stress and their organizational integration is adversely affected. The employee’s organizational integration is disrupted and they feel acculturative stress, consecutively, employee’s mental health and well-being are also influenced. But some measures of reducing acculturative stress like: self-monitoring, cognitive restructuring, social-support and information sharing can be used as these measures help in reducing adverse effects of acculturative stress and promote the organizational integration of employees as well as in the organization.

Keywords: Organizational integration, Acculturative stress, social support.

Acculturation is the exchange of cultural features that results when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous contact; the original culture patterns of either or both groups may be altered, but the groups remain distinct. An anthropological definition was first used to describe acculturation as changes that occur as a result of continuous first hand contact between groups of individuals of differing cultural origins (Redfield, Linton and Herskovits 1936). Acculturation is a dual process affecting the members of two or more culture groups as each adapts to the presence of the other (Berry, 2006). The concept is distinct from enculturation, which refers to the learning of a culture’s values, beliefs and norms during development, and also from culture change, which are changes in a culture resulting from innovation, invention and discovery (Castro, 2003).

Many factors affect acculturation or acculturative stress; language, cultural identity, discrimination, life style, and peer-groups. Acculturation preferences may be influenced by gender. Studies on gender differences in acculturation and ethnic identification reveal females tend to be more identified with their native culture than do males. For example, Japanese females scored higher than males on Japanese ethnic identity scale (Masuda, Hasegawa and Matsumoto, 1973). Other family related factors that may influence acculturation preferences include the families’ socioeconomic status (SES) and length of residence in the host culture. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Self-esteem is frequently used as a measure or indicator of adolescent well-being and psychological adjustment. Defined as ‘the level of regard one has for the self as a person’ (Harter, 1993), self esteem can be understood in terms of competencies across several domains, such as academic ability, athletics, social acceptance, and physical appearance.

Research has linked self-esteem with ethnic identity (Phinney, 1990). Overall, results show that for adolescents of varying ethnic backgrounds, the more positive about, committed to, and identified they are with their ethnic group, the higher their self-esteem (Crocker, Luhtanen, Blaine, and Broadnax, 1994; Phinney, 1992; Phinney, Cantu and Kurtz, 1997).

La Fromboise, Coleman and Gerton, (1993) theorize that integration leads to better psychological health.

The family plays an important role in fostering the psychological well being of its members by providing a system of social support, transmitting cultural values, and developing a sense of cohesion (Phinney and Ong, 2002). Kagitcibasi (2007) suggests that this lack of attention is due to the focus on the individual and use of experimental methodologies that have created difficulty in allowing the family to be treated as a unit of analysis. Consequently, migration particularly to a country characterized by large differences in language, values, beliefs and traditions – often requires fundamental changes in the functioning of the family unit.

The degree to which two (or more) groups differ affects the amount of accommodation required (Tadmor, Tetlock and Peng, 2009). Intergroup attitudes also affect the acculturative process: tolerance of diversity or attitudes of prejudice and exclusion lead to very different process and outcomes for the minority community (Green, 2009). The community forms a constant context across lifespan development (Bronfenbrenner and Morris, 1998), and a sense of belonging and meaning within society are considered key to well-being (Withlock, 2007). The absence of a stable ethnic community to join has been linked to poor mental health and well-being (Salant and Lauderdale, 2003). It is also a level at which informed social policy and action can effectively lead to better outcomes in acculturative adaption (Smith, 2008).

In summary, there is a strong link between acculturation and intercultural relations.

Although integration is widely preferred by immigrants and is associated with positive psychological and socio-cultural outcome (Berry, 2006) in the international arena, it can only be achieved in multicultural societies that appreciate cultural diversity and ensure participation for minority ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic groups. It is critical to understand the views of both the mainstream and minority groups in a society and the historical, political, social and economic factors that shape them.

In another study Guinn, Vincent, Wang and Villas (2011) suggested to identify variables distinguishing more acculturated versus less acculturated Latinos residing near the United States— Mexico border. Descriptive discriminate analysis was used to determine which variables made the greatest contribution in discerning between more acculturated and less acculturated border Latinos.

Results indicated educational attainment, higher self-esteem, and marriage differentiated between high- and low-acculturated participants with gender, health status, and physical activity showing no group differentiation.

Previous qualitative research has suggested that Hispanic gang membership is linked to the process of acculturation. Specifically, studies have indicated that those who are less assimilated into mainstream American or “Anglo” society are at greater risk for joining gangs. Building on these observations, Miller, Barnes and Hartley (2011) examines the relationship between acculturation and http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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gang membership. Findings from logistic regression analyses indicated that respondents’ grade in school, neighborhood drug availability, level of ethnic marginalization, and level of acculturation were all significantly associated with self-reported gang membership. Results also suggested that marginalization may partially mediate the effects of acculturation.

Telzer (2010) stated acculturation gap-distress model examined that immigrant children acculturate to their new culture at a quicker pace than their parents, leading to family conflict and youth maladjustment. In contrast to the original model, which only discusses 1 type of acculturation gap, there are at least 4 types of acculturation gaps: (1) the child is more acculturated than the parent in the host culture, (2) the child is less acculturated than the parent in the host culture, (3) the child is more acculturated than the parent in the native culture, and (4) the child is less acculturated than the parent in the native culture. A review of research indicates that each of these types of gaps function in unique ways.

Vang (2009) examined the relationships among acculturation, cultural adjustment problems, and psychological distress among Hmong Americans living in the Midwestern portion of the United States. Finally, in terms of the post hoc analysis of the variables, the results of Pearson correlation coefficient show that acculturation was significantly related to place of birth, education, and religion.

Cultural adjustment difficulty was significantly related to psychological distress, education, and income. In another study Yoon, Lee and Goh (2008) suggested that sense of connectedness to both ethnic and mainstream community has been observed to mediate between acculturation and well-being, with individuals who interact with both ethnic and dominant community manifesting lower levels of stress.

According to Berry’s 4 Types of Acculturation Orientations: According to Berry’s model of acculturation (Berry, 1980; Berry, Kim, and Boski, 1988; Berry et al., 1989), there are four ways ethnic group members can associate with their host culture, individuals can assimilate (identify solely with the dominant culture and sever ties with their own culture); marginalize (reject both their own and the host culture), separate (identify solely with their own group and reject the host culture); and integrate (become ‘bicultural’ by maintaining characteristics of their own ethnic group while selectively acquiring those of the host culture). Research on acculturation attitudes and psychological functioning suggests that integration is the most adaptive form of acculturation. In several studies assessing the acculturation strategies of various immigrant groups in North America, Berry and others (Berry, 1980; Berry, Kim, Minde, and Mok, 1987; Sayegh and Lasry, 1993) found integration was the preferred mode of acculturation, followed by either assimilation or separation, with marginalization as the least preferred mode. Integrated individuals experienced less ‘acculturative stress’ (Berry et al. 1988; Sam and Berry, 1995) and anxiety, and manifested fewer psychological problems, than those who were marginalized, separated, or assimilated. Overall, marginalized individuals suffered the most psychological distress, including problems with self-identification and cultural alienation which adversely affected their self-esteem.

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ACCULTURATIVE STRESS Acculturative Stress moving to a new culture, individuals meet many challenges: new language, different customs and laws, distinct norms of social behavior, etc. Facing such challenges often brings a certain amount of stress, known as acculturative stress.

Acculturative stress is an outcome due to the acculturation process between two cultures.

Psychocultural stress occurs due to cultural differences found between a host culture and an incoming culture marked by reduction in the physical and mental health status of individuals or groups undergoing acculturation.Acculturative stress has numerous effects upon an individual, such as substance abuse, eating disorders, depression, low self-esteem, and family dysfunction. It is important to recognize the effects of acculturation and ethnic identity when treating an individual from a minority group as symptoms can be attributed to these factors. Research has shown that acculturative stress is an important factor in the mental health of immigrants, as it increases the risk for various psychological problems. Several variables are associated with the degree of acculturative stress. The greater the differences between two cultures, the higher the stress.

International migration research has focused on the immigrants’ mental and physical health issues with little attention paid to factors that facilitate adjustment. Jibeen (2011) examined the moderating impact of coping resources (sense of coherence and perceived social support) and coping strategies (problem-focused and emotion-focused) on the relationship between acculturative stress and psychological well-being (positive functioning and negative health outcomes) in stress-coping model.

Results indicated that sense of coherence and perceived social support moderated between acculturative stress and positive functioning (self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, personal growth), and acculturative stress and negative health outcomes (depression, psychosomatic symptoms, anxiety and insomnia, social dysfunction).The current findings have implications for clinicians, and researchers.

Belizaire and Fuertes (2011) investigated the relationship between attachment, coping, acculturative stress, and quality of life (QOL) in a sample of Haitian immigrants in the United States. Results indicated that an increase in years living in the United States and greater anxiety attachment were negatively associated with QOL and that higher levels of adaptive coping were associated with higher QOL and lower levels of acculturative stress.

The purpose of this study was to determine the factors influencing acculturative stress among international students from the international student perspective. This study explored how acculturative stressors, social support and stress are related. Eustace and William (2007) examined the significant socio-cultural and demographic predictors of acculturative stress. The Berry's acculturation stress research framework and Bronfenbrenner's ecological perspective were used to guide this study. The findings indicated that students who were experiencing increased levels of difficulty with the acculturative stressors were more likely to experience higher levels of stress. In addition international students who reported high levels of collective social support were more likely to display less impact of acculturative stressors on acculturative stress. However, the unique moderating influences of various types of social support (family, friends and important others) on the relationship between acculturative stressor and stress was not supported.

Further it is assumed that successful organizational integration is depending upon the individual’s work environment. Acculturative stress and organizational integration are associated with each other.

If employees have acculturative distress and dissatisfied with his working environment then he does not easily integrate with the new culture. Moreover, high level of acculturative stress in an employee http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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may not allow easy adjustment with the new culture and they might feel; separated and marginalized with the new culture. On the other hand, it may also be assumed that lower level of acculturative stress in an employee would lead to integration with one’s own or with the other culture.

ORGANIZATIONAL INTEGRATION The organizational integration phase requires managers to integrate the companies in order to realize anticipated synergy effects, such as reduced cost per unit or increased income. Organizational integration can be defined as the degree of interaction and coordination between the two joining companies (Larason and Finkelstein, 1999). Successful integration enables organizational learning between the companies that might result in superior performance (Bresman, Birkinshaw and Nobel, 1999; Pothukuchi et al., 2002). “Organizational integration” is defined as the degree of cooperation and communication between internal and external new product development (NPD) “support” groups and NPD teams.

Integration plan involves: • Building structure around the integration process and knowing what challenges the new employee will face and what will be needed to overcome them.

• Clarify the mandate and timeframes.

• Provide a coach or mentor to help the employee gain insight into the organization.

• Assimilate the new employee into the organizational team.

• Help the new person find an early success.

The task of integration has five different but related challenges, each new worker must: 1. Learn about his/her new organization: workers need to have a written description of their new organization. It should explain what are its purpose, vision, and core values; what outputs or outcomes it must provide to its parent organization; what the key performance indicators is that measure its success and the target for achievement set for each. They should understand how the organization is structured, how it is arranged physically, where key people are located, and to whom they report. These are simple information elements that are needed to properly manage the organization so they do not constitute any additional demand.

2. Align with its purpose, vision, and core values: Alignment means each performer is pointed in the right direction. Each worker manages his/her performance in a manner that advances the organization’s success and complies with its core values. The support provided workers for challenge and enables them to succeed in aligning their performance to the organization’s direction. Also helpful, however is a setting where alignment by the current workforce- especially managers and supervisors- exits. To the extent that the organization’s current personnel are aligned, they will demonstrate that behaviour and reinforce its emergence in new workers.

3. Understand his/her roles: every worker needs a written job description that clearly states the function of his/her role, assigned tasks, expected outputs or outcomes, what authority and resources will be provided to the employee, to whom the worker reports, and with whom

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he/she must coordinate work. A job description is essentially a personal work standard. It is every employee’s basic guide for contributing in the workplace.

In addition to a personal job description, new workers need access to the work process standards for those processes they implement. They are essential to a well managed organization. Without work standards, new employees must discover by observation and conversation how a process is implemented.

4. Perform that role effectively: besides a description of the content of their work, employees need to know how their performance will be measured, what level of achievement on each measure define success, and how they can detect where they stand on each measure. Even where supervisors provide regular, accurate, and concrete verbal feedback, employees remain dependent on that feedback and cannot detect and correct performance problems on their own. The organization wastes their capabilities to think and manage their own performance.

Workers also require that the organization define their roles rationally.

5. Work cooperatively with others: working cooperatively is only possible when the people with who to cooperate have the same purpose as the supervisor and can make decision rationally in pursuing that purpose. This means that existing worker must be aligned to the organization’s purposes and make satisfying that purpose the highest priority value in their decision making. The absence of these skills hampers communication and results in misunderstanding and poor coordination. The essential information-based decision-making skills are specifying the decision’s goal, generating alternatives, defining decision criteria, evaluating alternatives against criteria, and concluding which alternative to choose.

Preissing and Loennies (2011) examined the effects of an aging population on German businesses.

The intention is to provide a guide on a new approach where the skills and experience of older employees are given consideration in the organisational culture. The key finding from this study is that there is a practical approach that can be implemented to achieve a change in the organisational culture for the utilisation of older employee’s skills and knowledge. However, the issues of organisational change management need to be adequately addressed and a formal commitment by management is essential for the success of the broad program required to reintegrate the older employees into the work force.

The concept of “full engagement,” means that employee engagement is more likely to be sustainable when employee well-being is also high. Most current perspectives on employee engagement include little of direct relevance to well-being and reflect a narrow, commitment-based view of engagement as Robertson and Cooper (2010) focused too heavily on benefits to organizations. A broader conception of engagement (referred to as “full engagement”), which includes employee well-being, is a better basis for building sustainable benefits for individuals and organizations. Research exploring the links between employee engagement and well-being is needed to validate and develop the propositions put forward in this article. The integration of well-being and commitment-based engagement into the single construct of full engagement provides a novel perspective.

In recent years, Japan has seen a sharp increase in foreign cross-border merger and acquisition (M and A) transactions. Froese and Goeritz (2007) focused on post-acquisition integration and separated it into human integration and organizational integration. These findings highlight the importance of the human factor in the success of acquisitions. Active communication, participation, assertive

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leadership, commitment and the creation of a sense of urgency have been found to facilitate human integration.

The notion of integration is central to the understanding of organizations in general as well as of contemporary phenomena such as e-commerce, virtual organizations, virtual teams, and enterprise resource planning (ERP) implementation. The present study addressed by Barki and Pinsonneault (2005) the concept of organizational integration (OI), which is defined as the extent to which distinct and interdependent organizational components constitute a unified whole. Six types of OI are identified: two intraorganizational OI (internal-operational, internal-functional) and four interorganizational OI (external-operational-forward, external-operational-backward, externaloperational-lateral, and external-functional). This paper then presents a model and develops 14 propositions to predict (1) the effort needed to implement different types of OI, (2) the impact different types of OI will have on organizational performance, and (3) how six factors (interdependence, barriers to OI, mechanisms for achieving OI, environmental turbulence, complexity reduction mechanisms, and organizational configurations) influence the relationship between OI types, implementation effort, and organizational performance. The OI framework and model are then used to develop 14 propositions for ERP implementation research and to explain the findings of recent research on integration.

STRATEGIES FOR OVERCOMING ACCULTURATIVE STRESS  Cognitive Restructuring is a process of learning to reduce cognitive distortions or ‘faulty thinking’ and replacing it with more accurate factual and beneficial beliefs.  Meditation: stress can be effectively managed by using relaxation techniques, such as meditation.

“Meditation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/ or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration” (Walsh and Shapiro, 2006).  Self-Monitoring require individuals to become aware of their behavior and make a tangible mark to keep track of it. Self-monitoring, as a behavior change procedure, lacks any specially arranged reinforcement or punishment, but it forces attention to natural reinforcements and punishment. 

Social Support and Networking is based on the assumption of social support. Social support strategy to reduce stress, entail forming close associations with trusted empathic co-workers and colleagues who are good listeners and confidence builders.

 Information sharing referred to one-to-one exchanges of data between a sender and receiver. Its give helpful guideline and feedback for resolving stressful behavior.

This study examined the relations between acculturative stress and psychological functioning, as well as the protective role of social support and coping style. Tests of interaction effects indicated that parental support and active coping buffered the effects of high acculturative stress on anxiety symptoms and depressive symptoms. In addition, peer support moderated the relation between acculturative stress and anxiety symptoms. Implications for reducing the effects of acculturative stress among Mexican American college students are discussed (Crockett, Iturbide, McGinley, and Carlo, 2007). http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Another study by Kosic, Mannetti and Sam (2006) examined the relationship between immigrants’ adaptation, acculturation strategies and self-monitoring. Using adaptation indices as criteria in moderated multiple regression analyses; the researchers found main effects of self-monitoring and of assimilation and integration strategies, and interactive effects of self-monitoring and assimilation or integration strategy. Self-monitoring was positively related both to sociocultural and psychological adaptation in all the regressions. Assimilation and integration strategies in most of cases were also positively related to both types of adaptation. Such main effects, however, were qualified by the interactive effects. As far as sociocultural adaptation is concerned, simple slope analysis showed that: (a) the positive effect of choosing assimilation is much stronger for high self-monitor immigrants than for low self-monitor ones; (b) the effect of choosing integration is positive for low self-monitor immigrants, but negative for high self-monitor ones.

As far as psychological adaptation is concerned, simple slope analysis shows that: (a) the effect of choosing assimilation is negative for high self-monitor immigrants and positive for low self-monitor ones; (b) the positive effect of choosing integration is stronger for high self-monitor immigrants than for low self-monitor ones.

IMPLICATION OF THE TOPIC On the basis of available review literature and material in relation to research topic we found that acculturative stress and organizational integration is directly linked or associated. Some basic implications are:  If employee’s followed integration acculturation orientation then they easily adjust or integrate with the new environment of the organization and those employees are most optimistic and their organizational integration is better.  When employee’s easily integrated with the new organizational culture then they experience less pessimistic and their performance, mental health and well-being are very healthy and fit.  On the basis supportive researches acculturation attitudes suggest that integration is the most adaptive form of acculturation. Integrated individuals experienced less ‘acculturative stress’ and anxiety, and manifested fewer psychological problems. 

Strategies for overcoming acculturative stress like: self-monitoring, social-support, cognitive restructuring and meditation can be used as these measures help in reducing adverse effects of acculturative stress and promote the organizational integration of employees as well as in the organization.

CRITICAL COMMENTS Everything has some advantages and disadvantages so it can be said that in today’s scenario acculturation is a complex problem,

 If newly entered employee’s experience more acculturative stress then they feel more separated and marginalized with the new organization environment. That employee’s who feel separated with the organization they did not easily survive within the organization.  Separation and marginalization acculturation orientation are least preferred mode of acculturation.

Overall, separated and marginalized individuals suffered the most psychological distress, including http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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problems with self-identification and cultural alienation which adversely affected their self-esteem, mental health and well-being etc.  When an employee does not easily integrated with the new organizational culture then they experience more pessimistic, depressive and worried about their survival, performance and mental health.  But, all these limitations are not for all because an individual difference is there. Every employee does not feel acculturated with the new organizational culture and some employees very easily integrate or adapt new organization and working environment.

REFERENCES: Barki, H. & Pinsonneault , A. (2005). A model of organizational integration, implementation effort, and performance. Organization Science, 16(2), 165-179.

Belizaire, L.S. & Fuertes, J.N. (2011). Attachment, coping, acculturative stress, and quality of life among Haitian immigrants. Journal of Counseling & Development, 89(1), 89 – 97.

Berry, J.W. (1980). Acculturation varieties of adaptation. In A.M. Padilla (Ed.), Acculturation: theory, model, and some new findings. (pp.9-25). Boulder, CO: Westview.

Berry, J.W. (2006). Acculturation: A conceptual overview. Acculturation and parent- child relationships: Measurement and development. 13-32. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Berry, J.W., Kim, U., & Boski, M. (1988). Acculturation and mental health: A review. In P. Dasen, J.W. Berry, & Satorius (Eds.), Cross-cultural psychology and health. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Berry, J.W., Kim, U., & Boski, M. (1988). Acculturation and mental health: A review. In P. Dasen, J.W. Berry, & Satorius (Eds.), Cross-cultural psychology and health. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.81-86

MOTIVATION: AN EASY WAY TO LEARN Dinesh Chahal & Nidhi Mehta ABSTRACT Motivation is literally the desire to do things. Motivation is a terms that refers to a process that elicits, controls and sustains certain behaviors. Each of us has a unique set of needs, desires and rewards that spur as to action. Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals.

In every sphere of life motivation plays a vital role. Learning is a continuous process of life and motivation is primary and central factor for every level of learning. Without motivation whether intrinsic or extrinsic learning can not occurs. It is like mineral and water requirement for a seed (learning factor) which gives proper growth and development and proper fixation of learning; motivation is necessary. So motivation and learning go hand in hand. It is pulse rate of learning. For proper functioning of a heart pulse rate remains constantly working with a appropriate rate like this for proper learning the appropriate rate or ratio of motivation is important. Here we give the answer of how learning and motivation affects each other and to what extent the rate of learning improves with the help of six. C’s of motivation as choice, challenge, control, collaboration, constructing meaning and consequences. These strategies help in fostering motivation among children which leads towards the behavior changes or goal. The teacher plays a central role in the learning process of the pupils. Hence the need to have a high work motivation arises to facilitate learning.

Introduction Motivation is the core factor which influences the learning process. The term motivation is the driving force (desire) behind all actions of an organism motivation is an inner state of mind that energizes, activates or moves and that which directs or channels behavior towards goals. It is the general condition of relatively high rates of responding produced by reinforcement. So far as motives are concerned, it is just impossible to see them, they can only be inferred. Motivation is the process which leads the individual to attempt to satisfy some need. The relationship between motivation and learning assumes that when need exists it will lead to a drive which will energies behavior. This will result in the individual engaging in some appropriate behavior in his attempt to satisfy his need. If the activity does lead to a reduction in the drive, the activity will be reinforced or strengthened, so that it will be more likely to occur on future occasions. The reinforcement that results from the drive reduction causes learning to take place. The term ‘motivation’ has originally been derived from the Latin word ‘movere’ which means ‘to move’. By the process of learning the desirable changes in the behavior occurs which move the individual in the upward direction.

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Concept of Motivation and Learning “Motivation is the central factor in the effective management of process of learning.”-W.A.Kelley In the field of psychology this word implies that the ‘individual has some internal stimuli which force him to action and determine his behavior. We can say that motivation is that force which impels or incites individual’s actions determine their rate and direction.

According to Maslow “Motivation is the universal characteristics of every organismic of state of affair. It is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex phenomenon,” Profile of a Motivated Teacher: Mainly intrinsic motivation helps the teacher to become a qualitative teacher 1. A motivated teacher never took his students for granted rather he feel they are granted to him.

2. He never go to class unprepared.

3. He is conscious of his responsibility of mounding and shaping the students.

4. His/her earnings are moderate. But he earns the goodwill of his pupils in an abundant measure.

5. He develops a bond with his students and his students are motivated to learn.

Learning : Each and every aspect of human life is related with learning. Learning is a process of change, growth and development of behavior.

According to Moriss L. Bigge “Learning is a change in a living individual which is not heralded by his genetic inheritance. It may be a change in insight, behavior, perception or motivation or a combination of these.”

Process of Learning Motive – Goal – Exploration – Response – Reinforcement - Integration Profile of a Motivated Learner For a learner motivation is the primary factor to learn. Without needs and drive learning can not occurs. So for a learner extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is very important.

1. First of all learner’s own intrinsic motivation helps in learning.

2. Goal directed behavior.

3. Attention or concentration towards goal.

4. Always ready to learn.

5. Show interest towards teacher’s idea.

6. They have strong will to learn.

How to motivate the students for learning Need of Motivation for learning Infants and young children appear to be propelled by curiosity by an intense need to explore, interact with, and make sense of their environment. It is rarely seen that pre schooler is unmotivated.

Unfortunately, as children grow, their passion for learning frequently seems to shrink. Many more

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are physically present in the classroom but largely mentally absent; they fail to invest themselves fully in the experience of learning.

Student Motivation Student motivation naturally has to do with student” desire to participate in the learning process.

Although students may be equally motivated to perform a task, the sources of their motivation may differ.

“Motivation to learn is characterized by long-term, quality involvement in learning and commitment to the process of learning.”

Intrinsically motivated student undertakes an activity “for its own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits or the feeling of accomplishment it evokes”.

Extrinsically motivated student performs “in order to obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself.

Factors Influence The Development of Student” Motivation 1. Children’s home environment 2. Classroom Climate 3. Developmental changes.

General Principles of Fostering Motivation 1. The warm and accepting environment can be used to focus the student’s attention on what needs to be learned.

2. Incentives motivate learning.

3. Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self directive than is external motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards.

4. Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is, when one wants to know something.

5. Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized.

6. Set goal and to provide informative feedback regarding progress towards goal.

7. Both affiliation and approval are strong motivators.

MOTIVATION FACTORS AND BEGINNING, DURING, AND ENDING

STRATEGIES,

BY

TIME

PERIOD

TIME BEGINNING: When learner enters and starts learning MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS ATTITUDES: Toward the environment, teacher, subject matter, and self NEEDS: The basic need within the learner at the time of learning

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MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES -- Make the conditions that surround the subject positive.

-- Positively confront the possibly erroneous beliefs, expectations, and assumptions that may underlie a negative learner attitude.

-- Reduce or remove components of the learning environment that lead to failure or fear.

-- Plan activities to allow learners to meet esteem needs.

TIME DURING: When learner is involved in the body or main content of the learning process.

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS STIMULATION: The stimulation processes affecting learner during the learning experience.

AFFECT: The emotional experience of the learner while learning.

MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES -- Change style and content of the learning activity.

-- Make learner reaction and involvement essential parts of the learning process, that is, problem solving, role playing, stimulation.

-- Use learner concerns to organize content and to develop themes and teaching procedures.

-- Use a group cooperation goal to maximize learner involvement and sharing.

TIME ENDING: When learner is completing the learning process.

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS COMPETENCE: The competence value for the learner that is a result of the learning behaviors.

REINFORCEMENT: The reinforcement value attached to the learning experience, for the learner.

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MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES -- Provide consistent feedback regarding mastery of learning.

-- Acknowledge and affirm the learners' responsibility in completing the learning task.

-- When learning has natural consequences, allow them to be congruently evident.

-- Provide artificial reinforcement when it contributes to successful learning, and provide closure with a positive ending.

The Six C’s Motivation Strategies:  Choice:- Malone and Lepper suggest(1983) suggest that providing explicit choices among alternatives can enhance intrinsic motivation. Feeling related valences are feeling attached to a topic. Value related valences related to the importance of the topic to an important when students are even choices to select assignments that are close their personal interests, their motivation to do the work should increase.  Challenge:- Providing or operating tasks just beyond the skill level of the student is a good approach to challenge learners. Students may experience flow if the challenge of assignments matches their skills. In order to ensure that goal remain challenging, teacher should continue giving students the opportunity to provide feedback.  Control:- If students are involved in the process of classroom control, they will be more responsible, independent and self regulated learner. Control means involving students in the process of decision making and choosing team members.  Collaboration:- Vygotsky (1978) theorized that communication and collaborative group work can enhance individual’s thinking and learning. Collaboration seems to work best when students depend on each other to reach a desired goal and can share learning strategies and perspectives with each other through social interaction.  Constructing Meaning:- Value related valences are associated with the construction of meaning. If students perceive the value of knowledge, their motivation to learn increases.

Setting a meaningful goal for students is an important factor to promote motivation.  Consequences:- People enjoy having their work and learning achievement appreciated and recognized by others. When students are provided channel to display their work, motivation increases. There are various strategies for displaying student’s work such as hanging their posters on the wall, presenting their work at a fair and providing links to other students. This strategy creates a positive feeling about effort, ownership, achievement and responsibility.

Conclusion In schools, motivation among teachers is essential for their better performance in the classrooms and of course the overall development of student. Thus, to achieve the learning objectives and reach a reasonable standard, educational institutions should keep a close tab on the motivation level of the teacher. A proper use of motivation will lead attention which will lead to interest and interest will lead to maximum learning. Properly motivated children show varied interests and develop their personality in right manner. The teacher can solve the problem of discipline if he is able to motivate the children of his class. Various incentives and motives help in the learning process. The problem of http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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individual differences can also be solved if the children are properly motivated. Every child will learn according to his intensity of motivation.

References:  Aaron, P. G.(1966) ‘Motivation’ A possible correlate of Teaching Effectiveness, Journal of the College of Education, Karnataka University Drawer.  Adval, S. B. (1979) “Quality of Teacher Education,” Amitabh Prakashan, Allahabad.  Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271.  Ames, Carole A. (1990) “Motivation: What Teachers Need to Know.” Teachers College Record 91, 3(Spring): 409-21.  Brophy, Jere (1986) On Motivating Students. Occasional Paper No.101. East Lansing, Michigan: Institute for Research On Taching, Michigan State University, October. 73 Pages.

ED 276 724.  Csikszentmihalyi, M.(1985). Emergent motivation and the evolution of the self. In D. A. Kleiber and M. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement,(Vol. 4, pp 93-119).

Greenwich, CT: Jai Press.  Driscoll, M. P.(1994). Psychology of learning for instauration. MA: Division of Paramount Publishing.  Lepper. Mark R.(1988). “Motivational Considerations in the Study of Instruction.” Cognition and Instruction 5,4 :289-309.  Machr, Martin L., and Carol Midgley (1991). “Enhancing Student Motivation: A Schoolwide Approach”. Educational Psychologist 26, 3&4 : 399-427.  Malone, M. R. & Lepper, M. R.(1983). Making learning fun. R.E. Snow & J. F.Marshall (Eds.). Aptiude, learning, and instruction: Cognitive and affective Process analyses (Vol. 3.

Pp. 223-253).  Marshall, Hermine H. (1987). “Motivational Strategies of Three Fifth-Grade Teachers” . The Elementary Schools Journal 88, 2(November): 135-50. EJ 362 747.  Raffini, James (1993). Winners without Losers: Structures an Strategies for Increasing Student Motivation to Learn. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 286 Pages.  Schiefele. U. (1991). Interest, learning, and Motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26(3/4), 299-323.  Stipek, Deborah (1988). Motivation to Learn: From Theory to Practice. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 178 pages.  Turner, J., & Paris, S. G. (1995). “How literacy tasks influence children’s motivation for literacy”. The Reading Teacher, 48(8), 662-673.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.87-95

CONSTRUCTION OF A SCALE FOR MEASURING ‘EGOTISM’ (AHAMKAAR) Shalini Sisodia & Ira Das ABSTRACT Egotism is an exaggerated opinion of one’s own importance, an inflated sense of ‘importance’ or ‘greatness’. So an egotist feels superior to everyone else due to the influence of ‘Maya’ that veils the true consciousness of the self. The investigator has therefore made a humble effort to construct a scale for measuring ‘egotism ’.The investigator first of all collected a large number of statements showing egotism in different fields of life e.g. (1) Egotism of physical and mental energy (2) egotism of wealth, property and luxury items, (3) egotism of social status, connection with influential and Powerful people, (4) egotism of community services, charity and religiosity, (5) egotism of beauty, smartness and physical attraction, (6) egotism of superior genes, caste or race etc. After editing, 30 items were included in the scale, which was administered on a small group of 20 people for pilot study. The minimum and maximum score ranged from 0-30. After pilot study some improvements in the ambiguous statements were made and a few items were totally replaced by new items. After correction, first draft of the test was prepared. It was administered on a sample of 100 people including university professors, doctors, administrative officers and clerical employees of Banks, Govt. Offices and teaching institutes. High negative coefficient of correlation of egotism scores with life-satisfaction indicated that higher the egotism lower is the life-satisfaction. This proved high construct validity of this test. After final draft was prepared, it was administered on a sample of 200 people and Z score norms were prepared.

Key words: Egotism

Introduction The term "egotism" is derived from the Latin ego, meaning "self" or "I", and -ism, used to denote a system of belief. Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (2003) suggested that “threatened egotism” is an important cause of violent behavior. The results show that egotism is positively associated with violent and nonviolent delinquency and that this relationship holds when a number of important predictors of delinquency are controlled, including social control and self-control. Egotism is the motive to pursue some sort of personal gain or benefit through targeted behavior. Egotism has

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been heralded as one of the most influential of all human variety of human actions, including altruism Egotism may coexist with delusions of one's own importance, even at the denial of others.

Egotism is an inflated sense of “importance” or “greatness”, i.e.: someone who goes around declaring how great he is. An egotist is someone who is stuck on him or herself, and feels superior to everyone else in all aspects of the personality. Egotism is when we care about ourself and our own welfare and have an exaggerated opinion of our own importance. Gollwitzer, et al. (1982) investigated the influence of outcome-related affect on subsequent causal attributions and shows that Ss preferred internal factors to explain success, whereas external factors were blamed for failure.

Egotism, then, is a mask we wear to hide the faults or weaknesses we believe we have. The foundation of egotism is the delusion that we're different, the delusion that some of us are better than others. But our mask will fall aside of its own accord once we realize that we are all the same.

We share the same fears, hopes, and dreams. Once we understand that, there is nothing to fear, nothing to get upset about. Carlyle (1795 - 1881) wrote, "Egotism is the source and summary of all faults and miseries." Therefore one must take care not to become trapped in the imaginary world of superiority and inferiority. There is much more than peace of mind at stake. Much of the harm that is done in the world is done by people who want to feel superior Those who fall prey to egotism are quick to take offense and resort to violence. Road rage shootings are an extreme example of the possible harmful effects of unbridled egotism. We know and like ourselves more than anyone else, so talking about ourselves comes easily and is pleasurable. But to do so excessively is to ignore others. We deny ourselves of the opportunity to foster powerful friendships and learn from them. Jones, et al. (2002) showed that people preferred their own name letters even when these letters were relatively rare. Furthermore, the name-letter and birthdaynumber preferences of high and low self-esteem participants diverged in response to an experimentally manipulated self-concept threat. We conclude that implicit egotism, specifically name-letter and birthday-number preferences, represent a form of unconscious self-regulation.

Shiell, A. & Seymour, J. (2002) suggested strong altruistic support for publicly funded health care even among those whose self-interest is better served by tax-financed incentives to take out private insurance. This result undermines the assumption in the public choice literature that people will vote for a tax policy only if it is in their self-interest.

Egotism is the tendency to speak or write of oneself excessively and boastfully. It is an exaggerated belief and inflated sense of one’s own importance. Egotism is characterized by an exaggerated estimate of one’s intellect, ability, importance, appearance, wit, or other valued personal characteristics- It is the drive to maintain and enhance favourable views of oneself (Kowalski,1997). In egotism we find the person filled with an overweening sense of the importance and qualities of his personality....the things of the “Me” (Atkinson, 2010). http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Egotism means placing oneself at the centre of one’s world with no concern for others, including those loved considered as ‘close”, in any other terms except those set by the “egotist”. Stephan, et al. (1976) suggested that females playing against males were not egotistical because they did not believe they were as competent at a masculine task as were their male opponents. Salmivalli, et al.

(1999) explored that Self-and peer-evaluated SEs were significantly correlated, whereas defensive egotism was not connected to either self-or peer-evaluated SE. Adolescents’ SE profiles were associated with their behaviour in bullying situations; these connections were stronger among boys than among girls. Pelham, et al. (2011) argued that Simonsohn provides no compelling theoretical reason to believe that implicit egotism should be valid only in the laboratory. In addition, we argue that a careful analysis of most of Simonsohn's studies of implicit egotism shows that they provide little or no power to reveal real effects of implicit egotism.

Egotism is an inflated, perhaps untenable or unstable, view of self. Egotism is typically operationalzed as narcissism (Bushman and Baumeister, 1998, 2002) or as one of its more destructive variants, including narcissistic entitlement (Campbell et al., 2004), narcissism in conjunction with low self-concept clarity (Stucke and Sporer, 2002), or narcissism with selfesteem partialed out (Paulhus, Robins, Trzesniewski, and Tracy, 2004).

Characteristics of egotism 1. Egotism is closely related to "loving one's self" or narcissism - indeed 'by egotism we may envisage a kind of socialized narcissism' (Schmalhausen, 2004).

2. Egotism is often accomplished by exploiting the sympathy, irrationality or ignorance of others, as well as utilizing coercive force and/or fraud.

3. Egotism may include 'a grandiose sense of self-importance...arrogant, boastful, conceited (Kowalski, 1997), and self-promoting even at the expense of others - 'refusing to recognize others for their accomplishments (Leary, 2007).

According to the Bhagavadgita, the ego is the feeling of separateness, the sense of duality, or the idea of being distinct and different from others. It is the false perception of the self that exists in all of us as individual consciousness. In the Bhgavadgita, Arjuna stands symbolically for the ego consciousness. His suffering is because of his limited knowledge, his sense of separateness, his identification of himself with his body, his belief that he is the doer of his actions and his anxiety about the results of his actions. Newman, et al. (2009) Conducted a study on “implicit egotism” indicates that people tend to react positively to anything that reminds them of themselves, including their own names and the letters in their names. Names can have effects (presumably unconscious ones) even on people's choices of mates and careers.

It is expected therefore that those whose egotism is high believe that they are the owner of all their physical and materialistic possession and therefore they are at a higher position than others. They also believe that it is due their own efforts alone that they have achieved all that they have this http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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feeling of restlessness, stress and dissatisfaction. Therefore, it is expected that such people have lower life-satisfaction. Snyder, et al. (2007) concluded after people work on unsolvable problems, they often perform poorly on a subsequent task. Egotism explains this decrement as the result of a strategy of low effort designed to blunt an attribution of poor ability should failure occur on the new task.

Need for the scale In order to measure & compare the egotism among administrative and clerical staff, a need for constructing a scale to measure the egotism was felt. After reviewing the relevant literature and discussing with experts, it was noticed that there was no such scale available which could fulfill the purpose of the present study. Therefore the present research investigator tried to construct and standardize egotism scale.

Objective of the study To construct a scale for measuring ‘egotism’.

Steps in the construction of the scale The planning of the test Before collecting the items a rough layout was made regarding the dimensions of egotism of educated adult individual. These are (1) Egotism of physical and mental energy (2) Egotism of beauty, smartness and physical attraction (3) Egotism of wealth, property and luxury items (4) Egotism of social status, & connections with influential and powerful people (5) Egotism of superior genes, caste or race (6) Egotism of community services, charity and religiosity.

Item selection The items were skillfully written in order to cover all aspects of egotism of different teaching administrative and clerical employees. Books, Journal, magazines and subject experts were consulted in preparation of items. Some items were written by the investigator through intuition.

Initially 30 fixed alternative type items (yes or no type items) were prepared in Hindi.

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Pilot study A pilot study was done by administrating the scale to a small group of 20 administrative and 20 clerical employees. Certain defects were found in the scale so the investigator planned to rewrite the statement. Some of the statements were shortened and pin pointed to avoid any ambiguity.

First draft This was the crucial phase of test drafting as most of the editing work was done in this stage.

Major changes were concerned with the modification of the language of the statements. Few statements which did not convey the clear idea were written with the help of experts. Instructions were written for the testee. “Give your answers to the following question on the basis of how you feel and think about it. For each question two alternative answers are given. Tick mark (√) the answers that is correct in your case.”

The major work done was the formation of scoring key. The option or item that indicated higher egotism was given higher score. The scores given were 1 or 0. It was decided the higher the scores higher the egotism. Every item responded as tick (√) was given a score of ‘1’ and the item left out or not responded was given a score of ‘0’expect item no 3,4 & 16 which have reverse scoring: 0 for (√) and 1 for not tickly. Thus the scale was written properly and finally the first draft was administered on 100 administrative and clerical employees (1st tryout). The minimum score of the egotism scale is ‘0’ and the maximum score is ‘30’score by dividing it by 30 and multiplying by 100. The total score is converted into percentage.

Final draft After administration of the first draft, following changes were made in the items. Item no.1 was modified, its language was improved. In item no.2 spelling mistakes were corrected. In item no.16 and 18 the language was changed as the previous sentence were ambiguous. Item no. 21 was deleted as it was a repetition of item no 30. In its place another item was added. In item no 22 and 27, spelling mistakes were corrected.

Internal consistency In order to see whether the test is internally consistent or not, item analysis was done.

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92 | P a g e LokÄ yata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

Table: 1 Coefficient of correlation indicating internal consistency of egotism scale

ITEM NO.

Coefficient of correlation (r)

1.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

.75 .23 .48 .17 .32 .16 .22 .27 .19 .25 .36 .33 .29 .34 .32 .52 .33 .11 .41 .40 .52 .34 .38 .60 .39 .34 .11 .42 .52

Reliability Item analysis was done to establish internal consistency of the Egotism Scale. (a) Items with low coefficient of correlation (r = .10 or less) were discarded and finally 30 items with r = .11 to .75 were retained. (b) Test Retest Reliability of the Scale (with a time gap of 4 months) came out to be .55. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

93 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

Validity (a) For a test to be good it must be valid. Criterion related validity coefficient of egotism scale was calculated against the criterion of students’ ratings about their teachers. Egotism score of teachers were correlated with students’ ratings of their teacher egotism. The coefficient of correlation was found to be r = .65 which is highly significant. This shows high criterion related validity of egotism scale. (b) High negative coefficient of correlation of egotism scores with life-satisfaction indicated that higher the egotism lower is the life-satisfaction. The coefficient of correlation was found to be r = -.24 which is highly negatively significant. This proved high construct validity of this scale.

Norms Standard score norms (Z score) were calculated on a sample of 200 cases. The following tables indicate the conversion of raw score into Z score norms for egotism variable.

Table: 2 Norms of egotism scale

Raw scores

Z scores

Description

20.5 and above

+2 to +3

Very high

16.0 to 20.5

+1 to +2

High

11.5 to 16.0

Mean to +1

Above average

7.0 to 11.5

Mean to -1

Below average

2.5 to 7.0

-1 to -2

Low

0 to 2.5

Mean to -3

Very low

Shortcoming of egotism scale The accuracy of responses on this scale depends upon the willingness and ability of the respondents to introspect accurately. The responses on this scale are therefore subject to faking and malingering as is common with other personality inventories. This is indicated by the skewed distribution of scores obtained. So in future the scale would be supplemented some projective technique also.

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94 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

References:   

 

  

  

  

  



Atkinson, W.W (2010). The New Psychology, 30.

Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L. & Boden, J. (2003). “Relation of Threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of self-esteem”. Psychological Review, 103, 5-37.

Bushman, B.J., & Baumeister, R.F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219–229.

Bushman, B.J., & Baumeister, R.F. (2002). Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 543–545.

Campbell, W.K., Bonacci, A.M., Shelton, J., Exline, J.J., & Bushman, B.J. (2004). Psychological entitlement: Interpersonal consequences and validation of a new self-report measure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 83, 29–45.

Carlyle, (1795-1881). “A Quote on Egotism is the source and summary of all faults and miseries.

M., Earle, W.B. & Stephan, W.G. (1982). Affect as a determinant of egotism: Residual excitation and performance attributions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43 (4), 702-709.

Jones, J.T., Pelham, B.W., Mirenberg, M.C., & Hetts, J.J. (2002). Name letter preferences are not merely mere exposure: Implicit egotism as self-regulation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38,170–177.

Kowalski Ed, R.M. (1997). Aversive Interpersonal Behaviors, 112 Leary, M.R. (2007). The Curse of the Self, 91.

Newman, L., Hernandez, W., Bakina, D., & Rutchick, A. (2009). Implicit Egotism on the Baseball Diamond: Why Peter Piper Prefers to Pitch for the Pittsburgh Pirates. A Journal of Onomastics, 57, (3), 175-179.

Paulhus, D.L., Robins, R.W., Trzesniewski, K.H., & Tracy, J.L. (2004). Two replicable suppressor situations in personality research. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 303–328.

Pelham, Brett, Carvallo & Mauricio (2011). The surprising potency of implicit egotism: A reply to simonson. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(1) 25-30.

Salmivalli, c., Kaukiainen, A., Kaistaniemi, L., Lagerspetz, K.M.J. (1999). Self-evaluated, Self esteem, Peer-evaluated Self-Esteem. And Defensive Egotism as predictors of adolescents’ Participation in Bulling situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25 (10), 1268-1278.

Schmalhausen, S.D. (2004). Why We Misbehave, 55.

Shiell, A. & Seymour, J. (2002). Preference for public health insurance: Egotism or altriuism?

International Journal of Social Economics, 29 (5), 356-369.

Snyder, M.L., Smoller, B., Strenta, A. & Frankel, A. (2007). A comparison of egotism, negativity, and learned helplessness as explanations for poor performance after unsolvable problems. Journal of Applied Psychology, 15 (4) 445-449.

Stephan, W.G., Rosenfield, D. & Stephan, C., Texas, U. & Austin (1976). Egotism in males and females. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34 (6), 1161-1167.

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95 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

KNOW YOURSELF SCALE Name.................................................................. Age...................................... Sex...................................

Organization.................. Designation …………………........................ Education ............................. funs’Z k % vki vius ckjs esa D;k lksprs ;k eglwl djrs gS ml ij lgh ¼√½ ;k xyr ¼ X ½ dk fu’kku yxk;sAa Statement

S.No.

Response gk¡@ugha

1.

eSa vius vf/kdrj dk;Z Lo;a gh djrk gw¡

2.

eq>s vius dk;ks± dks djuss ds fy, fdlh dh vko';drk ugha Gsa

gk¡@ugha

3.

dksbZ Hkh dk;Z vdsys fdlh ls gks gh ugha ldrk Gsa

gk¡@ugha

4.

euq"; ,d lkekftd izk.kh gS vr% dk;ks± dks ,d&nwljs ds lkFk feydj djus eas gh le>nkjh gSA

gk¡@ugha

5.

eSa bruk cqf)eku gw¡ fd gj dk;Z vkSj yksxksa dh vis{kk T;knk vPNh rjg ls dj ysrk gw¡A

gk¡@ugha

6.

eSa vU; yksxksa dh Hkk¡fr tYnh chekj ugha iM+rk D;ksafd eSa vius LokLF; dk /;ku j[krk g¡wA

gk¡@ugha

7.

vius mez ds vU; O;fDr;ksa dh rqyuk esa esjh 'kkjhfjd 'kfDr dgha vf/kd gSA

gk¡@ugha

8.

esjs ikl bruk vf/kd /ku gS fd foifÙk vkus ij eSa mldk lkekuk vklkuh ls dj ldrk gw¡A

gk¡@ugha

9.

esjk ?kj ,oa mldk lkeku lkekU; yksxksa dh rqyuk eas vf/kd mPp Lrj dk gSA

gk¡@ugha

10.

esjh tSlh dkj ,oa lqfo/kk dh oLrq,a 'kk;n gh fdlh ds ikl gksAa

gk¡@ugha

11.

eq>s 'kgj esa lHkh yksx tkurs gSa vkSj bTtr nsrs gSaA

gk¡@ugha

12.

eSa vius /ku dk vf/kdrj iz;ksx lekt lsok esa djrk gw¡A

gk¡@ugha

13.

esjs ikl Kku dk vFkk Hk.Mkj gS vr% lHkh yksx eq>ls lykg ysrs gSaA

gk¡@ugha

14.

eSa vusdksa lykgdkj lfefr;ksa dk v/;{k ;k lnL; gw¡A

gk¡@ugha

15.

esjk vk/;kfRed Lrj vf/kd mPp Lrj dk gSA

gk¡@ugha

16.

eSa dsoy lk/kkj thou O;rhr djrk gw¡ /kkfeZd dk;ks± esa Hkkx ugha ys ikrkA

gk¡@ugha

17.

eSa vR;f/kd [kwclwjr gw¡A

gk¡@ugha

18.

esjs ikl brus ukSdj ;k pijklh gS fd eq>s dksbZ dk;Z Lo;a djus dh vko’;drk ugha gSA

gk¡@ugha

19.

eSaus vius o`) ekrk&firk ij vR;f/kd /ku ,oa le; O;; fd;k gSA

gk¡@ugha

20.

eSauas Lo;a d"V lgdj Hkh viuh ifr ,oa cPPkksa dks lHkh lq[k lqfo/kk;sa miyC/k djk;h gSaA

gk¡@ugha

21.

esjs vkfQl ds yksx eq>ls iwN&iwNdj dke djrs gSa D;ksfa d eSa cgqr vuqHkoh gw¡A

gk¡@ugha

22.

eSa vR;f/kd LekvZ ,oa pqLr fn[kkbZ nsrk gw¡A

gk¡@ugha

23.

esjs ckprhr ds rjhds ls lHkh izHkkfor gks tkrs gSaA

gk¡@ugha

24.

eSaus tks dqN Hkh izkIr fd;k gS vius vFkd iz;kl ds dkj.k gh izkIr fd;k gSA

gk¡@ugha

25.

esjs ikl dherh oL=ksa ,oa xguksa dk vFkkg Hk.Mkj gSA

gk¡@ugha

26.

eSa vius izHkko’kkyh O;fDrRo ds dkj.k lHkk] ikfVZ;ksa esa vkd"kZ.k dk dsUnz cuk jgk gw¡A

gk¡@ugha

27.

eSa bruk gksf’k;kj gw¡ fd dksbZ Hkh ukSdjh ;k dke esjs fy, eqf’dy ugha gksrk gSA

gk¡@ugha

28.

esjh tku igpku ;k nksLrh lHkh cM+& s cM+s yksxksa ls gSA

gk¡@ugha

29.

eSa cgqr Å¡ps dqy esa iSnk gqvk gw¡ vr% eq>esa cgqr mPp dksfV ds xq.k gSaA

gk¡@ugha

30.

esjs nksLr lHkh eq>ls lykg ysdj gh dksbZ dke djrs gSaA

gk¡@ugha

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96 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.96-103

PSYCHOLOGICAL DETERMINANTS OF HYPOTHYROIDISM P.K.Mona & Prachi Sharma ABSTRACT The main aim of the present study was to examine the “Psychological Determinants of Hypothyroidism”. A sample consisted of 50 hypothyroid and 50 nonhypothyroid women from age group of 30 to 50 years, selected from S.N. Medical College and Saran Ashram, Agra city. Only married and graduate women were included in the sample. NEO PI Five Factor Personality Inventory and PGI Battery of Brain Dysfunction were used for measuring the personality traits and brain dysfunction of the hypothyroid and nonhypothyroid women. Result indicated that hypothyroid and nonhypothyroid were significantly differ in their Personality traits and Brain Dysfunction.

Keywords: Hypothyroid, Personality traits, Brain Dysfunction.

Introduction Body metabolism, organ functions, fertility, body energy (the body’s use of other hormones and vitamins), and body temperature; these all are vital body functions. The regulation of these vital tasks is due to one tiny endocrine gland-the thyroid. Thyroid located in the front part of the lower neck below the thyroid cartilage or Adam’s apple and larynx (voice box). It is wrapped around the trachea (windpipe) and has a similar shape to that of a bowtie or butterfly. Thyroid gland is responsible for producing its two most important thyroid hormone and carefully regulating them. The hormones produced are Triiodothyronine(T3) and L-Thyroxine(T4), from iodine which thyroid gland gets from a diet of seafood and salt. Four hormones are critical in the regulation of thyroid function: Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroxine (T4) is the key hormone produced in the thyroid gland. Low levels of T4 produce hypothyroidism, and high levels produce hyperthyroidism. Thyroxine converts to triiodothyronine (T3), which is a more biologically active hormone. Only about 20% of triiodothyronine is actually formed in the thyroid gland. The rest is manufactured from circulating thyroxine in tissues outside the thyroid, such as those in the liver and kidney. Once T4 and T3 are in circulation, they typically bind to substances called thyroid hormone transport proteins, after which they become inactive.

Thyrotropin. Thyrotropin (also called thyroid-stimulating hormone or TSH) is another very important hormone in the process. Secreted by the pituitary gland, this hormone directly influences the process of iodine trapping and thyroid hormone production. When thyroxine levels drop even slightly, the pituitary gland goes into action to pump up secretion of thyrotropin so that it can stimulate thyroxine production. So, when T4 levels fall, TSH levels increase. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

97 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), the final critical thyroid hormone, is produced in a region in the brain called the hypothalamus, which monitors thyrotropin levels. Abalovich, (2007).

These hormones are extremely important, as energy cell in the body depends upon thyroid hormones for regular metabolism. These hormones determine how fast or how slow our organs work and when our body system use energy, so they are understandably very important. Less than optimal natural thyroid function can be also many times be the underlying cause of the number of serious conditions. The thyroid gland works with in conjunction with the pituitary gland at the base of the brain. When the level of thyroid hormone drops too low, the pituitary gland produces Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH), which tells the thyroid gland to produce more hormones. Once aware of the TSH, the thyroid secrets more T3 and T4 there by rising blood levels. The pituitary gland then slows down its TSH production.

Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the body lacks sufficient thyroid hormone. Since the main purpose of thyroid hormone is to “run the body’s metabolism”, it is understandable that people with this condition will have symptoms associated with a slow metabolism. The estimate varies, but approximately10 million American have this common medical condition. In fact, 10% of women may have some degree of thyroid hormone deficiency, (Norman, 2010).

It is estimated that roughly 3% of the population worldwide has some type of hypothyroid condition. There is a wide range of severities within hypothyroidism, and the severity of symptoms does not always correlated with the severity of the disorder (Endocrine Web.com, 2005). Some common physical symptoms are fatigue, weakness, muscles hypotonia, depression, joint pain, dry skin, abnormal menstrual cycles, impaired cognitive function, acute psychosis (myxedema madness). Each individual patient may have any number of these symptoms, and they will vary with the severity of the thyroid hormone deficiency and length of the time body has deprived of the proper amount of hormone.

According to statistics by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE, 2007) and other medical organizations, approximately 27 million Americans are experiencing a thyroid disorder. When compared to the AACE statistics for American who experiences diabetes, which is approximately 16 millions, the number of people with thyroid disease exceeds that by more than 40%. This makes thyroid disease, the most common endocrine disorder (problem affecting hormone glands) in the USA. Approximately 80% of the thyroid disease is experienced by female and women are five times more likely to develop hypothyroidism (an under active thyroid) than are men. (Vanderpump et al. 1995), The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III, 1988-1994), found hypothyroidism in 4.6% of the US population (0.3% overt and 4.3% subclinical) and hypothyroidism in 1.3% (0.5% overt), with increasing prevalence with age in both females and males. The thyroxin hormone plays an important role in emotion and behavioural symptoms and disturbances. Since hypothyroidism usually develops slowly, and the early complaints are frequently minor, vague and diffuse in nature, it is not surprising that the diagnosis is often overlooked, females than males (Roti, 2002).

It is found that people with an underactive thyroid can lead to progressive loss of interest and initiative, slowing of mental process, poor memory for recent events, general intellectual http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

98 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

deterioration, depression and eventually, if not checked, to dementia and permanent harmful effects on the brain, (Albert, 1988). ‘Cognitive impairment’ is one of the most feared symptoms of thyroidism. Although there are changes in cognitive functioning in thyroidism, these rarely affect daily functioning at an early stage (Nazliel, 2008) Thyroid imbalance has serious effects on the patient’s ‘emotions and behavior’ (Arem, 2007).

Thyroid disease can affect a person’s mood-primarily causing either anxiety or depression.

Generally, the more severe the thyroid disease, the more severe the mood changes. Delusions, hallucinations, paranoia, and extreme restlessness mixed with lethargy are all common in individuals, with myxedema. Hall (2002) reported that the rapid changing hormone level in hypothyroidism is a key factor in the development of anxiety symptoms. Anxiety disorders occur in approximately 30-40% of patients with emerging acute hypothyroidism (Hall, 2002). Severe anxiety attacks, panic attacks, and “free floating anxiety”, or a continuous feeling of being on edge, are all common anxiety reactions when hypothyroidism is developing.

Depression is more likely occur in hypothyroidism. Depression presents a person with depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure; feeling of guilt or low self-esteem, disturbance sleep or appetite, low energy, and poor concentration (Moore, 2007). These problems can become chronic or recurrent and lead to substantial impairment in an individual’s ability to take care of his/her everyday responsibilities.

It is a fact that thyroid hormone not only plays an important part in the health of metabolic endocrine, nervous and immune system, they in turn have an important role in the health and optimal functioning of brain. On the basis of various findings it was found that the central features of all thyroid conditions are affected by emotional, motivational, cognitive and somatic manifestation. Emotional manifestation includes depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure, inability to experience pleasure. In the motivational manifestation psychomotor agitation or retardation, failure or loss of energy, concentration problems etc. are included. Cognitive manifestation consists of negative thinking, low self-esteem, hopelessness and pessimism inability in making decisions, suicidal thoughts etc. Somatic manifestation has weight changes, sleep and appetite changes etc. Studies on thyroidism subjects have indicated that these serious psycho-somatic symptoms affecting the patient’s quality of life. There is a need to study the psychological determinants of hypothyroidism.

METHOD OBJECTIVES:  

A comparative study of Personality Traits of hypothyroidism patients with their normal counterparts.

A comparative study of Brain dysfunction of hypothyroidism patients with their normal counterparts.

SAMPLE: The sample for the study comprised two groups. Group-I consisted of 50 hypothyroid patients, in the age-group of 30 to 50 years taken from the clinics of physicians, Agra. Group –II http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

99 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

was a matched group of 50 non-hypothyroid patients with group-I in terms of age, education, marital status and socio-economic status. Subjects having any often somatic or psychological problem were excluded from the sample. The following inclusion and exclusion criteria were followed for selection of hypothyroid patients.    

Age range of patient between 30 to 50 years Gender (only females).

Education at least graduate passed.

Marital status: married.

DESIGN: Ex-post facto research design was used.

TOOLS: 1- Hypothyroidism should be diagnosed on the basis of pathologist report obtained during last year.

2-For measuring PERSONALITY, NEO Five Factor Personality Inventory (NEO PI) by McCrae & Costa (1985) was used. Detailed interpretation: Facets of N, E, O, A and CA list of the personality dimensions measured by the NEO PI, including facets is as follow: Neuroticism: - (1) Anxiety, (2) Hostility, (3) Depression, (4) Self-consciousness, (5) Impulsiveness, (6) Vulnerability to stress.

Extraversion: - (1) Warmth, (2) Gregariousness, (3) Assertiveness, (4) Activity, (5) Excitement seeking, (6) Positive emotion.

Openness: - (1) Fantasy, (2) Aesthetics, (3) feelings, (4) Actions, (5) Ideas, (6) Values.

Agreeableness: - (1) Trust, (2) Altruism, (3) Straight forwardness, (4) Compliance, (5) Modesty, (6) Tender-mindedness.

Conscientiousness: - (1) Competence, (2) Order, (3) Dutifulness, (4) Achievement Striving, (5) Self- Discipline.

2- For measuring Brain Dysfunction, the PGI Battery of Brain Dysfunction development by Pershad and Verma(1989) was used.

Description of the test: - This test consists of five subtests. (i) Memory Scale (ii) Battery of Performance Test of Intelligence (iii) Verbal Adult Intelligence Scale (iv) Nahar-Benson Test (v) Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test.

PROCEDURE NEO Five Factor Personality Inventory (NEO PI), and PGI Battery of Brain Dysfunction will be administered one by one on all fifty patients of hypothyroidism of (group-I) and on fifty normal subjects (group-II). Administration of each test was done according to the instructions given in their respective manuals. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

100 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

RESULTS Table- I Showing The Result of Mann Whitney “U” Test of NEO PI Dimensions

NEO PI

Neuroticism

Extraversion

Openness

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Groups

N

Hypothyroid women

50

Nonhypothyroid women

50

Hypothyroid women

50

Nonhypothyroid women

50

Hypothyroid women

50

Nonhypothyroid women

50

Hypothyroid women

50

Nonhypothyroid women

50

Hypothyroid women

50

Nonhypothyroid women

50

Hypothyroid women

50

Nonhypothyroid women

50

ZU

Level Critical Significant Significant

3.01

0.01

2.58

2.34

0.05

1.96

0.68

0.05

1.96

1.15

0.05

1.96

3.01

0.01

2.58

3.69

0.01

2.58

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101 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

Table II Showing The Result of Mann Whitney “U” Test of Brain Dysfunction.

Groups

N

Hypothyroid women

50

Nonhypothyroid women

50

ZU

2.01

Level Critical Significant Significant

0.05

1.96

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION Table I indicated that the differences between Personality Trait of hypothyroid and nonhypothyroid women is significant. The ZU value is 4.310 which is significant at 0.01 levels, indicating that hypothyroid and non hypothyroid women significantly differ in their personality traits. In Neuroticism Dimension of NEO PI, hypothyroid and nonhypothyroid women are statistically differed with each. The ZU value is 2.34 which is significant at 0.05 level and 1.96 is a critical value at 0.05 level. Results indicate that hypothyroid women’s scored high in Neuroticism, it indicates that emotional instability, embarrassment, low self-esteem and psychological distress disagreeableness, feeling of guilt, sadness, and hopelessness were high in this group. In Extraversion Dimension of NEO PI, the difference between hypothyroid and non hypothyroid women is not significant. . The ZU value is 0.68 which is not significant at 0.05 level and 1.96 is a critical value at 0.05 level. Openness Dimension of NEO PI, the difference between hypothyroid and non hypothyroid women is not significant. The ZU value is 1.15 which is not significant at 0.05 level and 1.96 is a critical value at 0.05 level. In Agreeableness Dimension of NEO PI, hypothyroid and non hypothyroid women are statistically differed with each other. The ZU value is 3.01 which is significant at 0.01 level and 2.58 is a critical value at 0.01 level. These results indicate that hypothyroid women’s scored low in Agreeableness, it indicates that tendency to dishonest or dangerous and aggressive prefers to complete rather than cooperate, and has no reluctant to get involved in the problems of others were high in this group.

In Conscientiousness Dimension of NEO PI, hypothyroid and non hypothyroid women are that statistically differed with each other at 0.01 level. The ZU value is 3.69 which is significant at 0.01 level and 2.58 is a critical value at 0.01 level. The result indicates that hypothyroid women’s score low in Conscientiousness, It indicates that hypothyroid women have lower opinion in their abilities and admit that they are often unprepared and inept, and unable to get organized and describe themselves as unmethodical and are not driven to succeed etc.

Table II indicates that hypothyroid and nonhypothyroid women were statistically differed with each other in Brain Dysfunction of PGI Battery. The ZU value is 2.01 which is significant at 0.05 level and 1.96 is a critical value at 0.05 level. The result indicates that there is significant difference between hypothyroid and nonhypothyroid women.

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102 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

It is a fact that thyroid hormone not only plays an important part in the health of metabolic endocrine, nervous and immune system, they in turn have an important role in the health and optimal functioning of brain. On the basis of various findings it was found that the central features of all thyroid conditions are affected by emotional, motivational, cognitive and somatic manifestation. Emotional manifestation includes depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure, inability to experience pleasure. In the motivational manifestation psychomotor agitation or retardation, failure or loss of energy, concentration problems etc. are included. Cognitive manifestation consists of negative thinking, low self-esteem, hopelessness and pessimism inability in making decisions, suicidal thoughts etc. Somatic manifestation has weight changes, sleep and appetite changes etc. Studies on thyroid subjects have indicated that these serious psycho-somatic symptoms affecting the patient’s quality of life.

CONCLUSION  There is no significant difference in the Brain Dysfunction of the hypothyroid and nonhypothyroid married women.  There is significant difference in the Personality Traits of hypothyroid and nonhypothyroid married women.

REFERENCES: 

Abalovich, M. (2007).Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy : an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 92(8), 47-56



American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (AACE), (2007). Subclinical thyroid disease: Guidelines & position statements. Available from: http://www.aace.com/pub/ positionstatements/subclinical.php.



Arem, R. (2007). The Thyroid Solution: A Mind Body Program For Beating Depression and Regaining Your Emotional and Physical Health. 2 ed. Available from:http://googlebooks.com.



EndocrineWeb.com.(2005).Hypothyroidism. Retrieved from http://www.endocrineweb.com/ hypo1.html



Hall, R. (2002).

Anxiety and http://www.drrichardhall.com/anxiety.htm



McCrae, R.R., Costa, P.T.(1985). NEO Five Factor Personality Inventory (NEO PI) Form ‘S’. National , M.A, Frank, M.C, Tedford, W.L.Psychological Corporation.Agra.



Moore, E. (2006). Thyroid Disease Triggers: Environmental and Lifestyle Factir in Thyroid Disease. Retrieved from:- http://autoimmunedisease.suite101.com

Endocrine

Disease.

Retrieved

from:-

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103 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy



National health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES III) (1988-1994). Journal of Clinical Endocrinology Metbolism,87(4), 489-99.



Nazliel, G., Yilmaz, M., Kocer, B. (2008). Event related potential in hypothyroidism.

Electromyogr Clin Neurophysiol, 48(5), 203-208.



Norman, J. (2010). Psychological change and psychogenesis in thyroid hormone disorders.

Journals of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 25(3), 327-338.



Pershad, D., Mahajan, A., Verma, S.K. (1989). Handbook for P.G.I. Battery of Brain Dysfunction. National Psychological Corporation . Agra.



Roti, E. (2002). Post-partum thyroiditis- a clinical update. European Journal of Endocrinology, 146(7), 275-9



Vanderpump, M. (1995). The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty-year follow-up of the Whickham Survey. Clinical Endocrinology, 43(6), 55-68.

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.104-109

QUALITY OF LIFE OF EMPLOYED AND UNEMPLOYED MARRIED WOMEN Surila Agrawala & Nidhi Gurbaxani ABSTRACT There is any difference in the main aim is to study the quality of life of employed and unemployed married women. The sample in the study comprised two groups of women, group I consisted of 50employed married women & group II consisted of 50 unemployed married women. The two groups were matched in terms of age, economic status and qualification. Matched group design was used. World Health Organization Questionnaire was used tool. The result revealed that there is no significant difference quality of life of employed and unemployed married women.

INTRODUCTION The word “Quality” is of Latin origin from the root word “Qualis” meaning “of what kind” (Webster, 1986). The same dictionary defines “Quality as the “degree of excellence”, “a special distinguishing attribute” or “high social status”. Definition of life includes the course of existence or the manner of their living. Quality of Life (QOL) thus, represents a broad spectrum of human experiences. Quality of Life (QOL) is a frequently used term that has implicit meaning to almost everyone. Less frequently, it is defined in a way that allows for clear understanding and measurement. According to MC Call (1975), quality of life consist of obtaining the necessary conditions for happiness in a given society or region. Nevertheless, they discussed quality of life as being comprised of broad concepts that can affect global life satisfaction, including housing, employment opportunities, personal safety, family educational system, leisure pursuits, and good health. “Quality of Life” may encompass a person’s ability to carry out mundane social functions (for example, self care, house work, recreation, and paid employment). Opportunity for and competence in social interaction, psychological well-being, somatic sensation (such as the experience of personal gains from mundane activity).

Lyndon Johnson is credited with being the first person to use the phrase ‘Quality of Life’ to express the view that having a good life was more than being financially secure. Since his speech at Madison squre Garden in 1964, this phrase has been globally used in a variety of contexts ranging from environment to health (Blan, 1977) Compbell and Converse (1979), Andrews and Withney (1976), Najman and Levin (1981) considered quality of life as a composite measure of physical, mental, and social well being as perceived by each individual and happiness, satisfaction, gratification involving life concerns like health, marriage, family, education, opportunities, financial situation, creativity and so on. So it refers to the overall satisfaction in the component areas.

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105 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

WHO (1995) defined quality of life as “An individual’s perception of his/her position in life in the context of culture and value system in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns. It is a broad ranging concept incorporating a complex way in which the person’s physical health, psychological state, level of independence, social relationships, personal beliefs and their relationships are adapted to the salient features of the environment.” The comprehensive notion of QOL there for, seems to be a blend between “objective” and “subjective” components. The objective components are related by the term ‘standard of living’ with things such as level of education, employment, status, financial resources, housing conditions and comfort of moderns living. The parallel term used in United Nations (1916) documents is level of living consisting of nine components, housing, social security, clothing recreation and leisure, and human rights. These objective characteristics are believed to influence human well being. It is also believed that an individual’s satisfaction or happiness with his objective reality depends not only on his access to goods and services that are available to the community but also on his expectations and perceived reality. It is this subjective component which links the IQ to subjective well being, viz as experienced by each individual.

The subjective well-being is believed to be a function of degree of wishes and needs on one hand and environmental demands and opportunities on the other. Thus, QOL means overall life satisfaction of an individual in which ‘standard of living’ (pleasant affect i.e. joy) and unpleasant affect (ie depression and life dissatisfaction) both are important. Quality of life can be affected by a number of significant positive and negative life events. The factors contributing to the quality of life of an individual may be broadly classified under two groups: (i) satisfactory conditions. These include factors like group cohesiveness, sharing of each other’s experience, helping attitudes, understanding and sharing physical illness etc. (ii) satisfying conditions : These includes factors like sense of belongingness, subjective feelings of physical, psychological, mental, social & spiritual well-being, absence of unhappy experiences within the family, etc.

Quality of life has combined the multiple meaning, consisting of objective and subjective factors and considers the evaluation of the individuals on the basis of his comfort. There are two views for meaning and measuring the quality of life, one is life satisfaction methods and second is adjustment methods.

According to Quality of life research unit (2004), the quality of life is related to communities, families, and individuals from a variety of population groups. The study of quality of life is an examination of factors that contribute to the goodness and well-being of life, as well as people’s happiness. It also explores the inter-relationships among these factors. The ideological trust of quality of life study is to promote means for the people, within their environment, to live in the way that is best for them. Long term unemployment is still the most detrimental factor for quality of life. Social integration and life satisfaction is improved when a high level of employment coincides with high quality jobs. Overall results support an integrated employment policy.

Higher employment rates, better quality jobs combined with family friendly activities. Although employed are more satisfied than unemployed, the quality of job is important because difficult working condition have a detrimental effect on several areas of satisfaction. Those who work overtime, in high intensity jobs, or in jobs that are physically or psychologically demanding, report lower satisfaction levels than those who work under favorable conditions. In the present study, quality of life was taken as consisting of a number of aspects of a person’s life satisfaction, marital adjustment, physical health, psychological health, social relationships, and good income. Although the concept of quality of life (QOL), is not new, quality of life as an area of research and scholarship dates back only to the 1960 s. noted that president Dwight http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Eisenhower’s (1960) commission on National Goals and Bauer’s book on social indicators (1966), are often credited as providing the impetus for the development of QOL as an area of research. Campbell (1981) suggested that the 1960 s were favorable times for the development of QOL research because of the emergence then of a belief that people must examine the quality of their lives and must do so in an environment that goes beyond providing material goods to foster individual happiness.

METHOD Problem: To compare the quality of life of employed and unemployed married women.

Hypothesis: Quality of life of employed married women is better than the quality of life of unemployed married women.

Variables: Independent Variable: Employment of women.

Dependent Variable: Quality of life.

Relevant variables: Age, economic status qualification.

Sample: The sample in the present study comprised two groups of women; group 1 consisted of 50 employed married women and group II consisted of 50 unemployed married women. The two groups were matched in terms of age, economic status and qualification.

Design: Matched group design was used.

Tools: World Health Organization- Quality of life Questionnaire. (WHO QOL)- BREF: (1996) The questionnaire has been developed by World Health Organization group in order to provide a short form quality of life assessment that looks domain level profiles.

RESULTS Means of scores of (QOL) of both the groups were calculated. Total of ranks were calculated (Table No. 1).

To test the significance of difference between quality of life of employed and unemployed married women. http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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Table No-1 Showing the Quality of Life of Employed and Unemployed married Women.

GROUPS

N

TOTAL OF RAW SCORES

MEAN

TOTAL OF RANKS

EMPLOYED MARRIED WOMEN UNEMPLOYED MARRIED WOMEN

50

4231

84.62

2616

50

4170

83.4

2434

Graph

Table No- 2 Showing results of Mann Whitney ‘U’ Test GROUPS EMPLOYED WOMEN

N

ZU

50

0.63

MARRIED

UNEMPLOYED MARRIED WOMEN

LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE Not significant at 0.05 level

50

Result Table No-1 shows that total of raw scores of employed married women is 4231, and total of raw scores of unemployed married women is 4170. Mean QOL, score of group 1 employed married women was 84.62 and mean QOL score of group II unemployed married women was http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

108 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

83.4. Then, total of ranks were calculated. 2616 was total of ranks of employed women (Group 1) and 2434 was total of ranks of unemployed women (Group II).

Result Table No- 2. Indicates that the difference between the Quality of Life of employed and unemployed married women is not significant. The Zu value is 0.63 which is not significant even at 0.05 level. Thus the result of the study leads us to reject the hypothesis taken “The employed married woman is better than the unemployed married women.”

DISCUSSION The present study was conducted to find out the differences between the quality of life of employed and unemployed married women. Mann Whitney U Test was applied between the quality of life of employed and unemployed married women and its dimension (Physical health, social relationship, and environment). Zu values were computed for the variables which yielded not significant at 0.01 level. Zu score were computed to see the significance of difference between the quality of life of employed and unemployed married women, and its four dimensions separately (physical health, psychological health, and social relationship and environment). Zu value were computed to see the not significance of difference between means for employed and unemployed married women on quality of life and its four dimensions separately (Physical health, psychological heath, social relationship and environment). The table of comparison of means (Table No-1) shows that employed married women and unemployed married women has no difference of quality of life. Results of the present study not support the hypothesis. Zu values were significant at 0.01 level and 2.58 is the critical value at 0.01 level.

Chaudhary (2007) found that employed and unemployed married women did not differ significantly on marital adjustment, life stress and general well being. Wright (2008) concluded that there no consistent differences in pattern of the life satisfaction between employed outside the home and full time housewives.

CONCLUSION There is no significant difference in the quality of life of employed and unemployed married woman.

References: 

Andrews F.M. & Whitney, S.B (1976). Social indicators of well being. American perception of life quality. New York: Plenum.



Blan, T.H. (1977). Quality of life, social indicators and criteria of change. Journal of Professional Psychology. 8,464-473.



Campbell, A. (1981). The Sense of Well-Being in American: Recent patterns and Trends.

New York: Mc Grew- Hill.



Campbell, A. & Converse, P. (1970). Monitoring the quality of American life: A proposal to the Russel Sage Foundation. Survey Research Center, University of Michigan.

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

Chaudhry, M. (2007). A study of marital adjustment, role conflict, fear of success, general well-being of life stress amongst working and non- working married women.

Unpublished PhD thesis. Punjab University, Chandigarh, India.



Mc Call, S. (1975). Quality of life. Social indicators research, 2, 229-248.



Najman, J.M. & Levin, S. (1981). Evaluating the impact of medical care and technologies on the quality of life. Social science and Medicine, 15, 107-115.



Webster, M. (1986). New International Dictionary of the English language, Massachusetts: Spring- field.



Wright, J.D. (2008). Are working women really more satisfied? Evidence from several national surveys. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 40, 301-313.

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LokÄ yata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.110-111

NEW PUBLICATIONS

Human Rights for All Editor: Manoj Kumar ISBN: 978-81-922377-3-2 First Edition, April, 2012

About the Book Human Rights for All is an important work in this regard as it is a fine collection of papers written by academicians including research scholars, practitioners and teachers etc., and provide us a comprehensive study of various issues related to human rights. This study is an attempt to exploration into dimensions, and perceptions of, human rights community, groups and groundroot workers. We are thankful to Dr. Manoj Kumar taking this initiative to edit this volume. We are sure that this volume will be beneficial for students and teachers of social science and humanities. It is the general intention of the Centre to produce some collaborative, informative as well as positive literature to inspire and motivate the students and the general reader.

Publisher: Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS), Milestone Education Society (Regd.), Pehowa (Kurukshetra)-136128 (HARYANA) http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

111 | P a g e LokÄ yata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

Contemporary Indian Philosophy Editor: Desh Raj Sirswal ISBN: 978-81-922377-4-9 First Edition: February, 2013 About the Book Contemporary Indian Philosophy is related to contemporary Indian thinkers and contains the proceedings of First Session of Society for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (SPPIS) Haryana. It is neither easy nor impossible to translate into action all noble goals set forth by the eminent thinkers and scholars, but we might try to discuss and propagate their ideas. In this session all papers submitted electronically and selected abstracts have been published on a website especially develop for this session. In this volume we included some papers from this session and also from open sources and contributors include teachers, research scholars and students etc. This volume is divided into two parts. First part contains papers on Swami Vivekananda and second part contains papers of B. G. Tilak, Sri Aurobindo, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Saheed Bhagat Singh and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar etc. It is the general intention of the Centre to produce informative as well as positive literature to inspire and motivate the students and the general readers.

Publisher: Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS), Milestone Education Society (Regd.), Pehowa (Kurukshetra)-136128 (HARYANA) http://positivephilosophy.webs.com

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Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.112-114

PHILOSOPHY NEWS IN INDIA PRAJNANAM : International Conference on Liberating Learning 7th to 9th June 2013 Ahmedabad, Gujarat , India Contact person: Dr. Ajitsinh Rana, convener SUB THEMES: 1.Alternatives to Systemic Rituals 2.Defying the Dictating Forces 3.Teacher Education for Liberating Learning 4.Indian Concept of Learning: 5.Education from Womb to School: NO FEES FOR THE OVERSEAS DELEGATES. Organized by: CHILDREN’S UNIVERSITY, GUJARAT. ERA GUJARAT, BHARTIYA SHIKSHAN MANDAL, HIGHER EDUCATION FORUM, GUJARAT Deadline for abstracts/proposals: 30th April 2013 Website: http://www.prajnanam.org Workshop on Indian Materialism From 29th April to 9th May, 2013 Indian Council of Philosophical Research will organize a Workshop on Indian Materialism with the help of the eminent scholar Prof. V.N. Jha. The Course will be held at Academic Centre, Lucknow, of ICPR. http://icpr.in/advertise-Indian%20materialism.pdf

Beyond the Human: Monsters, Mutants and Lonely Machines (or What?)

20th to 23rd February 2014 New Delhi, India Website: http://beyondthehuman.com Contact person: Makarand Paranjape The conference will address, critique and further trajectories and aspects of the border-crossing between the human and its alter-entities in its various dimensions, transhuman, posthuman, superhuman, postmodern and postcolonial.

Organized by: Jawaharlal Nehru University Deadline for abstracts/proposals: 15th August 2013

International Conference “Bounds of Ethics in a Globalized World” http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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January 06-09, 2014 Christ University, Bangalore, India http://www.boundsofethics2014.in Contact : Dr. Kurian Kachappilly, CMI Convener, BoE2014 E-mail: frkurian@christuniversity.in

Call for Papers Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389) Respected Faculty/Scholar, I would like to invite all academicians from all disciplines to contribute research papers and articles for our journal. Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389) is a biannual an online interdisciplinary journal of the Center for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS). The name Lokāyata can be traced to Kautilya's Arthashastra, which refers to three ānvīkṣikīs (logical philosophies), Yoga, Samkhya and Lokāyata. Lokāyata here still refers to logical debate (disputatio, "criticism") in general and not to a materialist doctrine in particular. The objectives of the journal are to encourage new thinking on concepts and theoretical frameworks in the disciplines of humanities and social sciences to disseminate such new ideas and research papers (with strong emphasis on modern implications of philosophy) which have broad relevance in society in general and man’s life in particular. The Centre will publish two issues of the journal every year. Each regular issue of the journal will contain full-length papers, discussions and comments, book reviews, information on new books and other relevant academic information. Each issue contains about 100 pages.

Theme: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN PHILOSOPHY Proposed Contents: 

Nature of Philosophy



Problems of Philosophy



Methods of Philosophy



Reading Philosophy



Writing Philosophy



Argument Formation



Research Tools http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

114 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy



Reference Style



Doing Philosophy



Suggested Readings

Last date for paper submission: 31st August, 2013 Format of Submission: The paper should be typewritten preferably in Times New Roman with 12 font size (English) and Kruti Dev (10) with 14 font size (Hindi) in MS-Word 2003 and between 3000 to 5000 words. They should be typed on one side of the paper, double spaced with ample margins. The authors should submit the hard copy along with a CD and a certificate of originality of the paper to be sent to the editorial address.

For detailed reference-style sheet follow our CPPIS Manual for Contributors & Reviewers available at http://lokayatajournal.webs.com All contributions to the Journal, other editorial enquiries and books for review are to be sent to: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Near Guaga Maidi, Balmiki Basti, H.No.255/6, Pehowa, Distt.

Kurukshetra (HARYANA)-136128 (India) Mobile No.09896848775, 08288883993, E-mail: cppiskkr@gmail.com, mses.02@gmail.com, Website: http://lokayatajournal.webs.com For more events/publication information visit at http://newsphilosophy.wordpress.com

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115 | P a g e Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN: 2249-8389) Volume III, No. 01 (March, 2013), pp.115-116

CONTRIBUTORS OF THIS ISSUE Dr. P. Kesava Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry.

Ms. Nirmala V., Research Scholar, Department of Sanskrit Sahitya, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, Kerala.

Dr. Shruti Rai C/o. Dr. Rajnish Kumar Mishra (Assistant Professor), Special Centre for Sanskrit Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.

Ms. Bhumika Sharma, Research Scholar, Himachal Pradesh University,Shimla.

Ms.Reni Pal, Assistant Professor in Philosophy, Surendranath College, Kolkata.

Mr. Buddhiswar Haldar, Senior Research Fellow (UGC), Department of Philosophy, University of North Bengal .

Ms.Sima Baruah, Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Philosophy, Gauhati University, Guwahati Dr. Jatinder Kumar Jain, Associate Professor, Department of Philosophy,Govt.

Ripudaman College, Nabha (Patiala).

Mrs. Rinky Chowdhury, Assistant Professor, Pranabnanda Women’s College, Dimapur, Nagaland.

Department

of

Education,

Dr. K.J.Sandhu, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Science, Dayalbagh Educational Institute (D.E.I), Agra, U.P. Ms. Khusboo, Research Scholar, Dayalbagh Educational Institute (D.E.I), Agra, U.P. Dr. Dinesh Chahal, Assistant Professor, C.R. College of Education, Hisar (Haryana) Ms. Nidhi Mehta, Assistant Professor, Gaur College of Education, Behbalpur, Hisar (Haryana).

Ms. Shalini Sisodia, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra.

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116 | P a g e LokÄ yata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

Prof. Ira Das, Head, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra.

Dr. P.K. Mona, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology,, Faculty of Social Sciences,, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra, U.P. Ms. Prachi Sharma, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra, U.P. Prof. Surila Agrawala, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra, U.P. Ms. Nidhi Gurubaxani, Research Scholar, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, Agra, U.P.

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117 | P a g e LokÄ yata: Journal of Positive Philosophy

Instructions to the Contributors LokÄ yata: Journal of Positive Philosophy (ISSN 2249-8389) welcomes contributions in all areas of research proposed by the Centre. All articles are sent to experts who evaluate each paper on several dimensions such as originality of the work, scientific argument, and English style, format of the paper, references, citations and finally they comment on suitability of the article for the particular Journal. In case of review articles the importance of the subject and the extent the review is comprehensive are assessed. Prospective authors are expected that before submitting any article for publication they should see that it fulfills these criteria. The improvement of article may be achieved in two ways (i) more attention to language (ii) more attention to the sections of the article.

Format of Submission: The paper should be typewritten preferably in Times New Roman with 12 font size (English) and Kruti Dev (10) with 14 font size (Hindi) in MS-Word 2003-07 and between 3000 to 5000 words. They should be typed on one side of the paper, double spaced with ample margins. The authors should submit the hard copy along with a CD and a certificate of originality of the paper to be sent to the editorial address.

Time Line: The last dates of submission of the manuscript are as follows: For April to September Issue: 31stAugust every year.

For October to March Issue: 31st January every year.

Reference Style: Notes and references should appear at the end of the articles as Notes. Citations in the text and References must correspond to each other; do not over reference by giving the obvious/old classic studies or the irrelevant. Give all journal titles in full and not in an abbreviated form, LJPP follows APA format for references. The following style of reference may be strictly followed: In case of Journal: Venkona Rao,A.(1980) Gita and mental sciences. Indian Journal of Psyhiatry, 22, 19-31.

In case of a Book: McKibben, B. (1992). The age of missing information. New York: Random House, 23-24.

Chapter in an Edited Book: Hartley, J. T., Harker J. O.,& Walsh, D. A. (1980). Contemporary issues and new directions in adult development of learning and memory. In L. W. Poon (Ed.), Aging in the 1980s:Psychological issues . Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association,250-253.

For unpublished work: Gould, J. B. (1999). Symbolic Speech: Legal mobilization and the rise of collegiate hate speech codes (Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago, 1999),54-55.

In case of institution/Govt. Report: Administration on Aging. (1984). Alzheimer's disease handbook (DHHS Publication No. OHDS 84-20813). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 65.

For detailed reference-style sheet follow our CPPIS Manual for Contributors & Reviewers available at http://lokayatajournal.webs.com http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

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CPPIS, Pehowa (Kurukshetra) Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies(CPPIS) Pehowa is a joint academic venture of Milestone Education Society (Regd.) Pehowa and Society for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (SPPIS), Haryana (online) to do fundamental research in the field of Humanities and Social Sciences.

SPPIS Newsletter The Centre also circulates a Newsletter which includes new information related to events, new articles and programme details. One can register himself on the below given address and will get regular updates from us.

Link for registration: http://drsirswal.webs.com/apps/auth/signup All contributions to the Journal, other editorial enquiries and books for review are to be sent to: Dr. Desh Raj Sirswal, Chief-Editor, Lokāyata: Journal of Positive Philosophy, Centre for Positive Philosophy and Interdisciplinary Studies (CPPIS), Milestone Education Society (Regd), Valmiki Dharamshala, Pehowa, Distt. Kurukshetra (HARYANA)-136128 (India) Mobile No.09896848775, 08288883993 E-mail: cppiskkr@gmail.com, mses.02@gmail.com Website: http://lokayatajournal.webs.com

“My objective is to achieve an intellectual detachment from all philosophical systems, and not to solve specific philosophical problems, but to become sensitively aware of what it is when we philosophise.”- Dr Desh Raj Sirswal

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