A functional approach to the Origin of Life problem by Knudsen Consultants

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A Functional Approach to the Origin of

Life Probtrem

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Krishna Bahadur', S. Ranganayaki', Clair Folsome' and Adolph Smithg t

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lChemistry Department, University of Allahabad zlaboratory for Primordial Biology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hl 96822 sPhysics Department; r:L4rcordia University, Montreal, now at Amr-.i.,.,;search Center, 239-12, Motrett Field, NASA, California, 94035

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National Acarlemy of Sciences, Intlia : Golden Jubilee Commemoration Volume, 1980

Bahadur Ranganayaki Folsome

Smith

1. Tne PnosLnN{ IN ORIGIN oF LIFE SruoIEs To explain how life began is surely one of the most fundamental aspects of biological research, yet today we see studies in origrn of life generally as an esoteric field away from the main stream. whi' ? For one thing there has been little progress in the field in the past decade. During the 1950's with the announcement of the Miller-Urey experiment i1953) origin of life became a much discussed subject which found its way into standard text' books. During the succeeding decade a variety of presumed prebiotic experiments in which various energy sources such as light, electric discharges, and acoustic shock waves were carried out. A wide variety of simple biochemicals were found to be products in these experiments. Some work was done on polymers but most of the work centered about identifying and listing the smaller organic molecules such as amino acids and nucleic acid bases formed from simple precursors. The gap between a collection of biochemicals and the properties which are intrinsic to the simplest living organism remained just as large after two decades. There has also been the objection that origin of life work is meaningless because it is largely a matter of conjecture as to what rheconditions on a prebiological earth were ; hence the relevance ofany simulation experiment was suspect. we want to question the fundamental assumptions of present-day work the gap and to suggest an alternative simplifying approach which bridges 'between biochemicals and simple cell functions. Experimental resulis which demonstrate the utility of a functional approach to the origin of life problem

wiil be presented.

MooBnN losA,s oN OntctN oF LIFE

Modern ideas on the origin of life come from the theories of oparin3s and Haldanezs. They assume a primitive, reducing atmosphere (methane, The ammonia, hydrogen and water) so that complex molecules could arise. would reducing atmosphere was thought necessary so that organic moiecules not be oxidized. With sources of high energy in this atmosphere (electric would discharge, UV, etc.) it was thought that a variety of organic molecules molecules, be produced. Since there were rto organisms to consume these There they accumulated in the primitive oceans to form a prirnordial "soup". soup supposed the of concentration the is a great difference of opinion on National Academy of Sciences, India

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Origin of Life

Problem

from nearly zeto|' or an amino acid concentration of l0-7 Mle to

one

gram per iiter.

At this point, the heterotrophic hypothesis, originally advanced by Horowitz26 isinvoked.By some chance a primitive organism is assumed to have arisen out of the soup mixture and this primitive organism used the soup components for further metabolism and growth. Based upon the heterotrophic concept, Oparin adduces his concept of coacervates which arise from cornplicated molecules and then absorb various compounds from the envi' ronment. In this way, the coacervates are conceived as evolving into primitive cells.

Fox has synthesised microspheres starting from heated dry amino acids and has formed some sort of cell-like macromolecular structures and proteinoids. FIowever, his experimental conditions seem not to be geologically plausible and the arbitrary properties he lists as being lifelike are not from any one microsphere preparation but rather from many different microspheres pi-oduced under different conditions. In a summary of the prevailing

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heterotrophic hypothesis, Keosian2T writes : ,,Life at its origin is envisioned by some as a simplified version of a present-day 'primitive' heterotroph-simplified not in the reduction of metabolites or metabolic pathways, but in the substitution of rhese by simpler substances and simpler reactions supposedly performing the same functions. One need only scan the claims of chemical evolution over the past two decades to see the trend. There seems to be a general belief in an abiotic mechanism in a prebiotiQ Soup. However, the harmonious coordination of separate reactions \// into a smoothly functioning, interconnected metabolic network in even the simplest heterotroph is the result of untold millions of years of evolution. Turning that evolutionary clock backwards is not just a matter of substituting simple substances forcomplexones or simple reactions for complex pathways. The concept that all parts

of the first living thing pre'existed, and that its formation was simply a matter of spontaneous generation therefrorn is a mathematical absurdity, not probability. All present approaches to a solution of the problem of the origin of life are either irrelevant or lead into a blind alley. Therein lies the crisis." present a conceptual and experirnental approach which is based on we wellknown catalytic properties of minerals in cell-sized domains, uses an Golden Jubilee Commemoration Yolume' l9B0

Bahadur Ranganayaki Folsome

Smith

autotrophic model, and has already yielded results which narrow the gap between biochemicals and the functions manifested by living cells.

THn AurorRopHrc Hypornnsrs

The place of autotrophy in origin of life theory has been given scant attention. Geochemists have objected to the concept of a primitive soup on several grounds. one major objection has been that the "primitive soup" should have resulted in formation of large areas containing organic sediments but no such areas have been found. In a recent review, Brooks and Shaw17 conclude

"We can conclude with some certainty that : (a) There never was any substantial amount of ,primitive soup' on Earth when ancient Precambrian sediments were formed ; and that (b) If such a 'soup' ever existed it was only for a brief period of time. If we subtract the idea of a substantial amount of ,primitive soup' and a long period of time from the basic concept of Chcmical Evolution Theory, there is very little time left."

If there were not any 'primitive soup' we must assume that the first organisms were autotrophic, that is, they obtained their carbon from COn and

{

their nitrogen from atmospheric N". cairns-smithas proposed that the first organisms were clay-like. The minerals of the clay would catalyze the formation of new materials and act as templates for replication. About the chemical nature of the living system Piriee 5 holds that proteins are necessary for present-day cells because they are enzymes and catalyze many biochemical reactions. But many metallic ions also show enzyme-like

activity and it is possible that to begin with these might have been performing the work of protein enzymes. Bernalla was of the opinion that there might have been organisms which had only inorganic catalysts in the place of proteins and such organisms might have been sluggish but could have certainly performed all the functions of life. According to Smirnovaas many inorganic substances have physical properties commonly found in organic substances and it is quite possible to conceive organisms made of these inorganic substances only. Bernalls writes "unless itis desired topushback the doctrine of special creation to the creation of enzymes and co-enzymes (there is a school that would take one of these, namely the co-enzymes in the polymerised form as nucleic acid) as the beginning of life, unless then we are prepared to take such an easy way out, we must assume that before National Academy of Sciences, India

-the

Origin of Life

Problem

catalytic reactions in metabolism there there were enzymes to carry out the the so well' but sufficiently well for were some other agents that did it, not

evolve to produce protein-nucleic slow time of the origin of life'" These on the earth' Bahadurs'6 has suggesacid cellular life which we now observe of life' These microstructures could ted a probable locale for these forms

haveshownthefunctionalpropertiesoflivingSystemasclay-likemodels. problem of origin of life is to study One of the important u'ptti' of the the molecules which formed the physico-chemical factors which brought them held together and arranged the earliest living systems together' kept show the properties of biological them in some specifi" puttt'i that couid order.

Hartman2a uses a-.scheme in

A recent review of autotrophic origin by whichclays,transitionmetuls,disulfide'dithiols'ultravioletradiationand which uses COn and N' cyanide ion from a frimitive metabolic 'system at inter-

simple environment. He looks fixation and which could evolve in a central role of the citric acid cycle' mediary metabolism, and examines the of starting the cycle is one of carbon and concludes that the main problem fixation could have been acdioxide fixation. He considers that nitrogen

complishedbymolybdenumcomplexesintheprimitiveorganismsifastrong reductantwereavailable.Ithasbeenobservedthatthemixturesofjeewanu almost all the acids of the Krebs' which start with simfle substances have Krebs' cycle was perhaps the most cycleaa. It has br"i ..,ggt'ted that elementarY form of metabolism'

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or Tne FuNcrIoxal AppnoAcH To Onlctt'c of life which emphasises the We present here an approach to origin

matter-energyflowswhicharefundamentaltoalllivingorganismsandtheir prebiotic experiments' microstructures ecologies. In the course of the many and their properties have been have appeared but generally these structures is' been a case of oversight but rather ignored. The reasoi for this has not in biochemistry. A major activity in line with the mainstream of procedure ofbiochemistshasbeentheseparation,identificationandpurificationof stage of metabolism of a structured various biochemicals involved in each once-functioning sYstem'

In the first Miller-Urey

the form of experiments polymeric material in

surprisingly these structures were not microstructures was observed' Yet In the 1963's' a series of articles by studied systematically until recently2o' 1980 Golden Jubilee Commemoration Volume'

Bahadur Ranganayaki Folsome

Smith

Bahadur and coworkersl's'd'z'e on microstructures formed from transition

metals, ammoniurn phosphate, biological minerals and formaldehl,de appear_ ed. These structures were called "Jeewanu,,(a Sanskrir q,ord for particres

of life). various catarytic properties of

these particres *,ere reported but

these were largely ignored. .Ieewanu are photochemically synthesized particres formed in srerilized aqueous mixtures containing simple organic source as formaldehl.de, inorga_ nic nitrogen and minerals cornmonry found in cells. These particles have

definite boundary warl and intricate internar structures2e'r.. They are very similar to the present-day cell in chemical composition and diff.-r from the common microorganisms that they cannot be grorvn on an). known bacterial cult're mediume'6'7. These particres mulripry by budding aird the smarl buds grow to maturity size and bud again. wherever organic materiars and necessary inorganic substances are present, sunlight synthesized amino acids, peptides, sugars and such other biochemicals and the transitionai metar coordination complexes with ligand as these biochemicals wirh the help of ol semi-conductor could organise in the form of microstructures ancl lurfacl

il fOfm jeeWanUz'e

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;;.-;";;".;;;,;,;. "a"p,"L*i*'",.," Bahadur and Ranganayakie

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photochemicalry produced another variety

of these particles by the interaction of ammonium rnolybdate, diammonium hydrogen phosphate, rninerals commonly found in ceils and formaldehyde in aqueous mixtures which have 31.21% of molybdenum. In the jeewanu the properties of growth, multiprication and metabolic activity are observed in a natural way, once the experiments are set and no specific chemicals are needed for any specific property1,2,s,7. These particles with high molybdenum content have a number of amincr acids iri free form and in combinecr form as peptides, and sugars as ribose, deoxyribose, lructose and glucose. They have distinct bcundary walr and intricateinternalstructure. TheinternalsfrustLrrescanbeclearlyviewedunder high magnification. The particles under phase-contrast microscope reveal theboundary walland the internal structure of theparticlesclearlyro. These particles multiply by budding (Bahadur and Ranganayaki 1970). on separation of the particles from the mixture, extraction withchroroform : methanol : : 80 : 20 in a soxhlet yierds a viscous yellow liquid. This contains an ethyl alcohor solubre compound which on chromatography gives the test for phospholipidrz. on hydrorysis of the particres with perchroric National Academy of Sciences, India

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Origin of Life

Problem

nucleic acid or formic acid in a sealed tube the products give the tests for If the acid baser as adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine and uracil2e'3e. and the particles are kept in lNsodium hydroxide for 24 hours, filtered which obtained is precipitate hltrate acidified with dilute acetic acid a white on subsequent hydrolysis gives the test of nucleosidesao' The particles can be fixed with chromic acid and subsequently stained with gentian violet and then eosin. In the central portion chromatin-like stains red blue structures are seen and the portion outside the central zone with eosin, Lke cytoplasms. lt has been reported that the malerials of the particles on diges..ion with hydrochloric acid show strong optical activitye. particles. Briggsa6 reported esterase and phosphatase activity in these BahadurandRanganayakigreportedurease-like,ATP-aselikeandperoxiJeewanu dase-like activity in these photochemically formed microstructures' mixtureal'36' irradiative in the antibiotics are sensitive to the presence oi Presence of sulphur drugs also affect their growths6' with The factors which are responsible for the natural formation of objects The molecules a definite morphology have been discussed by Bahadur3'5'7' by coacervate beld are first and together of different chemicals are brought formingfactors.IfthiscontainsmacromoleculeswithlowM.W.,molecules der Waals forces' attached by various intermolecular forces, such as van and others' hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic bonding, molecular bonding by together held and absorbed and also many other molecules adsorbed' is formed crystal electrostatic forces, on crystallisation, a highly deformed wide gapsand passand the whole thing results in a molecular mesh having have specific permeability' ages through which small environmental molecules

crystal The various gaps contain different molecules held in this deformed whole The structure and remain active chemically and also catalytically.

the state structure attempts to acquire a spatio-energetic pattern representing The outer structures. looking biological in of minimum energy and it results have anintri' to appears material forms a boundary wall and tbe aggregate an appropriate environcate internal structure. Ifthis structure is present in and if it has ment, containing molecules which can form its body material'

asourceofenergy,whichmaypreferablybeobtainedbyirradiation'the

appropriate passa' environnrental molecules enter the aggregatethrough the

gesintheboundarywallfromtheoutermaterialoftheaggregate,interact formeds'a'5',7. and finally result in the material from whichthe aggregateis Allsuchabiogenicmorphologicalstructuremaynotbeabletoshowthe Golden lubilee Commemoration Volume, 1980

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Bahadur Ranganayaki Folsome

Smith

properties of biologicar order, but those which bappened to be in the en_ vironment to allow the flow of energy appropriate for them could show these properties. of such innumerable particles those which depended on such materials which were continuously being formed in the mixture-say by photochemical process-continued their riving activity and the rest ceased their functions soon after the supply of the n.".rrury molecules

was finisheds,6,7.

Many such microstructures are observed in ores and rocks and are reported as silicate particles' found in sedimentary rocks and are described as microfossils and observed in carbonaceous chondrites and mentioned as "organised Elements". Many of these may be models of the earliest struc-

tures in which life was expressed. The presence of transitional m.etal in these microstructures which might easily form coordination compreies with ligands as amino acid, peptide, nucleic acid bases courd make these structures extremely reactive for a number of chemical transfornrations. rn 1971, microstructures resurting from ultraviolet irradiation of ammo_ nium thiocyanate and ferrous surphate were reported to show pH changes

upon further irradiationdl. Earlier microstructures have been produced by the action of urtraviolet light on aqueous mixture of ammonium thiocyanate and formardehydezs, 4e'5o' This mixture was modified by introducinga mineral sorutioncontaining sodium chloride, potassium sulphate, carcium acetate, magnesium sulphate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate. In addition to this mineral solution the concenrration of which was as usually usedin microbialculture excess of potassium hydrogen phosphate and calcium acetate was added to provide a more inorganic base. In another mixture ferric chloride was added' Three sets of two such mixtures were prepared. one set of iron and non-iron containing mixtures was exposed to artificial electric right from a 100'watt electric bulb, another was covered with several folds of thick black cloth as the dark set and the third was similarly covered with black cloth and kept in a lead chamber of l inch thick solid lead walls. More microstructures were formed in the mixtures exposed to light. The mixture sbowed the formation of amino acids and peptides. More synthesis of amino acid was observed in the exposed mixture, lesser in the mixture kept in dark and least in the mixtures kept in lead chamber. Ferric chroride containing mixtures showed formation of more amino acids than the mixtures without National Academy of Sciences, India

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Origin of Life

Problem

ferric chloride. In each mixture cellJike microstructure formation was observed which showed the presence of amino acids and peptides. The experiments indicate that for the formation of microstructures chemical reactions as well as irradiation are helpful and the coordination complexes of transitional elements with ligands as amino acids and peptides as suggested by Beck13 together withthecatalyticfunctions of theinsoluble compounds of semi-conductor elements with their increasing surface as suggested by Tsigdinos and SwansonsT, were effective

in these processes.

In an attempt to study the "obvious",

the simplest microstructures in prebiotic experiments, we consider globally the metabolism of the simplest

living cells, the blue-green algae. We can view the flows into a blue-green algae as Figure 1. Energy Input Li9 h't

Motter Inputs

Red uced

corbon ond

Fig.1 Global matter-energy flows in a blue-green algae.

The global overview suggested several catalytic properties to search for in the microstructures, i.e. nitrogenase activity, carbon dioxide reduction, water photolysis. Since transition metai complexes have been intensively studied for their catalytic properties in promoting the above reactions, we decided that the microstructures studied by Bahadur would be a good starting point since they contain transition metals closely associated with organic compounds. 5. Exppruurr.rrA,r, REsuLrs

Molybdenum complexes with amino acid and small peptide ligands have been reported by Schrauzeras to have nitrogenase activity, so this function was selected

for initial testing.

GoHen fubilee Commemoration Volume, 1980

Bahadur Ranganayaki Folsome

Smith

As jeewanu are synthesised photochemically a search of the functional properties of splitting of water in sunlight and utilisation of hydrogen thus produced is obvious. A typical jeewanu mixture is prepared as follows : i vol of 4% wlv of ammonium molybdate solution, 2 vol of 3lwlv of diammonium hydrogen phosphate solution and 1 vol of mineral solution prepared by dissolving 20 ml of each of sodium chloride, potassium sulphate, calcium acetate, magnesium sulphate, manganese sulphate and potassium dihydrogen phosphate and 50 mg of ferrous sulphate in 100 ml of distilled water are mixed together and the mixture is cotton plugged and sterilised.

Aftercoolinglvolof36/'offormaldehydeisaddedinthenaixture

conditions aseptically and the mixture is exposed to sunlight under sterilised is mixture The days' for 15 hr giving five hr exposure each day for three sediments shaken once each day by gentle whirling motion to disperse the mixture the jeewanu in formed the exposure the in the whole mixture. After and used desiccator in a dried are separated from the mixture by filtration, for different exPeriments.

Bychangingtheconcentrationsofthedifferentconstituentsofthe

metal mixtures and introducing different semi-conductors or transitional prepared' jeewanu be can of soluble salts in the mixtures different types ferredoxinThese samples ofjeewanu were found to contain material with like activitysT. Jeewanu have ability to transfer electrons to hydrogenase The activity from sodium dithionite as well as from the chloroplast system. of these compounds are listed in the Table

No. l. The particles

are very stable

in air at room temperature' Micromoles Hn evolved Per hour

Type and concentration of mediator

per mg chloroPhYll

100 m

I, I

2'4

4'1

mg/ml.

J,II,

1'0 1'0

J IV,

1'8 40

1 mg/ml. J III, 1 mg/ml.

1 mg/ml. 15 m M Spinach ferredoxin

l'3 1'0

r'7 Not determined 50

1'25 m methyl viologen

M Dithionite 30'

25' 10000 lux

Table No. 1 samples of Jeewanu(J) with the C. Pasteutianum from hYdrogenase

H" Evolution by various

National Academy of Sciences, India

Life Problem -the Origin of

Ferredoxinisessentiallormanybiologicalelectrontransferprocesses A system of chloroplast and all the living cells have ferredoxin in them' withitsintactmembraneandchlorophyll,ferredoxinandhydrogenasecan in many algae' Jeewanu can split water molecule on exposure to sunlight beusedinthissystemintheplaceofferredoxinunderlaboratorycondi-and membranes tionsse. Systems containing lijrrt narvesting chloroplast from water' are hodrogen produce electron mediators to hydrogenase, to and storage conversion energy under study for utilising such systems for Ferredoxin' cytochrome C" and using sunlight as the p.iria,y energy source' to hydrogenase' ln N.{DH are the known physiological electron carriers these.u,,i.t' can be substituted by viologen dyes' Jeewanu some instances

canmediateelectrontransferfromsodiumditbioniteorilluminatedchloroin Fig' 2 ptasts to C, pasteurianum hydrogenase as indicated JeewanumixturesshowreversiblephotochemicalelectrontransferT.Thus on exposure to sunlightbecomes the mixture in which jeewanu is produced' by the reduction of molybdenum blue in colour. This biue colour is formed stage' If this blue mixture from colourless(ic) stage to blue coloured(ous) iscoveredwithblack"tott,uodkeptindarkthemixturebecomescolourless. Theprocessofrnakingthemixturecolouredandcolourlesscanberepeated in light and dark respectively' Many again and again by keeping the mixture andso the possibility of splitting ferredoxins have hydroge.irase activity also was investigated' It was observed water by jeewanu in piesen'" of light medium in which they that so far jeewanu url p""o'in the environmental of gas fromthe mixture' Howare prodrrr.d there is no appatent evolution from the environmontal medium in which ever, if the particles u"

"iu'u"d

,h.yu..produ.eduoOpotindistilledwaterandthemixturevigorously shakenandkeptinsunlightbubblesofgasstari'comingoutofthemixture This evolution of gas continues for about after about l5 min of

""-poso'"' mixtures are given a second three hours and then gradually stops' If the of gas continues for the next thorough shaking and exposed the evolution

oneandhalfhoursbuttheyieldispoor.Alterthisthegasevolutionstops andnoamountofshakingandexposureproducesanygas.Butifthis mixtureiskeptovernighttheparticlesarerevivedandnextdayagainthe is observed that jeewanu are mixture liberates gu, u, on the flrst day. It slowlydestroyedwhenkeptindistilledwaterandresultinacolloidalsusa long time if kept in very pension. However, they retain their shape for photolytic evolution of gas dilute mineral solution. so for the study of the Golden Jubilee Commemotation Yolume' 1980

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Bahadur Ranganayaki Folsome

Smith

Fl H

z & Fr cl

t! o z o Fl

TlME ( MIN

Frg

)

The system, contained C. Pasteurianunt hydrogenase and the components mentioned under Fig. except Ferredoxin. (1) with 30.lr'Moles of FD/2ML, (2) with 30 N Mole FD +4 MG RA I in 2 ML,(3) with 2 MG RA I in

2ML'(4) *t'n o

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*un no right and

from water usually dilute mineral solution is used. The results of these experiments will be published elsewhere. It has been observed that the jeewanu water mixture evolves gas for about 20 to 30 days and then slowly the evolution stops. Then no treatment produces gas. The evolution of gas by jeewanu is optimum if a certain period of exposure is given in the formation of jeewanu. For the m-ixture described here the optimum exposure piriod is 24 hr exposure to sunlight. It is done by giving4 days'exposure ofsix hours each day. Ifthe exposure period is considerably shorter or longer, then the particles showed less evolution of gas. The evolution of gas decreases with the aging of the particles and is maximum when freshly prepared. National Academy of Sciences, India

-the Origin of Life

Problem

The gas evolved by the photolysis of water was collected and was found to be a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. Greater amount of gas was obtained whensomeairwaskeptover the irradiated aqueous mixture of jeewanu and water and was smaller when the air above the mixture is evacuated. An atmosphere of nitrogen above the irradiated mixture produces gas which contains more than one volume of oxygen for 2 volumes of hydrogen pro-

It was because some of the hydrogen is used up for fixation of nitrogen. If a slow current of the gas is maintained through the irradiated

duced.

mixture with the same gas circulating again and again though the mixture with a pyrogallol-alkali mixture in the circuit to remove the oxygen formed, the liberation of gas continues for a long time and the circulating gas goes on increasing in volume. It was further observed that jeewanu and water mixture have nitrogen' ase-like activity. That is, if acetylene is kept over the aqueous mixture of jeewanu and water containing a little mineral solution and glucose, and the mixture is exposed to artificial light from a Xenon lamp, acetylene slowly gets converted into ethylene and acetylene ethylene ratio slowly increases with increasing period of exposure6 2 as indicated in Fig. 3. On passing nitrogen through a mixture of jeewanu and water, molecular nitrogen is fixed and more fixation is observed when only nitrogen is passed through the mixture and lesser when a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen of the composition of air is passed throughls'42. It was further observed that if carbon dioxide is passed through a mix' ture of jeewanu, mineral solution and water and the outcominggas is passed through distilled water, this water starts showing the properties of unsaturated organic compounds collected in it as indicated by its ability to decolourise cold aqueous permanganate solution and bromine water. The unsaturation increases with increasing period of irradiation.4l It was observed that if sodium bicarbonate, jeewanu, water and mineral solution is exposed to sunlight the bicarbonate carbon gets converted into organic carbon.al carbon dioxide fixation using 1ac containing Hco; was investigated and 3 it was.observed that the bicarbonate carbon is convertedd to organic carbon. That in these processes of nitrogen and carbon dioxide fixation it is the hydrogen of the water molecule which is obtained by the splitting of water molecule and not the hydrogen from any organic material present in jeewanu was investigated using DrO.us They selected the reaction of nitrogen fixation and created acetylene atmosphere over the jeewanu, water mixture and Golden Jubilee Commemoration Volume, 1980

Bahadur Ranganayaki Folsome

Smith

!l !l a J

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E ld I

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E f L

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01231.56709 31

MAY

Tll'lE li\t DAYS

JUNE

JUNE 9

Fig.3

Acetylene to Ethylene reduction by feewanu preparedfrom Glyiine + L - Cyiteine + : 2 i : I +Fe Xenon irradiation

mg of particies in I ml 0'1 M gluclse solution. Conlrol of particles in dark showed O Control of acetylene+glucose showed O O particle suspension about 40 cm from Xenon lamp. X barticle suspension about 50 cm from Xenon lamp'

No stirring

observed that the hydrogen of the ethylene formed was mostly deuterium indicating photolytic decomposition of water andutilisation of theliberated hydrogen for its reduction of acetylene' The particles produced in the ammonium thiocyanate, formaldehyde -mixture having additional mineral solution as described earlier show the formation of red cell-like structure if ammonium molybdate was added in the mixture within a fewhours of exposuretosunlight. Redcolouredmicro2 structures are formed on exposure to sunlight.4 These particles also indicate iiberation of gas when the particles are separated from their environment and a mixture of the particles and water is exposed to sunlight.

Conclusion The e-arlier living systems might have been primitive autotrophs. There was not.enough organic material on the earth during the emergence of life National Academy of Sciences, India

-the Origin of Life

Problem

in allprobability,composedofnitrogen, on the earth. The atmosphere was, chief source of vapours and solar energy was the carbon dioxide and water

abiliry of semi-conducting elements had

energy available' Sott o"u of on their surface into bydrogen and breaking water molecules absorbed sun' Some of these could flx molecular oxygen by the UV radiation of the oxygen hydrogen thus produced The nitrogen and carbon dioxide by the to permeable atmosphere less and less simultareously produced made tlie the by organic molecules formed UV. Some of these reducpd nitrogen and and formed compounds as amino reduction of carbon dioxide combined The transitional metal coordinalion acid, peptides and nucleic acid bases' catalysts for a biochemicals as ligands acted as

complexes utilising these number of reactions' insoluble compounds and the The mixture of semi-conductor element with lots of inorganic surface and coordination complexes formed slstems

littleorganicmaterials'Someofthesedevelopedtheabilityofsplitting hydrogen thus produced for the water with visible light and utilising the ca'bon dioxide and the resultant reduction of atmospheric nitrogen and flow of product acted

as,t"

"nt'ry

The material for further development'

earliest micro'

stabilised these energy from sunlight to tiese biochemicals with the changing environment stiuctures and they developed and evolved

and ihese were the first primitive autotrophs' as jeewanu with perfected The abiiity of some of the microstructures sunlight and fixation oI nitrogen property of splitting water moiecules with of the inorganic minerals because and carbon dioxide had advantage over decreasing and in the atmosphere the increasing concentration of oxygen properties as

permeability

of UV and could show the other functional

growth,multiplicationandmetabolism'Theear|iestlivingsystemmight With evolution and perfection have been more rich in inorganic material' in organic material and deof biological function the organisms increased creasedininorganicconstituentsthoughacertainminimumisyetessential and maintained' REF'ERENCES

-,1:

R' B'' Agarwal' K' M' L" Ranganayaki' S'' Verma' H' C'' Srivastava' Perti' O' N' and Pathak' V'' Kumar' Pandey, n. S., Saxena, I', Malviya' A' N'' 63' 6 Patrika' H. D. (1963) Vijnana Parishad Anusandhan "

Bahadur,

K',

I9B0 Golden Jubitee Commemoration Volume'

Bahadur Ranganayaki Folsome

Smith

K' M' L" Bahadur, K., Ranganayaki, S., Verma, H' C', Srivastava, R' B', Agarwal' Pathak' and N' O' V', Perti' Kumar, A' N', Malviya, Pandey, R. S., Saxena, I., (2\ : 567 tl1 (1964) Bakt., Zbl. H.D. 3. Bahadur, K. (1964) ZbL Bakt., l1.8 (2): 671' des' (Scf')' 13' 4; Bahadur, K., Perti, O. N. and Pathak, H' D' (1965) Agra [Iniv"/'

'-2,

(II) : 197. 5.

Bahadur,

(1966) "Jeewanu,

The

Protocell", Ramnarainlal Beni

Prasad,

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