THE ZAPALLAR FOREST A NATUR AL TR EASUR E
I formerly admired Humboldt, I now almost adore him. Charles Darwin, letter written in 1832
Charles Darwin
Alexander von Humboldt, 1809 Friedrich Georg Weitsch
Rodrigo Moraga Z.
table of CONTENTS
07
Two Southern Expeditions A Visionary and His Mentor
08
A Cold Water River The Humboldt Current
10
Upwellings A Constant Source of Nourishment
13
A Bountiful Ocean Origin of Biological Richness and Diversity
14
FOG Nurturing the Forest
19
The Relict Forest A Witness of Change
20
Catching the Fog Adaptation for Survival
23
The Understorey A Minute Treasure
24
FLORA AND FAUNA Unique Species
38
THE PLACE Zapallar
40
Early Conservationists Two Friends, a Visionary and his Teacher
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Two Southern Expeditions A Visionary and his mentor
Although they each had their unique styles and different
of key importance for providing evidence that supported their
personalities, the explorers Alexander Von Humboldt and
future theories about the links between species distribution and
Charles Darwin represent two influential figures of science.
natural phenomena. Humboldt was one of the first naturalists
Both were gifted with the ability and willingness to understand
to relate the earth’s physical phenomena to species distribution
the natural world. Overcoming enormous challenges in their
when he stated:
voyages, they reached profound and revolutionary conclusions regarding the connectivity of natural phenomena. Darwin
“In the study of physical phenomena we find the noblest
considered Humboldt one of the greatest scientific explorers
and most relevant result to be a knowledge of the chain
of his time, and frequently referred to him in his journals and
of life, by which all natural forces are interconnected and
personal letters. Humboldt’s exploration of the landscape,
mutually dependent.”
as well as his writing style, inspired Darwin to embark on his voyage on the Beagle. He also provided him with the basic
The Peruvian current was named after Humboldt, who described
guidelines on what and how to observe and record his findings.
its extraordinary importance for coastal ecosystems of South
Humboldt and Darwin were naturalists whose influence can
America. This ocean current is the main subject of a fascinating
be seen throughout the scope of science. It is interesting that
letter Humboldt wrote to Charles Darwin in 1839:
Karl Yunis K.
each of their respective works have, as their origin, a voyage of discovery that took place during their youth.
“I would have liked to talk to you more about the cold water
Humboldt is often considered the father of ecology. He was the
ocean current that borders the coast, on which I pondered
first to take on the study of the relationship between organisms
so often, because I believe it modifies the climate of the
and their environment. Humboldt’s travels were well thought
coast. A cold water river runs from the Southeast and hits
out and prepared while Darwin encountered many unexpected
the coast of Chile going towards the south and north of the
challenges and setbacks. In these voyages, the coast of Chile was
Chonos along the Peruvian coast.” 07
US Army
A Cold Water River The Humboldt Current
The Humboldt current appeared millions of years ago, when,
a double current, enabling the Humboldt current to be self-
flowing by inertia around Antarctica, the course of these waters
sustained. When the current finally reaches the Galapagos, it
suffered a final disruption. As the South American continent
turns westwards, and ends up scattering its waters throughout
emerged, a deep ridge began to form on the ocean bottom along
the Polynesian Islands.
the Pacific coast of South America that ended up deviating
The climate of the region of Valparaiso is influenced by the
the current northwards reaching the Galapagos Islands. The
current, which also decisively affects the climate of the entire
marine bottom that borders the continent has many depth
Chilean coastline. Many specialized habitats throughout Chile
variations, which generates a convection action that serves as
owe their existence to this phenomenon. Las Docas beach, Region of Valparaiso Photo: Rodrigo Moraga Z.
08
Upwellings A Constant Source of Nourishment
Bull Kelp Durvillaea antarctica Photo: Karl Yunis K.
Upwellings are ascending currents that carry water from the depth of the ocean to the surface. The temperature and salinity of ocean waters have an essential effect on its density and create dense water bodies in specific places. These waters are rich in nutrients, making them sink to the bottom of the ocean, to be then extended towards other latitudes by ocean currents. In 1839, Humboldt outlined an explanatory mechanism about the rise of deep ocean floor water - the upwellings - which would basically coast of South America. The Antarctic waters of the Humboldt current contain an extraordinarily rich density of plankton, transforming these
JPL/NASA
explain the way the Humboldt current operates on the western
waters into one of the most important fishing grounds on the planet, thus making the current’s waters an important economic resource for Chile, Ecuador and Peru. 11
A Bountiful Ocean Origin of Biological Richness and Diversity
One of the most biologically rich areas of the Chilean ocean is located between Valparaiso and Los Molles. This is due mainly to the influence of the Humboldt current and to the outstanding topography of the ocean floor and the coastline in this part of Chile. The main water bodies and the direction in which the currents flow have a dramatic influence on the distribution of the various marine species. A broad range of living and non-living ocean resources interrelate in various ecosystems along this coast. The waters, which are rich in minerals and organic matter, allow the existence of a diverse array of marine life. The Humboldt current also brings with it the fogs that condense over the sea and coastal hills. A few natural barriers along the central coast of Chile allow these morning mists to precipitate. The terrestrial communities of the coastal hills of the Valparaiso region of Chile also owe their existence to the Humboldt current, since it allows for the condensation of the sea mist against the steep slopes of the Coastal Mountain range. Bottle-nosed Dolphin Tursiops truncatus Photo: Rodrigo Moraga Z.
13
FOG
Prevailing winds from the Pacific ocean move towards the coast,
as they hit the coastal cliffs, resulting in condensation through
precipitating as they pass over the cooler waters of the Humboldt
the forest’s “fog-catching” effect. This produces precipitation
current, thus producing a dense layer of fog known as the
similar in volume to those of the Southern temperate rainforest
Camanchaca. These air masses, laden with moisture are forced
regions, and would explain why dense forests are found at higher
to ascend over the coastal terrain, which causes them to cool
elevations. Fog is different to rain water in that it contains nitrogen
at an altitude of approximately 400 meters above sea level. This
compounds, sulfur, carbon and, of course, sea salt, producing
phenomenon creates a microclimate in the high coastal hills of
relict forests with hydrophilous characteristics – plant species with
Zapallar due to an abrupt interruption of the thermal inversion levels
a total dependence on the sea-mist.
14
Karl Yunis K.
Nurturing the Forest
15
SofĂa Armanet
The Relict Forest A Witness of Change
In spite of scarce precipitation, the development and survival of the coastal forests of Chile’s Mediterranean ecoregion is possible thanks to the contribution of moisture content from fog. Coastal mist blown by the wind is trapped by the vegetation in immense quantities, forming large drops on the foliage, which then descend to the forest floor. This interrelation between the foliage and the sea mist is what sustains the forest of Zapallar and the associated biological diversity. This unique ecosystem contains species that populated vast areas of this ecoregion when rainfall was far more abundant. The succession of glaciations that took place during the Pleistocene and Pliocene separated the forests of Zapallar, Santa InÊs in Pichidangui, and Altos de Talinay in Fray Jorge, from the rest of the forests of the Chilean southern zone. These forests are today a living remnant of what a vast forest ecosystem used to look like in the central parts of Chile thousands of years ago. Among the tree species that have survived from pre-glacial times are the Olivillo (Aextoxicon punctatum), the Canelo (Drimys winteri), the Petra (Myrceugenia exsucca), and various fern species. These plants formed the botanical foundation of the primary forest
Karl Yunis K.
that subsequently underwent colonization by certain xerophyle species like the Peumo (Crataegus monogyna), the Belloto (Beilschmiedia miersii), and certain Myrtaceae. It was recently discovered that the Olivillo is the only species in its family, indicating that other members of the Aextoxicon family existed in the past; hence the Olivillo is a living fossil that probably evolved in the central region of Chile.
19
Catching the Fog Adaptation for Survival
Oasis fog-forest ecosystems only exist in a few select locations in the world. These unique and fragile habitats contain flora and fauna with high levels of endemism. The coastal forest of Zapallar contains trees with large canopies and entwined branches, allowing moisture to be trapped by foliage and moss covered bark. The water droplets slide down the trunks and leaves and fall to the ground, where the nutrient rich water is used by a
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Karl Yunis K.
multitude of plants that live within this forest ecosystem.
The Understorey A Minute Treasure
These moist forest ecosystems shelter a dense understorey containing an abundance of vines and large variety of flowering species, many of them endemic to Chile. The presence of epiphytes covering tree trunks is one of the main differences between the coastal fog forest and other drier types of forest habitat found in the Mediterranean ecoregion of Chile. The Zapallar forest provides sustenance and shelter for diverse species of insects, birds, mammals, and amphibians. Although there is no evidence of its presence nowadays, a rare amphibian, known as Darwin’s Frog (Rhinoderma darwinii), existed in the forest of Zapallar, and is now presumed locally extinct. Specimens of this emblematic species of the temperate rainforests of the southern region of Chile were collected in 1861 and now belong to Karl Yunis K.
the Hamburg Museum.
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flora and fauna Unique Species
Humboldt Penguin Spheniscus humboldti Photo: Rodrigo Moraga Z.
The particular ecosystem that survives in these moist forests of central Chile is the ideal habitat for a diversity of extraordinary species of flora and fauna. Among the birds that currently dwell in coastal forests, there are many which are characteristic of the Valdivian forest found in southern Chile, implying that both are very similar as regards their feeding stocks, insects and wild fruits. Several notable and endangered birds found in Zapallar include, the Thorn-Tailed Rayadito (Spinicauda spinicauda), the Des Murs’ Wiretail (Sylviorthorhynchus desmursii), the Torcaza or Chilean Pigeon (Zenaida auriculata), and the Rufous-Legged Owl (Strix rufipes). The Madre de la Culebra (Acanthinodera cummingi), one of the world’s largest beetles, can also be found in these woods. The Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti), a species found only within the waters of the Humboldt current, inhabits the coasts of Chile and Peru. Surrounded by cacti, the distinct characteristic of the Humboldt Penguin is that it nests and reproduces in hot Mediterranean climate far from the Antarctic ice. They migrate to the south during the “El Niño” phenomenon, when warm waters divert the Humboldt current, forcing them to abandon their reproductive colonies in Peru and the north of Chile in search of food found in important colony sites in central Chile, this fact exemplifies the importance of these southern reproductive sites for their survival. One such site is the Island of the Penguins located in front of Cachagua beach. 24
01
Belloto del Norte Beilschmiedia miersii Photo: Karl Yunis K.
In 1920, Federico Johow described at least six plant species which are now locally extinct in Zapallar. Today, among the species on the endangered list we find the Belloto del Norte, a species endemic to the zone and which has been declared a Chilean Natural Monument. The decrease in distribution and genetic diversity of adult specimens, along with external factors such as the removal of organic matter from the forest floor, destruction of vegetation, erosion, competition from introduced species and overgrazing, have weakened the recovery of this important tree species. The forest of Zapallar is one of the few places where you can find the Northern Belloto in Chile. It is distributed unevenly inhabiting biotopes that are more humid due to the presence of ground water and coastal fog. Today, the morphology of the Belloto fruit prevents its natural dispersal. Some scientists believe that in prehistoric times it was spread by extinct mega fauna such as megatheres, mastodons, and pre-historic horses that fed on its fruit. Another endemic species of central Chile’s coastal forests Passiflora Passiflora pinnatistipula Photo: Karl Yunis K.
is the passionflower (Passiflora pinnatistipula). In Chile, this magnificently beautiful vine may only be found in Pichidangui’s Santa InÊs hills, as well as in the forests of Zapallar, preferring areas where the forest canopy is more open. The passiflora is the only Chilean species of tropical origin, with an edible berry similar to that of the passion fruit.
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Eriosyce subgibbosa
Photo: Karl Yunis K.
In the dry zones, many species of plants have developed the same characteristics of plants associated with similar Mediterranean ecosystems throughout the world, producing leaves and trunks covered with a layer of wax that prevent dehydration. The typical aroma of the Zapallar forest comes mainly from the perfume of the Peumo and Boldo trees. This perfume can be found in the oils and waxes in their leaves, which help to limit dehydration. It is because of this feature that the general forest type of the Zapallar area is known as a coastal esclerophylic forest. The term esclerophylic comes from the Greek terms sclero (hard) and phyllon (leaf). These dry habitats are also colonized by other dry-stem plants such as the Chagual, (Puya chilensis), the Tebos Cacti (Chloris chilensis), the Boldo (Peumus boldus), and the Molle (Schinus latifolius). 28
01
Cysthanches grandiflora Photo: Karl Yunis K.
Many plants adapt to droughts by storing water in their stems (cacti) or within thick, fleshy leaves (succulents like the Cysthanches). 31
Orchid Chloraea lamellata Photo: Karl Yunis K.
Another way to survive a drought is to store moisture in succulent roots, as orchids and alstromerias do, or in underground stems (bulbs), as the native wildflowers a単a単ucas or audiles do. The presence of these kinds of adaptations in local flora is a sign of the presence of a Mediterranean climate, meaning cold, rainy winters, and hot, dry summers. Such conditions force plants to deploy their growth and flowering in early springtime in order to fend off mid-summer droughts. It is in this season of plenty, flowering and renewal that the
A単a単uca Rhodophiala chilensis Photo: Karl Yunis K.
Zapallar forest becomes vital for various species of migrating birds such as the Giant Hummingbird. This beautiful bird, the largest hummingbird in the world, is thought to migrate before the winter months to the Bolivian yungas. 32
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Giant Hummingbird Patagona gigas
Photo: Rodrigo Moraga Z.
34
01
Chungungo Lontra felina
Photo: Rodrigo Moraga Z.
The Chungungo or Lontra felina is the only species of the Lontra genus found exclusively in marine habitats. It uses coastlines that extend approximately 30 meters inland and 100 to 150 meters out to sea. This animal inhabits marine areas exposed to strong tides and winds. It prefers rocky coasts that contain caverns that remain above sea level at high tide, and depends on large seaweed beds that offer an abundant and vast diversity of prey species such as mussels, clams and sea urchins. The Zapallar bay offers an ideal habitat for the Chungungo, which can often be seen along the rocky shores. In order to eat the shellfish on which it mainly feeds, the Chungungo takes a stone, swims on its back, and uses its paws to break open the shells by hitting them with the stone. 37
the place Zapallar
In 1846, Francisco Javier Ovalle acquired the Catapilco estate via
transforming Zapallar bay into a small port used exclusively for the
a family auction. Back then, the estate boasted the same surface
estate’s production.
that Zapallar County has today. Ovalle was married to Isabel Vicuña
One of those roads, designed in 1860 by the German engineer
Aguirre, the eldest daughter of the estate’s former owner, liberal
Teodoro Schmidt, was labeled “El Sello.” It began in the farmlands
politician and President of Chile, Francisco Ramón Vicuña.
of Catapilco, near the reservoir, continuing due West through the
The new owner contributed great dynamism and progress to the
area known as “La Ceniza,“ till it reached Zapallar bay. This trail
estate, building the Catapilco dam, among many other works. The
was used for many years as a transport route by means of droves
reservoir was the first of its kind in South America, and enabled
of mules that crossed Zapallar forest, up until then, an unspoiled
the irrigation of large tracks of farmland. To transport the ever-
wilderness. Coal was later extracted from the forest by slow-
increasing production of grains out of the zone, Ovalle purchased
burning the wood of the forest in large brick ovens, and many hills
a small steamship and built a mule-trail connecting the remote
that surrounded the beach were sown, thus replacing fragile native
cove of Zapallar to agricultural lands located several miles inland,
habitat with agricultural fields. Don Federico Johow and others leaving for an excursion on horseback Gabriel Rodríguez - Zapallar County Archive
One of the owner’s 14 offspring, don Olegario Ovalle Vicuña,
plan preserved the ravines, conserving them as public parkways
was Zapallar’s founder. Since his early childhood, Olegario had
and established walking paths in these areas so that the houses
fallen in love with the Catapilco Estate. Upon the death of his
of the township had access to the seaside and beaches.
parents, he inherited an important part of the original estate
The first summerhouse was built in 1892, and the following year
called “Cachagua.” After a trip to Europe, Olegario decided to
many families of German origin, including Olegario’s acquaintance
establish a coastal resort town and selected the beautiful cove
Dr. Federico Johow, became the first residents. All of these founding
of Zapallar for this township. Up until then, Zapallar had only
families were instantly bewitched by the beauty of the new village.
been enjoyed by his family and the estate workers. His original
It was in this period that the profound friendship between Olegario
design, which still exists, sprang from his mind. His original
and Federico began.
Historic Zapallar, circa 1896 Gabriel Rodríguez - Zapallar County Archive
38
39
Early Conservationists Two Friends, a Visionary and his Teacher
Olegario Ovalle and Federico Johow Archive of Juan Carlos Johow and the Zapallar County Archive
Federico Johow von Bielher was born in Germany in 1859,
nothing at all, save for taking his herds away from them, so that
and later hired by the Government of Chilean President José
the natural vegetation could flourish.
Manuel Balmaceda in 1888, due to his excellence as a teacher
Once Olegario passed away, Federico dedicated an important
of chemistry, botany and zoology. Federico was a wise naturalist,
part of his last years to an exhaustive research of the Cachagua
and a renowned professor and scientist. Chile is indebted to him
Estate’s flora, a task that later became his posthumous work:
for the creation of the Pedagogical Institute, which offered its
“Flora de las plantas vasculares de Zapallar” (Diversity of
teachings to hundreds of future professors, as well as executing
Vascular Plants in Zapallar.) The book was re-edited in 2007, with
a vast portfolio of valuable scientific research.
the help of his grandson, Dr. Juan Carlos Johow. Today there is a
forest, and fosters the participation of experts capable of sustaining
preventing forest fires, designing and maintaining appropriate
The friendship of these two men and their shared love for
new generation of conservationists and residents inspired by the
efforts aimed at awakening in children, youngsters, and adults an
hiking trails and fostering an understanding of the value of the
Zapallar gave rise to the first conservation initiative involving the
work Olegario and Federico. The forests of Zapallar, their flora
awareness, respect and harmonious coexistence with our natural
local landscape, can ensure that future generations enjoy our
magnificent forest of Zapallar. Worried by the visible devastation
and fauna, are a natural treasure that many aspire to preserve.
world. Actions such as avoiding over-grazing, as Federico Johow
shared treasure. It is our hope that our collective actions will
of the surrounding hills, Olegario asked Federico what could
This project is committed to the establishment of scientific and
suggested over a hundred years ago, as well as restoring native
enable the Zapallar forest conservation project to serve as an
be done to restore the natural landscape. Johow told him to do
technical research benefiting the conservation of the Zapallar
habitat, controlling exotic species, implementing erosion control,
example of effective private land conservation in Chile.
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Zapallar in the old days Gabriel Rodríguez - the Zapallar County Archive
41
bibliography
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Cast away the evil idea Of becoming a pompous villa
Flora de las Plantas Vasculares de Zapallar, Revisión ampliada e ilustrada de la obra de Federico Johow. Editores: Carolina Villagrán, Clodomiro Marticorena y Juan J. Armesto. Septiembre 2007.
Under no circumstance accept this
FUENTES ER (1988) Sinopsis de paisajes de Chile Central. En: ER Fuentes & S Prenafeta (eds) Ecología del paisaje en Chile central. Estudios sobre sus espacios montañosos: 17-27. Ediciones Universidad Católica, Santiago, 125 pp.
To pursue beauty till turning ugly Let the newcomer always see
MILLER A (1976) The climate of Chile. En: W Schwerdtfeger (ed.) Climate of Central and South America. Elsevier Scientific, World Survey of Climatology: 113-145.
This mountain corner
Schemenauer, R.S., Cereceda, P., 1994. A proposed standard fog collector for use in high elevation regions. Journal of Applied Meteorology 33 (11), 1113–1322.
Whose feet are bathed by the sea
MUÑOZ C & E PISANO (1947) “Estudio de la Vegetación y Flora de los Parques Nacionales de Fray Jorge y Talinay”, Agricultura Técnica, año VII , N° 2, Ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago, 71 – 190. Muñoz-Schick M., R. Pinto and A. Moreira (2001) “Oasis de neblina” en los cerros costeros del sur de Iquique, Región de Tarapacá, durante el evento El Niño 1997-1998. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, vol 74 389-405 Myers, N. et al. Nature 403, 853–858 (2000) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Content source); Mark McGinley (Topic Editor). 2008. “Humboldt Current large marine ecosystem.” In: Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National) Pinto, R., Larrain, H., Cereceda, P., Lázaro, P., Osses, P., Schemenauer, R.S., 2001. Monitoring fogvegetation communities at fog sites in Alto Patache south of Iquique, northern Chile during “El Niño” and “La Niña” events (1997–2000). Proceedings of Second International Conference on Fog and Fog Collection. St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada, pp. 293–296. July 15–20, 2001. SQUEO, F. A., J.R. Gutiérrez & I.R. Hernández, Eds., Historia Natural del Parque Nacional Bosque Fray Jorge Ediciones Universidad de La Serena, La Serena, Chile (2004) 2: 45 – 60
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Whose hair is made of forests And let it be what is and was Part boat, part refuge. Javier Pérez Ovalle, 1930
The forests of Zapallar, Cachagua, and Catapilco make up the most valuable reserve of native flora in Chile’s central coastline. Their vast biodiversity constitutes a global patrimony classified as a biodiversity hotspot by Conservation International (Myers), and thus adopted by the Chilean Government as one of its priority sites for domestic conservationist efforts. Corporación Bosques de Zapallar aims to involve neighbors and future generations in the care and preservation of these valuable examples of Mediterranean ecosystems, working gratefully and respectfully with its owners and enjoying the benefits that the zone’s biological and scenic biodiversity offers its citizens. Its first board is made up by Juan Carlos Johow, Denise Astoreca, Luisa Eyzaguirre, Rodrigo Cruz, José Miguel Torrico, Federico Ringeling and Diego Larraín. www.bosquesdezapallar.cl The publication of this book was made possible thanks to the sponsorship of The Nature Conservancy, Corporación Parques para Chile and Corporación Bosques de Zapallar. Text written by Karl Yunis Kretschmer, Juan Carlos Johow, Federico Ringeling and Victoria Alonso Design, production and printing: Carmen Montt and Coca Lyon Translation: Macarena Palominos and Karl Yunis Kretschmer Corrección de estilo: Eugenia Fernández Printed by OGRAMA © 2009 The Nature Conservancy Printed in Chile -ISBN 978-956-332-086-2
Thank you to Dr. Juan Carlos Johow, Federico Ringeling, José Antonio Varas and the community of Zapallar for their support in the preservation of their natural treasure. Corporación Bosques de Zapallar seeks to involve neighbors and future generations in caring for and preserving this valuable Mediterranean ecosystem in Chile, working with gratitude and respect in conjunction with the landowners.