Russian Craft History and Design by John M Potter

RUSSIAN CRAFT HISTORY & design

John M. Potter

Inside Back Cover (Left Hand Side of Book)

Dedicated to My Son, Maxwell Dmitry Potter

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Craft implies a specific way of making an object and a special way of expressing one's being with and in the world. More important, this way of being is not restricted to the maker but is open to any and every beholder of the craft object who attends closely enough to the object's objectness.â&#x20AC;? Howard Risatti and Kenneth Trapp. A Theory of Craft: Function and Aesthetic Expression. p.204

Sergei Prokudin-Gorsky. Molding of an Artistic Casting, Kasli Iron Works (1910)

RUSSIAN Craft

History & Design

John M. Potter

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Contents CHAPTER

PAGE

MAP OF RUSSIA FOREWARD 1. BOGORODSKOYE TOYS

2. BRATINA AND CHARKA

3. DYMKOVO TOYS

4. ELETS LACE

5. FEDOSKINO MINIATURES

6. GUS- KHRUSTALNY GLASS

7. GZHEL CERAMICS

8. KASLI IRON-SCULPTURE

9. KAZAKOVO FILIGREE

10. KHOKHLOMA DESIGN

11. KHOLMOGORY-CARVED IVORY

12. KOVSHI SCOOPS

13. LUBOK WOODCUTS

14. MOSCOW THRONE SALTCELLARS

15. MSTERA MINIATURES

16. NIZHNY TAGIL TRAYS

17. NORTHERN DVINA DISTAFFS

18. NORTHERN RUSSIAN EMBROIDERY

19. ORENBURG SHAWLS

101

20. PALEKH MINIATURES

107

21. PAVLOVSKY SHAWLS

115

22. ROSTOV ENAMELS

121

23. RUSSIAN EASTER EGGS

127

24. SERGIEV POSAD NESTING DOLLS

133

25. SHEMOGSA RIVER BIRCH BARK CARVING

143

26. SKOPIN CERAMICS

149

27. SOLVYCHEGODSK ENAMELS

151

28. TOBOLSK IVORY-CARVING

153

29. TORZHOK GOLD-STITCH

157

30. TULA SAMOVARS

163

31. VALDAI BELLS

173

32. VELIKY USTIUG NIELLO

177

33. VOLOGDA LACE

183

34. ZHOSTOVO TRAYS

187

35. ZLATOUST-ENGRAVED STEEL

193

BIBLIOGRAPHY

199

Nizhny Tagil Iron Workers

Vladimir Makovskyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bankruptcy (1881)

Foreward Why do handmade objects and crafts hold an unyielding appeal to modern man? Perhaps their exalted status reflects the weariness which we greet mass production goods. While such goods do indeed fulfill our modern needs, we rarely conceive of them in terms of production effort or value. Instead, we’re likely to view such objects with a certain “limitlessness” worldview. For many, they're simply objects without origin. In contrast, few people view a uniquely crafted object with such indifference. Unlike machinemade objects, crafted objects 'stand forth' with meaning or value to the user. We may even pause and reflect upon the object maker's identity and how they conceived an object. Indeed, our encounter with such objects becomes a uniquely individual experience. Such possibilities open our hearts to new experiences and suspend our desire to simply objectify. But mass-production is not a new phenomenon. Western society has quietly reordered how human beings relate to their physical world ever since the industrial revolution. This change was so gradual as to be generally viewed as an unquestionable 'good' (minus poor factory labor conditions). Displacement of workers in traditional crafts was offset in the eyes of many by increasing prosperity. In an age of scarcity, the public’s desire to obtain various consumer goods could hardly be thwarted by concerns about their aesthetic value. This transition to modernization did not play out well for many non-Western cultures, most notably Russia. Russia’s experience with industrial modernization should encourage us to reconsider the intangible sacrifices made in pursuit of modern abundance. More specifically, we might appreciate how mass-production constitutes a form of anti-culture. That is, we can ask ourselves to what extent ‘objects- without-meaning’ displace additional opportunities for experiencing meaning in our society. Russian Craft Russia's abolition of serfdom in 1861 enabled the country to make a sudden lurch toward mass markets and industrialization. Lurching toward modernization was par for the course for Russia, a centuries-old habit that left the peasantry more than a bit mildly discontented. As so it came to pass again. Specialized trade craftsmen (Tula samovar-makers, Kasli iron-casters, Zlatoust steelengravers) struggled yet continued to survive. However, Russia's peasant craftsmen were hardly prepared to compete with mass-production factories. And their traditional culture – centered on village life and the countryside – simply was not conducive to absorbing such change. As a result, their traditional way of life would become increasingly unsustainable. And this was more than simply unfortunate. For Russia, “The peasant was the last tacit symbol and keeper of national identity- an element of society that help distinguish itself culturally from the rest of the Western world” (Salmond, p.7). Not incidentally, Russia underwent a cultural identity crisis by the late 19th century. Already endangered by a pervasive acceptance of European-style goods, traditional peasant-style craft was forsaken for cheap, mass-produced substitutes. This cultural disaster was somewhat mitigated by the West's embrace of Art Nouveau, a style strikingly similar to that already used upon traditional Russian craft.

Nonetheless, market expediency held sway. In the late 19th century, a market-driven attitude prevailed “based on the belief that the artistic/aesthetic and the means of design and manufacture are distinct not integrally related operations. So, in order to make objects more appealing to consumers, what were thought to be artistic/aesthetic qualities were superficially applied to otherwise purely commercial objects of often dubious quality; surfaces were enhanced with decorations in the belief that, regardless of how poorly designed or manufactured the object, people would find them attractive and buy them” (Risatti, p.19). That observation certainly characterizes how Gzhel porcelain, Rostov enamel miniatures, and many other Russian craft evolved at the time. And this factory production view had lasting consequences:“To a great extent the rejection of ornament and decoration in the twentieth century was a reaction to the belief that aesthetic qualities could simply be “pasted” onto an object, that aesthetic qualities are not, in some important way, essential to the object as material and as form” (Risatti, p.19). Russian craftsmen might be excused for feeling alienated from their own country. No longer did the prevailing ethos subscribe to the idea that “The 'heart' was more important that the 'head'” (Billington, p.303). Traditional conceptions of work, production, and value were quickly discarded by mass-production, byproduct of an extreme rational-technical worldview. Likewise, peasant belief “in a world not merely material but infused with spirit” (Gilchrist, p.1) was quite at odds with a world that attempted to account for everything in rational, empirical terms. The country’s traditional culture reflected a people steeped in mystical faith and deeply suspicious of rational enlightenment. Accordingly, Russian craft reveal such sentiments in both subtle and not so subtle ways. Kovshi and duck-style saltcellars, object forms alien to the West, originate from a rural pagan beliefs about birds. Their decorative motifs and unique characteristics make manifest the view that “craft implies a specific way of making an object and a special way of expressing one's being with and in the world” (Risatti, p.204). And yet Russian society was not unaware of what it was losing at the time. Professional artists, progressive elites, and social reformers sought to preserve their native culture by funding peasant craft (kustar) workshops. Their cottage industries were supported by a growing Slavophil movement intent on keeping Russia’s cultural identity alive and separate from the West. Their creed might well have been given voice by a government official at a kustar exhibit in 1902: “There is no dead machine at work here; the kustar invests his work with his skill, his knowledge, his soul, and from this kustar goods derive their distinctive quality. They reflect the personality of the worker, his environment, his life” (Salmond, p96). Before receding altogether, many traditional crafts were rescued by the actions of Soviet authorities. Soviet officials viewed such crafts as “a palatable symbol of national cultural values that could be exhibited at world fairs” (Salmond, p.188). In the 1940s, Soviet officials proceeded to incorporate Russia’s native crafts into a highly-controlled souvenir industry, a welcome source of cold, hard cash. Not surprisingly, Russian craft was once again subjected to production pressures. Ironically, this tendency to objectify craft abated after Russia embraced market forces. Since then, Russian craft has enjoyed a truly creative renaissance. John Potter December, 2010

Boris Kustodiev. A Merchant. (1918) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Many crafts are in a particularly depressed state because they have an inadequate, capricious, and precarious market for their goods, or else there is quite a large market but the goods reach the consumer through the hands of a middleman who retains a considerable, sometimes excessive, part of the money earned....â&#x20AC;? Wendy Salmond. Arts and Crafts in Late Imperial Russia. (1996).

ONE

BOGORODSKOYE TOYS ‘PEASANT’S CUBISM’

Since the late 16th century, the Sergiev Trinity monastery in Russia’s Vladimir Province has encouraged local craftsmen to learn toy carving. Craftsmen typically sold their toys to religious pilgrims at the monastery’s workshop. In the early 1800s, craftsmen from nearby village of Bogorodskoye began creating undecorated carved miniatures to sell in nearby Sergiev Posad. Within a few decades, Bogorodskoye toys had become famous for humorously portraying peasant life. Russian porcelain makers even began using them as modeling prototypes for their china miniatures.

toward paper-thin margins. Having no recourse, Bogorodskoye carvers soon began working upwards of 15 hours a day simply to earn-a-living. As a consequence, they had little incentive to worry about creativity or quality.

The craft continued to thrive until the midto late- 19th century. In particular, the Russian government’s abolition of serfdom enabled a far more competitive market to emerge. As a result, essential middlemen became significantly more profit conscious. Although necessary to the isolated carver, these middlemen (or “jobbers”) began to competitively price their client’s products

In the early 20th century, the Bogorodskoye carver’s prospects began to rise again. For the first time, Bogorodskoye craftsmen had formed a cooperative to improve pay and working conditions. Shortly afterward, the local government (or zemstvo) opened an art school for vocational training (producing 150 different toys before World War I).

Exacerbating this trend, many carvers found themselves competing against newlyimported, factory-made toys from Germany. These brightly painted, inexpensive toys were perceived by many Russians as a highlyrefined alternative. The outlook for Bogorodskoye carvers appeared bleak.

Vladimir Chekalov's In School Workshop (1955)

In the 1920s, Soviet authorities encouraged Bogorodskoye craftsmen to join an industrywide artel (cooperative). The move proved highly beneficial for local craftsmen. Shortly thereafter, a toy museum and training workshop was established in Moscow. Within a decade, the artel’s workshop was reorganized as a large toy factory with an adjoining toy research institute was established. Both ensured Sergiev Posad (then Zagorsk) would remain Russia’s premier toy manufacturing center.

quotas stunted worker creativity. Rather than create new toys, management simply directed woodcarvers to recycle well-known characters and ideas. As their status declined, carvers struggled against factory standardization, worker displacement, and official neglect. By the 1970s, the trade was failing to attract future craftsmen. During the perestroika era however, artisans were given greater freedom and say in production. Today, the town boasts over 100 toy carvers dedicated toward reviving the craft.

After World War II, the Zagorsk Toy Factory began to negatively influence the craft’s development. In particular, the factory’s emphasis upon meeting production 3

Design Overview Though Bogorodskoye toys are deceptively simple in appearance, they require skill, imagination, and forethought to produce. For instance, Bogorodskoye craftsmen must allow linden wood to dry for at least two years before carving. Failing to do so can leave a finished product warped or cracked. Each piece is then carved with an axe, knife or chisel from a single piece of linden wood. No moldings or sketches are used by the craftsmen.

The “razvod,” another moveable-type toy, stands on scissor-like trellises that move parts back and forth when clasped (such as a woodpecker). Jointed arms and legs are held together with elastic bands and help provide additional versatility. Bogorodskoye carvers have traditionally depicted scenes from Russian village life, most always in a group activity. Well-known sets are entitled “Village Assembly”, “Blacksmiths”, and “Lumberjacks”. Several are based on lubok prints depicting city peddlers or fashionable ladies. All display a sense of irony or humor that is revealed upon closer inspection (for instance, the sleepy worker trying to stay awake). Indeed, early 20th century Bogorodskoye toys are notorious for their satire: pregnant nuns, snobbish officers, greedy merchants, and the titled rich are a popular target.

From a distance, Bogorodskoye toys can be recognized by their unpainted surface and unfinished appearance. Figurines are produced in clear-cut silhouettes and employ sharp angles to fortify a distorted perspective. This style is sometimes jokingly referred to as “peasant’s cubism”. A technique called slash carving advertises the toy’s handcrafting by omitting minor details (though Bogorodskoye carvers create toys that are smoothed, painted and lacquered as well). The most popular toys are those that can be animated with moveable parts. These toys use a push-pull device employing springs, a pedestal, or a thread to facilitate movement.

During the early Soviet era, many pieces were based on either a socialist-realism perspective or patriotism. Today, traditional favorites featuring contemporary gadgets (such as a cell phone) have become popular. Left: I.Stulov. Masha and the Bear, 1948 Right: Y.Rachev. Goat. Early 1900s

Yevgeny Komarov. "Bogorodsky Carver Toys". (1959)

At the turn of the 20th century, an artist named Nicolai Bartram sought to trace the toy’s stylistic characteristics to Russia’s artistic past. He concluded that popular prints (lubki) and religious icons had influenced Bogorodskoye carvers to promote the craft’s rigid lines, sharp angles, and contours. To prove his theory, Bartram assembled Bogorodskoye carvers to create toys based on old lubki. Although heavily involved in developing Bogorodskoye’s toy

industry himself, he felt vindicated by the results. On a practical level, Bogorodskoye toys give the casual viewer some insight into 19th & early 20th century village life. They also served as a way to socialize children in village customs and traditions. Even today, Bogorodskoye toys help convey to Russian children their cultural heritage

Left: Bratina, 2nd half of 17th century. Right: Silver Bratina with enamel on filigree, 17th century. Top: 17th century gilded, chased, and incised silver bratina

TWO

BRATINA & CHARKA HOSPITALITY CUPS

For centuries, the bratina (from Russian brat, meaning brother) has been used by Russians as a toasting cup. Traditional Russian drinking festivities require the toasting party to fill the cup to the rim and empty it upon their head before saying the toast. But the bratina is also associated with tradition and sentimentality. Russian peasants occasionally placed the bratina upon a tomb during funeral rites as a symbolic farewell gesture. Likewise, wealthy Russians often possessed a family bratina passed down through several generations.

enameling firms used colorful enamel to emulate 17th century bratiny. For early 20th century Russians, these beautiful cups served as a symbol of national identity. Charka The charka first appeared in the 16th century as a vodka measuring cup (143.5 ml). As such, it remained a popular drinking cup within Russia for centuries. The cup commonly features a flat horizontal handle and three feet. The charka has continually been able to accommodate various styles (including renaissance, baroque, rococo, classicism and pan-Slavonic styles). In the early 19th century, the popularity of glass began to replace silver as material for cups. Today, the word charka (vodka cup), is hardly known except by those who deal with antique silver.

As with kovshi, the bratina was conceived in wood and later transformed into a highly crafted silver or gold cup. In the 16th and 17th centuries, bratiny began being engraved in niello with sentimental mottos (i.e. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Drink to our healthâ&#x20AC;?). Occasionally, a bratina reveals the ownerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name inscribed upon its rim. These ornate inscriptions are typically writ large in interlaced, hard-to-read Slavonic lettering.

Early 17th century charkas were large and somewhat shallow to accommodate weak vodka (15-20% alcohol). By mid-century, advances in distilling had made the vodka stronger and the charka necessarily smaller.

In the late 19th century, a renewed interest in Russian heritage made the bratina a popular item once again. Consequently, Russian 8

Konstantin Makovsky. A Charka of Mead. 1910 â&#x20AC;&#x153;Konstantin Makovsky associated the beauty of 19th century Russian girls with the beauty of Russian dress: a long train (sarafan) and the kokoshnik. It was in the 17th century that the kokoshnik came to symbolize a married woman's status, her origins, and her wealth. With a plentiful decoration of well-to-do Oriental pearls and silks, the kokoshnik became the showcase for needlework skills of the highest order. Embroideries became so valuable and precious that they began to figure in wills and testaments and were handed down from mother to daughter.â&#x20AC;? Svetlana Eltsova, Svetlanaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Site (online)

Folk sayings in old Cyrillic lettering were commonly inscribed on charka rims

In the early 18th century, the charka was popularly produced as a semi-spherical cup edged with an octagonal rim. As the century progressed, many charkas came to resemble traditional goblets. Other charkas at this time appear as shallow cups with vertically attached scroll handles.

sold by weight instead of volume (to prevent substitution with water), the term came to denote a measurement unit for paper and textiles. Today’s “half-liter” originates from the “half-shtof”.

By late century, a quatrefoil (4-sided) charka became prevalent. Much like the bratina, the charka contains Slavonic inscriptions engraved beneath the rim. During Catherine’s reign (1762-1796), many charka were decorated with semiprecious stones and reveal sea creature motifs such as mermaids and sea horses. Stopa A larger cup for mead was called a stopa (10 charkas equal one “stopa”- about 1500g). In the 18th century, the “stopa” was replaced by “shtof” (1.23 liters). Because vodka was then

Konstantin Makovsky. Boyar with Cup. (1883) "After the service the tsars (Peter the Great and his brother Ivan) treated members of the boyar council to goblets of wine and lesser ranks to vodka" Lindsey Hughes. Peter the Great: A Biography. p.29 (2004)

Marks Traditional silver charkas denote their material purity by an engraved mark. The Russian silver standard employs the numbers 84, 88, and 91 to measure the zolotniks per pound of pure silver (pure silver equals 91 zolotniks; gold is represented by the numbers 56, 72, and 96).

produced in St. Petersburg employed a scepter with two crossed anchors. During the Soviet era, both these religious-themed marks were replaced with a kokoshnik headdress mark. Russian silver is generally engraved with 4 marks: the maker's initials or name, the silver-testing city's coat-of-arms, the assayer's initials, and the pure silver proportion numbers stated above.

Before the Soviet era, Moscow-made objects depicted St.George and the Dragon as a mark for gold or silver. In contrast, objects

Konstantin Makovsky. A Boyar Wedding Feast in the 17th Century. (1883) â&#x20AC;&#x153;The scene is of the time of the Boyars in Russia. Children were often betrothed by their parents while very young, and the girl was educated in close seclusion from society, even her chosen husband never seeing her; something like this obtains occasionally in France even yet. The bride was given some mature female relative as a "dragon" for the time just before marriage, and remained veiled during the service; on entering the banqueting room she was unveiled, and the husband and most of the guests saw her face for the first time. The company are waiting, with cups filled, to drink the health of the couple as soon as he gives her the kiss of possession; she hesitates and holds back, the husband and the chaperon urging her on, the company adding words of kindness and encouragement At the lower end of the table a group have hidden the bride's silken slipper, and are obviously enjoying the joke.â&#x20AC;? The Travelerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Record. Vol. 16, No. 3. June, 1891

THREE

DYMKOVO TOYS ‘DYMKA’

Dymkovo craftswomen to receive a gold medal at the 1939 World’s Fair in New York.

Dymkovo, a small village near Kirov, is known for producing brightly-colored ceramic toys. In the late 17th century, Dymkovo villagers began making toys for their annual spring festival (known as Svistoplyaska or “whistle-dance”). As part of the festivities, villagers danced with their clay toys to hasten spring’s arrival. The balls, whistles, and dolls produced by Dymkovo villagers helped instruct the young in pagan tradition. Many depict pagan gods and goddesses meant to symbolize fertility. In the 19th century, Dymkovo villagers saved the craft from destruction by cleverly advertising these clay figures as toys to Orthodox Church clergy.

Design Dymkovo clay-baked toys are stylized to resist the fragility found in more intricate figurines. They’re also painted with fanciful colors and patterns to distinguish them from more conventional toys. The dots, circles, and waves that once symbolized a pagan sungod became an essential part of the toy's trademark design. More recently, pagan representations have been reinterpreted as folktale characters. Like Bogorodskoye toys, 19th century Dymkovo toys depict peasants grouped by activity with humor or sarcasm in mind. For instance, toys that depict wealthy ladies in wildly fashionable dress were created to mock women who emulated Western fashion. Dymkovo toys also served as social commentary about events – especially after exiled Polish revolutionaries flooded the region during the 1830s.

In 1856, Dymkovo clay toy production was employing 59 families. By late century however, their popularity had encouraged cheap Plaster-of-Paris imitations. Such imitations nearly destroyed the local craft. Through scholarship and personal encouragement, a Dymkovo enthusiast named Alexander Denshin helped revive the craft during the 1930s. His efforts led 14

Creating these clay toys required Dymkovo villagers to mix sifted river sand and red clay together. The end result produced a mixture impervious to cracking when fired. Before firing, the clay was mixed with water and stirred until it became highly pliable. After baking, the red clay was coated with a milkylime mixture that became sticky-white when dry.

brightly-colored clay toys as well. These toys exhibit a somewhat elongated shape and are typically painted in magenta, green, and yellow (occasionally with blue stripes). Filimonovo clay figurines traditionally depict peasant women, soldiers, dancing couples, horsemen, and animals (including mysterious creatures). Cows, rams, and horses are painted in stripes, whereas figurines of people are decorated with colored stripes, dots, ovals, stars, and triangles in various combinations. These ornamental details are often symbolic: a circle denotes for the Sun, a triangle stands for Earth, spires symbolize growth/ life and so on.

For Dymkovo villagers, these tasks were a centuries-old ritual. Though a peasant family might bake several hundred toys daily, they worked throughout the year to meet demand. Women and children cleaned and painted these toys during the winter months. Altogether, Dymkovo villagers formed and fired several thousand figures each year to be sold at local fairs and markets. By the mid19th century, Dymkovo villagers were producing at least 100,000 figures a year.

For pagan believers, clay whistles blown to scare away evil spirits were a traditional favorite. The whistle was blown at funerals and buried with the deceased. Today, a workshop in Tula trains craftsmen to continue producing Filimonovo-style toys.

Filimonovo Toys Like Dymkovo, the village of Filimonovo (in the Tula region) was known for producing 16

FOUR

ELETS LACE

‘KRESTET’S STITCH’

either

Often compared to French Valencienne lace, Elets lace is admired for its high quality, intricate designs and fine linen thread. The lace’s delicate composition is ideal as trimming for fine muslin (on dresses) and linen underwear. Elets lace is especially valued for its lattice-like square-cell mesh ground. The lace netting reveals distinctive special features and is named accordingly: beetles, fly, buckwheat, etc. Floral ornamentation and rosettes are commonly featured within circles, squares, rectangles and rhombuses.

home

workshops.

Russian Lace History During the 16th century, both Ivan the Terrible and Boris Godunov imported gold and silver lace for their ceremonial robes. Within a hundred years, the renowned Stroganov family was producing an abundant quantity of lace for both male and female clothing. By the late 18th century, peasants were producing lace that displayed traditional motifs outlined with raised cotton or linen thread. Their lace designs started to reflect the ancient symbolic motifs typically found in Russian embroidery (such as the Tree of Life). These repetitive and highly geometric design elements remained popular with lace makers until the mid-1800s.

The craft of Elets lace originated in the town of the same name (in the Lipetsk region) continues to be taught today at Yelets State University. There is some debate as to whether the local trade began from a merchant family or not (no landowner estates exist near the city itself).

By the early 19th century, it was common to see ecclesial and ceremonial dress lavishly arrayed with gold and silver lace. Lace found a special place among tippets (the long hanging part of a sleeve) and ladies blouses (where gold mesh was popular). In the early 1700s, reforms led to strong demand for thread lace (lace from linen), a fashion that

Elets lace became famous shortly after its introduction at the Vienna’s World Fair in 1873. Sketches and photographs of Elets lace are displayed in the city museum. A private company “Laces from Elets” employs nearly two thousand people to produce Elets lace

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Russian lace is not employed for the finer trimming purposes, except a few exceptionally fine pieces. It is used to a

certain extent in ornamenting morning robes and matinees of bright-colored cashmere, also for children's dresses. The coarser kinds, and particularly the imitations, are much used for ornamenting window drapery and similar articles. The loom imitations are very good, and at a short distance are very effective.â&#x20AC;? C.D. Beebe, Lace, ancient and modern. p. 208 (1880)

lasted much of the century. When classicism finally lost its appeal in the early 1800s, gold lace was consigned to serving as decorative thread on peasant kokoshniks and sarafans.

popularity encouraged several lace-making centers to promote locally-made patterns and styles. Lace makers adhered to these stylistic conventions until the late 1800s when financial necessity forced production by demand. Unfortunately, this more marketbased approach allowed traditional lacemaking skills and techniques to fall into disuse.

Nonetheless, the craft began to be perceived as a fine art. As the 19th century progressed, women from every social class sought to learn lace making skills. Before 1850, laceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s 19

Elets lace is lighter and more delicate than Vologda lace. Elets lace alternates between an openwork design mesh and somewhat undefined weave patterns (both floral and geometric). Lace makers draw the viewerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s eye to repeating rosettes or squares in the articleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s center by producing a dense lattice background. Snowflakes and other white wintry motifs are common.

Vasily Vereshchagin. The Lacemaker (1890)

Despite these changes, Russian lace makers continued to produce high-quality handmade lace for several more decades. After Russian lace was exhibited at the 1873 Worlds Fair in Vienna, foreign demand allowed Russian lace makers to create articles for export throughout the world. By the early 20th century, Russian lace was used on common household items (i.e. table napkins) as well.

maker wind the thread and form the lace structure. Lace-makers either work the ground and pattern together (known as straight lace) or work the pattern before adding the ground (known as tape lace). Those that work with tape lace create foliage and figurative elements from a braid (occasionally outlined with heavier thread to provide relief). These design elements are either set upon a net ground or joined by delicate thread bars.

Bobbin Lace Production Lace making begins by drawing a pattern upon parchment and pricking holes to indicate where pins should be placed (to steady the thread while the lace is being made). After the parchment is fixed upon a bolster-shaped pillow, threaded bobbins (small wooden sticks) are affixed to the pricked holes. These bobbins help the lace-

The Work In the early 19th century, lace-making workshops compelled women to work 16 to 19 hour days in poorly lit rooms. Thus, many women had damaged vision before they turned 45. Especially good lace-makers were forbidden to marry or have families because their work was considered important. 20

Top- Hunters Taking a Break. K. Baulina (original by Vasily Perov, 1871). Bottom- Congratulation. Nina Savelieva.

FIVE

FEDOSKINO MINIATURES

OIL PAINT, GOLD LEAF, & MOTHER-OF-PEARL

Korobov began producing unpainted snuff boxes decorated with paste-on prints (typically depicting battles or political leaders). At the time, ivory-carved snuffboxes were very popular in Europe yet very expensive. However, lacquer-made snuffboxes were inexpensive to produce and increasingly popular. Nonetheless, Korobov's snuff boxes brought little profit to his company. In order to remain financially viable, he created lacquered Russian army visors and walking-sticks as well. In 1818 Peter Korobov turned the factory over to his son-in-law, Peter Lukutin (1784-1863).

Just outside of Moscow lies the village of Fedoskino, Russia's historical center for miniature lacquer painting. For more than two centuries, Fedoskino artisans have kept their lacquer box construction process a trade secret. Though ostensibly papiermĂ˘chĂŠ, this unique process creates lacquer boxes that are as hard as wood. The resulting material can thus be sawed, polished, and lacquered to make beautiful tables, trays, caskets, and small boxes. How did this come to pass? A Rough Start In 1795, a Russian merchant by the name of Peter Korobov visited a small lacquering factory in Germany. Korobov was highly impressed with what the lacquer boxes produced and decided to further develop this handicraft in Russia. On his return to Russia, he brought with him several German artists and carpenters to help him proceed. With their help, he opened a small lacquer factory in his hometown Danikovo (near Fedoskino).

The Lukutin Factory After taking full ownership, Peter Lukutin moved production to a much larger factory in the nearby village of Fedoskino. The move allowed Lukutin to hire additional staff and increase output. In addition to snuff boxes, the new factory also produced chess tables, matches, cigars, and jewelry. The additional revenue from sales allowed Lukutin to produce high-quality products

Left: Minin and Pozharsky by Ivan Morozov (original by Mikhail Scotti, 1850). The painting depicts Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and Kuzma Minin gathering an all-Russian volunteer army to expel the Poles from the Moscow Kremlin. Their action put an end to the Time of Troubles in 1612.

troika scenes). Stylistic similarities between the two workshops were heightened by artists moving between the two workshops (nor did such artists sign their articles). Both companies became closely intertwined throughout the century and mutually influenced each other as a result.

that had few rivals. One exception was the Vishnyakov workshops, a firm founded by two of Count Sheremetev's serfs in neighboring Zhostovo and Ostashkovo. Peter Lukutin invested heavily in the art industry and employed many talented artists. Although the Lukutin factory sold an abundance of mass-produced items to the public, its ability to produce finely crafted and custom-made products brought it fame. Miniature painting upon such products became especially popular (and the talented painters employed by Peter Lukutin greatly enhanced his factory’s reputation for quality). In 1828, Peter Lukutin was conferred the right to use the royal seal on his products (the Russian double-headed eagle). The seal signified high-quality production and that the producer was an official supplier to the Russian Royal Family. This permission was granted three more times before the monarchy dissolved.

The Lukutin factory continued to gain notoriety and prestige, perhaps reaching its zenith when the Lukutin factory was jointly managed by Peter Lukutin and his son Alexander (1819-1888). Not incidentally, their method of preparing papier-mâché was adopted by English craftsmen at the time. In 1863, Alexander Lukutin became sole proprietor of the Lukutin family business after his father's death. An artist himself, Alexander Lukutin became heavily involved with running factory operations. During his tenure, he improved the Lukutin factory's production process and output (with production running 6,000 articles yearly). Within a relatively short time, Alexander Lukutin led his lacquer factory to a leading position within the trade.

Despite their prestige, the Lukutin factory continued to face heavy competition. In 1850, twelve lacquer workshops competed with Lukutin's factory in several nearby villages. Especially noteworthy is Osip Vishnyakov’s workshop, a serf whose company once led the lacquer trade. A fierce competitor of the Lukutin factory, Vishnyakov's painters frequently copied Lukutin factory articles (especially racing

Around 1876, Alexander Lukutin turned the business over to his son Nikolai. A wellestablished physician, Nicolai Lukutin was reluctant to keep his father's factory alive and did so only out of respect for his memory. 23

Left: I.P. Argunov. Portrait of an unknown peasant woman. (1784). Portraits were surprisingly popular subjects to paint on snuff boxes in the first half of the 19th century. Being devoted to portraying subjects as trueto-life, Lukutin factory artists were especially adept at producing portraits.

Despite having a decidedly “hands-off” approach to managing the business, factory continued to grow and prosper. Unfortunately, the factory was closed shortly after Nicolai Lukutin's death in 1902.

or cooperative (The Fedoskino Artel of Former Lukutin Factory Workers). With financial backing from Sergei Morozov, founder of the Handicraft Museum in Moscow, the artel acquired a small workshop and started receiving orders.

The Fedoskino Factory The factory’s closing immediately left the Lukutin-factory craftsmen without a livelihood (although a few later found work at Vishnyakov's nearby workshop). Attempts to succeed on an individual basis frequently failed. In 1910, ten former Lukutin factory craftsmen organized to form their own artel

As a cooperative rather than a private family business, the enterprise was supervised by the local government council (zemstvo) and the Handicraft Museum. Despite this collective effort, the business suffered over the next few years as a result of civil strife and war. 24

currency. As a result, the ability to create traditional Lukutin-style articles was nearly forgotten.

After the Revolution of 1917, the Soviet government nationalized the cooperative. Artists became acutely aware that the new era necessitated a new outlook. In contrast to traditional troika and tea scenes, Fedoskino painters depicted collective farm and industrial labor scenes. Demand was not longer predicated entirely on consumer demand. Indeed, Soviet authorities closed the competing Vishnyakov factory before reopening it as a Zhostovo tray-painting factory (using many of the same artists).

By the 1960s, Fedoskino painters were “backon-track”. Their most popular creations were landscape miniatures that used motherof-pearl to depict silver snowscapes, shimmering lakes, and golden autumn. During the 1980s, Fedoskino artists added extraordinary ornamentation to their boxes. Unlike traditional Lukutin boxes, these articles are generously ornamented with tiny silver or gold circles, crescents, and stars.

After World War II, the Handicraft Museum provided Fedoskino painters with models to copy from. Their assistance ultimately helped Fedoskino artists win national and international exhibition awards throughout the decade. Continued support from state authorities helped sustain the craft considerably in the 1930s. As with many other crafts, the state viewed lacquer boxes as an ideal vehicle for promoting political and cultural anniversaries (i.e. the centenary of Pushkin's death in 1937). Likewise, the state commissioned several orders for official portraits produced on flat, papier-mâché plaques as well.

When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the state monopoly on Fedoskino creations was broken. As a result independent workshops quickly proliferated (greatly favoring the artist relative to the past). Several independent artist later banded together to form “Russian Collection”. Nonetheless, aspiring painters must still past entrance exams and study five years before considered a “Professional Artist of Fedoskino”. Today, three hundred painters currently work in Fedoskino, many descendents of previous Fedoskino painters. Stylistic Characteristics Throughout the 19th century, Fedoskino-style painters famously depicted troika-riding scenes on their lacquer miniatures. However, traditional genre (i.e. tea parties) and epic song motifs were popular themes as well. As the craft evolved, historical and ethnographic themes also emerged.

After World War II, Fedoskino painters reproduced compositions from such renowned Russian artists as Vasily Perov, Vasily Surikov, Ilya Repin, and Ivan Shishkin. Many of these compositions were creatively modified to scale onto a Fedoskino box surface. Noted compositions from this era derive from such Russian folktales as “The Snow Maiden”, “The Scarlet Flower”, and “The Tale of Tsar Saltan”.

All such scenes are portrayed in a true-to-life manner. Famous Russian painter Alexei Venetsianov portrayed his subjects in a similar manner and is said to have been a great influence upon Fedoskino painters. And so, quite unlike Palekh-style painters, Fedoskino-style painters have traditionally aspired to depict their subject's objective reality. Their inspiration originates from Realism, an artistic movement begun

In 1954, however, the Soviet Government directed Fedoskino artists to change their traditional painting style. Fedoskino artists were instructed to only paint Russian fairy tale characters and employ more gold foil and mother-of-pearl in their creations. These changes were ordered simply to sell more boxes to foreigners and gain additional hard 25

Above: Mowing Time by V. Gudkova. Compositions that emphasized collective labor efforts were very popular during the Soviet era. Here, aluminum powder gives the sky depth and floods the ground with golden sunrays. Gray and green are used to paint the sky and the surrounding environment, while primary colors are reserved for the workers. Left: Girl with a Shoulder-Yoke. Nina Pershina.

in mid-19th century France in opposition to romanticism (a highly-interpretive style of painting).

Production Today, Fedoskino painters may be divided into those that paint with translucent colors (poskvoznomu) and those that use thick layers of non-translucent colors (korpusnaya zhivopis). The former (poskvoznomu) produce multi-layer oil-painting scenes displayed on a black shiny black ground and framed by filigree, checker-work, circular and gold ornamentation. Transparent line-work is combined with a transparent glaze superimposed over gold leaf, mother-of-pearl plaque, or ground powdered with metal dust. The glaze allows the brightness of the inlay to show through the colors and creates the radiant quality characteristic of the craft. The latter (korpusnaya zhivopis) create compositions that are highly detailed and sharply outlined in rich color.

In accord with Socialist-Realism, early Fedoskino-style painters embraced the idea that art could serve to discover truth. Although Soviet officials strongly promoted Socialist-Realism, many miniature compositions of that era are simply copies of popular drawings, engravings, lithographs, and cheap folk prints. Still, Soviet-era Fedoskino-style miniatures depict collective farms and labor scenes in abundance. In the last few decades, Fedoskino-style miniatures have displayed a growing diversity of themes. Troika-riding themes continue to remain very popular (a troika-riding-through-theforest scene serves as emblem for the craft).

Left: A small crowd (and dog) views two troika parties arriving in town. Silver is used to create a shimmering snow covered landscape. The artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s use of curvature to signify motion is especially interesting. The troika scenes are highly popular Fedoskino compositions and one even serves as emblem for the craft. Above right: St. Basilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cathedral as painted by Konstantin Shevalkin. Here, red color tones are used in the foreground to contrast against the light gray and blue background to create depth Gold paint is used to highlight the clouds and outline the scene in general.

Above: Nearing the Storm. Yuri Dubovikov. In the compostion above, the artist portrays nature before the thunderstorm. Both gold dust and mother-of-pearl are used, the latter is used to recreate the sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s radiance and reinforce colors. Foliage is deliberately blurred to give a luxurious perspective within the landscape. Likewise, the compositionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s other elements are constructed in a deliberate linear fashion so as to appear calming.

Above: 19th century Gus-Khrustalny glasswork

SIX

GUS-KHRUSTALNY GLASS ‘MALTSEVCHINA’

When 18th-century industrialist Vasily Maltsov decided to retire, he transferred his profitable glasshouses his two sons, Akim and Alexander. Though both sons resolved to relocate the glasshouses near to Moscow, they were hindered by a new state decree that factories and plants be constructed at least 125 miles from Moscow (“due to fires and in order to prevent the forests from being cleansed for fuel”). In 1756, Alexander Maltsov established a glasshouse at Dyatkovo. His brother Akim decided to establish his factory (1756) on the Gus River in Vladimir province. The latter was an area especially rich in sand, fireclay, forest, and water (all the materials essential for glassmaking). Both glasshouses played a prominent role in establishing Russia’s glass industry.

until the early 1800s, when new diamond cutting technology made cut crystal glass fashionable. Though the Maltsov’s continued to produce uniquely decorative glassware, they quickly adapted production efforts toward creating cut crystal glassware. But a desire for color would soon reassert itself. In the late 1820s, glass artists at the GusKhrustalny factory began producing noteworthy Gothic-style articles in colored glass. By mid-century, a renewed desire for color emerged. Painted glass articles became even more popular than cut glass. As color began to flourish, so did the diversity of styles glassmakers were willing to experiment with. Ironically, the desire of glassmakers to skillfully exploit and combine various styles inhibited their artistic development. As a result, the factory’s output of artistic glassware gradually declined in quality. Eclecticism continued to imperil Russian artistic glassware until the public became captivated by Art Nouveau in the 1890s.

Unlike Russia’s Imperial Glassworks, the Maltsov factories had little desire to emulate Western European-style glassware. Instead, they built their early reputation upon producing popular folk-style painted glassware. These articles remained popular 30

Glass-bottle preparation: “ …the blower rolls the glass upon a stone, blowing into it at the same time. He then puts the (liquid) metal into a brass or iron mould of the shape of the bottle to be made, and blows through the tube until it comes to the desired form. This mould is so contrived as to open down the middle by means of a spring which the blower works with his foot. The mould is open when he puts in the metal at first; it is then immediately closed, and opened again when the bottle is formed, which is handed over to the finisher. The finisher detaches the tube from the mouth of the bottle, and fixes the punty-rod to the bottom…The finisher next employs a pair of shears to give the right shape to the neck: on one of the blades of the shears is a piece of brass resembling a cork, by which the inside of the neck is formed.” W&R Chambers. Chambers information for the people, Vol 2. (1842)

By 1830, the company’s success relied upon production of simple and inexpensive household items. The sizable market for such glass required the Maltsov’s factory at Gus to employ roughly 500 workers by midcentury.

nearly monopolize the country’s high-quality glass production. By the late 19th century, the Maltsov factories had become highly successful at producing inexpensive glassware for Russia’s expanding middle class. Though hardly innovative today, the Maltsovfamily created a numbering system that allowed customers to order dinner sets by the piece and in any particular style or ornamentation. Likewise, the object’s price was determined by its surface design’s complexity. In retrospect, such measures reflect a deep understanding of customers in a rapidly maturing market. Ultimately, the company’s careful analysis of consumer tastes and market trends allowed Russia to become a major glassmaking country by the turn of the century.

Eventually, the Maltsov family came to control more than a fifth of Russia’s entire glass and crystal production. By 1859, the Maltsov factory was producing roughly 1.5 million crystal items year (with many being exported to the Near East). However, achieving this astounding production level required child labor and demanding 12 hour workdays. When serfdom was abolished in 1861, the Russian glass industry was severely affected. Absent cheap labor, several factories were forced to close. A lessening of competitors allowed the Maltsov-family to 31

Edmund Ashe. Glass Blowing at Point Marion Factory. (1942)

Soviet Glass For several years after Russiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s civil war, Russian glass production was severely limited by material and fuel shortages. Now controlled by the Soviets, the Gus Khrustalny factory focused heavily on mass production with little thought toward design. This situation failed to improve substantially until shortly after World War II.

to form a cartouche. Lions, griffins, and horses were depicted in profile and outlined in red enamel. Unlike the decorative glass produced in St. Petersburg, foreign influence is noticeably absent in this styling. Instead, these engravings reveal traditional Russian folk art that has adopted subtle baroque features.

Design 18th Century Gus Khrustalny glasswork was typically limited to everyday objects produced with unpurified green glass. These glass objects were usually decorated with animal or plant elements. Plant ornamentation generally featured flowing branches with lush looking leaves positioned

Especially popular were large four-sided vodka bottles known as shtofs in a design unique to Russia. Large colored-glass wash jugs, small casks, and flasks were produced as well. Maltsov-made bottles shaped as birds and animals and painted in opaque-colored enamels (white, blue, red, green and yellow) reveal the factoryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s artistic inclination with regard to functional glass sculpture. 32

19th Century Early 19th century Russian glass production was influenced by desire for clear crystal cut glass and loyal adherence to the classicist style. Accordingly, Russian glassmakers produced surfaces decorated with manyfaceted projections that resembled precious stones (a technique later called “Russian stone”).

and the lack of cohesion in decorative treatments” (Voronov, p116). When combined with inappropriate and exceedingly complex glass composition, such objects were disparagingly called Maltsevshchina. Nonetheless, careful study of Near Eastern market tastes enabled the Gus River factory to successfully produce and market hookahs, decanters and other glassware for export. For instance, vases depicted brightly colored and compact floral patterns in an asymmetrical manner. Particularly popular were glass objects with silver overlay and Iranian-style ornamentation.

Beginning in the late 1820s, Gus Khrustalny Glassworks began creating Gothic-style objects characterized by sharply edged faceting, an elongated shape, and a crowned pattern of square indentations. Russian glassmakers frequently combined this style with colored glass. Unfortunately, Russian glassmakers failed to appreciate the need for stylistic unity in their work. This oversight soon devolved into an orgy of artistic eclecticism. Critics derided Maltsov’s glassware as having incongruous and often conflicting tastes. It was believe that by “working on so many different styles at the same time, the master craftsman lost his sense for style and for proportion; the result was a combining of heterogeneous elements, the loss of harmonious proportion,

Late 19th century glass art tended to emulate traditional Russian forms such as the bratina, reflecting the public’s new historicist bent. At the time, glass objects were engraved with native floral motifs so as to deliberately resemble peasant art. Ironically, this style was an agglomeration of several styles and failed to provide real direction away from eclecticism. 33

Vase. â&#x20AC;&#x153;800 years of Moscowâ&#x20AC;?. (1947). Cut glass with copper ruby, diamond face etching.

Top: Jugs in honor of the Soviet Unionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Five-Year plans. Bottom: Large pitcher with colored glasses, 1950s

produced blown glass displayed with specially-developed glazes and tint staining.

Stylistic unity failed to emerge until late century, when Russian glassmakers realized the widely popular â&#x20AC;&#x153;Art Nouveauâ&#x20AC;? style (based on the sinuous curves of plant forms) was particularly well-suited to producing artistic glassware.

Unfortunately, this interest soon gave way to a renewed desire for simplicity and pure forms during the decade. While this appeal produced many elegant and laconic forms, few opportunities remained for glass artists specializing in glass ornamentation.

Glass artists interpreted Art Nouveau using deep etching to provide tangible volume to contours, enlarged forms such as flowers, asymmetrical silhouette, and free-style composition. After the October Revolution, Art Nouveau was deemed a bourgeoisie style to be replaced by a fully functionalist mindset.

By the late 1960s, a preoccupation with form led many glass artists into the realm of sculpture. Likewise, a renewed regard for spatial expression encouraged production of inappropriately-expansive glass objects. This trend was reinforced by a fervent desire for greater individual expression and experimentation in the 1970s. Ultimately, glass artists came to view an objectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s functionality as secondary to its spiritual value. These trends culminated with new ways to express space using light and transparency during the late 1980s.

Soviet Glass For many years after the 1917 Socialist Revolution, the Gus Crystal Works (as it was known then) was concerned with massproducing essential glassware (glasses, bottles, jars). Nonetheless, Soviet emblems and slogans began to appear on glass objects in the 1920s. In the 1930s, Soviet emphasis on mass-production of forms and shapes seemingly made glass artistry immaterial. Instead, glassmakers relied upon existing glass forms and decorative patterns for production.

Today, Gus Khrustalny glassmakers specialize in producing glass-engraved plant ornamentation, animal-shaped blown glass, and colored crystal. Ornamental and decorative motifs developed from national traditions continue to play a substantial part in factory compositions.

After the outbreak of World War II, output of decorative glass declined dramatically. During the postwar years, glass factories again reproduced existing Maltsov design patterns for mass production articles. The few original compositions made were based on folk ornamentation. Interest in decorative glassware began to recover in the late 1950s. Professional glass artists entered the industry and began producing figure-shaped vessels using traditional blown glass techniques (huta). This technique required glassmakers to freely blow molten glass through a pipe and manipulate the glass for shaping as it was being produced. Glassmakers occasionally 36

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Since, to the folk imagination, the devil was ubiquitous, it was necessary to be on constant guard and to protect oneself in every possible way, especially at night. The rooster was considered a powerful enemy of the unclean force, & many stories of demons end successfully for the peasant simply because the rooster crows, signaling the approach of day.â&#x20AC;? Linda Ivanits. Russian Folk Belief. (1992)

SEVEN

GZHEL CERAMICS â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;RUSSIAN STAFFORDSHIREâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

Prior to the late 17th century, the village of Gzhel was primarily known for producing enameled pottery and toys. However, Gzhel craftsmen sought to advance their trade by learning how to create porcelain. Though unsuccessful, they discovered majolica in the process. Nonetheless, they continued to look with envy upon foreign porcelain.

producing dinnerware similar in appearance to Delft China.

In Russia, the formula for porcelain was discovered by Mikhail Lomonsov in 1747. Perceived by many as a national trade secret, porcelain production was confined to the Imperial Porcelain Factory and famous Gardner Factory. However, when a former Gardner Factory worker named Pavel Kulikov set up shop in 1802, porcelain glaze samples were quickly stolen from his workshop. Shortly afterward, Gzhel workshops began producing the same highquality porcelain Kulikov had made.

Gzhel craftsmen eventually introduced pure faience, inexpensive ceramic-ware that could be mass-produced for the middle class. As the century progressed, production decisions became increasingly dependent upon market pressures. By the 1860s, cutthroat competition had led many Gzhel factories to close their doors. Moreover, the advent of transfer printing confined Gzhel artists to simply painting expensive porcelain.

Gzhel craftsmen produced majolica, semifaience, and faience ceramic-ware for several more decades. Indeed, early 19th century Gzhel manufacturers became famous for producing highly-creative figural sculpture from majolica. Once semi-faience was introduced, these manufacturers began 38

In the early 20th century, Russia’s civil strife imperiled the craft’s survival. Once in power, Lenin provided Gzhel potteries with state support through government decree. During the 1920s, Gzhel’s potteries organized into cooperatives (known as artels). As with other crafts, artels greatly benefited struggling artists and helped the industry stage a comeback. By 1936, a new cooperative (the Khudozhestvenaya Keramika or ‘Artistic Ceramics’) was organized in nearby Turygino for Gzhel craftsmen. However, their products (statuettes, tableware, vases, and toys) were artistically inferior to what had been produced in the past.

painting techniques once used upon Gzhel pottery. During the 1960s and ‘70’s, many Gzhel potters produced highly decorative and original ceramic-ware. Nonetheless, Gzhel's traditional blue-on-white "Gzhel Rose" motif remained a favorite. Similar to a stylized tulip, the "Gzhel Rose" allows for several variations without sacrificing traditional design. Likewise, Gzhel products retain the same decorative techniques and motifs employed more than a century ago. Today, many Gzhel artists even study their predecessor’s brushwork and design intentions. Inspired by their heritage, Gzhel artists continue to produce contemporary ceramic-ware both artistically distinct and uniquely competitive. Their design motifs derive from a “cumulative originality” (so to speak). As a result, Gzhel ceramic-ware enjoys a valued reputation throughout the world

After World War II, several attempts were made to revive traditional Gzhel ceramicware. Historians, artists and state production engineers came together to research Gzhel's secrets. Among them was a Gzhel historian named Alexander Saltykov. By carefully studying Gzhel collections, he created a glossary of Gzhel brushstrokes and decorative methods. Along with other researchers, he helped reinstitute traditional Gzhel production techniques. At roughly the same time, laboratory research reestablished the formula Gzhel craftsmen used for majolica.

Design Early 18th Russian porcelain display nature and floral motifs (flower garlands, rosettes, fruit baskets). An especially popular motif was a stylized rose set among colorful foliage in a bouquet-setting. Later porcelain popularly displays Russian landscapes, genre scenes, and famous battles (especially the Crimean War and 1812 French invasion of Russia).

In an attempt to retrain local Gzhel potters, Saltykov turned to Natalya Bessarabova, an interior decorator and co-worker. Together, they reintroduced long-forgotten folk

Joyce Werwie Perry. Potter II. (2008)

During the early 1800s, Gzhel craftsmen produced ceramic-ware inspired by Gardner and Popov factory creations. For instance, Gzhel porcelain was popularly produced as Empire-style china painted in cobalt blue and gold.

In the 1840s, Gzhel artisans began to incorporate rocaille scrollwork, naturalistic painting, and other rococo-style elements in their designs. Late 19th century Gzhel even reveals gothic-style design elements. 40

18th century Gzhel majolica kvass jugs

Porcelain Production Process Prospective Gzhel products are sketched in pencil before being modeled in plasticine. Using a potter’s wheel, a steel cutter is used to clear excess plaster from the model. Afterwards, a bi-sectional plaster mould is created and greased to hold the model.

The painting’s design is applied after the first firing. Because the paint is quickly absorbed (leaving little room for mistakes), powdered tracing with pounce is used to outline the design. When finished, the article is glazed and once again enclosed in a protective encasement for firing (1350 degrees C). The second firing fuses the glaze to the item and produces a blue-colored underglaze. When finished, the Gzhel trademark is printed on the bottom. Note: before 1972, “X” and “K” were used to designate “Khudozhestvennaya Keramika”.

Sprayers are then used to fill the work-mould with viscous china paste. The paste soaks through the mould’s wash and solidifies to its shape. Finally, the molded shape is smoothed and any separate handles or additions are added. After drying, the item is enclosed in a protective encasement and fired in a kiln between 800 and 950 degrees C. 41

Majolica (1724-1810) In 1724, the first privately-owned ceramic factory in Russia was set up by Afanasy Grebenshchikov near Gzhel. Along with other local potters, he began producing majolica, tableware and figurines that displayed colorful peasant art. Unfortunately, these same workers began copying Grebenshchikovâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s techniques. Without recourse, Grebenshchikov attempted to legally have his peasant workers classified as serfs once again. In testament to his failure, several workshops in the Gzhel area were producing the once rare majolica within a decade. Mid-18th century Gzhel majolica commonly displays curved legs and/or relief scrolls, a uniquely baroque style of molding. Figurines attached to majolica pitchers generally depict fighting scenes, work activities, tea parties, and other genre scenes (often copied from lubki). By late century, majolica's popularity had peaked. Gzhel craftsmen sought a more durable ceramic since majolica was fragile and hard to work with. Their quest succeeded when they created semi-faience in the early 1800s.

Double-headed eagle kvass pitcher in majolica. (1796)

Semi-Faience (1820-1870) In a bid to replace majolica, Gzhel craftsmen sought to replicate English faience by creating a semi-faience formula made from local clay. The clay, porous and white after firing, did not require coating with a white enamel shell. Once fired, the craftsmen could paint, glaze, and fire again. Semi-faience’s trademark semi-transparent blue design is an under glaze that resembles Delft china. These cream-colored artifacts are nearly all jugs and pitchers.

strokes. Although commonly blue, semifaience may display several gradations of any singular color (blue being the most common). Today, Russia’s national museums famously display Gzhel-made kumgans and kvassniks, spherical and disc-shaped semi-faience pitchers, respectively. Originally produced in majolica, their shapes continued to evolve until the mid-19th century. The semi-faience kumgan displays decorative features that accent its unique shape. As in majolica, several of these pitchers display their production date in large, bold letters on the round. Semi-faience products such as these faded from view when more affordable fine faience was introduced.

Unlike majolica, Gzhel semi-faience is handpainted in free-style form. On the vase’s round, floral designs (garlands, tendrils, and blossoms) are displayed within horizontal parallel lines as if in a frieze. The vase’s contour is occasionally accented by hatching

Constantin Korovin. At a Tea Table. (1888). In Russia, tea leaves are steeped in water to create a concentrated brew called zavarka, boiled for at least five minutes or possibly all day. This brew is then diluted with hot water when it is served. Russians also enjoy mixing different types of tea (i.e. black tea with herbal tea) and flavoring it with lemon. For sweeteners, Russians use sugar, honey, or jam.

Gzhel painted porcelain, 1960s

Faience (1830-1870) Nearly a decade after creating semi-faience (early 1830s), peasant craftsman Afanasy Kiselyov introduced inexpensive, cream-

colored faience. By the 1840s, more than thirty Gzhel establishments were producing a high-quality pure faience. Unlike its predecessors, faience was easily reproduced 45

costs and expand market share ultimately extinguished artistically worthwhile faience.

and relatively affordable. However, the cost benefits associated with mass-production encouraged many Gzhel factories to replace hand-painted designs with transfer prints.

Gzhel faience was produced in many diverse styles. Early semi-faience was painted in the then-common Empire Style (1800-1815). In contrast, later designs sometimes resembled woodcuts or lubok broadsides. Gzhel-made pure faience designs frequently depict stylized Russian landscapes with somewhat realistic depth. Incidentally, many landscape designs were borrowed from imported English earthenware and slightly modified. Not surprisingly, Gzhel faience came to be known as the "Russian Staffordshire".

Soon after its inception, faience became a household item. Unlike most semi-faience, faienceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; shape and size were determined by its tableware function. Before their decline, Gzhel factories also produced high-end earthenware with a blue tint known as pearlware. Unfortunately, the emancipation of low-wage serfs (1861) produced a highly competitive market among Gzhel manufacturers. The renewed drive to cut

Top: Chugun. Kirkiz on loshadi. 1904. Bottom: A. Ignatov. Hunting Dog. 1910

EIGHT

KASLI IRON SCULPTURE ‘KALINSKOE’

The city of Kasli, nestled in Russia’s South Ural Mountains, maintains a reputation for producing many beautiful cast-iron products. The Kasli Cast-Iron Plant has produced a wide-variety of products – from miniature statuettes to life-size sculpture, from openwork plates to decorative candlesticks, and from garden furniture to an extensive variety of architectural casting (for many of Russia’s palaces). The genesis for this reputation follows from 19th century merchants who, through their dedication and careful long-range planning, succeeded in realizing a vision that still glorifies Russian culture.

Nikita Demidov - a wealthy proprietor of several plants in the region – purchased the plant. For several decades, the Kasli plant produced ploughshare, military cannon, and bulk iron. In 1809, Demidov decided to sell the foundry to a guild merchant named Lev Rastorguev. Rather than focus solely upon industrial iron-casting, Rastorguev sought to produce artistic iron sculpture as well. Through his patient efforts, Rastorguev attracted many gifted sculptors artists, skilled chasers and molders to his workshops. However, Rastorguev’s plans were cut short by his death and the plant was turned over to his son-in-law Grigory Zotov in 1823.

History In 1747, a Russian merchant named Yakov Korobov purchased a sizable plot of land in the South Urals from the Bashkirs (a Turkic people indigenous to the area). Though seemingly useless, the land was ideal for building an iron foundry plant. In addition to an abundant amount of iron ore, the land held plentiful sand for iron molding and pine wood to create charcoal. Once Korobov built

Like Rastorguev, Zotov desired to have his workers produce artistic cast-iron molding. In order to better realize this vision, Zotov opened a school for cast-iron workers willing to study artistic drawing and molding techniques. After acquiring some expertise in the craft, Kasli workers began exhibiting their work in regional exhibitions.

his iron plant, workers quickly created the settlement of Kaslinksy. Five years later,

In 1853, a Russian sculptor named Robert Bakh began instructing the 48

Russia’s iron-cast pavilion was shown at the 1900 World Art Exhibit in Paris. Nicholas Laveretsky’s statue “Russia” is at left. From the Yekaterinburg Picture Gallery. plant’s most talented workers. Through his influence, Kasli’s cast-iron molding became well-known to many of Russia’s best sculptors. Nonetheless, Kasli cast-iron products did not appear on the market until the late 1850s. These were generally large items such as stoves, railings, grills, and garden benches.

iron sculpture depicting animate objects (especially Uralic animals such as bears, wild goats, and zebras) was especially popular. Kasli sculptors sought to capture their essence by creating them as if frozen in time. Well-versed in iron’s plastic and lustrous properties, they skillfully embossed their sculpture to promote precision and affect.

By the 1870s, the Kasli plant had gained an extraordinary reputation for producing highquality artistic cast-iron sculpture. As a result, many expert iron-molders, casters, chasers and other specialists sought to work at the plant. In 1876, a professional artist named M. Kanayev introduced a more formal art school for factory craftsmen to attend. Equipped with formal art training, Kasli craftsmen soon began to win prizes at international art exhibitions in the United States and Europe.

20th century During World War One, the output of art casting was greatly reduced for the sake of military production. The Soviet Union’s aggressive focus on industrial production in the 1920s and 30’s became an additional obstacle to the craft’s development. Tentative steps toward reviving Kasli castiron art did not occur until the late 1940s. Even then, Soviet authorities gave greater precedence to architectural iron-cast (seen even now on the streets of Yekaterinburg) over art object sculpture.

By late 19th century, Kasli craftsmen had become adept at creating smaller household cast-iron products. They incorporated seemingly mundane household items (such as ash trays, book stands, and candlesticks) with fanciful decorative elements and an impressively smooth surface. However, cast-

The Pavilion At the 1900 World Art and Industry Exhibition in Paris, Kasli craftsman gained worldwide admiration and fame for their

Left and Above: Evgueni Lanceray. Czar’s hawker in the 17th Century (1872). Evegeny Lanceray was a self taught animal sculptor famous for modeling the behavior of horses and capturing their motion. Indeed, Before the age of ten Lanceray showed precocious ability and when barely eighteen was presented to the future Alexander III, who gave him a solid gold watch in exchange for his three-horse statuette The Broken Wheel. Almost every year he travelled in the borderlands of the Russian Empire, observing tribesmen and their animals and then modeling them in his studio.

their large cast-iron pavilion (roughly 20’ x 20’ x 25’). Two years in the making, the Kasli pavilion drew immediate and extensive publicity during the fair. Designed by Russian architect Evgeny Baumgarten (1867-1919), this immense palace exhibits an impressive display of cast-iron openwork, cornices, and grids.

of the pavilion by a cast-iron fence. Though various cast-iron sculptures reside inside the pavilion, Nicholas Laveretsky’s “Russia” (sculpture of a warrior-woman) notably graces the entrance. The pavilion’s interior is resplendent with cast-iron dragon, fish, and bird silhouettes (common Russian motifs). Recognized as a masterpiece of casting art, the pavilion won the exhibit’s Grand Prize. In 1958, the pavilion was restored and opened to the public again. Today, this memorable pavilion is exhibited in the Yekaterinburg Picture Gallery.

A cubic-like structure, the pavilion is held up by four columns interweaved with netted ironwork. During the 1900 exhibit, cast-iron garden chairs and sofas are hemmed in front 50

NINE

KAZAKOVO FILIGREE ‘SKAN’

zig-zags, circles, and waves), floral motifs are more customary.

Filigree is a centuries-old art produced by soldering silver, gold, or copper wire into patterns. Occasionally, metal balls or beads are added to the surface for decorative purposes. Essentially only wire that is shaped and molded to fit a pattern, filigree objects remain pliable after construction. Open Net Filigree Originally, filigree was soldered to an object’s base and its open spaces filled in with enamel (see cloisonné enameling). However, certain articles such as podstanikki (glass tea holders) employ wire filigree in an open net. Although objects displaying open net filigree reveal intricate floral patterns and zern beads, thicker filigree outlines and fortifies object contours. Today, open net filigree is commonly seen on podstanikki.

When featured, floral elements are elongated and outlined in distinct heavy-wire filigree. In contrast, thin wire curls resembling curving foliate veins are situated in the motif’s interior. In the background (between motifs), filigree nets of various densities are skillfully blended together. They reinforce the object’s durability, filigree elements and motifs are strategically place in an adjoining and repetitious fashion.

Kazakovo Filigree In the Nizhny Novgorod region, craftsmen from the village of Kazakovo produce beautiful filigree jewelry cases, glass-holders, and vases. Though these objects occasionally depict geometric ornamentation (such as

TEN

KHOKHLOMA DESIGN

RED, BLACK, & GOLD HERBACEOUS PAINTING

During the 17th century, decoratively painted woodenware known as Khokhloma emerged from the Nizhny Novgorod region. These objects reveal a painting style that emphasizes allover vegetative patterns (travchataia pis’ma, “herbaceous painting”), a carryover from the decorated interior columns and iconostasis doors of the Orthodox Church. The style also displays floral pattern designs and gilding similar to that seen in religious icons and frescoes. Over time, Russian painters incorporated this design on lecterns, candlesticks, and every-day objects (not incidentally, many former icon painters resided in the region). As Khokhloma progressed, newer designs were adopted from textile printings and other media.

colors is well-known. The color’s scarcity and cost made it highly valued as well. Black. Russian icon painting employs a redwhite combination impractical on wooden objects. Black is a practical alternative that serves to unite and intensify red. Moreover, a black-red color combination attracts the viewer's focus and alters the object's perceived closeness. Black can also be used to fill in the gold background between floral elements (such as stems and leaves), intensifying the gold effect and making the design elements appear sharper. Gold: Khokhloma-ware gold is typically silhouetted upon a red background or used as background itself. Beyond having an attractive brilliance, gold is associated with heavenly spiritual light in Russian religious art. Early Khokhloma artists believed that, since light was God’s first creation, gold (as symbolic of light) should take precedence in their creation as well.

Color: Khokhloma’s red, gold, and black color combination is presupposed to have meaning: Red: Long associated with beauty (“krasny”), red has traditionally incurred both religious and nationalistic feelings among Russian peasants. Its ability to intensify surrounding 54

Larry Bolch. Old Russian Workshop. 2000s â&#x20AC;&#x153;The plotniki (carpenters) are a very characteristic class. As the majority of buildings in Russia are of wood, and are almost entirely built of it, the carpenters are in number and importance such as exist in no other country. Every peasant is a carpenter, and knows how to frame, build, and fit up a house. The plotniki in the towns, especially in Moscow, are the elite of the ordinary peasants, and not, as in Germany, workmen expressly educated to the business. They constitute a complete and well-organized community.....â&#x20AC;? Baron Haxthausen, The Russian Empire. (1856).

Right: L. Russov. Still Life with Red Material. (1959). “In the language of the Eastern Slavs, the words for “beautiful” and “good” have similar roots to that of “red”. In Russia, the word “Krasny” lost its original meaning of beautiful and was applied purely to the color red.” Joseph Kiblitsky, Red in Russian Art (1999)

(leaves), pryanik (gingerbread), and pod fon (background). As the craft has evolved, some design elements have lost favor (lozenges) as others have progressed (kudrina). Other design elements have remained long-standing favorites (such as travka).

Khokhloma artists produced a gold effect by applying silver chloride to wooden objects before painting. They then varnished the object with linseed oil before firing it in a kiln. The fired varnish gives an already metallic-looking background the appearance of gilt. As tin became more affordable, gradually supplanted silver chloride as the essential ‘gold’ ingredient. By the early 19th century Khokhloma craftsmen began gilding bowls entirely with powdered tin. Today, Khokhloma painters employ powdered aluminum to create this gold effect.

The rhizhik, an ancient Khokhloma motif, incorporates geometric elements in its design. Set within the bowl’s interior, a rhizhik depicts a rosette radiating lines (or grass) outward. Khokhloma painters gradually began enclosing these rosettes with a lozenge, creating a pryanik (or ‘gingerbread’) design. Nonetheless, Khokhloma artists have not readily embraced geometric motifs, preferring travka and other vegetative motifs instead.

Design Elements Khokhloma is known for having several ornamental design elements: travka (grass), kustiki (bushes), kudrina (curl), repeechka (burdock), rhzhik (wild mushroom), pod listok 56

Kudrina-Style Khokhloma

realistic foliage. Hatching is used to give berries and leaves a more realistic portrayal. A black background is painted last in order to provide vivid contrast to the leafâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s golden edges.

Indeed, Khokhloma craftsmen realized great success depicting floral and vegetative motifs. As such, they learned how to interweave flowers, berries, and winding grasses so as to emphasize an objectâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s contour. Other elements such as pomegranates, shrubs, or rosettes are occasionally incorporated as well. In contrast, geometric and non-floral designs are reserved for small designs (i.e. stars) and inexpensive items (i.e. spoons).

For a more eye-catching appearance, the kudrina (curl) motif creates an eye-catching appearance. Khokhloma painters display curly golden tendrils and thick-set leaves assembled in a wave formation to make an attractive gold border rim. However, the detailed hatching required to create a kudrina motif makes it a highly labor-intensive process. Khokhloma artists who incorporate this motif often double their production process time.

A common favorite, the travka (grass design) motif is typically reserved for larger Khokhloma items such as dishes, kegs, bowls or mats. For these items, the painterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s spontaneous brush strokes suitably depict thick, lush (or soft and wispy) blades of grass. By appearing parallel to each other, these blades give a frond-like effect that helps accentuate contour.

Khokhloma painters specialize in particular motifs based on current market demand. For instance, Kovernino artisans have gained a reputation for painting stylized trees containing large flowers and curling tendrils (a drevko design). Likewise, Semyonov artisans became known for depicting highly detailed kudrina patterns.

More commonly, the pod listok motif (branches and leaves) is displayed on smaller Khokhloma-ware. Occasionally displayed alongside travka (grass), pod listok motifs are noted for their finely painted leaves and 57

“The iconostasis took the form a wooden screen reaching to the ceiling and extending across the entire width of the apse (or semicircular recess), completely covered with icons arranged in rows in a prescribed order… (It) allowed display of lavish carved and painted or gilt ornament, especially striking in contrast to the plain exterior of most northern churches. There were many levels of quality and styles of carving, ranging from nearly flat interlace backgrounds cameo-like figures of saints to deeply carved vines and leaves surrounding columns which had been carved out from inside to achieve a lacelike effect… “The wood could be left unpainted, but in wealthy churches the columns and carved panels of Royal Doors were covered with gold leaf or painted dark red or black with find gold highlights, in foliage patterns like those of the Golden Gates of Suzdal. The style, called herbaceous painting, travchataia pis'ma, was used in the 17th century on lecterns and candlesticks, on borders of icons, and later, on the painted dishes of Khokhloma.” Alison Hilton. Russian Folk Art (1995)

Artisans begin by tracing design outlines with light brushwork before coloring the surrounding background. Unlike Verkhouoye painting, Fonovoye emphasizes object ornamentation (i.e. kudrina) by creating a strong contrast between motif and background. The Fonovoye style has popularized gold stripes, grooves, and rings as bowl rim borders.

Design Background In Russia, ornamental design is considered no less integral to an object’s nature than its shape. Accordingly, border motifs and other ornamentation must be applied before an object is considered completed. Aside from enhancing decorative unity, border motifs are primarily used to accentuate object contours. Circular borders popularly employ kudrina and other curvaceous foliage because they harmoniously highlight the round.

Design Evolution Peter-the-Greta’s infatuation with western architecture indirectly benefited Khokhloma. Debarred from building magnificent palaces, Russian woodworkers recognized that producing decorative artwork was their most viable alternative. These exceptionally qualified artists raised Khokhloma’s status and creative output. Indeed, their success soon supplanted agricultural work in some areas.

Conversely, an object’s shape can influence design perception. For instance, floral motifs placed around a vase’s middle (where the eye first attracts) appear larger and brighter than at the tapered bottom. Likewise, allover patterns vary the intensity with which an object is perceived. Though hardly trade secrets, Khokhloma artists have refined these visual techniques for centuries.

However, factory-made china and glass began to supplant Khokhloma tableware in the late 1800s. As demand for Khokhloma declined, middlemen (distributors) began to financially exploit their position as product suppliers. As a result, Khokhloma craftsmen worked increasingly long hours in order to earn a living. Eventually, composition quality began to suffer as well. Not surprisingly, craftsmen moved to find alternative work in neighboring towns. As a saving grace, local officials acted to retain the craft’s survival – though only to temporarily bolster tax base revenues.

Pre-Production Khokhloma production requires dry linden or birch wood be used to avoid warping or cracking. Once fully dry, the wood is ready to be shaped by a lathe. Clay is then applied to the finished product to seal the wood. Likewise, the exterior is coated with a synthetic varnish (what was once boiled linseed) for protective hardening. To ensure further protection, the Khokhloma is ovendried before painting. Painting Techniques Verkhouoye: Artists employ fluid brush strokes to create a spontaneous impression. Commonly associated with travka, verkouoye allows painters to create an energetic or relaxed appearance. This simple technique has proven well-suited for mass production needs.

Ultimately, mass-produced imitation Khokhloma supplanted Verkhouoye-style ware. Likewise, labor-intensive Fonovoye vessels only sold as high-end gifts. By the 1917 Revolution, Khokhloma artists were suffering a serious identity crisis. Soviet attempts to revitalize the craft did not succeed until handicraft collectives, heavy state funding, and newly designed motifs emerged in the 1920s.

Fonovoye: In contrast, Fonovoye allows artisans to produce eye-catching ornamental borders. Though labor-intensive, this style bespeaks Khokhloma’s status as a truly skilled craft. 59

Khokhloma-ware has retained its traditional design format despite continuing motif modifications. For instance, the travka (grass) motif has been modified throughout Khokhloma’s existence to include wavy sprigs, leafy shrubs, and spiraling tendrils. Likewise, various berries became far more frequent once popular sentiment for them became known. To their credit, artists have discarded little since Khokhloma’s traditional format emerged. More recently, Khokhloma artists have expanded their color palette. Employing an imaginative blend of non-primary colors, their designs challenge the viewer to acknowledge Khokhloma’s traditional motifs. Beyond these design changes, Khokhloma artists are bringing their work to nontraditional objects such as tables, chairs, box miniatures, and even kovshi. In recent years, these developments have sparked renewed interest in Khokhloma even among long-time admirers.

Ivan Bakanov. Khokhloma Artists at Work. Palekh miniature, (1929) “The colors of black, red and gold that predominate in Khokhloma ware have their own special significance. These three colors bring harmony to the human soul,' said the director of the [Khokhloma] studio as he showed us the gorgeous array of work in their museum. Each piece was painted with individually created designs of ferns, flowers and berries, all stylized into meandering branching shapes with graceful flourishes and swirling patterns. The psychologists have tested this combination of colors, and find that they are the only three colors which people can gaze for a long time without feeling restless or disturbed. Furthermore he told us, each of the colors has its own meaning. "red is for life and energy,' he said. Black is for suffering. But it is also for compassion, for when people share their sorrows then they truly find that compassion for each other. And gold-- gold is for hope, and eternal life.” Cherry Gilchrist. Russian Magic: Living Folk Traditions of an Enchanted Landscape. (2009). p.67

Wood inlaid with carved ivory and engraved metal (2nd half 18th century)

Red foil in background, rocaille- style. (2nd half of 18th Century)

ELEVEN

KHOLMOGORY CARVED IVORY CHESTS, COMBS, & PORTRAITURE

For centuries, northern Russian seamen hunted walrus for their blubber, hide, and tusks. During the winter months, these seamen spent their time carving ivory tusks to sell at the large summer fair in Arkhangelsk. In the nearby town of Kholmogory, bone-carving continued to resemble native folk art until Arkhangelsk’s port was opened to outside trade in the late 16th century. As a consequence, Kholmogory bone-carvers began to produce more sophisticated, luxury products. Their exquisite work soon attracted attention outside the region. In 1649, Czar Alexei Mikhailovich sent for the city’s master carvers to work in Moscow’s Oruzheinaia Palata (the state armory).

their work, became the main suppliers of bone-work for the new capital in St. Petersburg. Shortly afterward, the Czar ordered a book consisting of Western European ornamental motifs (entitled Symbols and Emblems) to be published and distributed throughout Russia. Nonetheless, Kholmogory craftsmen only selectively appropriated such material. Throughout the 18th century, Russian bonework became increasingly diversified and rich in design. Religious items such as pendants, crucifixes, and icons became heavily ornamented. Elaborately detailed combs, cups, caskets, and jewelry boxes became highly popular among the nobility. Wooden furniture decorated with carved bone-work plates became highly desired as well. By late century, Kholmogory craftsmen had become known for producing intricately carved figurines and chess pieces.

During Peter the Great’s reign (1682-1725), the Czar heartily encouraged adherence to Western art trends - even to the extent of exporting foreign artwork to Kholmogory. Kholmogory craftsmen, already incorporating Western subjects and motifs in

However, high-quality bone-carved items reached their peak in the early 19th century. 62

Top Left: An 18th century Kholmogory-carved snuffbox. Green malachite (as seen left) was a highly popular item with Kholmogory bone-carvers. Bottom Left: An 18th century Kholmogory-carved chest. Circle motifs were an early favorite of Kholmogory bone-carvers.

Design In the 16th and 17th Centuries, wealthy Russians coveted bone-carved religious items such as icons, crosses, and pendants. Surviving bone-work icons display detailed compositions carved in low relief, decorated with precious stones, and framed in silver. Religious items such as these were produced in monastery workshops and given to wealthy visitors traveling on pilgrimages.

After serfdom was abolished in 1860, Kholmogory craftsmen found high-end items increasingly difficult to market. By the late 19th century, carved bone-work was no longer considered fashionable and the craft all but disappeared. With Soviet sponsorship, the last three remaining bonecarvers in Kholmogory helped revive the craft in the 1930s. Today, the Lomonosovo Bone Carving Plant in the nearby village of Lomonosovo preserves this century-old craft.

In Moscowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Oruzheinaia Palata, the master bone-carvers of Kholmogory devoted

Walrus Hunt, 1877

During the 18th century, Western prints and artwork continued to have some stylistic influence upon the craft (beyond Peter-theGreatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Symbols and Emblems). For instance, Kholomogory openwork panels display scrolling shells that reveal the influence of Western European rococo design. Other bone-carved objects from this time reveal traditional styling merged with baroque and rococo styles.

themselves to producing intricate bonecarved weaponry decorated with mother-ofpearl (an iridescent substance that reflects different colors of light at different viewing angles). Their harquebus butt-stocks (gun butts) depict fairy tale scenes and other complex compositions. Other weaponry depict heraldic motifs (i.e. the double-headed eagle), stylized diamonds, eight-pointed stars, and other folk motifs. Most impressive of all are the large, bone work carved chests made at Oruzheinaia Palata. Their openwork displays interwoven branches, birds, and architectural motifs in a unified design.

Native art prevailed as an influence as well. Kholmogory bone-carvers perpetually borrowed subjects from lubok prints, traditional designs, or church books used by icon painters. Likewise, openwork tracery continued to resemble that of Russian word carvings and metal filigree.

Early 18th century Kholmogory bone-work reveals even greater sophistication in design. Bone carvers incorporated malachite green and various shades of brown in their engraving. In contrast, utilitarian objects were typically decorated with genre scenes (tea drinking, hunting scenes) on small inlaid plates.

More conspicuous are massive ivory-chests engraved with Russian folk-circle motifs in low-relief and bordered by fine openwork ornament. In these objects, floral and geometric motifs are interspersed with each other at the corners. 64

18th century Kholmogory chess-set

to produce a life-like appearance. Similar high-quality plates depicting floral and lace motifs were produced for expensive highboy bureaus and other furniture pieces.

By mid century, bone-carvers had replaced the circle motif with delicate openwork. Known as lace, this finely carved openwork produced a texture that highlighted the ivoryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s whiteness. The finished product was glued on plates as an inlay, often upon a background of red foil. For decorative purposes, mother-of-pearl and tortoiseshell were occasionally placed among and underneath the plates, respectively.

By the late 18th century, ivory plate decoration had become more monotonous and subdued. Not coincidentally, bone-work plates began to reveal stricter composition and an emphasis upon symmetry. Plant ornamentation and shape complexity disappeared in favor of geometrical design. Compositions that gave a hint of motion or grace appear to have perished shortly before the craft went into a perilous decline.

Throughout the 18th century, ivory plates were frequently engraved with portraiture of reigning monarchs (especially Catherine-theGreat). These plates were typically copied from coins or medals and carved in low-relief Right: Kholmogory-made Carved Comb, 18th Century. In Muscovite Russia, a carved-bone comb (such as displayed at right) was reserved for ceremonial occasions such as weddings. Combing a brideâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and groomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hair symbolized their new status as an adult married pair (maidens wore their hair loose).

Small vase with fish carvings. (1980) 4â&#x20AC;? tall.

Top: 16th century silver and gilded kovsh Bottom: Moscow Kremlin Collection, Silver. 1687-88

TWELVE

KOVSHI SCOOPS â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;DIPPERSâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;

In ancient Russia, peasants produced wooden oval-shaped drinking vessels with dippers known as kovshi (plural). These wooden kovshi were used for drinking beer, mead, or kvas (as a serving bowl or one-person vessel). Many others were employed as ladles, containers, or ceremonial items. Ancient wooden kovshi were taller and more rounded than the later, well-known silver kovsh. Created from tree root, they were elaborately painted and frequently inscribed with blessings upon their base.

the horses become water birds and pull the sun until dawn. The story forms the basis for pagan harvest tribute. The designs are depicted as a way to evoke natural powers. More recently-made kovshi popularly resemble the skobkar, a swimming birdshaped bowl with tail- and head-like handles. Because birds and horses are parallel images in Slavic mythology, skobkars occasionally depict equestrian features as well. The skobkar continued to evolve, most famously in Moscow where shallow, oblong vessels (named sudy- for boat) became highly popular in the early 19th centuries.

Kovshi depicted motifs that varied from region to region. However, several common characteristics are evident: prow-handles in the shape of a water bird or horse's head; sun motifs depicted on the vesselâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sides; and occasionally rosettes, wavy lines, and nature motifs. Craftsmen incorporated these unusual characteristics as tribute to their Sun-God. In Russian folklore, the SunGod is carried by a horse-drawn chariot across the sky. As evening arrives, the horse-drawn chariot delves into the Western Ocean. Once water-borne

Kovshi were often depicted with several pagan motifs in an effort to achieve greater magical efficacy. For instance, carved dipper handles commonly combine horse head motifs and rosettes. Likewise, lion and gryphon motifs frequently intermingle on kovsh as well. Despite these many variations, the traditional wooden kovsh shape has lasted for centuries.

Nicholas Roerich Guests from Overseas (1901)

Silver Kovshi In the 14th century, the kovshi’s unique shape inspired Novgorod silversmiths to begin creating their own kovshi. By the 16th century, Russian silversmiths had popularized the simple, flat skobkar by imitating ancient wooden prototypes.

and full title are engraved along with the recipient’s name and service-rendered in niello. History During Peter the Great’s reign (1682-1725), silver kovshi were created for ceremonial purposes. Likewise, jeweled kovshi (elaborately decorated with precious stones and engraved in niello) were made for display in royal palaces to rekindle national pride. Even after the Baroque era came to a close, kovshi remained increasingly heavy, ornate, and angular. Created from a single sheet of silver, imperial-made kovshi featured doubleheaded eagles in cast ornament (at tip) and the bottom interior in repousee. As the century progressed, the Cyrillic inscription band became progressively ornate and difficult to read.

In the late 16th century, the tsar began awarding silver kovshi for special services rendered. Presentation kovshi were later awarded to wealthy tax collectors and Cossack military leaders, a ritual that continued until the early 19th century (grander kovshi was awarded to those who collected greater taxes or contributed funds to the state). Presentation kovshi generally depict the royal double-headed eagles (the Imperial Court Seal) in relief on the bottom interior. Beneath the rim, the tsar’s name 69

The double-headed eagle was commonly detailed on imperial gift kovshi as seen above â&#x20AC;&#x153;During the first half of the 17th century such a kovsh might be kept with regalia and other elements of court ceremony in the Great Treasury. It would have been used only for ceremonial receptions in the Faceted Chamber, where rich plate was set out on stepped sideboards or buffets to demonstrate to foreign guests the wealth of the Muscovite state and the elegant skill of Russian goldsmiths.â&#x20AC;? Natalya Abramova. Britannia & Muscovy. English Silver at the Court of the Tsars. p.248 (2006)

Silver Kovsh. Moscow. (1911).

By late century, kovshi began to depict rococo ornament (such as shells and curls).

Reviving the kovsh proved highly popular. By the late 1800s, the famous Ovchinnikov and Khlebnikov firms had begun producing kovshi decorated with cloisonnĂŠ enamel. Later kovshi depicted geometric folk patterns and stylized foliage using filigree and enamel. Despite the many months required for production, high-end craftsmen favored producing kovshi even after interest in Russian historicism waned. Unfortunately, these craftsmen had little means or incentive to produce enamel kovsh after the Soviets came to power.

In the early 19th century, silver kovshi were created in the Classicist-style. Popular throughout Western Europe, the Classicist style incorporated a clean, streamlined perspective that differed greatly from Baroque. However, Western Europeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s influence upon Russian art would soon wane. By mid-century, a growing interest in a desire to reassert national identity inspired Russian silversmiths to recreate archaic kovshi.

Kovshi Terms Zhalovannye: presentation kovshi given by the tsars beginning in the 16th century Piti: individual drinking kovshi Vynosnye: larger kovshi used to serve several people Khoromne: Imperial Court kovshi with the double-headed eagle design and inscription 71

Konstantin Makovsky. Kissing Custom (At the Feast of Boyar Morozov). (1895) Many of Konstantin Makovsky’s pictures show an idealized view of Russian life in prior centuries. Here, Makovsky shows how the traditional kissing custom might have appeared after the Russian wedding reception. “At feasts, the kovsh was used to serve a favorite Russian drink, honey or mead. Foreigners who came to Russia in the 16th and 17th centuries called the drink "most wonderful" comparing it with the celebrated Cretan wine.” Natalya Abramova. Britannia & Muscovy. English Silver at the Court of the Tsars. p.248 (2006)

Close-up reveals wooden Kovsh

Top: "The Mice are burying the Cat" (1760s). A caricature of Peter the Greatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s burial as authored by his opponents. Bottom: A Joker and His Wife (18th century adaptation of a German print).

THIRTEEN

LUBOK WOODCUTS ‘POPULAR PRINT’

excitement were a favorite. Monks inspired by illustrations from the Wittenberg Bible (1541) or the Piscator Bible (1650) produced lubki with similar scenes in iconographicstyle. Monasteries then sold such lubki to traveling religious pilgrims or gave them to those who could not afford icons.

A hand-colored picture-story upon a thin layer of bark, the lubok served as a form of popular print within Russia from the mid1600s to the early 1900s. Lubki, as they were known, commonly contained decorative detail, humorous characters, and crude inscriptions in red, green, yellow, and purple colors. Aside from simple storytelling, lubki illustrations also reveal a high degree of expressiveness and balanced composition.

Lubki also served to propagate moral lessons to the public. Satirical lubki targeted various forms of vice with stories that appear to closely align with religious parables. Among the religious, Peter the Great (reign 16821725) and his secular policies served as an easy and frequent target on such moralthemed prints. Period lubki reflect fierce opposition from Russia’s Old Believers and its upper class (a well-known lubok entitled The Barber Wants to Cut Off an Old Believer's Beard exemplifies such protest).

Lubki prints reveal ordinary Russian views on topics relating to religion, satire, everyday life, health, news, and literature. Their popularity appears to have also been compelled by a desire to imitate Western print-making. Indeed, lubki appear to share several visual characteristics with both Western European prints and Russian iconography. For Russian peasants without the means to print, a lubok was the next best way to disseminate copies of images and/or ideas.

Russia's religious Old Believer communities drew their lubki by hand yet produced them in abundance. As might be expected, these hand-drawn lubki were artistically superior to later (mass-produced) lubki prints. However, religious-themed lubki greatly declined after the government closed several Old Believer monasteries in the 1850s.

Religious Lubki As might be expected, earlier lubki were primarily religious and served as cheap substitutes for expensive icons. Biblical stories that provided terror and/or 74

Left: Barber wants to cut his beard dissenters. (1705). Based on Tsar Peter the Great’s decree that beards be cut off. ( a symbol of piety among traditional Orthodox). "The Old Believer says: Listen, barber, I neither want to cut my beard nor shave. Watch out, or I will call the guards to teach you to behave." Right: The Fellows Derring-Do and Good Fighters Too. The lubok depicts an "open" wrestling match in which the winner’s prize is two soft-boiled eggs.

As with icons, lubok disproportionately display the most important elements within a composition. Known as an inverted or reversed perspective, the style provides scenes allowing multiple points of view. And as with Russian iconography, lubki violates any unity to time (i.e. several moments of the same story may appear in several places). Likewise, lubok painters employed thinnedout tempera similar to that used by iconpainters. Being translucent, the paint reveals the composition’s outlines.

The production of lubok prints greatly increased after copper-engraving was introduced. Especially common were onepage newspapers, advertising boards, and posters. Lubok artists eventually translated foreign (and thus previously unknown) adventure novels, stories, and folk tales onto lubki. Not only were readers exposed to new and exotic settings but occasionally new and subversive ideas as well. But it was the stinging satire found on some prints that angered Russian authorities. Satirical lubki, now easier to produce and disseminate with copper engraving, proliferated at an alarming trend. In 1721, government authorities decreed that lubki production be approved by the Holy Synod. Shortly thereafter, religious prints and those depicting members of the ruling family were subject to censor. This decree was expanded in 1731 to prohibit 'poorly-made' pictures from being bought or sold (an arbitrary judgment to be sure). Eventually, Catherine II (1762-1796) created a Bureau of Decency

Because early lubok material was made from wooden boards, artists necessarily avoided detailed composition. Instead, artists strived for simplicity and expressiveness. In the early 18th century, copper-engraving greatly extended the lubok artist's to add detail, complexity, and text. However, compositional clarity, balance of design, and color quality was lost as a result. Indeed, as can be seen in later lubki, artists simply painted over and outside their composition’s outlines. 75

Above: The Cat of Kazan. This well-known lubok famously satirizes Peter the Great’s moustache and many royal titles. Several lubok portray Russian peasants as mice unable to change or rid themselves of tsarist ‘cats’. Upper left-hand corner translation: "The Cat of Kazan, the Wit of Astrakhan, and the Smarts of Siberia. Glorious life he led, on sweet foods was fed, had weak (?)farts, they said.”

themed lubki continued to be produced until they were closed in 1857.

(essentially the local police) to approve lubki prints. In 1839, Nicholas I officially decreed that all lubok prints ever made be reviewed by an appointed censor (and thus require the censor's signature before sale). Twelve years later he decreed that all unapproved lubki be destroyed.

Ust'-Tsilma: In the early 18th century, the Velikopozhensky Monastery on the lower Pechora river began producing large and expressive portraits of cenobiarch for the Old Believer communities. These portraits continued to be made decades after the monastery formally closed in 1854.

Not surprisingly, satire all but vanished from lubki art. Likewise, religious-themed lubki produced by Russia’s Old Believers was also prohibited (the government simply closed the monasteries). As a consequence, lubki portraying village life and inscribed in rhyme became popular. Many o these lubki carried songs and poems joyous, serious, funny or dramatic (lubki poems written by less famous authors from this time were later used by 19th century publishers as source material for folk songs).

Northern Dvina: In the Northern Dvina region, lubki artists produced religious prints throughout much of the 19th century. These prints are predominately red with floral motifs and are similar in appearance to manuscript illustrations of the era. Vologda: At the end of the 19th century, Vologda artists began producing story-board lubki with well-developed narratives. Parables, legends, and stories with multifigured compositions were common. Characters in these lubki appear to speak in comic-book style (i.e. speech bubbles).

Once considered crude and primitive, the lubok began to rise in status during the late 19th century. By the early 20th century, lubok was serving to inspire Mikhail Larionov and Natalia Goncharova’s “neo-primitivist” style of abstract painting. Likewise, famous Russian artists Vasily Kandinsky and Ivan Bilibin believed that the historical lubok uniquely reflected Russian soul and culture. Today, contemporary Russian artists such as Vladimir Fomin and Sergei Gorshkov look to the lubok tradition for inspiration and ideas in their work.

Guslitsy: During the latter half of the 19th century, artists from the village of Guslitsy produce lubki in an illustrated manuscript style. Moscow: Moscow artists stubbornly resisted creating any particular style – remaining highly individualistic in their compositional tastes. Nonetheless, Moscow artists tend to include several illustrations with a lubkimade tale.

Lubok Centers Vyg-Leksa: The Old Believer monastery on the river Vyg was the earliest known center for producing hand-drawn lubok. At the end of the 17th century, a nearby female monastery also produced lubki. These monasteries reached their production zenith during the early 19th century. Religious-

For more than 200 years, the lubok has reflected various elements of Russian culture. For Russians, the lubok became an essential instrument for communicating their feelings about events, beliefs, and ideals.

Top Left: The Greek Woman Warrior Bobelina is a lubok inspired by the Russian involvement in the Greek struggle for independence. Shown is the heroic Bouboulina Laskarina (1776-1825), defender of the island of Thassos. The lubok has the same composition format as an icon painting. Bottom Left: Based on foreign prints made by Jacques Callot (15921635), this lubok details the adventures of Farnos, his wife Pigasya. They typically appear as rednosed drunks having a good time in the tavern but regretting it the next morning. Bottom Right: Just One Kiss. The male character states â&#x20AC;&#x153;Just one kiss, my dark-eyed miss. You won't get smaller than before, but I'll enjoy myself much more."

Alexander Fuld. Throne Saltcellar (1890). 7.7cm high

FOURTEEN

MOSCOW THRONE SALTCELLARS ‘SOLONKA’

without the necessities of life” (Root, p.135). Treasured saltcellars that were once received as wedding gifts often remained in a family for generations. This tradition is still practiced at traditional Russian weddings.

Nineteenth-century Muscovites greeted a guest at the door by offering a piece of bread dipped in salt from a saltcellar. In response, the arriving guest typically uttered the traditional Russian greeting "Khleb da sol!" ("Bread and Salt!"), an expression of good wishes towards the host's household. This ritualistic greeting likely originated in response to the high cost of salt – if not the traditional view of bread in Russian culture. For Russian peasants, bread evokes fertility and nourishment. In contrast, salt symbolizes immortality and faithfulness. Combining the two was to wish for a long and lasting friendship.

The ritual importance of salt in Russian hospitality led saltcellars to become highly valued. Carefully-crafted saltcellars were commonly designed as either a swimming bird (skobkar) or a kingly throne (the latter typically found in central Russia). Wooden Salt Thrones In the second half of the 19th century, wooden saltcellars began to be created in the shape of highly decorated thrones (where the throne seat serves as a lid). Their wooden surfaces were decorated with paint, intaglio or openwork design (usually abstract and symmetrical). As with other Russia folk craft, the throne seat’s underside depicts a rooster, symbol of fertility and love. In the far northern province of Karelia, Salt thrones made from birchwood have even more elaborate designs.

Like the bratina cup, a gifted saltcellar came to define social status and symbolize friendship. During wedding ceremonies, “a cellar of salt was placed on top of the bread or set in a hole cut into the top of the bread. The ceremony also was used prior to the marriage of a landowner when he traveled to each village on his estate, introducing his new bride to the peasants. The ceremony symbolized that the couple would never be 80

Unlike the rest of the throne, the seat lid combines classical Greek ornaments with Russian style corners. Underneath the lid, silversmiths gold-plated the space to protect the object's silver from salt damage. Inscribed on the back of the throne (or on the seat) are such phrases such as 'Eat bread and salt but also follow good advice' or 'Without bread and salt, the meal is not complete'. Early 20th century silver saltcellars were occasionally decorated with brightly-colored cloisonnĂŠ enamel. However, silver saltcellar production ceased with the Bolshevik revolution of 1917. Duck Saltcellars Duck-shaped saltcellars hid their salt under the duck's back using a sliding lid. The back itself depicted either waterweeds painted in a stylized manner or ducklings carved in lowrelief. Russian peasants created similar saltcellars in the form of geese, swans, horses, and rams. Popular designs of these wooden articles were copied by other well known Russian artists.

Anonymous Blessing the Bread and Salt (late 1800s)

As a water symbol, the swimming duck originates from Greco-Scythian motifs popular before the 10th century. However, Volga-region peasants also created duck saltcellars as harvest-tribute to their pagan Sun-God. The duck- shaped saltcellar was so beloved by American silversmiths that they copied the form in the 18th century.

Silver Salt-Thrones In contrast to the Russian peasant, affluent Muscovites greeted their guests with salt thrones made from heavy-weight silver tin (weighing between 100-150 grams). These treasured objects had a place of honor at the table. Traditionally, a small piece of bread was leaned against the seat so the guest could simply dip the bread in the salt. As pictured, silver salt thrones depict squared geometric ornamentation on top, folkloric decorations in the corners, and an inscription such as 'Khleb I Solj' (Russian for 'Bread and Salt') on the lid. The overall design is in Old Russian Style, as displayed via a Russian peasant house, or 'izba', as shown on the back of the throne. The throne depicts izba-type windows and gables that are overdimensioned for effect.

Konstantin Makovsky. Rest On the Way from Kiev. (1888). Note the throne saltcellar on table.

N. Turunovskaya. Vologda Wedding. (1984) Saltcellar on top of bread being presented to bride and groom

Above Top: At the Spring. Olga Presnyakova Bottom: Talkative Wife. Vladimir Moshkovich

FIFTEEN

MSTERA MINIATURES ‘MSTYORA’

The artel (originally named Ancient Russian Painting) persevered and continued to grow. However, Mstera painters were ill-suited for painting such non-compositional piecework. In 1931, the artel sent several artists to Moscow in order to study papier-mâché art. At the same time, another group of artists was sent to Fedoskino in order study lacquering (as Palekh’s former icon-painters had done previously). Painting papier-mâché lacquered miniatures proved to be highly popular and gave Mstera painters a renewed focus.

Like its neighbor Palekh, the village of Mstera was once held in high esteem for its religious-icon production. Throughout the centuries Mstera icon-painters maintained a hereditary trade, passing their iconproductions skills from generation to generation. Although late 19th century capitalism greatly imperiled this arrangement, a handful of Mstera families eschewed making cheap icons (krasnushki) and kept the ancient art of iconography alive. Nonetheless, religious art was deemed illegal after the Soviet Union’s inception in 1917. The industry was consequently decimated. Although Mstera icon-painters sought to employ their talents elsewhere, many simply returned to farming or sought other employment. The remaining artists maintained a livelihood painting wooden boxes, nesting dolls, papier-mâché trays, and other craft objects. In 1923, 11 Mstera artists banded together to form an artel (cooperative) and regulate their craft (by not undercutting established prices or production).

However, Mstera’s former icon-painters sought to differentiate their painted miniatures from those made in nearby Palekh. By collaborating with well-known art scholars Viktor Vasilenko and Anatoly Bakushinksy, Mstera artists achieved a style they could call their own: a propensity for compositional distance, near-eastern style decorativeness, and contrasting colors (as found in lubok prints). Flat and ornamental designs are defined by cold blue-gray colors. In contrast, warm, yellow-red spectrum colors are used to convey space and depth. 84

Aside from Vasilenko and Bakushinsky, former icon painter Nicolai Klykov (18611944) also influenced the craft’s stylistic focus. Inspired by 16th century Stroganov style miniatures, Klykov believed his work should display brightly colored motifs and delicate floral decorations. Moreover, his landscape compositions incorporate several traditional icon-painting elements and thus appear slightly less-than-realistic. Foremost among those influenced by Klykov include famous Mstera artists Alexander Bragin and Alexander Kotyagin.

Mstera painters viewed the sky as the world’s real and celestial frontier and thus a symbolic link to their spiritual tradition. Mstera painters were pressured to curtail their creativity during the last years of Stalin’s reign (late 1930s to the mid 1950s). Consequently, Mstera painters simply reproduced originals from the 1920s. As a result, many talented artists left the craft. Indeed, Mstera compositions from the 1960s tend to be highly decorative and characterized by laconic subject compositions. In the 1970s, Mstera painting witnessed a rebirth of creativity and a renewed desire for complex composition. During the late 1980’s, the artist fervor released by glasnost helped to herald the craft’s renaissance.

Like Palekh-style art, Mstera compositions are frequently inspired by Russian folktales, epics, and short stories. These compositions forego the black backgrounds that characterize Palekh compositions in exchange for the natural sky. During the Soviet era,

The Arrival of the Gray Wolf to the Wedding Ceremony of Ivan Tsarevich. Strunina Olga.

The Tale of Vasilissa the Wise. Zakharov Sergei (Kholui-Style)

Kholui-Style Like Palekh and Mstera, the nearby village of Kholui produced religious icons before turning to lacquered miniatures. Once a Mstera-factory affiliate, Kholui painters organized as an independent factory after World War II.

are a particularly popular genre with Kholuistyle painters). Like both, Kholui art embraces warm colors but keeps ornamentation to a minimum. But unlike Mstera, Kholui art foregoes the use of light coloring to signify depth. Nonetheless, Kholui subjects are generally more realistic than Palekh and Mstera (if not on par with Fedoskino-style realism).

Kholui art retains a more tangible and scenic character than Palekh and Mstera (landscapes 86

SIXTEEN

NIZHNY TAGIL TRAYS 'TAGILSKIE LAKIRNYE'

imaginative and intricate. By the early 20th century, the craft’s survival was in peril.

In the early 1700s, craftsmen from the Urals town of Nizhny Tagil began to create beautifully painted metal trays. These relatively large trays replicated full-size floral and landscape centerpieces from original canvas paintings. By the early 1800s, the prominent Demidov family opened an art school within Nizhny Tagil in order to promote the craft. By 1820, Nizhny Tagil painters were known throughout the region for their highly detailed floral centerpieces. Nonetheless, they retained an eclectic perspective about their craft and never focused exclusively upon floral design. Unfortunately, their failure to develop a trademark design (as Zhostovo-style painters did) prevented them from achieving everlasting success.

Seeking full employment in the region, Soviet authorities ‘rescued’ the craft from oblivion. With Soviet support, an artist named Vasily Baraduin helped revive the craft and keep it alive. The craft began to reemerge in the 1920s after an artel (cooperative) was established to regulate production and pricing. Today, Nizhny Tagil tray painters display many of their works in a local museum dedicated to the craft. Design Still, Nizhny Tagil trays exhibit several distinguishing characteristics. For instance, Nizhny Tagil trays frequently depict garlands or ornamental palmettes (palm-tree leaf motifs). Likewise, Nizhny Tagil tray painters place less emphasis upon dimension and color than do Zhostovo or Fedoskino artists. Nizhny Tagil trays are typically limited to warm colors, set off by occasional blues and greens. As in Zhostovo painting however, red and black backgrounds are fairly common. Finally, Nizhny Tagil trays frequently employ geometric black-gold ornamental patterns around the tray’s edges.

Nizhny Tagil craftsmen would lead the painted tray market until the 1870s. By the late 19th century, Nizhy Tagil craftsmen found it increasingly difficult to compete against Zhostovo’s diverse tray shapes and ornate tray handles. Moreover, production pressures by middlemen led many Nizhny Tagil craftsmen to simplify their ornamentation and invent artistic shortcuts. As a result, tray designs became less 88

SEVENTEEN

NORTHERN DVINA DISTAFFS ‘PRIALKI’

surface preparation (several ground layers) before red, gold, and green coloring was applied. The style originates from Novgorod families exiled to the region by Ivan IV after the conquest of their city during the 16th century.

Among the various wooden objects found in a Russian peasant’s home, the distaff-blade was most visible. Though less efficient that a spinning wheel, the distaff’ was portable enough to allow women greater freedom to socialize. Distaffs were highly decorated for exhibit at evening gatherings (posideki) where women sang or talked while spinning. Such distaffs might display tea parties, sleigh rides, evening gatherings, and even steamboats in colorful detail.

Borok distaffs follow a prescribed 3-part composition pattern: the uppermost section displays symmetrical ornamentation (often using window-like panes); the center section depicts a symbolic motif such as bird or flowering tree; and the bottom section displays a genre setting such as horse-pulled sleigh, wedding, tea parties, or posidelki.

Specially decorated distaffs were customarily given by a young women’s fiancé or father to celebrate her betrothal. Distaffs produced for this ritual usually depict a wedding scene procession and relevant inscription. In central Russia, the fiancé traditionally burned her wedding distaffs after the wedding ritual.

Figurative and ornamental motifs are finely outlined in black upon a white (or occasionally gold) background and decorated in red and green. Symbolic spring/fertility motifs were added as featured components within larger motifs or genre scenes (i.e. the spoke wheel as the sun). Finally, gold leaf was used to highlight important compositional features, material that often determined the distaff’s selling price.

BOROK Style Distaff painters from Borok, a small village located near the Northern Dvina River, display a painting style derived from traditional Nogorodian icon painting. Like icons, Borok distaffs required extensive 90

also limited the color range. Animal motifs finely outlined with black soot, mixed in oil, and painted in freehand give the composition a sense of motion. On the reverse side, Mezen distaffs typically displayed riverboats, hunting scenes, or flower baskets.

RAKULKA Style Not far from Borok, the villagers of Rakulka are known for producing distaffs with rich colors and a less linear composition. Rakulka artists use freehand to depict S-shaped branches and birds in a nearly symmetrical composition (on the top and center sections, respectively). Branches and leaves are decoratively carved along the distaff’s wide stem.

GORODETS Unlike Borok distaffs, Gorodets distaffs display elaborate woodcarving and freehand composition. Their woodcarving resembles that found on icon frames, a design skill brought north by Old Believers fleeing persecution during the 17th century. Foliage designs painted in freehand resemble Khokhloma, a design style influenced by Russia’s Old Believers as well. Less noticeably, Gorodets woodcarving resembles boat building woodwork found along the nearby Volga River.

MEZEN Style (North of Arkhangelsk) Distaffs from the Mezen River region depict two-dimensional hunting scenes in an archaic red-black color combination. Running horses or reindeer are displayed in a parallel frieze containing eight or more horizontal rows. Occasionally, distaffs depicted birds rather than horses (interchangeable symbols in Slavic mythology). In the 19th century, Mezen distaffs began to employ steamboats and flower baskets motifs. Likewise, genre scenes became more popular among Mezen painters as well.

Construction Distaffs are produced from a single piece of wood derived from the lower part of a tree trunk. Those with a root projecting at a right angle are especially desired. Distaffs required the spinner to sit on the base and hold it steady. Flax fibers were held by a comb atop the distaff’s upright blade.

Mezen painting lacks bright colors and necessarily displays a limited color range. Only the faintest tint is used to suggest volume. The raw materials used for painting 91

Wilhelm Maria Hubertus Leibl Spinning (1901)

Despite their rather simple structure, distaffs varied greatly in design (often by region). For instance, the distaffâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s blade could either be flat or columnar and painted or carved.

motifs and figures were outlined with a fine brush before being fully painted. Incrust Gorodets painters notably employed inkruststsiia (incrustation) when creating their distaffs. Similar to inlay work, inkruststsiia required scraping a recession in the wood to place thin, water-treated cutouts. These dark cutouts depicted life-like figure motifs (esp. horses, soldiers) and provided an eyecatching contrast to the object's overall light surface. Unfortunately, the extensive effort to produce inkruststsiia (by curing, cutting) eventually gave way to imitative painting instead. By the mid-19th century, Gorodets artists were using dark paints and color accents to reproduce the life-like silhouettes once found in inkruststsiia.

Blade preparation required applying a glue and honey-based mixture as ground, an approach designed to prevent paint from soaking into the wood. When the mixture dried, the ground was smoothed with a pumice stone. The artist then applied two coats of whitewash and waited for the surface to dry. When ready, a ruler was used with an incision tool in order to separate composition areas. A perfectly circular object was then found to inscribe circles if necessary. If gold leaf was used, it was placed and glued upon the board before being dried and burnished. Finally, floral 92

Carving & Motifs Gorodets distaffs display a variety of carving techniques, including openwork, contour carving, incrustation (or inlay) and low and high relief. Three-faceted (V-shaped) incisions were also employed to produce geometrical ornament (i.e. pinwheel rosettes). Gorodets carvers employed deepcutting openwork to produced circle, crescent, and pattern silhouettes. Occasionally, expressive and angular silhouettes of horses and their riders are prominently displayed on the distaff’s upper section. Relief carving was generally reserved for depicting geometric patterns.

Traditional Gorodets distaffs depict paired horsemen above decorative bands on the top half of the blade and a smaller genre scene below. In the early 20th century, Gorodets painters began replacing the distaff’s traditional 2-part composition with expanded genre scenes. Ultimately, the composition’s tight symmetrical arrangement was discarded for greater flexibility. The genre scene on the upper section was extended to cover the blade’s lower surface area. The symmetric, heraldic motifs that were traditionally displayed on the lower section were necessarily downsized or incorporated into the border. The changes reflected the desire for a less-ordered, more creative design format. 93

Alexei Isupov. For the distaff (1930) (The spinning wheel above replaced the traditional blade distaff in the 19th century) On prialki (distaffs), genre scenes (tea parties, carriage rides, posidelik, among others) occasionally incorporated hidden symbolic motifs (i.e. carriage wheel as sun) in their design. During the late 19th century, the steamboat became a popular modern motif. In the 1920s and 30s, blade-distaff use began to decline. However, Borok, Gorodets, and (to a lesser extent) Mezen painting styles are still employed on a variety of objects.

Russian women excel in the making of lace, and, above all, in embroidery, which plays a great part in the life of the people. The largest number of designs and the most important characteristic motifs are found in the embroidery, and these especially help in the study of the national art. It is in a -great measure due to the ingenious work of the Russian women that this art is preserved to our time.â&#x20AC;? Charles Holme. Peasant Art in Russia. p2 (1912)

EIGHTEEN

NORTHERN RUSSIAN EMBROIDERY ‘RED WEAVE’

Northern Russian embroidery retains a distinctly different style from that found elsewhere in Russia. This distinction is largely the result of northern Russia's shared cultural heritage with Scandinavia. Rurik, Swedish ruler of Novgorod in the 9th century, undoubtedly influenced the region’s exposure to Scandinavian design. Of course, northern Russia’s close proximity to (and frequent trade with) Scandinavia played a substantial role as well. Not surprisingly, northern Russian embroidery was once displayed separately from central Russian embroidery during international art exhibitions.

In contrast, later northern Russian embroidery style displays decorative representational work (repeating horses) similar to that found in Scandinavia. Conventional motifs (i.e. the Tree of Life, women with raised arms, horse and rider, birds, geometrical forms) are either centered in a panel display or depicted in a checkered pattern. Swan and duck motifs were commonly seen women’s headdresses and costumes in northern Russia, as many peasants worshipped waterfowl. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the Sirin (half-bird, half-woman mythological creature) was popularly embroidered on linen towels, headdresses, and bead cloth. Aside from being pictured with flora, mythical quotations would sometimes be attached to the designed article.

Like the much of European Russia, ancient northern Russia embroidery depicts geometric red stitching upon a white background. Article designs incorporate bands, closed frameworks, and allover pattern work. The latter, which varied greatly in style, commonly employed equalsided cross motifs. Representational work (typically flora and fauna forms) is given precise form by silk threads.

Representational motifs reveal a textured feel that is produced by drawing warp (parallel, vertical and connected) threads together. Satin stitch designs and bands of narrow red borders are also characteristic features. As with Scandinavian embroidery, wool was the

material of choice (rather than silk as was the case in central Russia).

Following is a short-summary of common embroidery styles for several northern Russia provinces:

Diverse and multi-generational elements are interspersed throughout such embroidery. However, attempting to disentangle Viking representational pattern work, indigenous Sami tribe symbols, and native Russian motifs is exceedingly difficult. Later articles display imagery of landed gentry, peasants, and the church. Labor and other industry-related motifs became common during the Soviet era.

Arkhangelsk Province: Arkhangelsk red/white motifs are symmetrically displayed between horizontal bands. Embroidered articles commonly depict the double-headed eagle and/or the Tree of Life motif. Kostroma Province: Kostroma embroidery reveals drawn threadwork in linen and colored silks. Towels and bed valances regularly display bobbin lace edging. The double headed eagle is a frequent motif.

Unique among all motifs is the distinctly Russian double-headed Romanoff eagle. During the late 19th century, the Romanoff eagle became highly popular and gradually replaced other motifs. For instance, Arkhangelsk-region headdresses for married women began displaying the Romanoff eagle in place of a very stylized pictograph of a woman-in-labor (known as a ‘froggy’) during this time.

Novgorod Province: In Novgorod’s Krestsy District, white linen famously displays geometric hem-stitch and geometricpatterned openwork (the latter known as the Krestsy Stitch). This openwork depicts ornate rosettes and stars elegantly intertwined upon variously patterned nets. The resulting complexity produces a notable contrast with the linen’s smooth surface. Such motifs resemble those found on ecclesiastical vestments and are highly symmetrical. Olonets Province: In Olonets, article hems/borders reveal colored motifs outlined in white chain-stitch on red calico cloth. Interlacing strips of ribbon or lace are situated throughout. In the early 20th century, Olonets was noted for its rubaki hems, colorful towel borders, and bed valances. Favored motifs include the floraltailed panther and the pagan fertility goddess raising her arms to the sky.

Such work was typically produced domestically by amateurs. Professional embroidery was reserved for wedding pieces (often used for a dowry) handed down from generation to generation. During the late 19th century, such articles nearly disappeared from view as peasants drifted toward Russia's larger cities looking for employment. Fortunately, artistic craft collectors helped preserve these embroidered articles during the peak of the European Arts & Craft movement.

Tver Province: Embroidered articles from Tver depict red woolen thread worked in cross-stitch. Especially noteworthy are white canvas shirts decorated with a shoulder design (known as oplechie). Tver embroidery depicts ancient Slavonic pagan forms in miniature geometric design (popular pagan motifs include trees, horses, and an earth or 97

fertility goddess with raised arms). More famously, the town of Torzhok (near Tver) is well known for producing gold-stitch embroidery (see chapter twenty-nine). Vologda Province: Embroidered articles from Vologda employed red thread worked in crossstitch upon linen and bobbin lace edgings. Popular motifs included panthers and swastikas. Vologda wedding shirts famously depict damask and gold-thread embroidery.

Nicholai Bogdanov-Belsky. New Tale (1891) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Towels, in addition to their customary use, served from the earliest times as adjuncts to religious worship, when they were employed to decorate the temples of the idols, or were hung from the sacred trees as votive offerings. We still see, as a relic of the same custom, images and crosses thus decorated, and the people bring their towels as offerings to the church. At the present time towels are used also to decorate the izba (peasant homes), for draping mirrors and images; or, spread out along the walls, they form a kind of simple art gallery for the Russian peasantâ&#x20AC;? Charles Holme, Peasant Art in Russia (1912)

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NINETEEN

ORENBURG SHAWLS ‘DOWNY’

Attempts by French and English firms to simply export the raw down failed as well. Subsequent attempts to export Orenburg goats for breeding also failed (the goatdown’s soft, shiny quality could not be reproduced in an alternative climate). And imitation shawls had little success replicating Orenburg's high-quality hand-knit designs.

Located in the southeastern Urals, the Orenburg region was settled by the seminomadic Kalmyk tribe until the late 17th century. Descendents of the Mongols, their hand-knit goat down kept them warm during wintertime. When Russian Cossacks arrived, they found the Kalmyk’s knit-down superior to their own inadequate clothing. In the 18th century, a well-known Russian historian/ scientist named Peter Ritchkov (1712-1777) began to develop the region's down-knit industry. His wife Elena received national acclaim for her downy shawl designs.

As one might suspect, this fortunate set of circumstances did not last. By late century, rapacious middlemen and machine-knit technology began to compromise Orenburg shawl quality. Leveraging their supply and distribution skills, industry middlemen priced dependent knitters down to bartering. And without just recompense, knit down quality inevitably declined. Likewise, technology allowed expensive, machine-knit imitation shawls to become a competitive substitute among foreign buyers. As a final blow, Britain’s alliance with Japan during the Russo-Japanese war (1902) greatly limited Russian shawl exports.

Encouraged by their efforts, local residents began goat breeding to similar produce shawl-quality down. Once designed merely for warmth, these attractive shawls became coveted for their exquisite designs. Eventually, European companies expressed interest in purchasing these high quality-knit shawls for export. Ironically, their highquality made them too expensive for resale. 102

Vasilly Maximov. It’s All In The Past (1889)

Nonetheless, over 12,000 knitters remained involved in the craft. Shawl production continued to survive even in the midst of Russia’s civil war (1917-1919).

wool-knitting factories located throughout the Orenburg region. In 1960, a new Plant of Orenburg Downy Shawls was built in order to incorporate home-based knitters more deeply into the production process. The move was prescient as Kombinat’s reliance upon hand-knit designs ultimately fortified their market against foreign factory-made substitutes. For several decades, Kombinat took responsibility for setting production standards, delivering supplies, and marketing shawls.

After the Soviets came to power, Lenin signed an edict defining handicraft industries as on par with state industry. As a result, Orenburg shawl workshops were organized into an artel (cooperative). The move secured supplies and income for at-home knitters. By the late 1920s, Orenburg shawl quality had greatly improved and production began to steadily increase again.

During the 1970’s and ‘80s, a Russian arts and crafts movement revived awareness of Orenburg shawls (which included widespread debate over whether Orenburg shawl-making was a legitimate art form). However, after the Soviet Union’s breakup, the small government subsidies that kept the industry alive quickly disappeared.

In 1930, the first Orenburg shawl factory began producing downy shawls in conjunction with knitters. During the postwar years, Soviet authorities reorganized the knitter’s artel into a large lace cooperative known as Kombinat, an association of 20 103

In 1995, the Kombinat closed permanently, leaving many long-time knitters to look for alternative work in the cities. The centuries-old craft would have likely disappeared were it not for Galina Khmeleva, a St.Petersburg clothing designer who encouraged Orenburg knitters to market their shawls. Her efforts encouraged over 10,000 knitters to continue making shawls in the Orenburg region (many in the nearby village of Zhioltoie). Today, Orenburg shawls are gaining increasing notice in the West. Raw-Material Orenburg shawls are fully made from Orenburg goat down. Dairy goats from the southern Urals produce about two pounds of gray or white wool yearly (though silver and brown wool can also be produced). Orenburg residents wait until winter before combing the goat to reap a high-quality longhair down. To make a 60-inch square gossamer shawl, breeders must comb about 3 ounces of lace yarn (3280 yards of down plied with silk thread). Nonetheless, Orenburg woolâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s silky feel is frequently confused with cashmere (a largely Chinese import). Disbarred from exporting Orenburg wool, Westerners frequently employ Cashogora,

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Shetland cobweb wool, or a silk blended with fine kid mohair as a substitute. Attempts to ply Orenburg goat-down with other material have been nonproductive. For instance, down plied with viscose gives a crinkly, shiny appearance to a shawl. Similarly, plying down with cotton and silk threads to extend goat-down weakens the shawl-strength.

surrounded by four-corner diamonds. The center diamond features ‘strawberry’, ‘pea’, or ‘fisheye’ patterns. Corner diamonds are created in an allover or multiple-stitch pattern.

Design Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, successive generations of Orenburg knitters learned how to replicate popular styles by appearance only. This arduous and timeconsuming procedure was abandoned when knitter Olga Fedorova (1935-present) introduced a shawl-design graphing system in order to improve mass production.

The medallion shawl depicts a full-sized diamond centered within a square. Several interior diamonds echo within the center diamond, each displaying a unique pattern and/or color. The center-frame design typically employs a concentric frame (whether. square or diamond) to draw the eye both outward and away from the edge. The resulting corner triangles display either a diamond or motif pattern. Later shawl designs display openwork design in the corner.

Orenburg’s cobweb shawls typically display one of three center designs: 5-diamond, medallion, and allover: The 5-diamond design depicts a larger center diamond

The allover pattern’s visual appeal relies upon the contrast between various pattern intensities and surface consistencies throughout the shawl. Left: T. Timofeyeva. Russian Lacemaker. (1961) “A story comes from Russia of a wonderful wedding gift presented to the Empress. It is a shawl made and given by the ladies of Orenburg in the south of Russia. Although it measures twelve square yards it is so fine that it can be drawn through a finger ring. When folded the package is no larger than a lady's closed hand. Great taste was exhibited by the Cossack ladies in sending it, the box being worthy its priceless contents. It is of perfumed wood with hinges and clasps of sterling silver, and the top of the cover in enamel exactly the same blue that distinguishes the Cossack uniform and on it in high relief many symbols. Lifting the cover of this exquisite receptacle upon the inside appears the inscription: "To Her Majesty the Empress Alexander Fedorona from her faithful and devoted subjects the Cossack ladies of Orenburg." Table Talk Vol. 12. (1897).

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Pavel Filonov. Record Setting Workers at the Krasnaya Zaria. (1931)

to soften for yarn production. Once a single thread is produced, it is spliced with additional thread for strengthening. When ready, the completed yarn is spun onto bobbins. The production process still necessitates hand spindles, a feature rarely used in contemporary textile production. Factory-produced shawls are machine-knit where creative hand-knitting is unnecessary. Once completed, shawls are cleaned, ironed, dyed, and dried.

Aside from Gossamer shawls, Orenburg knitters produce many other apparel articles. Today, most Russian women possess the less expensive palatine, a scarf-like (63â&#x20AC;?x26â&#x20AC;?) article similar in appearance to gossamer shawls. Traditional heavy-knit warm shawls are knitted in a 48 x 48 in. size and appear in their natural gray. Unlike fully knit-shawls, their sections are knitted separately and require grafting onto a centerpiece. Production Methods: Factory-Made Once collected, Orenburg goat down is sorted by fiber length, color, and transparency in order for specific yarns to be produced. These yarns are then washed and dried using high-pressure air. Further sorting removes rough patches and dirt so the yarn can be factory-tested. Next, the sorted goat down is soaked in a special emulsion mixture

Hand-knitted Aside from yarn and thread preparation, fully hand-knit shawls take about two weeks to weave. Weavers who create their own patterns on paper require several months to fully complete a shawl. These handmade shawls are more expensive than factoryproduced shawls.

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Above: Ruslan and Lyudmila by Vladimir Vlezko Bottom: Romance by Buldakova Natalie

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TWENTY

PALEKH MINIATURES

‘ART OF THE OLD BELIEVERS’

Secluded by forests in Russia’s picturesque Ivanovo region, the village of Palekh retains a mysterious origin. Historians surmise that it was founded my monks fleeing Mongol invaders in the 14th century. The village was first noticed during the 17th century when several artistically-inclined villages began copying Byzantine icons. Such icons served to instruct illiterate peasants in their religious faith. As demand for these icons increased, a cottage industry in icon-painting gradually emerged. After attracting the Tsar’s notice, several Palekh villagers were invited to the Tsar's Palace.

In the 18th century, success transformed the backwater village into an important trading center. Once ignored completely, the village was now “on the map”. Once dependent on Old Believers for customers, Palekh's artists now focused their attention on attracting customers from the aristocracy. And although dedicated to preserving a distinctive iconographic style, they allowed some adjustments to keep current and in good stead with the changing Orthodox canon. Nonetheless, their stylistic consistencies eventually led customers to speak of ‘the Palekh Style’.

Nonetheless, Palekh's icon-painters remained dependent upon small farms for their livelihood. Indeed, exquisitely-painted icons were frequently bartered among villagers for onions and eggs. Although the village's isolation and inaccessibility discouraged trade, it’s likely that the absence of outside influences helped preserve the craft’s integrity. Ironically, outside demand for Palekh art dramatically changed Palekh village life.

Throughout the 19th century, Palekh craftsmen retained a simple form of iconpainting rather than incorporate new styles and techniques (in contrast to Mstera and Kholui painters). For instance, Palekh craftsmen limited division of labor during icon production to face-painters (“lichnik”) and clothes-painters (“dolichnik”). Because such icons required a long production process, Palekh craftsmen priced their work accordingly. Nonetheless, Russia’s Old Believers preferred such icons. 108

Left: Close-up of three knights emerging from the raging sea in by Vladimir Vlezko’s Ruslan and Lyudmila

(in Palekh, Kholui, and Mstera) had a longlasting impact on the craft's viability.

Though Palekh masters were primarily serfs, they travelled throughout Russia to decorate Orthodox Church walls (as in Vladimir, Rostov, Yaroslavl, and Novgorod). As the century progressed, Palekh-style icons grew in popularity, leaving no fewer than 600 painters and artisans employed producing icons within the village. By the 1840s, several icon-painting workshops began to appear in Palekh. While initially a blessing, market forces encouraged Palekh craftsman to increase production through division of labor and specialization. Not incidentally, family icon-painting slowly disappeared from village life.

After the Soviets took power, churches were closed and religious icon-painting was deemed illegal. Those that failed to heed Soviet authorities were persecuted, arrested, or exiled. Demand for icons immediately ceased, leaving many Palekh villagers to either search for a job or return to farming. With Soviet encouragement, Palekh craftsmen formed a cooperative venture entitled The Palekh Wood Painting Society. However, attempts to achieve distinction by painting wooden tableware, salt cellars, or matryoshka dolls met with little success. With little focus, the cooperative soon went bankrupt.

20th Century Unfortunately, the fate of traditional icon painters soon became decidedly worse. At the turn of the century, icon-painting workshops dedicated to creating cheap, lowquality icons began to appear. With a singular focus on profit, such workshops undermined traditional icon painting with cheap, printed icons. As a result, traditional icon-painting began to decline. In order to help preserve their craft, traditional icon-painters created a 'Committee for Protection' in 1902. The Committee's decision to form icon-painting workshops with four-year training programs

Subsequently, Palekh craftsmen sought to paint their compositions on porcelain and glass. Amidst their many efforts, they achieved notable success painting papiermâché boxes. The craft enabled Palekh craftsmen to combine egg-tempera painting with traditional icon-painting techniques. As a result, Palekh craftsmen formed The Old Painting Artel (1924) and began creating black-lacquer, papier-mâché works of art. 109

Grigory Melinkov. Ivan Golikov. (1967)

Palekh-style articles are painted in seven stages (similar to icon painting procedures). The article is prepped for paint in the first two stages. Paint is applied at the third stage, with increasingly finer details added at each successive stage. During the seventh (and final) stage, the painter adds miniature body details using a magnifying glass and single squirrel-brush hair. Gold leaf is applied and burnished with a wolfâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s tooth last of all.

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1932) membership in the Artel of Ancient Painting increased from 25 members to over 100 members. Moreover, the Soviet government started funding apprenticeships for the artel in the late twenties.

In the early 1920s, former icon painter Ivan Golikov (1886-1937) visited his relatives in distant Moscow. While touring the city’s Museum of Decorative Art, he became fascinated by the museum’s Lukutin-factory lacquer boxes (Fedoskino-style miniatures). Inspired, he approached the museum’s directors seeking to acquire papier-mâché blanks for his own use. The museum officials scoffed at providing the rural peasant such material and refused.

In the 1930s, Stalin's repressive reign stunted the craft’s success. Aside from additional scrutiny, several talented artists were arrested and imprisoned (including founder Alexander Zubkov who died in prison). Soviet authorities also sent new Moscow art graduates to Palekh in order to help local craftsmen increase production and 'overcome' their traditional bias (and led to production of Fedoskino-like miniatures).

Undaunted, Golikov employed used papiermâché trays to fulfill his vision. Using Palekhstyle icon-painting techniques, Golikov depicted galloping troikas, fierce battles, and dancing couples. With his brother-in-law Alexander Glazunov, Ivan Golikov eventually secured advice and funding from the city’s Handicraft Museum. His finished works garnered critical and public acclaim at the Paris and Venice international art exhibitions.

As with much of Russian society, World War II brought additional hardships. Many Palekh painters either joined the army to fight for their country or helped produce arsenal in the factories. As a result, The Palekh Artists Association remained closed for several years. When it reopened, the remaining artists were relegated to fulfilling odd orders for the Soviet Red Army.

But perhaps Golikov’s greatest achievement was the ability to inspire those around him. In 1924, six former Palekh masters (Ivan Golikov, Ivan Bakanov, Alexander Zubkov, Ivan Zubkov, Alexander Kotukhin, Vladimir Kotukhin and Ivan Markichev) joined Golikov to organize the Artel of Ancient Painting. Known as ‘The Seven Ivans’, these talented icon-painters reproduced Russian folklore and fairy tales scenes for their compositions. With the help of Professor Alexander Bakushinsky, Palekh painters became educated in how to express genre motifs that poeticized Russia’s past.

In the 1950s, Soviet authorities sought to encourage Palekh painters to follow a socialist-realism style of painting. Diametrically opposed to Palekh-style art, socialist-realism proved an untenable adjustment for painters dedicated toward creating fairy-tale and folklore illustration. In essence, the authorities ill-thought idea was ludicrous, a feat of absurd overreach that ultimately allowed Palekh’s stylistic features remain true to form.

Their only obstacle was discerning the production secret for black lacquer painting (a secret which Fedoskino painters sought to hide from Golikov). Once discovered, The Seven Ivans quickly became adept at creating a variety of lacquer articles (brooches, breadboxes, snuff-boxes, caskets, and powderboxes). Palekh-painted miniatures quickly became popular: within five years (1927-

During the 1960s, Palekh-style miniatures increasingly captured the public’s attention. Soviet authorities apparently took notice and opened several house-museums within Palekh during the decade. The renewed attention attracted many talented artists and paved the way for the craft's revival. 111

In Russian folklore, the Firebird is a magical glowing bird from a faraway land that becomes both a blessing and curse to its captor. After finding the Firebirdâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lost tail feather, the folktale hero sets out to find and capture the bird. However, the hero soon comes to view this difficult quest as the source of all his troubles. Though several versions of the Firebird tales exist, they employ many common elements: the feather serving as a premonition of a hard journey; magical helpers met on the way help the hero travel and capture the Bird; and returning from the faraway land with the prize.

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Two well-known fairy tale characters painted in Palekh-style: The Frog-Princess on the left; Sadko on the right

By the 1980s, Palekh-style art was experiencing a renaissance. Several different cooperatives and workshops were initiated simply to meet demand. In the early ‘90s, an independent Palekh artist cooperative founded their own school to help further the craft’s development.

troika rides, traditional hunting scenes, and everyday peasant life in the countryside. Scene characters are elongated, carefully proportioned, and harmoniously arranged to evoke an other-worldly atmosphere (as once done with Palekh-style icons). Likewise, characters are deliberately given a full and flat appearance (as once done with icons).

Palekh-style works of art reveal characters from fairy tales, classical literary works, and song. The most popular motif among Palekh artists remains the Zhar-Ptitsa (Fire-Bird), symbol of eternal youth and happiness. In Russian fairy tales, characters forever seek to capture the bird or glimpse its beauty. Accordingly, the largest Palekh Art cooperative has employed the Fire-Bird motif as its logo for several decades (reflecting each painter’s aspiration to create artistic beauty).

Palekh painters imbue their compositions with bright, vibrant colors. These colors are complemented by gold and silver shading and line-work. Finally, the article’s black background (its ‘plein aire’) helps to focus the viewer’s eye upon the composition’s pure colors. Becoming a Palekh-style painter requires four to five years of specialized training. After learning the basics of form, color, and composition, trainees work with experienced painters to reproduce previous Palekh works.

Popular Palekh art also display beautiful maidens and regal princes, epic battle scenes, 113

Once their technical training is completed, trainees must produce original compositions subject to expert judgment. Nearly 200 men and women pursue a career as a Palekh-style miniature artist at any one time (though only five students graduate each year). However, trainees also have the option of becoming Palekh-style icon painters (which has led to a revival of icon-painting). The livelihood of Palekh-trained painters is undermined by competition with fakes. Unknowing customers cannot easily distinguish genuine Palekh articles from those that are not. Collectors who rely solely upon articleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s signature (the artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s name, village, and year signed in gold) and trademarks also get fooled. Genuine Palekh-style miniatures reveal carefully-placed gold touchup lines (to emphasize object volume) and multi-layer brushwork (which takes years to master). Both elements require a trained eye to discern. Palekh-trained artists also employ special proportions in figure drawing; special techniques for painting faces, arms, and legs; and special rules when painting floral objects.

Left: Palekh Icon. Holy Week. 2nd half of 19th century. Right: The Annunciation scene by M. Sokolov. 1956 Palekh painters produce a gold-effect for their icons and lacquer boxes by using gum arabic and real gold (2 grams of gold to every ten 12x7 sheets of 24K gold). The artist must strictly control how much gum arabic is used. Too little gum arabic and the gold will be rubbed off, too much and the gold will not shine. Each of ten gold-covered sheets is gradually mixed in with gum arabic and drops of water over a 90-minute period. An additional two grams of gum arabic are then combined with water and allowed to sit for twenty minutes. During this time the gold sinks. The remaining mixture is then skimmed from the top and dried by lamp. The end result is a sticky substance clear of any impurities and suitable for painting.

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115

TWENTY-ONE

PAVLOVSKY SHAWLS ‘PAVLOVSKIE’

During the early 19th century, Russian silk and cashmere-type shawls were labor intensive and costly to produce. Indeed, few Russian citizens could even afford such shawls. In the 1830s however, the newly invented Jacquard Loom substantially cut the production costs associated with decorative shawls-making. In the 1840s, block printing cut production costs even further. By midcentury, decorative shawls had become an affordable and popular item among Russia’s growing middle class.

from their Moscow rivals as well. Located in Pavlovsky Posad, the Labzin factory employed talented artists from nearby Moscow. As a result, their shawls did not fall prey to the cheap substitutes and exploitative middlemen. Nonetheless, both Labzin and Gryzanov realized that substitution would continue to be a threat. In response, they wisely focused their efforts on securing unique artistry for their shawls. By the early 20th century, the Labzin factory had created a nationwide network of distributors. A large and highly successful company, the Soviets happily nationalized the enterprise when they came to power in 1917. For several years afterward, the country's civil war created raw material shortages that hampered production. However, Pavlovsky factories were producing several hundred shawls a year within a decade. Eventually, Pavlovsky-made shawls gained substantial recognition for their artistry at national and international exhibitions (especially the 1939 World’s Fair in New York).

Capitalizing on these trends, textilemanufacturers Yakov Labzin and Vasily Gryaznov introduced shawls produced with aniline dyes to create garish color combinations (pink, green, and blue). Far from being aristocratic in nature, such shawls were well-suited to middle-class tastes. For better exposure, these innovations conspicuously displayed large and luxurious floral designs. By the late 1860s, Labzin and Gryzanov’s factory had cornered the growing middleclass market for woolen shawls. Within a few decades, they would capture the silk market 116

Boris Kustodiev. Merchants Wife (1923)

flowers intertwined and arrayed in concentric circles (if not in a star, oval, or locket pattern). Popular shawl designs depict roses or tulips positioned among smaller posies and sprigs, bounded by a chain of lacy openwork along the edges. A modest garland is usually displayed within the interior and smaller flowers or berries are occasionally depicted in the shawl’s center. In order to make the designs appear more naturalistic, Pavlovsky artists use chiaroscuro (light/shade contrast) to set the floral motifs in relief.

After World War II, the Pavlovsky Posad factories were further centralized. The reorganization presaged several modernization changes, including advanced printing techniques to increase production. In the late 1970s, Soviet authorities sought to increase production again by introducing new equipment and modernizing factory procedures. After the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, the company faced uncertainty and economic disruption. Indeed, within three years, the company had both closed and reopened as a joint stock company under several different names. Since then, Pavlovsky Posad Company has thrived. Today the company offers over 200 shawls and scarves in fleece, wool, cotton and silk every year.

Floral motifs are incorporated with extravagant colors, producing an intense contrast against the shawl’s dark background (generally dark blue, cherry, violet, green or black). Silver filigree-like borders typically serve to frame this background and bring the eye back to the center. Less conspicuously, the shawl’s fringes and tassels are variously hand-knit in various styles to give each shawl unique appearance.

Shawl Design Decorative shawls require design patterns to be strategically placed. Set upon the shoulders, the shawl’s corners typically highlight a few large flowers or several small 117

Shawl Design Decorative shawls require design patterns to be strategically placed. Set upon the shoulders, the shawl’s corners typically highlight a few large flowers or several small

Above: Vasily Arkipov. Visit (1905).

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dramatically differ from the original (selecting the final choice is hardly an exact science).

However, the popularity of various floral patterns differed greatly over time. For instance, during the 1920s, shawls depicting larger flowers in contrasting colors of red, green, dark, and blue were highly popular. In contrast, more dense and decorative flower compositions highlighting black-andwhite contrasts became popular during the postwar period.

Instead, colorists typically investigate several color combinations before generating a harmonious color scheme. Although floral color selections need not strictly reflect reality, the finished product must not overly compromise the drawing’s naturalistic appearance. Before printing begins, the shawl is treated with advanced plasma chemical technology to resist shrinkage.

Dyeing and Coloring In the early 1800s, textile dyeing remained a hereditary trade. Handed down from generation to generation, the skills required for dye production made the trade more art than science. To create a specific dye, the dyer must know how to combine varying amounts of red, blue, and green. During the postwar years, the dyer imbued the typical shawl with between 10 and 12 colors (though some shawls had more than 20). Today, dye production and application is a much more scientific process (although artistic intuition is still occasionally required).

Printing The printing technique chosen for production can influence a shawl’s final color and composition. However, production advances in textile printing technology have greatly improved color reliability and design precision capabilities. Nonetheless, any design application must be considered in combination with fabric features, as the former will become an inseparable component to the latter.

By the late 1950s, a new film screen-printing process expanded the color range between 2 and 7 colors. Using this technique, the pattern’s photographic negative is transferred to a fine mesh screen. Dye is then pressed through several mesh screens, each acting as sieve for a particular design color. By using successive screen applications, the floral design is reproduced color-by-color. After several samples are completed, a group of artists agrees upon the finished design.

For ornate shawls, printing boards are frequently employed to create the floral design in relief. These foot-long printing boards incorporate reverse design patterns to impress specific colors/designs upon the shawl. This process requires that each pattern board be carefully positioned upon the shawl to create a professional and symmetric appearance. Occasionally, copper or brass inserts are used with printing boards to create fine lines and details that would otherwise not transpose to cloth.

Once a design has been selected for production, colorists attempt to reproduce it using test dyes. After a correct color solution is found and applied, the shawl is steamtreated to fix the dye and then washed. Afterwards, the shawl’s true coloring becomes apparent.

Before block printing, beautifully designed woven shawls took 18 months to complete. Block printing significantly shortened this production time, thereby cutting costs and increasing the shawl’s popularity. This technology reached its peak during the late 19th century and is currently only used for producing complex, high-end shawls.

Each shawl’s design proceeds through several color variations, any of which may 119

Filip Malyavin. Girl in Russian Shawl. 1895

Aside from block printing, metal plate printing, roller printing (which creates the pattern raised in relief), and automated mesh screen-printing can also be used. Pavlovsky shawls will continue to surprise and delight as printing and design technologies attempt to keep pace with the artistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s imagination. 120

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TWENTY-TWO

ROSTOV ENAMELS ‘FINIFT’

History: 1760-1917 During Catherine the Great's reign (17621796), local clergy commissioned craftsmen to create decorative enamels for their religious items (i.e. icon oklads, chalices). In Rostov, enamellers from the local SpasoYakovlevksy Monastery gave similar enamel medallions to wealthy donors and visitors. Admiration for their work spread, encouraging local church authorities to create an enameller's workshop for further training. For nearly two decades, the workshop provided Rostov with an assemblage of talented enamellers. After its closure, several enamellers set up shop in Rostov. In the process, they initiated what would become a largely hereditary trade, a custom that allowed Rostov enamellers to benefit from each generation's accumulated knowledge and expertise. Consequently, Rostov’s reputation for producing unsurpassed enamel grew steadily.

workshops modernized their production procedures simply to remain competitive. Simplified production techniques allowed enamellers to mass-produce several hundred enamel miniatures a day. Eventually, few Rostov enamelers could afford not to disregard artistic quality (and buyers did not appear to differentiate). By the late-19th century, the enameling industry had dramatically changed. While the elite Faberge, Ovchinnikov, and Khlebnikov firms’ garnered international acclaim for producing highly stylized objects d art, provincial craftsmen struggled to maintain their livelihood. Indeed, success for these high-end craftsmen appeared inversely proportional to that found in Rostov. However, acclaimed artist Sergei Chekhonin’s efforts to revive traditional portraiture and cityscape enamels in Rostov (1913-1917) met with some success.

However, the abolition of serfdom (1861) thrust the enameling industry into hypercompetitive mode. As a result, enamel dealers virtually determined each artist's pay and production. Entirely dependent on these middlemen, enamel artists were inevitably forced to increase their output and reduce their income. By the 1880s, many enamel

Like many hereditary trades, Rostov enameling evolved without sacrificing its essential character. Stylistic inclinations were retained while allowing room for occasional variation, an adaptive flexibility that helped Rostov enamellers survive the new century. 122

A.I. Vsevyatsky. Resurrection and Descent into Hell (1793)

Early 20th century fascination with massproduction introduced greater changes to the industry. Enameling artists were encouraged to help decorate utilitarian objects (combs, mirrors, etc.) on a factory production scale. Little leeway was given to those seeking to create worthwhile enamel. The inherent production limitations involved in creating such art necessitated prices beyond what the market would bear.

With Soviet sponsorship, Rostov enamellers organized an artel (cooperative) and opened a local training school. However, undue emphasis upon workshop production continued to restrain the craft. Moreover, Soviet authorities induced enamellers to employ inappropriate easel painting techniques. Not surprisingly, Rostov enameling no longer attracted highly talented artists. In an attempt to rectify the situation, Likewise, overall talent declined as well, a trend that would take decades to reverse. 123

classicist style. In contrast with baroque styling, the classicist style attempted to emphasize restraint without sacrificing grandeur and elegance. Classicist-style enamels display precise, proportional, and well-balanced compositions. The style dominated European art for half a century, influencing Russian enamel art (via St. Petersburg) in the process. Nonetheless, Rostov enamellers achieved lasting success with a provincial style that evoked local culture.

In the early 1960s, continued emphasis upon meeting production-quota goals instigated a backlash from artists. As a result, Rostov artists began looking to their artistic heritage for inspiration. For instance, artist Alexander Alexeyev attempted to revive traditional Rostov enameling techniques and design through historical research. Production of new enamel designs loyal to Rostov's heritage began to attract talented artists to the craft. By the late 1960s the craftâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s creative energy had begun to rebound. Since then, Rostov enamellers have witnessed a revival in portraiture and new design.

As the 19th century progressed, Rostov enamels became more secular and diverse. By 1850, enamels depicting floral designs and Rostov cityscapes had become especially popular. Eventually, the demand for floralart enamels crowded out other genres. Few lamented Rostovâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s growing susceptibility to secular art at the time, a trend perceived as more sophisticated and enlightened (thus directly mimicking European thought).

Design: 1760-1917 Typically religious in nature, early Rostov enamels reflected a mix of iconography, baroque styling, and folk art. Until the late 18th century, Rostov enamellers originally trained in Russian iconography. Later, artists introduced a sort of Ukrainian baroque style to their enamel. Unlike St. Petersburg enamels, Rostov enamelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sparse and conventional imagery was well suited to the baroque style.

Design: 1917-present After the Soviet Revolution, artistic merit would become a distant concern for many enamellers. Creating traditional floral

By the mid-1800s, changing tastes forced Rostov enamellers to move toward the

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Left: AA Nazarov. Voroshilov at Maneuvers. (1932) Far Right: Enamel. A. Vsesvyatskogo. 19th century

For many, industrial scale enameling had finally exhausted its ability to serve as a viable substitute for traditional craft enameling.

miniatures had met with long-standing success and appeared to mitigate much further need for creativity. By the 1920s, decorative floral enamels appeared on caskets, mirror frames, brooches, powder boxes, and other consumer products. With Soviet direction, floral designs fully replaced what remained of religious art enamels.

In the post-war period, many craftsmen were inspired by artist Alexander Alexeyevâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s historical research regarding Rostov's artistic legacy. Several Rostov enamellers began studying icons and past enamel miniatures in order to recreate designs loyal to Rostov tradition. Weariness with floral compelled a renewed interest in painting genre scenes. The stage was set for a revival.

Lack of creative interest however reduced the artist's attention to detail. Rostov miniatures began to rely upon contrasting colors for visual appeal. As designs became more simplistic, conventional floral became little more than a fleeting representation of bright colors. Not surprisingly, inordinate attention towards simple execution began to produce a sort of identity crisis among artists. Long-repressed concerns about what constituted traditional enameling resurfaced.

Though floral designs continued to predominate, landscape, portraiture, and historical/folklore themes gradually became more common. By the late 1960s, decorative floral enamels had found renewed popularity 125

Above: Floral designs replaced religiousthemed enamel after the Soviet Union banned such work. Right: An enamel workshop is depicted…on enamel. Note that an icon is being copied

enamel. The composition’s outline is then painted on the enamel using primary colors (known as the under painting). When fired, the enamel becomes shiny and glossy. Afterwards, the composition’s details and the interior outline are painted.

in jewelry and pocket mirrors. In the 1970’s, enamel jewelers helped popularize filigree, cloisonné, and open-work framing By the 1980s, Rostov had attracted a variety of highly educated artists seeking to advance the craft. Well versed in established painting styles (i.e. Fedoskino, Kholui, Palekh), these artists achieved their goals without compromising Rostov tradition. Today, classicist-style enamels have become popular once again.

Enamel must be fired in a kiln four to seven times in order for the painting to sink into the softened enamel base (each color has a different melting temperature). Before the last firing, transparent enamel is applied to protect the artwork. The resulting enamel is judged on color, transparency, and shine.

Production Process Brush-painted miniatures are produced by covering silver or copper-plate with white 126

127

TWENTY-THREE

RUSSIAN EASTER EGGS ‘PISANSKI’

ribbon. Their extensive craftsmanship required several weeks’ worth of artistic effort. By the turn-of-the century, roughly 300 eggs received by the royal family displayed intricately-painted Easter scenes (though floral and ornamental patterns were far more abundant). Many of these eggs displayed the tsar’s monogram.

For over 70 years, Easter egg production was considered illegal in the Soviet Union. Before this decree, Russians traditionally gave Easter eggs as a profession of their Christian faith. Today, Russians are invoking their heritage by once again producing Easter eggs in wood, stone, porcelain, and lacquer. Porcelain Eggs In the early 18th century, Peter-the-Great’s penchant for Western European culture encouraged Russian scientists to create porcelain. At the time, countries considered porcelain manufacturing akin to a national trade secret. In 1749, a Russian named Dmitri Vinogradov learned to create porcelain after years of experimentation. Within a year, Vinogradov had created the first porcelain Easter egg.

In 1802, the Imperial Porcelain Factory produced nearly a thousand porcelain eggs annually. Within twenty years, porcelain technology had become so well-known that even private factories were producing porcelain eggs. By the mid-19th-century, porcelain eggs were being mass-produced. Wooden Eggs Wooden eggs are polished to a mirror-like reflection before painting. Such eggs typically depict religious icons, geometric designs, or heavily detailed biblical scenes. Others are carved in allover fashion. For craftsmen living in remote rural villages, creating and hiding Easter eggs was fairly easy during the Soviet era. Today, several painting styles exist:

After perfecting this process, Russia’s Imperial Porcelain Factory produced roughly fifty porcelain Easter eggs each year for the Russian royal family. Received as gifts, these eggs were put on display underneath religious icons and suspended in cages by a 128

Left: Mstera-Style Easter Egg, “Resurrection”, late 19th century. Russian children and their mothers often dye hard-boiled eggs a red color using the peel of Spanish onions. Here, red symbolized the blood of Christ and egg whites, the ability of Christ to cleanse people of their sin. This custom was derived from ancient times when Mary Magdalene came to Emperor Tiberius with a gift of a red egg, which she delivered with the salutation "Christ has risen!"

Mstera Style In 1874, the Tyulin brothers, renowned icon painters from the village of Mstera (near Vladimir), began painting wooden eggs with well-known Biblical scenes. Their archaic yet colorful painting style, appropriately named Mstera, derives from a Russian iconography style long favored by Russia’s Old Believers.

This iconographic painting style is frequently found on traditional lacquer boxes as well. In the late 19th century, the Imperial Porcelain Factory commissioned a wellknown Mstera icon painter named Osip Chirikov to paint twelve porcelain Easter eggs. Each egg depicted a Christian saint, one for each of the country’s religious holidays. Chirikov famously produced each egg after roughly 40 days of painting work. Today, these eggs are considered the best ever produced at the Imperial Porcelain Factory.

Mstera-style Easter eggs typically display religious iconography on the front and the gift receiver’s patron saint on the back. The egg’s exterior composition is framed by gold borders set against a bright red background. 129

Above: Nizhny Novgorod Wood Eggs (1960s). Right: Before Soviet rule, husbands and brothers would buy eggs for their daughters, wives, and mothers as gifts during the Lenten season

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Vladimir Makovsky. Prayer for Easter. (1888)

Khotkovo Carving Since the early 20th century, craftsmen from Khotkovo (near Sergiev Posad) have carved wooden eggs in allover floral pattern, a style displaying curved contours against a recessed background. The Abramtsevo-Kudrino workshop helped local woodcarvers create the style decades ago (as shown below):

Polkhovsky Maidan In Polkhosvky Maidan, a backcountry village located southwest of Nizhny Novgorod, craftsmen paint their eggs in vibrant red, yellow, and dark blue colors. These eggs typically depict floral or pagan motifs (sun, horse, bird symbols) delineated by India ink. Though Polkhovsky Maidan craftsmen are best known for producing inexpensive nesting dolls, their wooden eggs display archaic pagan symbols similar to those found on Ukrainian Pysanki eggs. Abramtsevo-Kudrino Style Khokhloma-design, once exclusively displayed on wooden bowls and spoons, eventually began to be painted on wooden eggs as well. The style traditionally depicts plant ornamentation, berries, and blades of grass in combination with red, gold, and black colors. Overlay painting that allows for background transparency (esp. with gold) is often used. Alternately, a vegetative pattern can be excised from a black background to produce a golden silhouette (or reverse).

Khotkovo-carved eggs

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Boris Kustodiev. Christovanie / Easter Greeting. (1916) In pre-Revolution Russia, Russian Easter (Christovanie) was celebrated by greeting each other with three kisses and the words Christos voskres! ("Christ has risen”). The receiver of this greeting would reply Voistinu voskres! ("truly He has risen”). During the day, a festive atmosphere entailed as crowds celebrated outside the church and in the streets. “Another integral aspect of Easter celebrations in Russia is the family Easter dinner which is a community affair at the Church itself. The Easter dinner is a sumptuous feast, in which the entire congregation celebrates together. Russian people traditionally bake Easter cakes, known as "kulich," and make curd paskha and bring it to church along with them. They ask the priest to bless it before they share it (as part of ) the community celebration.” http://festivals.iloveindia.com/easter/traditions/easter-in-russia.html

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Nesting Dolls with Palekh-style painting â&#x20AC;&#x153;Could the secret of Russian identity lie in the simple representation of mother and child on wood on that first matryoshka at the end of the nineteenth century? From the revered, two-dimensional medieval icon of the Vladimir Mother of God to this 3-dimensional modern matryoshka, the image of mother and child depicts the core of sobornostâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (or family), the first and most basic human relationship on which all others depend.â&#x20AC;? James Billington. Russia in Search of Itself. (2004) p.149

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TWENTY-FOUR

SERGIEV POSAD NESTING DOLLS ‘MATRYOSHKA’

Russian style, the first matryoshka was very well-received. The Russian matryoshka was inspired Savva Marmontov’s brother Anatoly, a toy-shop owner who imported the bullet-shaped nested doll from Japan. Named Fukuruma, the doll was shaped as an old, potbellied Buddhist monk said to have lost use of his arms and legs from long meditation. Inspired, two artisans under Anatoly Marmontov’s employ, Sergei Malyutin (a children’s illustrator) and Vasily Zvyozdochkin (a lathe craftsman), created an 8-piece Russian matryoshka designed as a brightly dressed peasant girl in 1899.

During the late 19th century rapid industrialization nearly destroyed Russia’s traditional craft industries. In response, wealthy Russian merchant families sought to revitalize such industries through patronage and financial support. Their desire to reinvigorate Russia’s handicraft trades was motivated by both social justice ideals and a renewed interest in national-identity. Nesting dolls (matryoshka) were the most successful outcome of this effort. Among Russia’s wealthy families, the Marmontov family was heavily involved in these ambitions. Industrialist Savva Marmontov felt compelled to create an applied arts studio at his Abramtsevo estate (just outside Moscow). Attempting to reinforce Russian national-identity, he brought together talented Russian folk artists and other wealthy supporters of the arts.

By 1905, the matryoshka’s growing popularity encouraged craftsmen in Sergiev Posad (later Zagorsk), to create 3-, 6-, and 8piece sets. Larger production orders came forth after the dolls were exhibited at the Paris World’s Fair (1900). Early matryoshka dolls produced at this time depicted folklore characters from Pushkin, fictional characters created by Gogol, and famous patriotic figures from the 19th century.

At roughly the same time, craftsmen exhibited a willingness to explore new ideas. Combined with popular yearning for a neo134

Grynyuk Ivan Aleksandrovich."Nesting Dolls" 1979

As with other handicrafts, Soviet officials centralized and standardize workshop production procedures. Artistic creativity was once again shunted aside to facilitate mass-production needs. And indeed, many Soviet-era similar-looking nesting dolls can be traced to the Souvenir Factory in Semyonov, the largest mass-producer of standardized peasant-girl matryoshkas. During the 1980 Olympics, more than 10 million Souvenir Factory dolls were sold.

beyond traditional peasant girl designs. Indeed, revitalizing the craft would remain a slow and uneven process until the mid-‘90s. By the late ‘90s, independent artists had begun to play an increasing role within the industry. In this competitive climate, matryoshka production centers began to either flourish (Kirov) or decline (Semyonov). Today, individual artists are increasingly recognized for their imaginative designs and craftsmanship.

During the 1960s, craftsmen experimented with rye grass (as in Kirov) and other innovative applications. When glasnost was promoted during the late 80s, the “Gorby doll” unavoidably signaled greater tolerance for artistic diversity. Nonetheless, few craftsmen felt compelled to quickly move

Production Matryoshka dolls are typically made from linden or birch trees wood. Linden wood is soft, easy to work with, and prevents cracking. 135

Alexei Korzukhin. My grandmother and her granddaughter. (1870s) Matryoshka and other Russian dolls traditionally display kokoshnik headdress. An English observer wrote in 1900 that â&#x20AC;&#x153;I have seen (no toys) prettier than those in the St. Petersburg toyshops, dressed in the picturesque and graceful old national costume, including sarafan and kokoshnik, still worn by ladies at court but generally eschewed by the peasants who now appear to much less advantage....â&#x20AC;? Notes and Queries, 1/20/1900 p.46

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Konstantin Yuon. Spring Sunny Day. (1910) (Sergiev Posad) Left: Map of Moscowâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Golden Ring. These ancient towns preserve the memory of the most important and significant events in Russian history. The towns have been called "open air museums" and are among the most picturesque in Russia. Note the cities with chapters in this book: Gus-Khrustalny (glass), Palekh (miniatures), and Rostov (enamels).

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give the face a real-life appearance. In addition to specific facial characteristics, Traditional-style matryoshkas typically display a shawl, apron and (on occasion) several medallions. The doll body’s surface will likely be framed by flowers and painted in a recognizable style (such as Palekh, Khokhloma, or Zhostovo). These Traditional-style nesting dolls are 6” tall and come in a 5-piece set.

over time. Birch wood is less expensive but cracks more easily and is thus reserved for making small dolls only. Lime, alder, and aspen wood are also used occasionally. Before being crafted, this wood is stored for up to three years for curing (dolls made from uncured wood risk losing their shape and/or cracking). If cured correctly, nesting doll halves will neither shrink and become too loose (bottom half shrinks) or too become tight (top half shrinks).

In contrast, Classical-style matryoshka’s lack hands, arms, or an apron. Instead, facial features are often more varied, detailed, and expressive. Medallions on the stomach showcase story characters, landscapes, or floral patterns. Unlike factory dolls, 'Classicals' are commonly painted in blue,, burgundy, and other dark colors. These nesting dolls are 5” tall and typically come in a 6-piece set. Less commonly, nesting dolls combine both traditional and classical features.

Ultimately, a lathe operator makes the matryoshka doll from a single piece of block wood. Working in assembly, lathers intuitively chisel, cut, and sand the interior edges to get the right fit. The doll is then cleaned before being primed with liquid starch so as to create a smooth surface and prevent paint smudging. Gouache (like a heavier form of watercolor) or aniline is then used for painting. Once a doll is painted, two or three layers of lacquer are applied for protection and color enhancement. Other finishing options include matte, acrylic, poker (wood burning), and non-lacquered. Finally, expensive dolls may employ potal (a heavy gold-like foil with paper backing underneath) by applying a heated block to the wood.

Although nesting dolls are traditionally crafted in 3-, 6-, and 8-piece sets, they come in any number of pieces (and are classified as such on the bottom). For instance, "10m" denoted on the bottom signifies a 10 piece set (“m” for mesto, the Russian word for matryoshka). Beyond these industry standards, 5-, 7-, 10-, and 15-piece sets are now common (though 20- and 30-set pieces are the standard for expensive pieces).

Traditional & Classical Dolls During the early 1900s, underemployed icon painters painted nesting dolls on the side. Their stylistic influence can be discerned by comparing the doll’s facial features (large eyes, long nose, and small mouth) with known icon characteristics. Iconographicstyle facial characteristics symbolize religious virtue (faith, dignity, humility) and an emphasis on the spiritual being.

Finally, nesting dolls are famously known for depicting folktale and fairytale characters. Political, religious, or historical figures, animal characters, and sport team members as well. Factory Locations: All of Russia’s five major matryoshka production centers are northeast of Moscow. Many have thrived by locating relatively close to Nizhny Novgorod, a city with a strong commercial and artistic heritage. The following are the most common:

Traditional-style matryoshkas generally feature large eyelashes and red cheeks. Less notably, gentle highlights are applied to the nose and chin to promote facial relief. The peach-brown glow inherent in lacquer helps 138

or matryoshka painter. Not surprisingly, matryoshka work is considered a family affair to be performed in private homes (the local factory closed down in the 1970’s). Located just southwest of Nizhny Novgorod, this small village is known for producing colorful yet simple matryoshka. Soviet era Polkhovsky Maidan craftsmen produced many more nesting dolls in the Soviet era than they do currently.

Semyonov The two Semyonov factories employ more matryoshka-workers than any other location in Russia. Together they produce more than 10,000 nesting dolls a month. Known for producing standardized matryoshkas (peasant girls), Semyonov craftsmen have lately taken to producing more artistically appealing dolls. The traditional ‘peasant girl’ nesting doll portrays a maiden wearing a yellow scarf, a red dress, parted black hair, and distinctive black eyes. The maiden also carries a bouquet of flowers. The interior set of dolls is portrayed in a similar manner. Semyonov artists use black India ink to outline the doll’s design before being painted in oil (with yellow, red, and blue primary colors). To give the floral centerpiece definition, grass sap is used.

Polkhovsky-dolls typically display pink circles for cheeks, a yellow shawl, and occasionally black or red fingerprints over the doll’s heads and shoulders. Distinctive three-pedaled, blue/pink flowers are on the shawl’s forefront. These dolls come in a 5piece set, are 6’” tall, and a little wider in the stomach than Semyonov dolls. Today, most matryoshka blanks (or zagatovki) come from Maidan. Instead of oil, village craftsmen dolls paint the dolls in pink, red, blue, and orange aniline dyes. Although typically inexpensive, these dolls lack the traditional lacquer luster found on Semyonov (and other) dolls. Though black India ink is employed to heavily outline floral designs, red dye can often be found bleeding outside the lines.

Semyonov nesting dolls are 5 inches tall and come in a 6-piece set (and may come in as many as 15 to 18 pieces). Slender in shape, Semyonov dolls also have a larger head and bottom than those made in Sergiev Posad. Kirov (formerly Vyatka) In Kirov (northwest of Semyonov) lies the largest single nesting doll factory in Russia. The factory employs over 200 artists and is said to be expanding production. Their maidens resemble those found in Semyonov except for a few notable differences: orange hair instead of black, larger (solid) black eyes, a straight-line brow, and a smaller red mouth. Kirov craftsman also do not outline their floral designs in black India ink, preferring instead to outline these designs in small, flattened pieces of rye straw (adapted from Kirov’s tradition for decorating wooden boxes with rye straw).

Sergiev Posad (Zagorsk in Soviet era) Craftsmen from Sergiev Posad, Russia’s traditional toy center, began creating popular wooden toys (animals, people, & objects) long before nesting dolls became popular. Today the village contains four factories, including the famous Souvenir factory and newer Sergievskaya Igrushka (Sergiev Toy) factory. In stark contrast to the former, the Sergiev Toy Factory has achieved astounding success simply by reproducing historical favorites. Early Sergiev Posad nesting dolls were once outlined with wood burning around the edges. However, Sergiev Posad artists have

Polkhovsky Maidan In the village of Polkhovsky Maidan, nearly everyone is seemingly either a lathe operator 139

Inna Shirakova. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Nesting Dollsâ&#x20AC;?. (2001)

R. Penzov. Churches. (1992). Wood burnt.

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Unknown. At The Toy Factory (early 1960s)

workshop remains a haven for highly artistic carvers. Graduates from the local Vasnetsov School of Art excel at creating imaginative matryoshkas, many with religious themes.

traditionally painted in gouache (an opaque watercolor) using muted colors. Their dolls characteristically display tiny eyes, heartshaped mouths, sarafans with straps, and a picnic basket (carried instead of flowers). In contrast to Semyonov-made dolls, Sergiev Posad dolls are slightly wider and reveal a larger, more rounded top.

Ukraine Ukrainian nesting dolls are relatively rare. Their distinctive conical and bullet (gutsulka) shapes are easily recognizable. Some Ukrainian nesting dolls portray a singing maiden with mouth open, eyes closed, and arms folded. These dolls are typically featured in natural wood.

Nolinsk Nolinsk craftsmen produce nesting dolls similar in appearance to those produced in Semyonov. However, they also apply flattened rye straw to their dolls in geometric shapes (as Kirov craftsmen do). Although least advanced technologically, Nolinskâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s nesting doll factory employs over 100 craftsmen or artists. Yoscar Ola After their factory closed several years ago many Yoscar Ola artists began working at home. Located further east, Yoscar Ola artists produce matryoshka with a decidedly more Asian appearance. Many are also coneshaped in appearance. Abramtsevo Not far from Sergiev Posad, the Abramtsevo 141

Traditional Matrysoshka

First Russian Nesting Dolls (late 1890s)

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143

TWENTY-FIVE

SHEMOGSA RIVER BIRCH BARK CARVING ‘NORTHERN LACE’

the artel divided over whether to engrave Soviet symbols on their containers. In an effort to traditional design, a new cooperative named Solidarity was established by several members from the nearby village of Pashino. Today, both Panshino and Kurova-Navolok create high-quality birch bark articles.

In the early 1800s, craftsmen from northern Russia (near Veliky Ustiug) began creating birch bark containers displaying exquisite openwork (called called ‘northern lace’). Several decades later, a highly talented craftsman from Veliky Ustiug named Ivan Veprev produced similar items that gained the craft particular renown. His birch bark engravings were internationally recognized at the 1900 Paris World’s Fair and helped popularize the craft. Shortly thereafter, Veprev began training craftsmen and local artists from nearby Kurova-Navolok on how to produce such ‘northern lace’. His efforts eventually made birch bark products ubiquitous throughout Russia.

Preparation The villagers of Kurova-Navolok traditionally strip birch bark trees when they ripens in May. Once found, swollen birch bark may be cut from the tree in ribbons, plates, or cylinder cuts. The bark’s thin white upper layer is removed so the remainder can be conditioned in water. Once dried, it is sanded and polished. If done correctly, the bark has a leather-like feel and can be worked in a similar manner. The bark is then cut into strips and placed perpendicular to each other (one inside the other) to create a watertight fit. Cylindrical containers (tuyses) contain birch strips slit on their edge for fastening to each other

Unfortunately, many birch bark carvers found their traditional livelihood to be increasingly unsustainable. Likewise, birch bark carvers recognized the need to protect themselves from the unscrupulous middlemen. Shortly after the Soviets gained power, the region’s birch bark carvers organized themselves into an artel (cooperative). In the early 1930s however, 144

Left: Natalia Goncharova. Woodcutters. Early 20th Century. Below: Kazmir Malevich. The Woodcutter. (1912). Malevich used color shading to add volume and promote contours in his paintings.

Left: “The genuine Russian plotnik (carpenter) properly carries no implement other than an axe or a chisel … It is incredible what he can with his axe; all the manifold instruments of our accomplished artisans are quite unknown to him, and still his work is not inferior, nay is often adapted to the purpose, than that of any of our highly educated workmen. It is often difficult to believe that such charming decorations and carving as are found on Russian ships and houses can have been produced with a clumsy axe and common chisel.” Baron Haxthausen, The Russian Empire. (1856).

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Birch bark craftsmen usually leave their most impressive work for the container lid. These designs are drawn to scale on paper before any tracing is performed on wood.

Openwork Design Traditional birch bark containers contain lids that display geometrical fretwork. In contrast, early 19th century birch bark openwork resembles Veliky Ustiug ironwork or Kholmogory bonework. Indeed, contact between craftsmen using different media was not infrequent. As a result, several popular ornamental patterns have lasted for more than a century. Other patterns derive from Peter-the-Great’s Symbola et Emblemata, a book popularizing Western designs and motifs.

Design Methods Birch bark craftsmen reserve their most impressive work for the container’s lid. These designs are drawn to scale on paper before being traced on birch bark. After tracing, the craftsman inscribes geometrical lines with a stylus to help define how the pattern should be cut (alternately, an awl may be used to punch a pattern). Other designs are created by impressing birch bark with a hardwood cutout design. The excised birch bark layers are then stained and polished with wax. Next, these layers are then placed as a geometrical design upon the container’s lid.

In the mid 1800s, floral or figural engraving scenes (animals, birds, fairy-tale characters) became highly popular. Even folkloric creatures such as gryphons and bereginy were depicted on these containers. As the century progressed, birch bark containers began displaying figural scenes with a more realistic perspective. By the late 19th century, containers depicting Veliky Ustiug and other cityscapes became highly fashionable.

Ornamental designs must be carefully chosen to complement the birch bark's texture and color. Though the bark’s texture lines may integrate favorably with a small-scale design, they generally distract in larger-scale 146

Boris Kustodiev. The Fair. (1908)

designs (such as floral motifs). Overcoming this requires intricate floral detailing to complement the geometric design. For a more decorative effect, carvers may occasionally cut through the containerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s side to create a silhouetted design. The finished product reveals a distinctive mixture of floral and geometric design. 147

Birch Bark Lace Samovar from Tomsk

Raw Birch Bark

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149

TWENTY-SIX

SKOPIN CERAMICS ‘SKOPA’

the late 1950s, Soviet officials consolidated the 50 workshops selling decorative ceramics into a cooperative (the “Keramic” association).

For several hundred years, villagers from the town of Skopin (in Russia’s Ryazan region) have employed fire clay to create brick, tile, candlesticks and tableware. During the winter months, villagers removed the clay from deep earthen pits and placed it within storage sheds until spring. After cutting, stamping, and shaping the clay by hand, it was dried and baked in a large oven.

Design Beyond fanciful figurines, Skopin potters also produce vessels and candlesticks in monochromatic shades of brown, yellow, green, and blue. Skopin pottery is distinguished by its intricate molding (for floral and geometric ornamentation), a bluish tint (a result of the firing process), and driplike glaze effects. However, Skopin craftsmen are perhaps best known for producing a kvass jar modeled after the osprey (the skopa). Several of these jars are currently on display in several of Russia’s national museums.

In the mid 19th century, a neighborly rivalry between Skopin craftsmen culminated in glazed vessels being produced as fantastic animals, birds, and various hybrid creatures. Initially, these craftsmen placed separately sculpted separate figurines (such as a lion, bird, samovar, etc) and put them on a column by their house gates. Strong demand for these figured vessels expanded to nearby regions, sparking a long-standing trade dedicated toward satisfying Russian provincial tastes.

Today, Skopin tableware, clocks, lamps, and other items are created through mass production means. Likewise, decorative sculptural figurines are cast into gypsum molds and sold as souvenirs. Nonetheless, these hand-finished products continue to be featured in national and international exhibitions.

Nonetheless, the craft all but disappeared in the early 20th century. With Soviet sponsorship was revived and eventually taught in local art schools (as it is today). In 150

Above: Small casket, last quarter of the 17th century Left: Bowl, end of 17th century. Both are from the Hermitage collection. The bowlâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Usolsk enamel design inspired the famous Faberge firm to produce a similarly-designed gilded silver and shaded enamel Kovsh in 1900.

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TWENTY-SEVEN

SOLVYCHEGODSK ENAMELS ‘USOLYE’

tulips, cornflowers, and sunflowers connected and connected with vine. Painted in primary color, Usolsk enamels display miniature decorative patterns closely resembling the border ornament found on Western manuscript illustrations (popularized by Europe’s then interest in botany and gardening). The German merchants that visited Solvychegodsk also influenced Stroganov’s artists as well (including printed illustrations from Aesop’s Fables, the Bible of Nicolas Piscator). Usolskstyle floral painting would reappear as “shaded enamel” in the late 19th century.

The town of Solvychegodsk (500 miles east of St. Petersburg) was once home to the powerful Stroganov family. Located on the main trade route between Moscow and Arkhangelsk, Solvychegodsk was once the gateway to Siberia. However, the city’s claim to fame remains its late 17th century Usolsk enamels (from Usol’e, the old name for Solvychegodsk). Initially introduced from the West, Usolsk enamels display brightly-colored flowers, animals, and birds painted on a white opaque, ground. Usolsk enamel bowls typically exhibit an animal or bird painted on the bowl’s interior. This design is separated from the sides by a woven filigree band and/or a border of turquoise enamel beads. The object’s exterior surface incorporates various enamel medallions raised above the surface and surrounded by cloisonne. Aside from bowls, Usolsk enamel was also used to create caskets, flasks, and small boxes as well.

Though Stroganov’s workshops attracted talented artists, evidence suggests local silversmiths created objects for the wealthy merchants and local nobility as well. And although Stroganov’s craftsmen almost universally created religious art, Usolsk enamel is nearly always secular in nature. Eventually, the demand for portrait enamel miniatures replaced the public’s fascination with brightly painted animals, birds, and flowers. Accordingly, talented enamellers began to shift their attention toward the rich clients of St. Petersburg and Moscow.

Animal motifs are depicted at the bottom of the bowls include lions, swans, or a bird of paradise (body of bird, head of a woman). The bowl’s floral decoration reveals poppies, 152

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TWENTY-EIGHT

TOBOLSK IVORY-CARVING ‘REZNAYA KOST’

bone brooches, snuff boxes, clasps, and paperweights. Bone-carved crucifixes and Madonna images were especially popular and exported throughout Russia. By 1874, the first commercial workshop dedicated to fossil ivory carving was opened.

Like Kholmogory, Tobolsk (near Tyumen) is known for its bone-carving artistry. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the city was the administrative, military, and cultural center of Russian Siberia. Not incidentally, the city's strategic location at the confluence of the Tobol and Irtysh, rivers allowed it to play a dominant role in foreign and domestic trade.

The abolishment of serfdom in 1861 expanded Russia's urban middle class and created a stable market for carved bone articles. Powder boxes, cigarette cases, chests, ink stands, fans, and a diversity of other products were created to meet this demand.

When Swedish prisoners of war were exiled to Tobolsk in 1721, they brought with them their exquisite bone-carving talents. Particularly popular were snuff boxes produced by turning bone, a skill quickly learned by local residents. Indeed, fossil ivory tusks were transported from the Arctic Ocean for several years simply to meet the town’s bone-carving demand.

Nonetheless, Tobolsk carvers specialized in making small figurines. By 1897, demand for such figurines led Russian artist M.S. Znamensky to create a bone-carving school in Tobolsk. His most gifted student was P.G. Terentyev, an artist whose figurines became widely known for their realistic portrayals of everyday life. Terentyev's work typically depicts scenes of ethnic minority life in Western Siberia.

When demand for carved bone diminished, many Tobolsk craftsmen switched to wood carving. However, local residents retained their bone-carving skills, a fortunate circumstance for the Polish rebels exiled to Siberia in the 1860s. Like their Swedish predecessors, they produced an assortment of 154

with this material encouraged craftsmen to highlight their workâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s textural qualities.

These figurine scenes come replete with carved mock-ups of sledges, tents, animals, and people. In the late 19th century, Tenentyevâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s most popular article was a hunter sliding on skis with a dog.

Just as importantly, the craftsman's artel was reorganized into a factory with mechanized production means (read circular saw). The bone carving trade was changing dramatically.

Like other Russian crafts, the emergence of cheap substitutes gradually eroded the craftâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s quality. As a consequence, bone carvers found it exceedingly difficult to make a livelihood. By the end of the 19th century, few craftsmen were attracted to the profession. The craft slowly gradually declined and did not make a strong comeback until the second half of the 20th century.

In the late 1980s, Tobolsk bone carving art exhibited a tendency towards greater individualism. Artists explored a range of subjects, novel stylistic features, and interpretation. Sculpture relating to ethnic minority life remained increasingly prominent. However, the sale of bonecarved consumer products became increasingly important during this time as well.

After World War 1, Tobolsk bone-carvers survived by paying homage to fairy tale motifs. Nonetheless, in the late 1920s, the Soviets helped to somewhat revive the bone carving trade of Tobolsk. After World War II, Tobolsk bone carvers continued to create figurine scenes based on everyday life. Especially favored were scenes that reflected Socialist realism (as required by Soviet authorities, bone carvers were encouraged to produce artwork glorifying the common laborer). Likewise, artwork depicting Siberian ethnic minorities was again elevated in status. During the late 1950s, the animal scenes became popular once again (though now in a fairy tale environment). Silhouette compositions attached to long bases (such as a Siberian tribesman in a sledge driven by a reindeer) became increasingly popular as well. These scene creations remain a hallmark of Tolbolsk ivory carving.

USSR Stamp honoring bone-carvers

More recently, Tobolsk bone-carvers have begun to be influenced by Japanese bonecarving. Known as Netsuke (intricatelycarved miniature toggles), such carving shifts figural proportions, making the scenes appear less realistic. And whereas earlier Tobolsk carving employed a base as a scene identifier,

By the 1960s, fossil ivory had become scarce. As a result, ivory carvers began using sperm whale tooth for sculpture. This change had the effect of promoting single composition miniatures. The smooth roundness inherent 155

Netsuke forsakes such a base so as not to preToday, Tobolsk craftsmen are leaving the state-owned factory to set up their own private companies. With each company seeking to fulfill a particular market-nice,

define the sculptureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s spatial environment. these smaller workshops have generated an abundance of diverse product. Meanwhile, independent artists continue to search for new subjects, styles, and techniques.

Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii. Photograph of Tobolsk from the North. (1910)

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Tobolsk is surrounded with rocks, which have been marked in a picturesque manner by the torrents. From these we may see, during the rains, the immense surface of the waters which inundate the neighborhood, to the borders of the thick forests which on all sides appear in the horizon. There the eye of the exile is fixed on each sail which appears, and where, in imagination, he figures his family coming to participate in his misfortunes.â&#x20AC;? Conrad Malte-Brun. Universal Geography Vol. 2, p.432. 1824.

T h

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TWENTY-NINE

TORZHOK GOLD-STITCH ‘ZOLOTOI UZOR’

helping benefit the town well into the 18th century. Hence, morocco leather boots, belts, and slippers embroidered with gold and silver patterns were continually sold to well-to-do travelers along the road linking Moscow and St. Petersburg. Apart from athome footwear however, gold embroidery remained restricted to the monasteries, a few well-to-do travelers, and the local populace (sarafan shirts with white muslin sleeves embroidered in gold were worn on traditional holidays by locals).

In ancient Russia, the Tver region served as a crossroad of trade for foreigners traveling from central Asia and ancient Byzantium. As a result of this trade, embroiderers from the city of Torzhok were able to quickly adopt new patterns and fabrics as their own. It was in Torzhok for instance that chiffon and muslin were introduced and sent to cities within Russia’s interior. By the 13th century, foreign demand had encouraged Torzhok embroiderers to produce exquisite gold-embroidery. At roughly the same time, Torzhok’s embroiderers had leather delivered from Kazan in order to produce gold-embroidered boots, shoes, and slippers (items exceedingly popular among Tatars). Perhaps not surprisingly, archaeological evidence suggests that gold leather patches eventually were used as currency in ancient Torzhok.

In 1851, a railroad constructed between Moscow and St. Petersburg (and near Torzhok) greatly expanded regional trade. Torzhok’s gold-embroiderers suddenly gained greater access to once distance markets. The subsequent increase in demand allowed Torzhok embroiderers to produce items made to order. Continuing acclaim eventually led to a royal commission to produce the inaugural dress for Alexander II and his court (requiring several months work from 30 Torzhok embroiderers).

In the 17th century, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovish gave an edict that Torzhok would be his morocco court. The edict reinforced Torzhok’s reputation for morocco footwear, 158

Pattern closely resembles the ecclesiastical garment depicted in Boris Kustodiev’s A Nun (see end of chapter).

Construction Known as ‘fastener’ stitching or ‘couching’, gold thread is arranged in a pattern on the fabric’s surface and stitched with an “invisible” thread that prevents fine fabric from tearing. The threads are placed so tightly together that they appear as if a continuous plate or patch. Plant patterns with locks and sparklets were especially favored.

motifs in gold embroidery as well. Torzhok’s embroiderers were also noted for producing gold-embroidered belts, a popular accessory desired far beyond the province. In 1865, roughly 300 gold-embroiderers were employed in Torzhok. However, high production costs gradually led to the trade’s decline after serfdom was abolished (1861). By late century, only a third as many goldembroiderers remained. Local concerns about the industry’s decline led to training workshops and local government efforts to purchase locally-made gold-embroidery.

When created by this method, a popular 19th century design depicts plant patterns with locks and sparklets melted in the background. Likewise, 19th century kokoshniks (a popular Russian headdress) display small-leaf rose 159

Vasily Troponin. The Gold- Embroideress. 1826 “One more extract from Lord Augustus Loftus' Reminiscences describing the Russian national Court dress we cannot refrain from citing: "A white silk or satin skirt, with gold braid or embroidery round the hem and down the front in two rows, between which are gold or jeweled buttons. The low body and train are of crimson velvet, bordered with gold embroidery. The train falls from the waist and to the low body are attached long flowing red velvet sleeves with gold embroidery. The head-dress is termed 'Kokoshnik,' and is in the shape of a diadem, composed of red velvet and embroidered in gold, or covered with jewels…” Edward Arthur Brayley Hodgetts. The Court of Russia in the Nineteenth Century, Volume 2. (1908).

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19th Century Torzhok Belt

In the early 20th century, Torzhok’s gold-embroiderers gained many awards at international exhibitions. Despite this recognition, gold-embroidery was no longer in fashion and the trade continued to struggle. In 1915, the local workshop and trade school shut down due to lack of funds. The country’s civil war further complicated any chance for recovery. The centuries-old trade had seemingly come to an end. In 1923, the Soviets decided to set up a vocational school for training embroidery instructors. The school’s first graduates joined the newly formed cooperative for Torzhok’s gold-embroiderers in 1928. In an effort to keep the craft alive, Soviet authorities Torzhok’s gold-embroiderers as official producers of Red Army insignia and Soviet state symbols (the Soviet star, hammer and sickle). More recently, the city’s embroiderers have begun working on ecclesiastical garments again.

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Boris Kustodiev. A Nun (1901)

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“Before the introduction of tea, the Russians mainly drank herbs, kvas, beer, and drinks made with honey. Another favorite Russian drink, sbeeten, was made with honey, herbs and roots. Tea and other spices were sold and traded by caravans travelling the “King’s Way” or the “Silk Road” on their way to the Middle East. The Europeans were already importing tea and other spices by way of the sea routes around Africa as well as through the Mediterranean. Tea was introduced into Russia in the 17th century by way of the spice routes as a gift from China to Tsar Fyodor II (1676-1682). Initially, this exotic drink was looked upon as a medicinal drink mostly used in the court and by wealthy people.” Mehmet Nabi Israfil. Samovars: The Art of the Russian Metalworkers. (1990).

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TULA

SAMOVARS ‘KONFORKA’

Samovars are naturally embraced over simple teapots anywhere hot tea was served. Unlike teapots, older samovars contained an internal metal tube heated by burned charcoal to keep water hot. In the 18th century, tea gradually became available to Russians and samovars soon followed.

In 1900, over half a million samovars were produced in Tula alone (the largest producer being the Batashev bros.). Samovar firms prospered by creating or capturing a particular samovar-market niche based on style or material Samovar production reached its peak during the early 20th century just as samovars were becoming popular abroad. During international exhibitions, Samovar manufacturers showcased their awardwinning products for markets abroad. Tula’s metal smiths necessarily halted their samovar production to produce armaments when Russia’s civil war intervened.

Samovars were initially produced in the Urals, Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Tula. However, Tula’s rich ore deposits and highly skilled metal smiths (primarily gunsmiths) gave the city an important advantage over its competitors. During the first half of the 19th century, samovar manufacturers gradually located into Tula. Between 1820 and 1850, samovar producers increased their number from 8 to 28. By late century, at least 40 samovar manufacturers were operating in Tula. The traditional tools and hand-assembly required to produce samovars protected these Tula workshops from the threat of massproduction.

By the 1930s, Tula had become the primary city for samovar-production in the Soviet Union. After World War II, smaller samovar workshops were consolidated into larger factories and mass-production was pursued with little regard for samovar quality.

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Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin. Samovar. (1926) Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin sought to “synthesize Eastern and Western painting traditions. The artist developed a “spherical perspective”, a new technique to depict space. He used the incline of the vertical axes of the composition to turn planes towards the viewer of his picture. This allowed for the combination of episodes from different times, highlighting motion and covering large spaces. Thus, his compositions could be viewed by spectators from different perspectives.” http://rt.com/Russia_Now/Russiapedia/Those_Russians/pkuzma-petrov-vodkin/print.

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V l a d i m i r L e b e d e v . V l a d i V

ladimir Lebedev. Cutting Iron (1920

Nonetheless, the large Tula-based Shtamp company introduced electrical samovars, a nickel-plating assembly line, and a variety of other innovations. More recently, Shtamp has divested its samovar production facilities into smaller, independent companies.

in shape, not altogether different from Russia’s traditional bratina toasting cups. By the mid-19th century, samovars were being produced in several different shapes: cylindrical; spherical (otherwise known as “onion-shaped” or “turnip-shaped”); krater, (ancient Greek vase); egg-like; barrelshaped; and con (often with a fluted design). All were produced with the intent of appealing to Russia’s emerging middle class. Late century samovar makers produced their wares in the classicist-style (leading their samovars to often resemble ancient Greek urns and vases).

Design Samovar prices are determined by style, size, and material (although more utilitarian-type samovars were once sold by weight). In contrast, more complex samovars were sold by the piece. Samovars are typically produced between 10 inches tall (for a compact, traveling samovar equipped with removable legs and compartments to prepare food) to 22 inches tall (samovars produced for restaurants and hotels).

Samovar producers seeking to secure a market-niche might base production upon a particular shape. Indeed, Tula's highly competitive samovar industry compelled metal smiths to remain creative.

Early 18th century samovars were spherical 166

(produced by Vorontsov & Lomova Bros). Nichel-plated samovars were once held in greater esteem that all-brass samovars. The metal is valued for its anti-corrosive properties and its ability to resemble silver.

Material: Copper and alloys: Known as “chaynik samovars”, early samovars were designed in traditional teapot form and hand-made out of copper. In order to produce such samovars, copper ingots were hammered into copper sheets before being cut and shaped. Copper’s high thermal conductivity helped samovars retain heat. However, Tula samovars are typically produced from copper alloys such as brass and bronze

Silver samovars became popular among wealthy families in Moscow and St. Petersburg during the mid-19th century. These samovars were valued as much for their superior heat conductivity as their beauty. Silver samovars were durable, highly ornate (baroque style), and often not more than 18” high. Required accessories included a tea strainer, sugar-tongs, and teaspoon set.

Brass is valued for its malleability, versatility, and beauty. The metal is a copper and zinc alloy that can be cast, tinned, and polished to a mirror finish. Somewhat related is Pinchbeck, a low (17%) zinc alloy that has a similar appearance to gold. However, yellow brass (brass with a zinc composition >35%) yields greater density (strength) and close tolerances. In contrast to other metals, yellow brass is superior in cost-effectiveness and flawlessness.

Silver-plated brass and bronze samovars protected a samovar’s interior against organic decay and were popular with the middle class. However, such samovars lacked the superior heat conductivity found in full silver (note that silver samovars also have an 84 silver mark stamped on all their individual parts).

Samovars are also produced in bronze, a copper and tin alloy. The tin alloy contains varying amounts of zinc and lead (for added strength and machine-ability, respectively). The metal is heavier than copper or brass but is generally less expensive to use. Red Tombak samovars are produced from phosphor bronze, a metal that gives off a highly valued reddish-gold appearance

Other metals: Samovars occasionally employed nickel and gold as interior gilding materials. Likewise, tin was commonly used because it resisted organic decay and served as an excellent sealant. At the time, platingmetal helped prevent mineral buildup from interacting with copper – a mixture that could often produce toxins. 167

Boris Kustodiev. A Merchant’s Wife. (1911) “…a captivating picture of a dignified Russian beauty, full-busted and glowing with health. The radiant yellows, pinks and blues of the background landscape set off the reddish-brown tone of her dress and her flowery shawl, and everything mingles together in her bright colorful bouquet; a wonderfully indulgent, baroque tea and samovar and cakes and fruit and cat tea time occasion. The young woman, dressed in a black dress with the magnificent lace and despair, sits at a table, covered with tea, face to the audience. In the background is a Russian city scene with domes, church and trees. Signs of abundance abound the shiny samovar, the tea service, sliced watermelon, plates of lush fruit and baked goodies. The woman apparently belongs to a rich merchant family. Her ample white physique, once a sign of feminine beauty, illuminates the table and the surrounding area. She is as round and as succulent as the fruit on the table. A cat nuzzles her indulgently. She is not quite looking at the viewer, her mind appears to wander absently and she seems reflective and pensive..sipping tea from a saucer with a customary gesture; She is drinking hot tea from the saucer to cool it, pinkie pointing away from the steaming flavorful liquid Yet, as she sips her tea, the picture is one of peace and tranquility; apparently, she is enjoying her tea” from http://kustodiev.blogspot.com/

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chamber. In the 19th century, a tablet was a vital accessory to catch dripping charcoal from the combustion chamber. A door exists to take the ashes out when they accumulate.

The traditional samovar is fundamentally a metallic container with a faucet near the bottom, a vertical metal pipe encased within (filled with fuel to heat the water), and an ornamental-type teapot (the kamforka) on top. In contrast, current electric samovars have an electrical compartment, spiral immersion heater, and internal heating coil.

Neck & Ventilation Chamber (poddon): The hatch has small holes to prevent the samovar from overheating. Small intake holes also allow for oxygen to be supplied.

The samovarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s combustion chamber (the truba) is a thick tube with bars at its bottom to prevent fuel from reaching the ventilation

Handles (shishki): The samovarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s handles are riveted or welded to the hatch

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Older samovars used wood, ivory, or even bone handles because of their poor heat conductivity. More recent samovars have handles made from Bakelite and other plastics.

prevents leaks and is thickly applied where leaks were most likely (near the heating chimney, handle, and faucet). If the tinning layer becomes thick, the samovarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s heating capacity is reduced and the samovar has to be re-tinned.

Spout (kran): The faucet is simply a spigot key (vetka) and spout (which leaks if the spigot key is not properly fitted to it). A closedfaucet requires the valve (funnel) to be offcenter. In the 19th century, many spouts were intricately designed to resemble an ornate key or plant.

Accessories: Some samovars have a large tray on the bottom to hold the samovar, drip bowl and other serving accessories. The tray also keeps hot charcoal ashes and liquids from falling on the table as well. Such trays are either round, oval, or in a keyhole shape.

Base: The base is typically cast with a heavier metal than the rest of the samovar to prevent tipping. Inner wall: The inner wall is tinned primarily for health reasons. Tinning also

Finally, the Drip Bowl is used to catch drips when the spout is no longer watertight. and is usually made of the same material as the samovar. 170

Boris Kustodiev. On Terrace. (1906) â&#x20AC;&#x153;Where is the native samovar, our family's hearth, our family altar, ark of domestic joys? In it boil, from it flow, the traditions of all our days; in it live the recollections of Russian antiquity; it alone has survived from the torso of former years,-- the extinguishable grandfather has passed to the grandchildren. It is the Russian rococo, formless, awkward, but inwardly good, though unsightly from without; it preserves better the heat, and while it croons, the discourse boils like its steaming liquidâ&#x20AC;ŚWherever there is the brass samovar, an inheritance of the orphan, the widow's last wealth, and luxury of poverty, -- everywhere in holy and Orthodox Russia it is the chief participator at family reunions. One cannot be born in to the world, nor enter into matrimony, nor will friends says "welcome" or "good-bye", but that, the end and beginning of all everyday affairs, the boiling samovar, the domestic leader of the choir, raises its voice and calls the family together.â&#x20AC;? Prince Peter Andreevich Vyazemski. The Samovar. (19th century)

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Seals & Marks Seals: Samovar producers generally stamp their name, company hallmark, and exhibition awards on the samovars. Older state-owned samovars are stamped with the Czar’s portrait and a double-headed imperial eagle seal stamped on state-owned samovars.

represented by 56, 72, and 96. Russian silver generally has 4 marks: the maker's initials or name, the city's coat-of-arms, the assayer's initials, and the pure silver proportion as stated above. The kokoshnik headdress remains the Russian mark for both gold and silver objects in the twentieth century. Previously, Moscowmade objects displayed a St.George-and-theDragon mark. Likewise, St. Petersburg displayed a double-headed eagle mark until 1742 (before it was replaced by the new city arms, a scepter with two crossed anchors). Those that have no marks may have either been made in rural workshops or polished off.

Occasionally, award seals displayed for workmanship or artistic ability are helpful in dating samovars. Many seals showcase international exposition awards (such as “London International Universal Exhibition, 1897” or “Exposition Universal, France 1900”). If no dates appear, the czar’s portrait can provide an approximate date: 1801-1825 1825-1855 1855-1881 1881-1894 1894-1917

Alexander I Nicholas I Alexander II Alexander III Nicholas II

Companies Batashev, Alexis & Ivan , Burashev, S., Diakov, Fabrika M.A. Getsova, Kondrat Dmitrievitch Gornin, Lisitsin, Ivan; Lomova, Vasilly; Lyaliny Malikov, Nicholas; Morozov: Shemarin Bros. of Tula; Sokolov Teyle, B.G.; Vankin, Ye; Vorontsov, N.A.; Yermilov, G.

Marks: The Russian silver standard is recognized by the numbers 84, 88, and 91, the zolotniks found in a pound of pure silver (typically 96 zolotniks). Gold is similarly 172

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VALDAI BELLS ‘KOLOKOCHIKI’

large and small bells). A hereditary craft, several dynasties of Valdai bell casters have come from these factories.

Russian legend has it that in 1478, Tsar Ivan III ordered the city’s Veche bell (and symbol of Novgorod’s independence) transferred to Moscow after putting an end to Novgorod’s sovereignty. The Veche bell supposedly splintered en route near Valdai and created a multitude of smaller bells. Another legend has it that a 11.5-ton bell cast at the request of Patriarch Nikon simply broke and the remaining bronze was divvied up among the bell assistants to make little Valdai bells.

After 1917, Soviet authorities targeted church bells for destruction. Consequently, many bell factories were closed or converted to other uses. In 1935, Communist authorities went one step further and prohibited all bell-ringing (including handbells). In the early 1990s, Russian bell manufacturers attempted a comeback. Although Valdai craftsmen no longer produce carriage bells, they’re still sought as souvenirs. Since 1995, Valdai’s Museum of Bells has exhibited both locally made and foreign bells..

Unlike Russia’s famously large church bells, Valdai bells were originally produced as carriage troika bells. In northern Russia, troika bells have been used for several centuries to notify travelers of an oncoming approach. The bells also produced a setrhythm pattern that served to save traveling horses their energy. Not incidentally, Valdai’s bell factory is located on the high road between St. Petersburg and Moscow. Later on, troika bells would come to signal mail-service delivery as well.

Valdai bells typically have a classic tulip shape and weigh about 5 ½ lbs. They’re generally constructed equal lengths height and diameter (about 2 inches). In local parlance, bell parts are described in terms appropriate to feminine appearance (skirt, shoulders, and sundress). The bell’s rim (or ‘skirt’) generally contains an inscription (maker name and/or proverb). The bell’s slope (sundress) typically depicts either a small icon or winter themes.

In the early 1800s, Valdai’s bellmakers began to sign and date their bells. By mid-century, Valdai’s bell workshops had grown and consolidated into five factories (creating both 174

Boris Kustodiev. Maslenitsa. (1919) (with miniature horse bells)

Upon the bell’s ‘shoulders’ lies a loop with a ring. The bell’s surface displays a simple décor and alternates between being rough and smooth. Finally, unlike large Russian church bells, Valdai bells are molded with a centuries-old traditional bronze formula. Bell production requires high-grade Ural copper is poured into an entrenchment so as to fuse the bell’s two halves together.

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Boris Kustodiev. Coachman. (1920) â&#x20AC;&#x153;The parade is led by a fine troika, the three- horse open trap so characteristic of Russia, and at the same time so seldom seen in Russian streets to-day. The troika in full career is admirable. The middle horse travels at a swift trot; the outside horses, checked painfully low, with necks bent outward at an aching angle are meantime running like thoroughbreds on the home-stretch, apparently much faster than their trotting fellow. But, strange to say, the troika holds together under the skilful guidance of a bearded coachman, who always wears a crown of peacock-feathers. â&#x20AC;&#x153;We found (St. Petersburg) basking in warm sunshine; yet, only five days before, the frozen Neva had succumbed to the attack of Phoebus Apollo's bright battalions and, in the desperation of defeat, had hurried the broken masses of its icy regime down to the chill dominions of the Baltic Sea. A cubic inch of ice remains to tell us the five days before we should have crossed the river, not in wheeled vehicles, but in low troika sledges, to the music of keen- sounding sleigh- bells, as our three horses sped along an avenue of ice, smooth, limitless, and glistening like polished glass.â&#x20AC;? Burton Holmes. Travelogues: St. Petersburg. Moscow. The Trans-Siberian Railway. (1908)

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THIRTY-TWO

VELIKY USTIUG NIELLO ‘CHERN’

During the late 17th century, a silversmith from the Russian town of Veliky Ustiug (near Vologda) began engraving niello on silver. Known as Chern, niello-engraved silver became a flourishing art just as Veliky Ustiug's artistic influence began to rise.

Veliky Ustiug niello art uniquely displays a black-gold metal composition set against the occasional addition of chased components (the proportion of alloys found in Veliky Ustiug nigelum has been a long-kept secret). The stylistic features of Ustiug niello had a profound influence upon engraved art produced in Arkhangelsk, Vyatka, and Tobolsk. Engraved patterns on Ustiug niello also became the basis for many birch bark lace designs.

Niello-engraved design was initially used to decorate icon-frames and chalices. Early engravings clearly resemble the fanciful border ornament then found in Westernmade books and prints. Likewise, Russian craftsmen adopted Western European engraving methods and techniques before creating their own.

In the early 18th century, Moscow retained a reputation for producing unparalleled niello art. By 1740, Veliky Ustiug silversmith Mikhail Klimshin was summoned to Moscow in order to help improve the kremlin niello production. Not incidentally, in 1761, the Popov brothers established a factory in Ustiug to produce enamel and high quality niello articles (with help from Klimshin no doubt). Ultimately, Klimshin’s creativity with niello became the basis for future northern niello techniques and style.

Veliky Ustiug craftsmen creating nielloengraved objects by filling in engraved grooves with a black substance called nigelum, a mixture of copper, silver, and lead powder moistened with borax to produce a paste. When fired in a kiln, the mixture turns black and becomes fused with the metal. Additional scraping and polishing removes the black niello outside the engraved grooves. The polished object is left with a pattern design outlined in black.

Veliky Ustiug niello objects generally display either baroque or classical styling. Articles with baroque styling reveal rounded corners. 178

Above: 17th Century Snuffbox Detail Below: Niello Snuffbox (1776). Since prolonged exposure to air causes snuff to dry out and lose its quality, pocket snuff boxes were designed to be airtight containers with only enough space for a day worth of snuff.

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Chern snuffbox detail by Mikhail Klimshin. (1764)

leaf scrolls, and complex topical compositions along the framework (as might be seen in Western book engraving art). Any medallions and cartouches the niello object retains will likely display hunting or pastoral scenes. The niello pattern itself is enhanced by a gilt engraving that accentuates the black outline, ornamentation, and subject scene. The composition is so drawn as to promote a sense of plasticity.

richness of pattern (as revealed by chased or engraved scales). Subject compositions typically included panoramic views of Veliky Ustiug, architectural monuments, or triumphant Russian battle scenes. In the early 19th century, Veliky Ustiug craftsmen mastered new methods typical of classicism. For instance, object adornments became simpler in shape and austere composition replaced intricate ornamental design. Battle, hunting, and genre scenes continued to remain popular. Likewise, Russia's war of 1812 inspired intense patriotism, a mood revealed throughout the arts by the glorification of national personages and events. By late century, niello

Around 1780, baroque styling began to fade in favor of a strict classicist style. This new style emphasized miniature garlands, urns, and cupids alongside military emblems. Object spatiality and depth disappeared in exchange for geometric borders and a greater

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craftsmen had returned to the 16th century practice of decorating articles with ornate rococo scrolls and vines. Period silver chern products were also characterized by pastoral scenes and architectural landscapes. However, the influence of niello upon Vologda and Archangel had long since passed.

craftsmen had formed an artel (cooperative) they named it “Northern Black”. The craft’s continued evolution helped it to gain respect from fellow artists and win fame in national and international art exhibitions. Especially noteworthy among these admirers was an artist named Mikhail Rakov, a Muscovite who sought to revive the ancient handicraft. By carefully studying folk traditions, Rakov designed several bracelets and brooches ornamented in gold with birds and animals.

The craft continued to be kept alive by a few dedicated silversmiths throughout the first half of the 19th century. We can be particularly grateful to Mikhail Chirkov, a Veliky Ustiug craftsman who studiously preserved local niello methods and techniques. Chirkov’s foresight enabled the craft’s niello “secret” to be passed on to future generations.

Unfortunately, the Soviets sought to encourage the craft to move in an entirely different direction. In contrast to graphic art, the authorities pressured niello craftsmen to reproduce photographs on silver articles using niello techniques (i.e. nielloed cigarette cases with a display a photographic view of Moscow). Niello craftsmen complained that copying such imagery onto a flat surface solely focuses the viewer's attention upon the image itself. For the viewer, the article's detailed ornamentation becomes superfluous.

Nonetheless, the abolition of serfdom in 1861 forced many niello workshops to close. Popular demand for cheap silver articles produced in Moscow particularly imperiled the craft’s survival. No longer considered a unique art, chern all but faded from existence by the late 19th century. Once in power, the new Soviet government actively promoted the revival of traditional craft such as chern. Accordingly, Veliky Ustiug craftsmen once again began producing niello objects in their workshops. The largest niello workshop began designating its products as Northern Niello. By 1932, local

Nonetheless, demand for traditional Veiliky Ustiug articles continued to increase. In 1964, the Northern Black cooperative became a factory. Today, Northern Niello retains many of those same stylistic peculiarities so often admired for centuries.

Below: Soviet-era silver niello cup

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Niello detail on Silver Tray, 1779

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;A good idea of the possibilities of Russian lace was given by an exhibition in London (autumn, 1904), organized by the Zemstvo of the Vologda district. A great variety was shown, some extremely beautiful, both in design and execution.â&#x20AC;? Elizabeth Mincoff. Pillow lace, a practical handbook. (1907)

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VOLOGDA LACE ‘VILYUSHKA’

19th century. Their dedication to lace making had a lasting impact upon the craft’s evolution. Historians estimate that Anfea’s daughter Sofia taught roughly 800 lacemakers in her lifetime.

Several hundred miles north of Moscow, the city of Vologda province holds a long-held reputation for producing beautiful Vologda lace. During the late 18th century, Vologda lace was characterized by rounded lines and geometrical patterns woven upon a transparent net. Despite its delicate appearance, the lace was made from durable flax (an abundant crop in the Vologda region).

Following her lead, the Vologda zemstvo (local elected council) established local workshops to promote the craft and appropriated warehouses to store lace material. About the same time, an exhibit of the lace in St. Petersburg garnered favorable attention. Shortly thereafter, a French company ordered a large quantity of the lace, leading several hundred more lace makers to be trained in the craft. By the end-of-thecentury, Vologda lace makers were producing a voluminous number of scarves, kerchiefs, and head-dresses on a weekly basis.

As with other Russian folk crafts, Vologda Lace depicts ancient motifs amidst abundant floral ornamentation. Lace makers use a continuous line of tape lace worked in white linen thread to depict geometric patterns upon a net ground. A thin line of colored silk thread was occasionally interwoven throughout the lace design. In the late 1700s, colored silks and metal thread began to be used to produce mesh ground. The fashion for multicolored lacework lasted until the mid-1800s.

In 1918, shortly after the Soviets gained power, more than forty thousand lace makers joined together to form the Vologda Lace Union. As with other crafts, Lenin made concerted effort to elevate the worker’s status, pay, and education.

Vologda lace as it is known today was promoted by Anfea and Sofia Briantseva (a mother and daughter team) during the mid 184

Vasily Troponin. The Lacemaker (1823) Much of Vasily Troponinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life was spent as a serf; he didn't attain his freedom until he was more than forty years old. Two of his more important works are included in this book, The Lace Maker and The Gold-Embroideress. As with many of his works, these true-to-life portraits heavily incorporate everyday details. But Troponin also sought to portray his subjects with genuine feeling, a style considered by some to be overly idealized and sentimental.

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Company are leading the trend toward designing larger and more complex articles. .

During the 1920’s, the craft’s continuing success encouraged professional designers to become involved with the lace. In 1928, a professional lace making school was founded in Vologda by Yulia Shipova, a lace-making school graduate whose imaginative compositions greatly influenced the craft’s direction.

Bobbin Lace Production Lace-making begins by drawing a pattern upon parchment and pricking holes to indicate where pins should be placed (to steady the thread while the lace is being made). After the parchment is fixed upon a bolster-shaped pillow, threaded bobbins (small wooden sticks) are affixed to the pricked holes. The lace maker employs bobbins to rewind the thread and form the lace.

Nonetheless, Vologda lace designs tended to reflect Soviet enthusiasm for industrial society: lace motifs depicted tractors, steamers, and parachutes. Not surprisingly, lace articles portrayed well-known communist leaders such as Lenin as well. In the 1940s, lace designs exhibiting realistic animal and plant motifs were created for the first time. Lace maker Kapitolina Isakova gained special renown for producing nature motifs with color accents. Beyond her award winning designs, she wrote an influential lace-making manual and became director of a lace making college. By the 1950s, simple and elegant lace designs produced by lace maker Vera Vesalova were widely reproduced upon bedcovers, kerchiefs, and collars. Famously called “Veselova’s Lace”, her lace designs remained popular for several decades.

Above: Soviet stamp honoring Vologda lace makers

Lace-making witnessed a rebirth in interest during the 1970s. In 1975 lace designer Victoria Elfina famously produced a large snowflake-pattern tablecloth she appropriately named Snezhynka (or “Snowflake”). For nine months, dozens of lace-makers worked together to produce lace fragments that were eventually joined together. The finished product became widely admired and its name appropriated by Elfina’s Vologda lace employer. Today, lace makers employed by the Snezhynkia Lace

Lace makers either work with straight lace (in which the ground and pattern are worked together) or tape lace (in which the lace maker works the pattern before adding the ground afterwards). With tape lace (or “free lace”), foliage motifs and figurative elements are created from a braid and occasionally outlined with heavier thread for relief. These design elements are either set upon a net ground or joined by delicate thread bars.

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THIRTY-FOUR

ZHOSTOVO TRAYS

‘JOSTOVSKIE PODNOSI’ During the early 19th-century, Russian handpainted and lacquered novelty items (such as snuff boxes) suddenly became highly popular. Moving beyond novelty-item status, lacquered papier-mâché trays became highly admired for their beauty and utility. In 1825, Zhostovo-village artists established a traypainting workshop to meet this demand. Their trays depicted landscape and troikadriving scenes using Fedoskino-style painting, a multilayer-painting style incorporating mother-of-pearl inlay. Eventually, Zhostovo painters came to define their craft less by its lacquered status than its painted content, luxurious floral bouquets.

intensified the pressure on artists to expand production and sacrifice quality. By midcentury, Zhostovo trays were employing glued-on prints as a cheap substitute, leading St. Petersburg's once promising tray-making industry to briefly regain prominence. Fortunately, Zhostovo tray-painting was saved by its close proximity to Moscow's restaurant and hotel markets. By the 1870s, the city's growth in sheet-metal suppliers and middleclass buyers helped dissipate the financial pressures produced by middlemen. Zhostovo craftsmen renewed their focus on quality and began creating trays with smooth handturned edges and intricate handles. Likewise, with different shapes (oval, oblong, rectangular, octagonal, and scalloped shapes to name a few) were introduced as well

By mid-century, Zhostovo trays had become popular with newly emerging hotels and eateries around Moscow. However, these papier-mâché trays were easily damaged by hot food and drink. As a result, Zhostovo painters switched to sheet-iron trays. The move was fortunate as bright floral bouquets painted on reflective metal reinforced their luxuriousness. Demand for such trays soared, providing Zhostovo workshops with greater talent and prosperity. Ironically, such success

By the early 20th century, public interest in Zhostovo trays had waned. As tray demand fell, prices collapsed and painters were subject to working for long hours and little pay. Early attempts to organize a cooperative were halted by World War I.

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Boris Kustodiev. Merchant Chest-Maker. 1923. â&#x20AC;&#x153;Hundreds of retail shops for every sort of goods are to be found (in Moscow), and bargain-hunting becomes a lively game when played with Russian shop-keepers. Many of them expect to have their first price refused and adjust their schedules accordingly to make allowance for your objections, expostulations, arguments and cajolery. The shops where metal work is sold are naturally among the most popular with tourists. And you need not be surprised to find each shop-keeper doing his reckoning upon the abacus, a frame of wires on which beads are strung for counting. Russian Through the Stereoscope - A Journey Across the Land of the Czar from Finland to the Black Sea. (1901) p.159

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Traditionally, Zhostovo-style floral bouquets either display a few large flowers (such as roses, tulips, or dahlias) or several small flowers (such as pansies) in a thin volute. Painters employ strong contrasts and deliberate fluidity to display such flowers in an impressionistic and luxurious pose.

When an artel (cooperative) was instituted in 1923, it failed to relieve Zhostovo painters from their predicament. Partly as a result, Soviet authorities attempted to impose easelpainting and new thematic compositions (modernity/realism) upon the craft. Moreover, a move to standardize and mass produce such trays continued to stifle the craft’s development.

The tray’s floral centerpiece is positioned and framed as in a ‘still life’. However, the centerpiece appears more prominent when situated against an enlarged and shiny background. Zhostovo-style bouquets can be distinguished by their lush intensity, bright colors, and exaggerated artistry. These features are further emphasized when painted upon reflective media.

In 1928, the Soviet Handicraft Council decided to rejuvenate the craft by creating an industry-wide cooperative. A painting factory was subsequently created that freed Zhostovo-style painters from artificial production constraints. The changes allowed the Zhostovo tray-painting industry to thrive once again. During the 1930s, local vocational trainers even created a separate academic department for the craft. Today, Zhostovo admirers have found renewed enthusiasm for the craft in the West.

However, spontaneity must show forth as well. Zhostovo artists pride themselves for never stenciling in their compositions. And since no painting is ever a copy, success is dependent upon brushwork expertise. Without this spontaneity, aspiring Zhostovo artists will inevitably produce a still-life. Invariably, a painter's expertise in producing a spontaneous-style composition can easily determine its success or failure.

Design: Design Background. Once simply a border element, the floral motif became an increasingly popular design in the late 1700s. During the Classicist era (the early 1800s), the floral bouquet achieved a certain artistic prominence within Russia. Their popularity appears to have been partly influenced by the introduction of Western European floral-lithographed prints (also popular at the time). Now a contemporary art form, the luxurious floral bouquet was considered by Zhostovo tray painters as the most enticing model to emulate.

Design Process: Today, Zhostovo artists employ the same priming techniques, oil paints, and lacquers used in the miniature lacquer-box industry. The process begins by coating a metal tray with oil paint to produce a strong sheen. Light colors are then applied as an undercoat for reflective purposes (tray backgrounds are typically dark green, blue, cherry, brown or red). Afterwards, the tray is coated with lacquer three more times.

Perhaps not surprisingly, the typical Zhostovo floral bouquet reveals the same stylistic floral features found in early Fedoskino-style lacquerware. Likewise, Zhostovo-style painters have apparently been influenced by floral designs from Moscowstyle enamels, Russian porcelain, and Chippendale-style furniture as well.

Each layer is then polished after drying so as to produce a smooth and glossy surface. When ready, a floral design silhouette is sketched in flat-finish white acrylic paint. Finally, linseed oil is applied to keep the paint from quickly drying. 190

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Though Zhostovo trays are produced using a limited "assembly-like" production process, Zhostovo masters are well-versed in all stages of production. Zhostovo master painters are also skilled in related painting styles and typically train talented students to master them as well.

Before painting commences, the Zhostovo painter must decide whether to paint in acrylic or oil. Although acrylic paint dries quickly it also enhances transparency. In contrast, oil paints produce a vibrancy and reflective quality on metal. When ready, the artist fills in shadows and highlights with a transparent white tint for depth. By emphasizing volume and light, a painter can produce a luxuriant-looking flower. Additional brushstrokes produce fine contrasts between floral and foliage areas. Details are added next by carefully placed line-work. Smaller elements such as blossoms, grasses, and tendrils are then painted to flesh out the bouquet.

Brushstrokes Zhostovo painters practice painting quickly and without flaw to achieve a certain degree of spontaneity. By turning the tray in his lap, the Zhostovo painter learns to effortlessly pull brushstrokes inward and produce a swirling effect. Practice enables the painter to become more aware of his brushstrokeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s order and direction. Trays that reveal well-directed brushstrokes lead the viewer to perceive a harmonious composition (especially in floral designs). Likewise, brushstroke order can affect how light is distributed upon the painting. Sable brushes (as shown above) are typically used in Zhostovo painting.

Grasses and tendrils integrate the floral bouquet into the background. Darker foliage (created along the bouquetâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fringe) produces an almost imperceptible link to the background as well. The finished effect reinforces the centerpiece's naturalistic feel. For Zhostovo fans, such unique line work can easily become identified with a particular painter.

Conclusion During the 19th century, well-known painters established workshops employing as many as 50 people or more. Today, several dynasties of Zhostovo painters exist (Vishniakov, Antipov, Kledov, Belyayev, Sorokin, and Gogin families to name a few). Perhaps not surprisingly given that notable Zhostovo painters often begin their apprenticeship at age two.

After the centerpiece is finished, ornamental gold borders are added using c-, s-, and/or teardrop-shaped brushstrokes (known as "uborka"). Next, the edges are painted with gold, silver, or bronze. Finally, the tray is lacquered again to produce a high-glaze finish.

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THIRTY-FIVE

ZLATOUST ENGRAVED STEEL SABRES, SWORDS, GUNS, & KNIVES

Despite this training, Russian sabre decoration appeared somewhat constrained and stiff. In frustration, the Russian masters began creating their own style. In contrast to Schaff’s design, Ivan Bushuev depicted miniature Russian history scenes and other complex subject compositions along the blade’s entire surface. And unlike traditional blade design, Bushuev decorated his blades with a brush rather than a pin. He also incorporated his blades with complex subject compositions, many miniature scenes on Russian history.

In the early 19th century, an arms factory was constructed in Zlatoust (near Chelyabinsk) to create sabers and swords. Though Russian engravers began producing arms with decorative elements, they required further training. Czar Alexander I agreed and invited the best German craftsmen to help train Zlatoust’s engravers. These German craftsmen were experts in the molding, forging, and polishing of blades as well as the manufacture of scabbard and the production of hilts. Among those that stayed on for several years were Nicholai and Wilhelm Schaff (father and son). After arriving in December of 1815, the two designers began training more than 10 master engravers at cold steel design. Among them were Ivan Bushuev and Ivan Boyarshinov, two craftsmen whose innovations had a profound effect upon Russian steel engraving (the former perfected bluing and the ability to burnish blades a range of shades).

After the Russian war of 1812, the orders for decorated weapons declined. At the same time, Boyarshinov succeeded Ivan Bushuev's supervision of the plant. Under his guidance, craftsmen began to engrave steel caskets, trays, small chests and coffers. In the years that followed, production of household items continued under the supervision of Pavel Anosov (best known for discovering how damask steel is made). 194

Nikolai Dmitriev-Orenburgsky. General Skobelev on the Horse. (1883)

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Close-up of etching work on blade, 19th century

In the second half of the 19th century, the Zlatoust factory increased its production of household articles. Examples of manufacture include decorated table utensils, cigarette cases, hunting knives, and hatchets. But throughout the 19th century, Zlatoustâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s craft masters kept their secrets of engraving, deep etching, bluing, gilding, and metal carving.

the armament factory and moved its production equipment to other Siberian cities. As before, the Zlatoust factory once again found itself struggling to recover. After the war ended, Red Army sabers were engraved with Soviet emblems. Likewise, steel cutting knives decorated with revolutionary emblems were produced to honor Lenin and Dzerzhinsky, leading figures of the Revolution.

Late-century Zlatoust engravers discovered a new and inexpensive method for drawing composition on steel was devised. Named punching, this new technique created a print by using a mastic seal. Factories that used this method generally produced low-quality products in large numbers. As with specialized crafts, expanded production goals eventually encouraged a gradual decline in quality. Zlatoust engraving struggled forward until the emerging modernist style (style moderne) came into vogue. Incompatible for steel engraving, the style rendered a seemingly fatal influence upon the plantâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s engraved steel production.

Nonetheless, the Soviets sought to remake Zlatoust into an industrial city that specialized in metallurgy, mechanical engineering, and tool-making. The new government had factory workers produce engraved metal plates depicting Soviet leaders, industrial landscapes, and honored artists in miniature. Likewise, small engraved household products such as cigarette cases and match holders were produced in abundance. By the early 1920s, many Zlatoust products began appearing on the world market (Zlatoust-engraved hunting axes were especially popular).

As in 1812, war once again intervened to help revive the Zlatoust plant. In particular, soldiers loyal to the Czar (the Whites) fiercely defended the town until it was seized by the Red Army. Once taken, the Zlatoust factory immediately began producing cold steel for the Red Army. After retaking the town once again, the White Army destroyed

During the 1920s, several experienced engravers left the plant. This loss in talent was compensated by a new generation of engravers eager to share their creative ideas (such as nickel-tone and semitone engraving). Nonetheless, a reign of conformity 196

sanctioned Soviet compositions were not original miniatures, they could hardly by stylized using such techniques. Indeed, the majority of the work left much to be desired in an artistic sense.

perpetuated throughout the Stalin era. During World War II, Zlatoust steel engravers contributed heavily to the Soviet’s war effort. By the immediate postwar years, the craft’s creative impulse had all but been forgotten.

However, artist engravers sought to rescue and revive traditional engraving art. And in the 1980s, during the era of perestroika, their perseverance paid off. Since the early 1990s, the market for Zlatoust engravers has expanded remarkably. Accordingly, several private workshops, both large and small have opened shop within Zlatoust seeking to fulfill market demand.

Unfortunately, the next decade was hardly better, A decree from Soviet officials to employ graphic drawing techniques with steel engraving further arrested the craft’s development. These techniques overemphasized graphic lines and symbols, thus distracting the viewer from the object’s natural dominance. And since officially

Sergei Prokudin-Gorsky. Joining shop for the production of scabbards at the Zlatoust Plant. (1910) “Articles in steel, as well as gun-barrels, are now adorned with a pattern by some such process as this, which is called damascening. At the Russian manufactory at Zlatoust, sword blades are damascened in a very beautiful way. The peculiar waving lines are produced, not by converting soft steel into hard at particular spots, but by giving elasticity to hard steel. The object in view is not so much the production of a pattern, as the bringing of steel to such a state that a sword made from it will combine great elasticity with keenness of edge. George Dodd, Dictionary of Manufactures, Mining, Machinery, and the Industrial Arts. (1869)

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Saber of a Cossack officer (1881) with the inscription "For Bravery Cossacks are an East Slavic people with a very martial reputation. In peacetime, many Cossacks served as border guards on national and internal ethnic borders. They also regularly supplied men to fight in conflicts such as the numerous Russo-Turkish Wars. During the Russian Civil War, Cossack regions heavily supported the losing Anti-Bolshevik White movement. As a result, they were heavily repressed during the Stalin era.

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â&#x20AC;&#x153;Through the hand in craftsmanship, craft objects capture the efforts of their makers and make these efforts visible and palpable for use to see and comprehend; and in doing so, they reflect back to us our own efforts; they become mirrors of our own aspirations and possibilities. When we compare what our hand can do that of skilled makers, we develop an awareness and appreciation of other human beings and, in the process, a greater degree of self-understanding and self-awareness. In this, craftsmanship in craft objects fosters a worldview that projects the creative imagination firmly within a humanly defined, a humanly scaled, and humanly understandable tangible reality. â&#x20AC;&#x153; Howard Risatti, A Theory of Craft: Functional and Aesthetic Expression. p.196

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Abram Arkhipov. Mask Workshop. (1897)

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Russian Craft History and Design

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