Degree Project - Ecological Sandscapes

ECOLOGICAL SANDSCAPES

Jeremiah Hadi Go

Special Thanks to:

Design Professors Eva Perez de Vega & Gonzalo Carbajo, HMS Writing Professor Carrie Eastman, and Degree Project Advisors Maria Sieira & Ana Cajiao

Jeremiah Hadi Go & Alan Weng

3D printed section sketch model

Are traditional forms of reparations even adequate anymore?

ECOLOGICAL SANDSCAPES

The rate of desertification has accelerated dramatically in recent history, disproportionately affecting the most vulnerable populations. As global temperatures continue to soar, excessive human activity has caused vegetation and wildlife to vanish, and what used to be arable land, is now damaged. The diamond mining town of Kolmanskop is a prime example of this—its wealth built on the exploitation of human and non-human species and their entire ecosystems. Now abandoned, it exists buried by the desert sands, void of any sort of restitutions to the land. Reparations are often associated with monetary compensation, but with the looming threat of a changing climate, are traditional reparations even adequate? Ecological Sandscapes challenges the very definition of wealth, extending beyond an anthropocentric framework to address all sentient beings, and taking the stance that ecological restoration should be an equitable form of reparations. Using patterns generated by soundwaves, and including quiver trees, sociable weaver birds, and Sporosarcina pasteurii bacteria as non-human collaborators, Ecological Sandscapes emerges from the desert dunes to form a structural network that supports the return of animals to the site, in an attempt to repair the damage done to the indigenous people and wildlife of Kolmanskop.

[project statement]

In the age of climate change, solely financial means of reparations are no longer adequate. This project embraces an environmental ethos that highlights a reverent attitude toward other life forms, leading to the development of a mutualistic relationship between humans and the environment. Challenging the traditional notion of reparations in the midst of a climate crisis naturally leads us to the conclusion that the first remedial step should be reparations in the form of ecological restoration.

Photo by @nalamanpics

Quiver tree forest landscape in the Namib desert v

ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION

The Kolmanskop Diamond Mine is situated in the Namib desert, within the eco-biome of the Succulent Karoo. Unlike most deserts, this one was home to an abundance of plants and animals, and more than a third of the world’s succulent species, many of which are endemic to the area. As global temperatures continue to soar, excessive human activity has caused vegetation and wildlife to vanish, and what used to be arable land is now barren. This process, called desertification, has accelerated dramatically in recent history, disproportionately affecting the most vulnerable populations.

The diamond mining town of Kolmanskop, where humans have exploited other humans and non-human species and their entire ecosystems for profit, is a prime example of this disproportionality. Now a deserted ghost town, its buildings sit buried by the desert sands, void of any signs of life - human, animal, or plant alike. Ecological Sandscapes embraces an environmental ethos that highlights a reverent attitude toward other life forms, leading to the development of a mutualistic, rather than damaging, relationship between humans and nature.1 Therefore, this project seeks to address this by challenging the traditional notion of reparations in the midst of climate change and what it means to be wealthy, taking the stance that ecological restoration should be the de facto form of reparations in situations like these.

Ecological Sandscapes proposes three main programs—a museum of indigenous history to educate the people about the atrocities of colonial violence, oppres-

sion, and genocide that occurred; a memorial to commemorate the human and non-human lives lost on the site, which also serves as a space to contemplate our human exceptionalism; and a research center to house dedicated ecologists, botanists, scientists, veterinarians, and other conservation professionals in order to promote the protection and monitor the reintroduction of endemic species in the area.

In order to achieve this, Ecological Sandscapes consists of two main phases. Firstly, through the process of bio-mineralization, the Sporosarcina pasteurii bacterium is able to solidify desert sand in a network like formation. This results in a structural framework that mimics the function of quiver trees, providing a place for weaver birds to build their nests. Secondly, as weaver birds populate the site and expand their colonies, agency is returned to the wildlife, letting them take over and become ecological architects in the reclaiming of a landscape that was once theirs. As temperatures continue to rise across southern Africa, social weaver colonies have the ability to create year-round animal biodiversity hotspots, and thus, our mutual cooperation with these animals might be the key to help wildlife survive in the harsh conditions of the Namibian desert, and begin the process of repairing the damage done to the indigenous people and wildlife of Kolmanskop.

1Cairns, “Reparations for Environmental Degradation and Species Extinction: A Moral and Ethical Imperative for Human Society,” 32.

Mapping Ecologies:

Kolmanskop + Succulent Karoo, Namibia

Cartographic drawing of the ecological climate within the Succulent Karoo biome

[context statement]

RETHINKING REPARATIONS

The Kolmanskop Diamond Mine is situated in the south of the Namibian desert, in a town that was once the wealthiest in the world, having gained its prosperity through the exploitation of humans, animals, and the ecological landscape. What was seemingly a well of luxury that sprung up in a barren desert, was actually once home to a different type of wealth—ecological richness and diversity. Situated within the eco-biome of the Succulent Karoo, its proximity to the coast created conditions suitable to host its indigenous people and an abundance of wildlife, many of which are critically endemic to the area. The biome supports one of the richest succulent flora on earth, with over 6000 species of plants, more than 225 bird species, 75 mammal species, and 90 reptile species.2 However, its longevity is under constant threat, as scientists have observed the mass mortality of succulents, perennial shrubs, and trees in response to the extreme periods of drought caused by sustained human activities and climate change.

Excessive human activity, particularly diamond mining, has caused an accelerated rate of desertification, a process that depletes the area of plant and wildlife, rendering once arable land barren and uninhabitable. Abandoned by the people who pillaged the land for what it’s worth, the town is now a ramshackle collection of derelict buildings, void of any signs of life or restitutions to the land. While reparations are often associated with monetary compensation, the looming threat of climate change forces us to question its adequacy. Inspired by ecological pioneer John Cairns Jr., whose work focused on ecotoxicology, ecological restoration, and a sustainable use of the planet, Ecological Sandscapes embraces an environmental ethos that highlights a reverent attitude toward other life forms, leading to the development of a mutualistic, rather than damaging, relationship between humans and the environment.3 As we continue to reevaluate our relationship and interdependence with

nature, challenging the traditional notion of reparations in the midst of a climate crisis should naturally lead us to the conclusion that the first remedial step should be reparations in the form of ecological restoration.

One way to approach that is by working with the social weaver bird, which is native to Namibia. According to the Journal of Animal Ecology, social weaver colonies have the ability to create year-round animal biodiversity hotspots and are deemed “ecosystem engineers” for their ability to positively change resource availability and species diversity.4 The giant nests that they construct stay cool in the summer and warm in the winter, their droppings enriching the soil below to boost plant growth, resulting in new centers of wildlife activity.

Environmental historian Jason W. Moore emphasizes that the fundamental aspect of a reparation ecology is remembering the violence and inequality of modernity to address the collective experiences of national trauma,5 and in this particular case, the trauma associated with the struggle against colonialism and the mass genocide of people, plants, and animals. This project is situated in a way that allows us to overcome our own hubris, reconsider human exceptionalism, and come to terms with a way of organizing life between humans and the rest of nature—in a way that is emancipatory.

2Poulsen and Koopman, “What Is Succulent Karoo?”

3Cairns, “Reparations for Environmental Degradation and Species Extinction: A Moral and Ethical Imperative for Human Society,” 32.

4Lowney and Thomson, “Ecological Engineering Across a Temporal Gradient: Sociable Weaver Colonies Create Year-Round Animal Biodiversity Hotspots,” 2362.

5Velednitsky, “The Case for Ecological Reparations: A Conversation with Jason W. Moore.”

Inspired by the instruments of the indigenous pastoralists of Namibia, we began our material exploration with an intensive formal and geometrical study of the interaction between sand and sound, with the intention of our architecture becoming the instrument that calls nature back to our site, just like how they used to herd cattle and sheep in the past.6

Cymatics is the study of the visualization of sound, using a fluid physical medium such as sand or water to give a graphic representation to sound waves.7 We carried out our experiments by dusting sand onto a metal plate and vibrating it at various frequencies, documenting the patterns generated at each frequency. We continued our exploration with the help of digital software to harness the patterns to make three dimensional geometrical forms. This resulted in the unique visualizations of resonant sound patterns in both 2D and 3D that aided us in our form finding efforts.

6Mans, “Traditional Musical Instruments in Namibia.” 7“Cymatics: The Visualization of Sound.”

Digitally generated three-dimensional sound patterns using grasshopper

2D sound patterns using a Chladni plate

Negatives of the sound patterns cast in plaster

Three-dimensional sound patterns made with foam using the CNC machine

SOUND AS MATERIAL

These patterns became the basis of our organization, one that was produced by nature, which seeks to oppose the regularity of a traditional grid. The pattern was staked with basswood sticks to form an outline, and a stretchy spandex material was draped over it. Plaster was then poured onto the framework and let cure, resulting in a form that was cast upside down, in reponse to gravity. This gave us three dimensional volumes with spatial qualities that could be further investigated in our form finding explorations.

research and methodology statement]

Cymatic pattern with basswood sticks

Casting medium poured onto spandex

Form finding: plaster casted models

Sketch sections of phyiscal models to reveal spatial possibilities

SANDSCAPES

Active sand dunes, a characteristic element of the Kolmanskop landscape, currently exist without a stabilizing plant cover. This existence makes the dunes susceptible to excessive movement by wind, which in turn jeopardizes land use and wildlife inhabitation. For these reasons, we set out to solidify the sand to prevent the dunes from shifting. For these reasons, we set out to solidify the sand to prevent the dunes from shifting.

Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges once wrote, “nothing is built on stone; all is built on sand, but we must build as if the sand were stone.”8 With that quotation in mind, our research led us to the localized process of biologically cementing desert sand. Microbial-Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP) uses Sporosarcina pasteurii, a gram-positive bacterium that has the ability to precipitate calcite and solidify sand given a source of calcium and urea.9 While the initial reaction only takes twenty four hours, it would need up to a week to be structurally sound and habitable,10 which is basically an accelerated process of natural sandstone formation.

While we were unable to replicate this exact process in an architecture studio setting, we managed to achieve a similar end product using a slightly different method. Using a mixture of sand and readily available calcium carbonate powder (the ingredient that the bacteria is able to bio-mineralize), a mold was made, imprinted with the rough form of the geometry that we wanted to reproduce. Salt water was then sprayed onto the surface before letting it dry—the process repeated two to three times to build up the thickness of the layers.

The result was a sturdy and dense yet lightweight material shell that became the organic material of our project. Because of the architecture and construction industry,

concrete is the most widely used material, second only to water,11 contributing 4-8 percent of the world’s CO2 emissions.12 In addition, desert sand is too smooth and round to form stable concrete,13 which requires larger and more irregular aggregate. This new technology could potentially make use of the existing desert sands and be an eco-friendlier replacement to traditional concrete. In reference to Swedish architect Magnus Larsson’s architectural speculation project, Dune, the idea is that the bacteria could be injected into the sand, allowing it to organically create an underground network of solidified sand dunes in the desert.14 Abstracting these geometries into an exoskeleton mimicked the form of quiver trees, allowing weaver birds to create their nests within its structure. The entire design methodology incorporates non-human actors into the basis of our design, as we progress into a world where humans are secondary and play the supporting role in the return of wildlife.

8Borges, “Fragments from an Apocryphal Gospel.” Original quote: “Nada se construye sobre piedra; todo se construye sobre arena, pero debemos construir como si la arena fuese piedra.”

9Chou et al., “Bacterially-Induced Calcite Precipitation via Ureolysis.” 10Manaugh, “Sand/Stone.”

11Gagg, “Cement and Concrete as an Engineering Material: An Historic Appraisal and Case Study Analysis,” 114.

12Lehne and Preston, “Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low-Carbon Cement and Concrete.”

13Beiser, “Why the World Is Running Out of Sand.”

14Larsson, “Dune: Arenaceous Anti-Desertification Architecture,” 431.

[design research and methodology statement]

Sand mixed with specific ratio of ingredients

Unearthing the solidified sandstone forms

“Nothing is built on stone; all is built on sand, but we must build as if the sand were stone.”

- Jorge Luis Borges

Desired forms imprinted into the sand Saltwater sprayed to saturate the surface

The town’s history tells a cautionary tale of incredible riches and prosperity—great wealth generated from a place that was named for its nothingness—and its sudden decline, returning it to a state of nothingness.

“Namib” refers to “an area where there is nothing.”

[research essay]

A TOWN BUILT ON COLONIAL VIOLENCE

The rate of desertification has accelerated dramatically in recent history, disproportionately affecting the most vulnerable populations. Coupled with an alarming rise in global temperatures, excessive human activity has caused vegetation and wildlife to vanish, and what used to be arable land is now damaged.

Political philosopher Avner de-Shalit describes the way in which humans have ravaged the earth’s resources and caused damage to the environment as an act of human chauvinism.15 The diamond mining town of Kolmanskop is a prime example of this—its wealth built on the exploitation of both human and non-human species and their entire ecosystems. Abandoned by the very people who pillaged it, the town is now reclaimed and buried by the desert sands, void of any sort of restitution to the people or their land.

Located in the southwestern part of the Namib Desert, the town of Kolmanskop was once “one of the wealthiest in the world,”16 and home to over 1200 people and 700 families.17 In the local Nama language, “Namib” refers to “an area where there is nothing.”18 Now a “ramshackle collection of derelict buildings,”19 the town’s history tells a cautionary tale of incredible riches and prosperity— great wealth generated from a place that was named for its nothingness—and its sudden decline, returning it to a state of nothingness.

15de-shalt, “Is Liberalism Environment-Friendly?,” 289.

16Gray, “The Ghost Town That Was Abandoned When the Diamonds Ran Out.”

17“Kolmanskop Ghost Town.”

18Schoenbach, “A Mystery in the World’s Oldest Desert.”

19Gray.

Photo by Dave and Carol Horlick

The deserted landscape of Kolmanskop’s ghost town

Since the initial discovery of diamonds in 1908, millions of carats in diamonds have been exported from Namibia, totaling about 12 percent of the world’s total diamond production. 20 As the diamond mining industry continued to boom, the settlement of Kolmanskop began to grow right alongside it. Early wooden shacks gave way to more permanent buildings constructed with reinforced mortar, stone, and brick,21 in a stark contrast to its desolate surroundings. Thus, Kolmanskop became a well of luxury that sprung up in a seemingly barren desert. 22

However, the real history of the diamond trade was far from glamorous. Between 1904-1907, in search of potential diamond mines, German authorities colonized vast stretches of land that belonged to the Herero and Nama

people, declaring it a Sperrgebiet or “restricted zone.”23 This sparked a rebellion from the indigenous tribes, prompting the Germans to retaliate with a “genocidal ferocity,”24 in what is now infamously known as the “extermination order,”—the first documented instance of a genocide policy that resulted in the annihilation of almost 90 percent of the Herero people. 25

When what is currently known as Kolmanskop was founded, there were few Nama and Herero people left, leading to the import of tens of thousands of Ovambo people from the north. 26 Indigenous tribes were not only displaced from their land, they were also forced to live in abysmal conditions, causing death rates that rivaled those of the genocide. 27

Thus, the diamond industry, and the manner in which the Germans garnered their wealth and controlled the people of Namibia, was part of a deadly, brutal, process of colonization that perpetuated a relationship between violence and profits. 28

Intensive mining rapidly depleted Kolmanskop’s riches by the 1930s,29 and when diamond deposits were found elsewhere, it spelt the beginning of the end for this small town. The town’s fate was sealed when people left in droves, abandoning their homes and all their possessions, leaving the town completely deserted by 1956. It is almost impossible to imagine that a few decades ago, it was home to a bustling diamond mine, and even before that, possibly a vibrant culture of its own.

Left to the elements, the winds of the Namibian desert burst through the many abandoned doors and porches of Kolmanskop, “filling its rooms with smooth banks of sand.”30

15de-shalt, “Is Liberalism Environment-Friendly?,” 289.

16, 19, 20Gray, “The Ghost Town That Was Abandoned When the Diamonds Ran Out.”

17, 21“Kolmanskop Ghost Town.”

18Schoenbach, “A Mystery in the World’s Oldest Desert.”

22, 24, 29, 30Cooper, “Learn the History of Kolmanskop, a Namibian Ghost Town Covered in Sand.”

23“The Official History of Diamonds in Namibia.”

25Gewald, Herero Heroes.

26, 27, 28Press, “As Germany Acknowledges Its Colonial-Era Genocide in Namibia, the Brutal Legacy of Diamond Mining Still Needs a Reckoning.”

The abandonded buildings of Kolmanskop’s ghost town

“An angry red covers the sky, the waves are rough, the water is rising, the birds are panicking. Swirling winds wrap around the destruction of the Earth's ecosystems, the enslavement of non-humans, as well as wars, social inequality, racial discrimination, and the domination of women.

The devastating effects on the landscape are clearly rooted in historical colonialism, caused by oppression, violence, and the genocide of human and non-human species alike.

When power structures have been imbalanced for so long, some form of reparations is in order. Reparations generally refer to “making amends for some wrong/ injury by restoring or repairing, by which the injured individual/group is recompensed for real or imagined damage by the individual/group perceived as causing the damage.”32 Even though the term “reparations” has a broader definition, it has historically only taken the form of monetary compensation. In the case of the Holocaust, Germany has acknowledged their wrongdoings and are actively taking steps to ensure that the victims and their descendants receive proper compensation, having paid an estimated $86 billion over 70 years.33 In the United States, while the views on reparations for the enslavement of Black Americans are divided, efforts have moved forward in the recent years. In 2021, the city of Evanston, Illinois created a reparations plan for its black residents, California established a state-level reparations task force.34 In 2022, Harvard University set up a $100 million “Legacy of Slavery” fund for black scholars and students.34

Clearly the system of capitalism that we live in prioritizes wealth in terms of monetary value, but by thinking of reparations in other terms, this project challenges what it means to be wealthy. Can restoring the destroyed ecology be another way in which to conduct reparations?

In 2021, the German Foreign Minister has finally, and for the first time, recognized the atrocities against the Herero and Nama people as genocide, and agreed to pay them €1.1 billion in aid.35 Although it is a commendable first step, the looming threat of climate change forces us to question its adequacy. Ecological Sandscapes seeks to alter the method in which amends are made, by redefining wealth, not in terms of monetary value, but in ecological richness and biodiversity.

31Ferdinand, Decolonial Ecology: Thinking from the Caribbean World. 32Cairns, “Reparations for Environmental Degradation and Species Extinction: A Moral and Ethical Imperative for Human Society,” 25.

33“The JUST Act Report: Germany.”

34Blazina and Cox, “Black and White Americans Are Far Apart in Their Views of Reparations for Slavery.”

35Adami, “Germany Recognizes Herero and Nama Genocide.”

-A Modern Tempest, from “Decolonial Ecology”31

ECOLOGICAL REPARATIONS

Inspired by ecological pioneer John Cairns Jr., whose work focused on ecotoxicology, ecological restoration, and a sustainable use of the planet, Ecological Sandscapes embraces an environmental ethos that highlights a reverent attitude toward other life forms, leading to the development of a mutualistic, rather than damaging, relationship between humans and the environment.36

As we continue to reevaluate our relationship and interdependence with nature, challenging the traditional notion of reparations in the midst of a climate crisis naturally leads us to the conclusion that solely financial means of reparations are no longer adequate, and that the first remedial step should be reparations in the form of ecological restoration.37

Photo by Simon van Ooijen

Social weaver birds’ nest on lone tree in Namib Naukluft National Park, Namibia

Many regard the Kolmanskop Diamond Mine as one of Namibia’s primary industrial sites, with a rich history that represented a radical transformation in human society. Akin to the transition to farming in the Neolithic era,38 it is significant in helping us understand advances in technology that led to a luxurious life in the middle of the desert. As easy as it is to ignore that all this prosperity was achieved through the exploitation of thousands, sites like this are as much “symbols of grandeur and technological progress,”39 as they are monuments to the suffering of an oppressed group of people.

As we are used to thinking of ruins as being old, and vestiges of the past, the young ages of industrial ruins like these are “measured in decades, not millennia”.40 This completely warps our assumptions about the order and progress of the modern world, drastically shifting the way in which we perceive the notion of time and degradation. What remains, is a collection of dilapidated buildings, void of the histories and stories of the unnamed workers that they housed, an “empty shell which resembles more white elephant than heritage resource.”41

However, our fascination with industrial ruins continues to grow because their collapsed walls, and broken windows “expose intimacy and privacy, recalling to light the previously hidden, forgotten or unknown,”42 a truth this project seeks to reconcile. Ecological Sandscapes is an opportunity to confront this history, engage with its social contexts, and uncover the potential for ecological rehabilitations, as an act of restitution to the land within the framework of sustainable development in a post-colonial Namibia.

particular case, the violence and inequality associated with the struggle against colonialism and the mass genocide of people, plants, and animals. Thus, ecological reparations are a “moral and ethical imperative,” and restoring environmental degradation will serve to benefit both natural systems and human society.44

As we humans continue to reevaluate our place in the interdependent web of life of which we are a part, we are able question the very basis of capitalism, and approach it through a nature-society binary that allows us to reexamine the binaries of colonialism, race, class, and gender.45 Ecological reparations is ultimately a “rethinking of what nature, humanity, and justice means,” and the reintroduction of biodiversity would serve as a form of ecological reparations that begins to undo the violence enacted on the indigenous people, land, and wildlife ecosystems of Kolmanskop. Thus, this project is situated in a way that allows us to overcome our own hubris, reconsider human exceptionalism, and come to terms with a way of organizing life between humans and the rest of nature in a way that is emancipatory.46

36Cairns, “Reparations for Environmental Degradation and Species Extinction: A Moral and Ethical Imperative for Human Society,” 32.

37Cairns, 32.

38Walsh, The Representation of the Past: Museums and Heritage in a Post-Modern World, 83.

39Walsh, 83.

40Olsen and Pétursdóttir, Ruin Memories.

41Alexander, “Kolmanskop: An Industrial Heritage Resource or Only a Tourist Attraction?,” 28.

42Olsen and Pétursdóttir, Ruin Memories.

43Velednitsky, “The Case for Ecological Reparations: A Conversation with Jason W. Moore.”

Environmental historian Jason W. Moore states that what a reparation ecology should seek to address is the collective experience of national trauma,43 and in this

44Cairns, “Reparations for Environmental Degradation and Species Extinction: A Moral and Ethical Imperative for Human Society,” 31.

45Velednitsky, “The Case for Ecological Reparations: A Conversation with Jason W. Moore.”

46Velednitsky.

Excessive human activity, particularly diamond mining, has caused desertification—a process of land degradation that depletes an area of plant and wildlife47—to occur at an unprecedented scale, rendering once fertile land completely barren and uninhabitable. As global temperatures continue to soar, scientists have observed the mass mortality of succulents, perennial shrubs, trees, and animals in response to the extreme periods of drought caused by the sustained human activities and climate change. Without a stabilizing plant cover, sand is susceptible to excessive movement by wind, creating the active sand dunes that are a characteristic element of today’s Kolmanskop landscape, jeopardizing land use and wildlife inhabitation.

With temperatures that constantly fluctuate between 45°C in the day and below freezing at night, and the most arid regions only receiving two millimeters of average rainfall per year, it isn’t difficult to see why this is “one of the most inhospitable places on the planet”.48 However, prior to the diamond boom, the land was actually home to a different type of wealth—ecological richness and diversity. In a “bizarre geomorphic phenomenon,” this desert is home to “a staggering number of species”49 that have adapted to this harsh climate; animals such as ostriches are able to minimize water loss by raising their body temperatures, mountain zebras are able to navigate the rugged terrain with their climbing skills, and oryx feed on water rich roots and tubers as a substitute for the lack of drinking water.50 This is because it is situated within the eco-biome of the Succulent Karoo, an area covering approximately 116,000km2

of Namibia and South Africa. Its proximity to the coast creates conditions suitable to host its indigenous people and an abundance of wildlife, resulting in a level of plant diversity that rivals those of rainforests, many of which are critically endemic to the area. The biome supports one of the richest succulent flora on earth, with over 6000 species of plants, more than 225 bird species, 75 mammal species, and 90 reptile species.51 However, according to the Environmental Literacy Council, only 2-3 percent of the Succulent Karoo is under formal protection,52 putting the biodiversity and longevity of this area under constant threat.

47Nunez, “Desertification, Explained.”

48, 49, 50Schoenbach, “A Mystery in the World’s Oldest Desert.”

51Poulsen and Koopman, “What Is Succulent Karoo?”

52Fletcher, “This Beautiful Desert Is Blooming with Wildlife Found Nowhere Else on Earth.”

Catalog of plant and animal species present in the Namib Desert, along with their conservation status

VITRUVIAN SPECIES

Aloidendron dichotomum (name var. Aloe dichotoma, Aloe mon tana, Aloe ramosa, Rhipidoden dron dichotomum, Rhipidodendrum dichotomum). Aloidendron, aloe (bitter sap), dendron (tree-like). Dichotomum in Greek means cutting in two. This refers to the stems repeatedly forked branching. Tree is up to 7m high with a 1m wide trunk. Dense rounded crown has spear-shaped leaves with an amplexicaul base and marginal yellow spines.

The Quiver Tree (Aloe Dichotoma)

Ploceidae is a family of small passerine birds, many of which are called weavers, weaverbirds, weaver finches and bishops. It is derived from the ancient Greek word plokeus, meaning weaver. These names come from the nests of intricately woven vegetation created by birds in this family. All birds of the Ploceidae are native to the Old World, most in Africa south of the Sahara. Weaver birds use a variety of plant materials to build their nests, including strips of grass, leaves, twigs and roots. Social weavers, which live in South Africa, Namibia and Botswana, do not build individual nests. In stead, all of the males of a colony will work together to build a large, communal nest, which may house as many as four hundred birds. A communal nest can fill up an entire tree canopy and may last for one hundred years.

The Sociable Weaver Bird

Formerly Bacillus pasteurii, sporosarcina pasteuriigram-is a non-pathogenic, endospore forming gram positive bacterium naturally found in soil, that has the ability to precipitate calcite (CaCO3) and solidify sand given a source of calcium and urea through the process of microbiologically induced calcite precipitation or biological cementation. It is being investigated for possible usefulness in a multitude of applications including underground storage of carbon, healing masonry structures of archaeological importance, and long- term sealing of geologic cracks in large-scale structures.

essay] ECOLOGICAL ENGINEERS

The environmental attitude that this project has taken would imply extending the notion of others to include nonhuman animals, all sentient creatures, living objects and ecosystems.

Biodiversity in a given landscape can be facilitated by other species that have “positive effects on the local species diversity and impact community structure.”53

One such species is the Social Weaver Bird, which is native to Namibia. Research carried out by the Journal of Animal Ecology demonstrated that the “presence of sociable weaver colonies created centers of animal activity.”54 They have the ability to create “year-round animal biodiversity hotspots” and are deemed “ecosystem engineers”55 for their ability to positively change resource availability and species diversity. The giant nests that they construct are able to stay cool in the summer and warm in the winter,56 attracting other bird species to roost in unoccupied nest chambers.57

Another species is the Quiver Tree. They are a tall, branching type of succulent indigenous to southern Africa that provides food and shelter for many insects, mammals and birds. Well adapted to growing in sandy soils and dry climates, they are known for their symbiotic relationship with the weaver birds.58 The trees which grow up to twenty-five feet high, provide a tall structure above ground for the birds to build their nests. The bark on the trunk takes the form of golden-brown scales with razor sharp edges, further protecting the birds from predators.59 Over the years, the birds’ droppings enrich the soil with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, boosting plant growth, which provides more shade for animals to use in the summer. This results in new centers of wildlife activity around these trees.

Without a stabilizing plant cover, the sand dunes susceptible to excessive movement by wind, which in turn jeopardizes land use and wildlife inhabitation. Through the process of Microbial-Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP), Sporosarcina pasteurii, a gram-positive bacterium is able to solidify sand given a source of calcium and urea.60 While the initial reaction only takes 24 hours, it would need up to a week to be structurally sound and habitable.61 This new technology could potentially make use of the existing desert sands and be an eco-friendlier replacement to traditional concrete. Harnessing this strategy would result in a structural framework that mimics the function of quiver trees, providing a place for weaver birds to build their nests. As weaver birds populate the site and expand their colonies, agency is returned to the wildlife, letting them take over and become ecological architects in the reclaiming of a landscape that was once theirs.

The impact of climate change means that temperatures are expected to become increasingly extreme across southern Africa. Our mutual cooperation with other species might be the key to helping the wildlife survive the harsh conditions of the Namibian desert, and begin the process of repairing the damage done to the indigenous ecology of Kolmanskop.

53Lowney and Thomson, “Ecological Engineering Across a Temporal Gradient: Sociable Weaver Colonies Create Year-Round Animal Biodiversity Hotspots,” 2373.

54Lowney and Thomson, 2373.

55Lowney and Thomson, 2362.

56Heinrich, “Africa’s Social Weaverbirds Take Communal Living to a Whole New Level.”

57Powell, “In Africa, Sociable Weavers Build a Nest of Many Uses.”

58Foden, “Quiver Trees and Climate Change.”

59Foden.

60Chou et al., “Bacterially-Induced Calcite Precipitation via Ureolysis.”

61Manaugh, “Sand/Stone.”

[research

AXONOMETRIC

The bacteria is injected into the ground at strategc locations, allowing it to organically create an underground network of solidified sand dunes in the desert. unearthed by the coastal winds, Ecological Sandscapes emerges from the desert dunes, forming an exoskeleton that mimics the structural function of the quiver trees for weaver birds to build their nests. As time passes, the walls continue to thicken, creating spaces that support the return of animals to the site, in an attempt to repair the damage done to the indigenous ecology of Kolmanskop.

Iterations of “exoskeleton” showing the thickening of the structrure over time, based on final massing model cast with plaster

I II

III IV

Interior view of the musuem, with the exhibits embedded into the walls

Interior view of the memorial, with the acoustic sound panelling treatment on the walls

PROGRAM

Ecological Soundscapes proposes three main programs—a museum, memorial, and research center.

The museum focuses on indigenous and wildlife history to educate the people about the atrocities of colonial violence, oppression, and genocide that occurred. It would showcase fossilized remains of the endangered and extinct species embedded within the sandstone walls, incorporated during the solidification process. This begins to propose a new type of museum where the material on display is part of the architecture itself, one with a temporal nature due the ever changing winds.

The memorial, to commemorate the human and non-human lives lost on the site, which also serves as a space to contemplate our human exceptionalism. The space is formed using the geometrical sound study patterns, in order to absorb ambient sound and provide a tranquil yet eerily haunting experience of a world without nature and the sounds of wildlife.

The research center would house dedicated ecologists, botanists, scientists, veterinarians, and other conservation professionals in order to promote the protection and monitor the reintroduction of endemic species in the area.

THE FOUR TOMORROWS

Inspired by Donna Haraway’s Camille Stories,62 this short narrative speculates on the four tomorrows of Nahla’s journey in trying to revive the ecology of the abandoned landscape of Kolmanskop. Nahla is one of the few surviving descendants hailing from the Herero tribe of Namibia. With a name of Arabic and African origin that means “water in the desert,” her insatiable thirst for knowledge and her unwavering passion for the environment led her to become an environmental scientist. Returning to Kolmanskop after all these years, she is on a mission to reconnect with her roots, by helping to save the landscape from the ravages of time and the encroaching desert sands.

62Haraway, “Chapter 8: The Camille Stories - Children of Compost.”

Tomorrow 0: A Deserted Landscape

Today, Kolmanskop sits uninhabited, abandoned by its wealthy residents, decades after having been pillaged by German colonizers. Once the diamonds ran out, the sand-clearing squad gradually stopped showing up, the ice-man stayed away, and eventually the school bell rang no more. The relentless winds of the Namib desert took no time in reclaiming the landscape, burying the town’s pretty gardens and smooth streets, filling the many neglected structures with banks of

sand. Doors and windows creaked on their hinges, their cracked window panes staring sightlessly across the desert. Nahla stood at the edge of the abandoned town, gazing out over the barren scene a new ghost town had been born. Animal skeletons litter the deserted landscape amongst the dilapidated and derelict buildings, a melancholy monument and haunting memory of what was once a well of luxury.

THE FOUR TOMORROWS

Tomorrow I: The Rebirth of Ecology

It had been more than 50 years since the last humans had left this place, and the desert sands had taken over in their absence. As the sun begins to rise, Nahla gets to work, restoring the fragile ecosystem in order to preserve the rich cultural heritage of her people. Leveraging their symbiotic relationship, quiver trees had been chosen for their ability to attract sociable weaver birds, their presence crucial in the ecosystem’s regeneration. As rows of quiver trees were carefully planted throughout the landscape, sand solidifying bacteria was being strategically injected into the sand as well. While there is still much work to be done to protect and preserve this delicate ecosystem, Nahla took comfort in the knowledge work had been started to give Kolmanskop a new lease on life, hopeful that this would mean a rebirth of ecology in the middle of the Namibian desert.

Tomorrow II: Structurally Sound

Over time, the quiver tree seeds sprouted, now knee height succulents that dot the landscape. As the sun rose higher in the sky, Nahla noticed the first sign of animal activity an inquisitive flock of weaver birds attracted by the new foliage. The birds eagerly explored the possibility of a new home, their graceful motion of flight a stark contrast to the decayed buildings and rusted machinery scattered in the background. As signs of life began to return above ground, it gave little to no indication of what was happening underground and within the dunes. The Sporosarcina pasteurii bacteria was hard at work, solidifying the sand. As the harsh desert winds continued to blow, parts of the structure began to be unearthed. Peeking above the surface, it revealed a solidified shell of sand, hinting that what lies underneath could be structurally sound.

Tomorrow III: Nature’s Reclamation

Slowly but surely, life began to return to Kolmanskop. Over the next few weeks, Nahla observed the expansion of the weaver birds’ nests, engulfing the branches of the quiver trees and organic frameworks constructed by the bacteria. The nests play host to a variety of bird species, cheetahs rest atop them to bask in the sun, while other animals take advantage of the shade below. Now teeming with life, the once-abandoned town is the go-to hub for wildlife research and eco-tourism. Visitors witness first-hand, the remarkable transformation of the town repopulated with a diverse array of animals and plants, offering the chance to experience nature in its purest form. Nahla and the weaverbirds are nicknamed the “ecosystem engineers” responsible for nature’s reclamation of Kolmanskop becoming a biodiversity hotspot once again.

Tomorrow IV: A Thriving Ecosystem

As the sun sets below the sandy dunes, Nahla, standing at the edge of the landscape, gazes out at the flourishing ecology of the new Kolmanskop. The sound of birds chirping and insects buzzing filled the air, and the once-barren landscape now flush with new vegetation. Nahla closed her eyes and listened to the cacophonous chirps of the weaverbirds, pleased with the success of a true collaboration between humans and animals in the restoration of the landscape. This feat of ecological engineering provides humanity with hope for the future of the planet and its inhabitants, inspiring a new generation of environmental stewards that are determined to take greater action to protect it. The haunting silence of the abandoned landscape now a distant memory, replaced by the vibrant sights and sounds of a thriving ecosystem.

The abandoned houses of Kolmanskop sit as a scar on the landscape, a constant reminder of the material waste and suffering we as humans are capable of wreaking through our economic actions.63 Imagine being able to redirect that into creating architecture for the planet’s ecological life support system on which human society is dependent instead. Ecological Sandscapes suggests a new kind of intelligent building technology that forms organically underground, akin to plants and their roots-a process that is neither fully additive not subtractive, but a hybrid of the two, taking full advantage of the materiality and conditions of the site.

As we begin to untangle ourselves from the chaos of a contemporary capitalism entrenched in racism,64 it is clear that the way forward is to embrace an environmental philosophy and move toward a more eco-centric society. We should begin to look to other sources of knowledge, learn from Indigenous wisdom and ecological systems, in order to reimagine our “currencies of exchange”65 with the environment and the other species that inhabit it. Robin Wall Kimmerer, a plant ecologist, and author with Potawatomi heritage writes, “to replenish the possibility of mutual flourishing, for birds and berries and people, we need an economy that shares

the gifts of the Earth, following the lead of our oldest teachers.”66 It is clear that reparations made towards restoring environmental degradation will serve to benefit both natural systems and human society and are indeed a “moral and ethical imperative”67 more than ever before.

63Cooper, “Learn the History of Kolmanskop, a Namibian Ghost Town Covered in Sand.”

64Ferdinand, Decolonial Ecology: Thinking from the Caribbean World. 65, 66Kimmerer, “The Serviceberry.”

67Cairns, “Reparations for Environmental Degradation and Species Extinction: A Moral and Ethical Imperative for Human Society.”

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Aleshchenko, Sergey. Kolmanskop. May 22, 2017. Photograph. https://www.flickr.com/photos/136698858@ N06/35054413384/.

Alexander, Nicola. “Kolmanskop: An Industrial Heritage Resource or Only a Tourist Attraction?” University of Cape Town, 2010.

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Blazina, Carrie, and Kiana Cox. “Black and White Americans Are Far Apart in Their Views of Reparations for Slavery.” Pew Research Center (blog), n.d. https:// www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/11/28/ black-and-white-americans-are-far-apart-in-theirviews-of-reparations-for-slavery/.

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Cairns, John. “Reparations for Environmental Degradation and Species Extinction: A Moral and Ethical Imperative for Human Society.” Ethics in Science and Environmental Politics 2003 (May 7, 2003): 25–32.

[Journal Article, Philosophical] This paper discusses the topic of reparations in relation to environmental degradation and brings to question the ethics surrounding who should be responsible if the parties involved are no longer living (in the case of colonialism, or slavery). The author’s stance is that ecological degradation will cause all humans to suffer regardless of how much they contrib -

uted to that damage, and thus its repair is not only in our own interest, but also an ethical imperative. It is written by John Cairns, Jr., a distinguished professor of environmental biology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He has an extensive teaching career at multiple higher education institutions, specializing in topics such as ecotoxicology, ecological restoration, and arguing for a more sustainable use of the planet. His expertise is valuable towards our research, because it provides an ethical viewpoint on a topic that usually isn’t discussed in that manner.

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Cooper, Paul. “Learn the History of Kolmanskop, a Namibian Ghost Town Covered in Sand.” National Geographic, March 20, 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/eerie-fascinating-pictures-kolmanskop-desert-diamond-ghost-town.

[Website, Historical] This article introduces the “painful history” of Kolmanskop through the act of storytelling. It is also interspersed with photographs of the site, giving a primary source in which the reader is able to visualize the conditions of the site and relate it to what is being described. As an experienced writer, he conveys the narrative history of this town very well, in a concise and easy to understand manner. This comes as no surprise as the author is a novelist and has a PhD in the cultural and literary significance of ruins. He also writes, produces, and hosts the Fall of Civilizations Podcast which speaks to his knowledge and interest in the subject matter.

His writing has been published in multiple credible sources such as the New York Times, The BBC, The Atlantic, National Geographic, and Discover Magazine. This article provides an in-depth history of the site that we are

looking at and how its sordid activities led to the decimation of wildlife and now leaves behind an abandoned town in which we are trying to re-inhabit but with wildlife, instead of humans. Understanding the history of this town is an important part of the research to build a solid foundation upon which we are able to move forward in the name of ecological restoration and reparations.

Desai, Neha, and Chittaranjan Desai. Lone Tree in Namib Naukluft National Park. May 24, 2014. Photograph.

https://flic.kr/p/pG4g3v

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Farrer, Emily C., Sunshine A. Van Bael, Keith Clay, and McKenzie K. H. Smith. “Plant-Microbial Symbioses in Coastal Systems: Their Ecological Importance and Role in Coastal Restoration.” Estuaries and Coasts 45, no. 7 (March 30, 2022): 1805–22.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-022-01052-2.

[Journal Article, Scientific] This is a scientific research paper that investigates the ecology of “plant-microbial symbioses” and the importance of microorganisms in sand dunes, marshes, mangroves, and shrublands. The research involves reviewing the potential use of these microbes and their ecosystems in coastal restoration efforts in order to mitigate anthropogenic impacts. The main argument is that the preservation of these coastal system is vital because the unique ecosystems present are biodiversity reservoirs that are able to provide key environmental services and are thus immensely valuable to humans. As there is more research out there about plants and wildlife in coastal communities, the particular research done here helps to fill in the large knowledge gap of the importance of microorganisms in the same ecosystem. Microbial symbionts were found to be responsible for the health of plants, which means that they are in fact the foundation of coastal communities as they

are able to augment plant establishment and growth. This article was published by the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Tulane University, as recent as March of 2022. The institution not only lends credibility to the work, but we also benefit from having the most up to date scientific data on this topic. While the use of microbial symbionts to aid in the restoration of degraded coastal systems is still very new, there is a lot of potential in the research, and is a great entry point for us to consider the importance of that microorganisms can play in our design intervention.

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Gray, Richard. “The Ghost Town That Was Abandoned When the Diamonds Ran Out.” BBC Future, January 4, 2017. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20170104the-diamond-rush-ghost-town-buried-in-the-desert.

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Horlick, Dave, and Carol Horlick. Kolmanskop. June 4, 2017. Photograph. https://flic.kr/p/WnG4kK Kimmerer, Robin Wall. “The Serviceberry: An Economy of Abundance.” Emergence Magazine, October 26, 2022. https://emergencemagazine.org/essay/ the-serviceberry/.

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usually only been carried out over short periods of time, and is unable to fully tell how seasonal changes may affect their roles. Using statistical analysis, the researchers physically surveyed the animals over a year which is able to provide us with a more accurate and well-rounded understanding of the role that the weaver bird plays in different seasons. This research paper is published in the Journal of Animal Ecology by the British Ecological Society in 2021, and is associated with the FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence, and the University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa. Not only does it come from a reputable source, the African institutions involved with this study are able to provide a more authentic understanding of the topic at hand as it relates to their immediate environment. Our project relies on the positive effects that the weaver bird can provide to the local diversity and wildlife community structure of the area, and this paper provides us with the data to substantiate that.

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[Journal Article, Scientific] This research article demonstrates the ecological importance of social weaver bird colonies in providing resources to local animal and plant communities, as well as their ability to reduce environmental stress. The presence of these ecological engineers was shown to create centers of animal activity which proves their significance to the ecosystems in the harsh climates that they live in. Research on this has

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[Webpage, Scientific] This article is an educational introduction to the ecological landscape of the Succulent Karoo. While it is based on scientific research from a botanical perspective, the way in which the information is presented makes it easily accessible and understandable from a layman’s perspective because of its casual tone and blog format. Even though the information is given to us in the format of a blog, its author, Zoe Poulsen is not only a freelance writer, but botanist and conservationist based in Cape Town. The other author, Rupert Koopman, is also a botanist who is the Conservation Manager at the Botanical Society of South Africa, and has spent the last 12 years working with threatened species and habitats in the Western Cape. Both of them are experts in their field of botany, and their on the ground experience of the ecological landscape of the region also gives an added reliable first hand perspective to the readers. The website also has a .org suffix, meaning that it is associated with an official organization, and therefore implies a more credible nature of the information posted. This article also has links to further readings if more information about the subject matter is required. This article is relevant to our research because the scientific knowledge is required to back up our proposal of reintroducing wildlife into the seemingly abandoned town. This article makes that information readily available to us even though we are not botanists or ecologists.

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