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DECEMBER 2023
FULFILLING
THE NEEDS FOR FOLIC ACID AND VITAMIN B12 IS AN EFFECTIVE WAY TO IMPROVE THE METABOLIC EFFICIENCY OF LACTATING DAIRY COWS p. 68
Exploring the boundaries of animal nutrition and sustainability
N
utriNews International proudly presents the fourth edition of its printed magazine for 2023. In this issue, we delve into the heart of animal nutrition, exploring topics that redefine our understanding of health, performance, and sustainability in farming practices. The Gastrointestinal symphony: Our journey commences with an exploration of the intestinal structure, a linchpin for animal health. Beyond its conventional digestive role, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) unveils itself as the body’s largest immune organ. This revelation transforms our comprehension of overall health and immunity in production animals. Understanding corn variability: Turning our attention to the staple of animal diets, we unravel the secrets behind corn variability. Examining the impact of harvest conditions and drying temperatures on feed processing for poultry and swine diets, we uncover the hidden dimensions of corn, shedding light on its energy and nutritional value for growing pigs and broilers. Stages of Production, Stages of Feeding: Recognizing the dynamic nature of animal growth, we delve into the intricacies of pig feeding systems tailored to production stages. This insightful exploration unveils nuanced strategies for optimizing growth, health, and overall welfare at different stages of a pig’s life. Zinc Oxide Unveiled: Central to our editorial narrative is the delicate relationship between zinc oxide and swine health. The potential adverse effects of elevated levels take center stage, guiding practitioners to strike a harmonious balance between nutritional requirements and potential health risks associated with zinc oxide supplementation.
Soybeans: Beyond Nutrition: Beyond mere sustenance, our spotlight extends to soybeans, delving into the triad of sustainability, nutritional value, and economic impact. Understanding the origin of soybeans becomes paramount in navigating the complex interplay between these factors, providing decision-makers in agriculture and animal nutrition with a holistic perspective. AME Values in Black Soldier Fly Meal: A futuristic lens is cast on sustainable protein sources for poultry as we explore the nutritional potential of black soldier fly meal in quail diets. Our focus sharpens on apparent metabolizable energy (AME) values, showcasing the innovative solutions required to meet the global demand for sustainable protein sources. Vitamins and Ruminant Diets: Acknowledging the pivotal role of vitamins in ruminant diets. We emphasize the critical importance of fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12, offering an effective strategy to enhance the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows.
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COMMUNICATION GROUP AGRINEWS LLC
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This edition is more than a collection of articles; it is a testament to our commitment to fostering a deeper understanding of animal nutrition. Join us in unlocking the mysteries that lie within the pages of the fourth edition for 2023. Let us collectively embrace the evolving science that propels the field of animal nutrition into uncharted frontiers, cultivating a healthier, more sustainable future for animal production. Cheers to a year of nourishing insights and the promise of many more to come!
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1 NutriNews International December 2023
04
The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
24
Cândida Azevedo¹; Henrique Cancian²
Danyel Bueno Dalto, J. Jacques Matte, Jérôme Lapointe
¹Animal Scientist, MSc in Animal Science, and PhD in Animal Science and Pastures ²Animal Scientist
16
Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Understanding Corn Variability: Part II Edgar Orlando Oviedo Rondón
Prestage Department of Poultry Science, NC State University
32
Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages Laura Pérez Sala
Veterinarian, Team Coach, Communicator, Speaker, Trainer, and Content Creator
2 NutriNews International December 2023
44
Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
68 Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B 12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
Edgar Orlando Oviedo Rondón
Christiane L. Girard
Prestage Department of Poultry Science, NC State University
54
AME values in black soldier fly meal used in quail diets Brena Cristine Rosário Silva1, Cheila Roberta Lehnen2, and Simara Márcia Marcato3
Ph.D. student at the State University of Maringá. 2 Professor at the State University of Ponta Grossa. 3 Professor at the State University of Maringá. 1
60
Centre de recherche et développement de Sherbrooke, Agriculture et agroalimentaire
76
Mycotoxins in ruminant diets Carmen García y Santos, Lina Bettucci, Alejandra Capelli and Cecilia Cajarville University of the Republic, Route 1, km 42.200, PC 80.100, San José, Uruguay
Cross feeding and intestinal microbiome: implications for nutrition and health of monogastric animals Darío Cleofé R.; Carlos López T. Technical Team at Liptosa, Lípidos Toledo S.A.
nutrinews.com 3 NutriNews International December 2023
THE INTESTINE,
THE LARGEST IMMUNE ORGAN IN THE
BODY animal health
Cândida Azevedo¹; Henrique Cancian² ¹Animal Scientist, MSc in Animal Science, and PhD in Animal Science and Pastures ²Animal Scientist
T
he intestinal structure is crucial for the health and performance of animals. In addition to the digestive
functions of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), the immune cells and lymphoid structures present in the GIT constitute the largest immune organ in the body.
4 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
The foundations of the mucosal-associated immune system in the intestine are divided
Peyer’s patches, the site of initiation
into five spheres, which are:
of adaptive immune responses, an organized structure of multiple lymphoid follicles with germinal centers.
Epithelial barrier, a physical barrier composed of epithelial cell layers
Diffuse lymphoid tissue, macrophages,
(enterocytes and colonocytes),
dendritic cells, mast cells, irritating T
mucus-producing cells (goblet cells),
lymphocytes, regulatory T cells, IgA-
bactericidal substance-producing
secreting plasma cells scattered within
Paneth cells (defensins), carrier cells (M
the lamina propria of the mucosa.
cells), and intraepithelial T lymphocytes (Figure 1).
Mesenteric lymph nodes, the site of
Isolated lymphoid follicles, site where
against intestinal antigens transported
adaptive immune responses are
by the lymphatic system (Gonçalves et
initiated, structured arrangement of
al., 2016).
initiation of adaptive immune responses
animal health
immune cell populations.
Antimicrobial peptides Microvilli
Comensal microbiota and pathogens
Glycocalyx
IgAs Epithelial cell M cell
Tight junctions Subepithelial zone Dendritic cell
Lymphoid follicle Perifollicular area Peyer's patch
Lamina propria of the mucosa
Figure 1. Structure of defense of the intestinal epithelial barrier (adapted from D. Artis. 2008; 8:411 Nature Reviews Immunology).
5 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
Intestinal surface The surface of the mucosa (Figure 2) is covered with mucus formed by mucins, which are secreted by goblet cells and create a barrier that prevents larger particles, including most bacteria, from coming into direct contact with the layer of epithelial cells (Turner, 2009).
Mucins consist of diverse oligosaccharides and encompass glycoproteins found on both cell surfaces and in secretions. Secreted mucins,
animal health
such as MUC2, MUC5, and MUC6, create a hydrated gel layer with a thickness ranging from 300 to 700 μm. This gel layer is comprised of two distinct strata: an outer layer with lower density, usually inhabited by bacteria, and an inner layer with higher density, connected to the epithelium and devoid of bacteria.
Epithelium
Lamina propria Muscularis Submucosa Circular muscle Longitudinal muscle Serosa
Mucosa
Submucosal plexus Lymph vessel Artery & vein Myenteric plexus
Figure 2. Representation of the intestinal mucosal epithelium.
6 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
specialnutrients.com
Situated within the crypts of the small intestine (Figure 3), Paneth cells secrete α-defensins. Within the colon, absorptive epithelial cells in intestinal crypts generate β-defensin peptides, with some produced continually and others triggered by the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1.
Immune response The innate immune response begins with the mediation through the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), as well as cellular pattern recognition receptors (PRRs).
Intestinal epithelial cells’ production
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) function as PRRs
of regenerating islet-derived protein
in mammals and play a crucial role in
III gamma (REGIIIγ) requires signals originating from Toll-like receptors (TLRs) as a response to invasive microorganisms. Following colonization and infection by pathogens, the production of REGIIIγ escalates. (Abbas
recognizing microbial components and initiating the innate immune response. TLRs are divided into two subgroups, depending on their cellular location and specificity regarding their respective PAMPs.
animal health
et al., 2015).
Microvilli One group consists of TLR-1, TLR2, TLR-4, TLR-5, TLR-6, and TLR10, which are expressed on cell surfaces and recognize microbial
Nucleus
membrane components such as lipids, lipoproteins, and proteins. The other group is composed of TLR-3, TLR-7, TLR-8, and TLR-9, which are exclusively expressed in the intracellular vesicle and recognize microbial DNA (Cario, 2005).
Figure 3. Paneth cell.
8 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
When the integrity of the epithelial barrier is compromised, resulting in heightened intestinal permeability, it paves the way for pathogenic bacteria to invade the tissue (Figure 4). Additionally, this disruption allows intact dietary antigens to accumulate in the intestinal mucosa, consequently prompting immune cells in the mucosa to produce an elevated amount of inflammatory cytokines. This response has the potential to initiate an immune reaction, which could escalate into an excessive and abnormal immune response, eventually resulting in a state of intestinal inflammation (Gonçalves et al., 2016).
Intestinal lumen
Intestinal mucosal cells
Blood vessel
Germs and pathogenic bacteria penetrate the mucosal membrane
Different immune cells fight against the invading pathogens.
animal health
Intestinal bacteria of the gut microbiota as protection
An inflammatory response is triggered Figure 4. Immediate immune system response to pathogen invasion.
In such circumstances, for optimal safeguarding, the animal organism needs to possess defense mechanisms capable of identifying and eradicating invading
Clusters of immune cells forming organized
microorganisms effectively, ideally
and unenclosed lymphoid tissues are linked
without inducing tissue harm or
to the mucosal surfaces (Figure 5) of the
discomfort. This role is ascribed
respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital
to the adaptive immune system
tracts. These collectively form what is known
(Levinson, 2016).
as MALT (Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue).
Within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), the commencement of adaptive immune responses takes place within well-organized clusters of lymphocytes and antigen-presenting cells that maintain a close association with the epithelial
Specifically in the mucosa of the GIT, there is the GALT system (gut-associated lymphoid tissue), which consists of dense lymphoid tissue (Gonçalves et al., 2016).
mucosal lining of the intestine. This process also occurs in the mesenteric lymph nodes. (Abbas et al., 2015).
9 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
Villi Commensal bacteria Intraepithelial lymphocytes
M cell
Mucus
Crypt Antimicrobial peptides
Intestinal lumen Goblet cell Mucosal epithelium
Follicle Peyer's patch
Lymph vessel
Dendritic cell Macrophage Plasma cell
Paneth cells
Dendritic cell
T cell B cell
Lamina propria
Mastocyte
Mesentery
Mesenteric lymph node animal health
IgA
Figura 5. Organization of lymphoid tissues on the surface of the intestinal tract.
In GALT, lymphoid tissue is distributed along structures such as: Mesenteric lymph nodes (LN),
Lamina propria (LP), such as Peyer’s patches (PP) in the ileum, or as more diffuse lymphoid aggregates (VegaLopez et al., 2012). Apart from these formations, the GALT structure encompasses antigen-presenting cells (APCs), dendritic cells (DCs),
Peyer’s patches have the structure of lymphoid follicles, with germinal centers containing B lymphocytes, follicular helper T cells, follicular dendritic cells, and macrophages. The germinal centers within the follicles are surrounded by immature follicular B cells that express IgM and IgD.
macrophages, T cells, B cell regions featuring germinal centers within the lamina propria (LP), and natural killer (NK) cells (Cunha, 2013).
B cell
The most prominent GALT structures are Peyer’s patches, which are primarily found in the distal ileum, and in small aggregates of lymphoid follicles or isolated follicles in the appendix and colon.
10 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
The main pathway for antigen distribution
While M cells play a crucial role in
within GALT occurs through specialized cells
the immune response against luminal
called microfold cells (M cells), which are
microorganisms, some pathogenic
found in regions of the intestinal epithelium
microorganisms have evolved to deceive
called dome epithelium or follicle-associated
the M cell mechanism of action, using
epithelium (FAE) (Abbas et al., 2015).
them as a pathway for invasion through the
animal health
mucosal barrier. These cells have unique morphological
The most extensively studied instance is
characteristics, including reduced
Salmonella typhimurium, akin to the human
glycocalyx presence, irregular brush
pathogen S. typhi, responsible for causing
border, and reduced microvilli. It is
typhoid fever. M cells exhibit lectins that
worth noting that M cells are highly
enable precise binding and internalization
specialized in the phagocytosis and
of these bacteria
transcytosis of macromolecules from
Bacteria are cytotoxic to M cells,
the intestinal lumen, particulate
leading to increased intestinal
antigens, and pathogenic or
permeability (Figure 6) and
commensal microorganisms across the
subsequently the proliferation of
epithelium (Mabbott et al., 2013).
microorganisms (Abbas et al., 2015).
M cell T cell
Antigen
Inside
B cell
Macrophage
Figure 6. Certain pathogens utilize M cells as a route for penetrating the mucosa. Following this, other defensive cells come into play.
12 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
Sequence of the inflammatory response Dendritic cells and macrophages are
Following phagocytosis, the infiltrating
sentinel cells and antigen processors.
microorganisms undergo intracellular
Consequently, the process of antigen
processing and fragmentation into
processing can commence alongside the
smaller peptides. Subsequently, these
elimination of the invader through innate
peptides bind to specialized antigen-
defenses.
presenting receptors known as major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
Dendritic cell
molecules. These bound peptides are transported to the cell surface, leading to the initiation of adaptive immunity. This happens when lymphocytes recognize the MHC-bound peptides through specific
animal health
receptors.
Immune defense in circulation There are also effector T and B lymphocytes (helper CD4 T lymphocytes, cytotoxic CD8 T lymphocytes, and IgAsecreting plasma cells) previously activated/ differentiated in GALT or draining lymph nodes (Gonçalves et al., 2016).
These lymphocytes are heterogenous, predominantly (80%) exhibiting the CD8 phenotype. They contain ample cytoplasmic granules housing cytotoxic agents and possess the capability to generate various cytokines (such as IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, or IL-17). These lymphocytes can be categorized into cellular populations expressing the antigen receptor (TCR/T cell receptor) on the surface, consisting of either αβ or γδ chains.
13 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
The predominant T lymphocytes found
T lymphocytes are primarily classified
within the epithelium are the CD8αβ+/
as either CD4+ or CD8+ (both
TCRαβ+ type. These lymphocytes permeate
carrying TCRαβ+). They showcase
the intestinal epithelium and, upon
a memory phenotype (CD45RD)
activation in secondary lymphoid organs,
and establish a connection with the
enhance the expression of particular
intestinal mucosa by expressing
integrins and chemokine receptors.
unique integrins (α4β7) and
(Gonçalves et al., 2016).
chemokine receptors (CCR9). These
Natural intraepithelial T lymphocytes TCRγδ+ have primary functions in the intestinal mucosa, including:
specific receptors direct the path these lymphocytes take after being activated and undergoing conversion into effector cells.
Maintenance of epithelial barrier function (control of epithelial cell growth, secretion of TGF-β),
T cell
animal health
Tissue Homeostasis Protection against intestinal pathogens (production of
Subsequently, effector T lymphocytes
inflammatory cytokines, cytotoxicity)
exit the lymphoid tissue through efferent
(Gonçalves et al., 2016).
lymphatic vessels, enter the systemic bloodstream, and return to the intestine,
T lymphocytes are essentially categorized as either CD4+ or CD8+ (both bearing TCRαβ+). They display a memory phenotype (CD45RD) and are linked to the intestinal mucosa through the expression of distinct integrins (α4β7) and chemokine receptors (CCR9). These specific receptors guide the trajectory of these lymphocytes following their activation and transformation into
where they will assist in the elimination of a specific antigen (Gonçalves et al., 2016). This triggers the immune response, which in turn is already amplified and has a more diverse population of antigen-presenting cells, such as: Macrophages, B lymphocytes, Dendritic cells
effector cells. (Gonçalves et al., 2016).
14 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
In this new contact with the antigen
IL-2 stimulates the growth and
(promoted by antigen-presenting cells),
proliferation of T lymphocytes and B
effector T lymphocytes exhibit a swifter
cells, as well as inducing the production
and more robust response. They release
of other cytokines, such as IFN-γ and
cytokines like IFN-γ, IL-17, TNF-α,
TNF-β, resulting in the activation of
lymphotoxin-α, or IL-2, contingent upon the
monocytes, neutrophils, and natural
effector T cell’s profile (Th1 or Th17). Each
killer cells (Oliveira et al., 2011).
cytokine plays a distinct role in orchestrating the immune response that has been initiated.
B lymphocytes play a central role in the immune response of mucosal
IFN-γ stimulates antigen-
membranes through antibody
presenting cells to produce IL-12 and specifically activates the
production.
production of other inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, IL18, and TNF-α, as well as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in macrophages
These cells are activated in mesenteric
animal health
(Gonçalves et al., 2016).
lymph nodes, isolated lymphoid follicles of
The process of immune cells sampling
the intestinal mucosa, and also in Peyer’s
commensal microorganisms within
patches, with the cytokine TGF-β, and
a regulatory (anti-inflammatory)
differentiate into antibody-producing
microenvironment helps maintain
cells of the IgA isotype in its dimeric form,
tolerance towards the intestinal microbiota
secretory IgA (sIgA), or polymeric IgA.
(Gonçalves et al., 2016).
IgA plays an important role in
Considering the information provided,
protecting the mucosal epithelium
it’s clear that apart from its functions in
against invasive pathogens, modulating
digestion and nutrient absorption, the
the composition of the intestinal
intestine also assumes a vital role in the
microbiota, and maintaining homeostasis
body’s defense and immune responses.
against commensal and dietary antigens
Therefore, ensuring intestinal health will
(Gonçalves et al., 2016).
undoubtedly have a positive impact on the
IgAs bind to commensal bacteria in the intestinal lumen and allow their transport to the mucosa through the binding of the IgAs antigen complex to specific receptors expressed on intestinal M cells.
overall health and productive performance of animals.
Bibliographical references available upon request The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
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15 nutriNews International December 2023 | The intestine, the largest immune organ in the body
UNDERSTANDING CORN VARIABILITY: PART II
raw materials
Edgar Orlando Oviedo Rondón Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
In this article, we will continue discussing the effects of corn harvest conditions and drying temperature on the variability of corn in feed processing for poultry and swine diets, and its energy and nutritional value for growing pigs and broilers.
16 nutriNews International December 2023 | Understanding Corn Variability: Part II
It is important to remember that corn kernel hardness is an important seed genetic characteristic affected by agronomic and weather conditions. Corn vitreousness is a measurement of kernel hardness that refers to the ratio of vitreous (hard) to floury (soft) endosperm. NIRS can be used to measure it. In the previous article, we discussed some of the impacts of corn vitreousness in phytate content, nutritional value, protein solubility, and how it may affect the particle size post-grinding.
In a subsequent experiment, we evaluated
In grinding in a hammer mill, four
the effects of drying temperature (35
different settings combinations of tip
or 120°C) in two yellow-dent corn
speeds (4,213, 3,862, 3,335, and 2,458
hybrids with different kernel hardness
m/min) and screen of 8/64’’ 3.18 mm
(average and hard) on the geometric
(8−8); 20/64’’, 7.94 mm (20−20);
mean diameter (dgw) and
24/64’’, 9.53 mm (24−24); and 24/64’’,
standard deviation by
9.53 mm (24−24), respectively, were
weight (Sgw) when
used to target four dgw (400, 700, 925, and 1,250 µm).
hammermilled, and pellet quality
After grinding, the 400 and 700 µm corn
measured as pellet
were included in broiler and sow diets to
durability index (PDI).
assess the impact of these treatments on the pellet durability index.
This time, the corn vitreousness was 60.59% for the average variety and 62.83% for the hard variety. Meanwhile, the protein solubility index or
Grinding and pelleting data were analyzed using a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of two corn varieties
Promatest values were 37.27% and 34.42% for the average and hard corn varieties, respectively.
raw materials
Variability in feed processing
and two drying temperatures in a randomized complete block design with blocks by grinding or pelleting event.
17 nutriNews International December 2023 | Understanding Corn Variability: Part II
The average hardness corn variety generally had the lowest dgw (Table 1). The hard corn variety had the biggest dgw when kernels were dried at 35oC,
In contrast, the dgw of hard corn variety was
and the tip speed setting was 3,335 m/
not affected by drying temperature when
min. Drying at 120oC increased dgw for the average hardness corn variety when the target particle sizes were 700, 925, and 1,250 µm, but caused no increase
ground to target 700 and 1,250 µm and increased at 400 µm with the high drying temperature.
in dgw at the lowest target particle size.
raw materials
Table 1. Effect of the interaction (P<0.001) between corn kernel hardness and drying temperature on the particle size1 geometric mean diameter (dgw) while grinding in a hammermill2 at different settings.
Kernel Hardness3
Drying T (o C)
dgw by hammermill tip speed (m/min) 4,213
3,862
3,335
2,458
-------------------- µm -------------------35
367c
682b
814c
1,114b
120
372c
756a
925b
1,317a
35
412b
767a
1,029a
1,420a
120
442a
751a
928b
1,374a
SEM
3
13
15
32
CV%
2.65
5.64
3.51
5.42
Average Hard
Values are means of 5 replicates per treatment combination. a-c Means in a column not sharing a common superscript are significantly different (P < 0.05) by Tukey’s HSD test. 1 Particle size analysis was determined using the ASAE S319.3 method (ASAE, 2003). 2 Hammermill Model 1522, Roskamp Champion, Waterloo, IA) equipped with two #8, 20, 24, and 24 screens, respectively. 3 Vitreousness: 60.59 % (DeKalb® 6357: Average) and 62.83 % (DeKalb® 6869: Hard) analyzed by NIRS (AB Vista, Plantation, FL). Source: Cabañas-Ojeda et al., 2023 Anim. Feed Sci. Tech 304, 115744.
18 nutriNews International December 2023 | Understanding Corn Variability: Part II
The average hardness corn variety had higher Sgw, especially when dried at 35oC (Table 2). Higher particle uniformity (lower Sgw) was observed with the hard corn variety. Corn breaks differently depending on the force applied, but in all conditions, the kernel hardness and drying temperature affected the grinding results.
Kernel Hardness3
Drying T (o C)
raw materials
Table 2. Effect of the interaction (P<0.001) of corn kernel hardness and drying temperature on the particle size1 distribution expressed as geometric standard deviation (Sgw) while grinding in a hammermill2 at different settings.
Sgw by hammermill tip speed (m/min) 4,213
3,862
3,335
2,458
-------------------- µm -------------------35
3.59a
3.87
3.69c
3.64a
120
3.50b
3.74
3.89a
3.48b
35
3.41c
3.61
3.74b
3.58ab
120
3.42c
3.55
3.71bc
3.65a
SEM
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.04
CV%
1.37
2.70
0.57
2.01
Average Hard
Values are means of 5 replicates per treatment combination. a-c Means in a column not sharing a common superscript are significantly different (P < 0.05) Tukey’s HSD test. 1 Particle size analysis was determined using the ASAE S319.3 method (ASAE, 2003). 2 Hammermill Model 1522, Roskamp Champion, Waterloo, IA) equipped with two #8, 20, 24, and 24 screens, respectively. 3 Vitreousness: 60.59 % (DeKalb® 6357: Average) and 62.83 % (DeKalb® 6869: Hard) analyzed by NIRS (AB Vista, Plantation, FL). Source: Cabañas-Ojeda et al., 2023 Anim. Feed Sci. Tech 304, 115744.
19 nutriNews International December 2023 | Understanding Corn Variability: Part II
After pelleting, diets containing the hard corn variety presented better PDI than diets with the average kernel hardness variety (Table 3).
Table 3. Effect of corn kernel hardness and grain drying temperature on pellet durability index (PDI) of broiler grower and sow gestation diets manufactured1 with hammermilled ground corn at 3,862 and 4,213 m/min tip speeds, respectively.
Kernel Hardness
2
Drying Temperature (o C)
PDI3 of feeds evaluated4 Broiler grower (3,862 m/min)
Sow gestation (4,213 m/min)
-------------------- (%)-------------------53.9b
73.3b
59.4a
77.3a
1.2
2.0
35
51.4b
77.1a
120
61.9a
73.5b
SEM
1.2
2.0
SEM
1.68
2.09
CV%
9.30
3.12
Average
raw materials
Hard SEM
Source of variation
-------------------- P - values --------------------
Kernel hardness
0.003
<0.001
Drying temperature
<0.001
<0.001
Hardness*Drying T
0.702
0.905
Means in a column not sharing a common superscript are significantly different (P < 0.05) by Tukey’s test. Conditioning standard time of 30 seconds. Conditioning Temp: Grower: 85°C, Gestation: 82°C. Production rate: Grower: 16.55 lbs/30 sec, Gestation: 21.20 lbs/30 sec. Hot Pellet Temp: Grower: 83.9°C, Gestation: 85.8°C. 2 Vitreousness: 60.59 % (DeKalb® 6357: Average) and 62.83 % (DeKalb® 6869: Hard) analyzed by NIRS (AB Vista, Plantation, FL). 3 Pellet Durability Index was determined using an NHP100 pellet tester set to a 30-second interval (Holmen method). 4 Broiler diets contained 575 and 822 g/kg of corn and 4.5 and 1.0 g/kg of poultry fat for broiler grower and swine gestation diets, respectively. One basal diet was used for each dietary phase with soybean meal, distillers dried grains with solubles, and the only ingredient that changed was corn, according to the treatments described. Source: Cabañas-Ojeda et al., 2023 Anim. Feed Sci. Tech 304, 115744. a-b 1
20 nutriNews International December 2023 | Understanding Corn Variability: Part II
Better broiler feed PDI was observed with corn dried at 120°C than at 35°C. However, this effect was the opposite when grinding at a lower particle size target for sow gestation diets. damaged starch. The particle size distribution and damaged starch of corn affected PDI. Higher corn drying temperature affected dgw and Sgw differently depending on corn variety and improved PDI in broiler diets, while 35°C drying temperature improved PDI in sow diets. These results confirmed our previous observations that particle size and distribution vary according to kernel
Variability in corn nutrient value for pigs The digestibility of energy and nutrients of corn ground at 4,213 m/min of tip speed was evaluated by Dr. Hans Stein’s
raw materials
Grinding at a smaller size increases
lab at the University of Illinois.
The ileal digestibility of starch and amino acids (AA) and the apparent total tract digestibility of gross energy and total dietary fiber were estimated for growing pigs.
hardness and drying temperature. However, this time, the harvest occurred at lower kernel moisture, which could affect breakability.
21 nutriNews International December 2023 | Understanding Corn Variability: Part II
Results indicated (Table 4) that
However, values for SID of most AA in corn
endosperm hardness did not influence
dried at 120 °C were less than in corn dried
the apparent ileal digestibility of starch
at 35 °C. Hard endosperm corn (3,553 kcal/
or standardized ileal digestibility (SID)
kg) also had greater apparent total tract
of AA in pigs.
digestibility of gross energy and total dietary fiber than corn with average endosperm
Table 3. Standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA) of corn varying in kernel hardness and drying temperature post-harvest1,2,3 in growing pigs.
Corn endosperm hardness
hardness (3,403 kcal/kg), but drying temperature did not influence energy digestibility.
Drying temperature SEM
Item, %
Average
Hard
Crude protein
74.9
73.8
3.76
Arg
83.1
84.4
His
79.2
Ile
74.2
Leu Lys
SEM
P-value
P-value 35 oC
120 oC
0.779
78.3
69.9
3.79
0.028
3.08
0.658
86.4
80.4
3.28
0.023
79.2
1.74
0.982
80.7
77.6
1.73
0.030
76.5
1.82
0.280
77.2
73.7
1.79
0.095
82.3
84.6
1.01
0.096
84.6
82.4
1.00
0.102
65.4
63.9
3.66
0.672
67.8
60.9
3.75
0.043
Met
81.3
83.1
1.18
0.178
83.9
80.6
1.12
0.011
Phe
78.2
80.3
1.24
0.167
80.6
78.1
1.22
0.105
Thr
68.0
69.4
2.32
0.569
71.0
66.3
2.28
0.037
Trp
77.4
75.7
2.74
0.543
79.2
74.1
2.75
0.064
Val
72.4
74.2
1.69
0.426
75.2
71.5
1.66
0.083
Ala
81.7
83.5
2.22
0.344
85.1
80.3
2.17
0.007
Asp
73.4
74.9
2.27
0.529
77.0
71.5
2.22
0.021
Cys
72.6
73.2
2.11
0.829
76.6
69.4
2.08
0.002
raw materials
Indispensable AA
Dispensable AA
Glu
83.0
84.5
1.32
0.255
85.3
82.4
1.29
0.028
Gly
115.7
115.9
3.88
0.962
115.9
115.5
3.90
0.929
Ser
80.2
81.7
2.17
0.521
83.8
78.3
2.15
0.009
Tyr
75.5
76.0
1.58
0.810
77.9
73.8
1.54
0.040
Data are least squares means of 20 observations per treatment. Values for SID were calculated by correcting the values for AID for basal ileal endogenous losses. Basal ileal endogenous losses were determined (g/kg of DMI) as CP, 23.71; Arg, 0.82; His, 0.30; Ile, 0.56; Leu, 0.81; Lys, 1.17; Met, 0.16; Phe, 0.50; Thr, 0.85; Trp, 0.14; Val, 0.68; Ala, 1.13; Asp, 1.32; Cys, 0.30; Glu, 1.69; Gly, 2.76; Ser, 0.80; and Tyr, 0.44. 3 Corn source × drying temperature effects were not significant; therefore, only main effects are indicated. Source: Espinosa et al., 2023 J. Anim. Sci. 101, skad124. 1 2
22 nutriNews International December 2023 | Understanding Corn Variability: Part II
Further research is needed to determine the optimum drying temperature and corn variety to maximize the nutritional value of corn. The main factor in
Nowadays, farmers have to harvest corn
the variability of the results of corn
with high moisture due to summer storms
reported in the literature could be the
that jeopardize their crops. These factors
moisture at the moment of harvest and
at harvest could increase variability in corn
the interaction it has with the drying
energy value. Nutritionists could identify the
temperature.
outcomes of these interactions at the feed mill using NIRS to evaluate corn batches and
In a recent experiment, we observed this
parameters like vitreousness and protein
interaction effect.
solubility index.
In Figure 1, we can observe the significant effect of higher drying temperature (120 oC) reducing the apparent metabolizable energy for poultry at all moisture levels at harvest of four corn varieties. However, the adverse effects of elevated drying temperature are more evident when the moisture at corn harvest was 28 and 34%. Reductions of up to 96 and 126 kcal/kg are observed in those high moisture conditions at harvest when corn is dried at high
raw materials
Understanding Corn Variability: Part II DOWNLOAD THE PDF
temperatures (120 oC) instead of 35 oC.
AME (kcal/kg in DM)
3500
Arrows: P<0.001
3450
+19 kcal/kg 3400
3350
-96 kcal/kg
3300
Corn V.
A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D
Drying. Temp Moisture at Harvest
-126 kcal/kg
35
120 16
35
120 22
35
120 28
35
120 34
n = 12
Figure 1. Effect of corn varieties (A, B, C, D), moisture at harvest (%), and drying temperature (35, 120 oC) on apparent metabolizable energy (AME) for poultry (kcal/kg DM).
* The arrows indicate significant (P<0.001) effects of drying temperature on AME.
23 nutriNews International December 2023 | Understanding Corn Variability: Part II
Cu Zn
Fe
Fe
ZINC OXIDE: HIGH LEVELS AND THEIR ADVERSE EFFECTS ON SWINE HEALTH
Cu
animal health
Danyel Bueno Dalto, J. Jacques Matte, Jérôme Lapointe Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Z
inc oxide is commonly used as a growth promoter and as a substitute
These nutrients are essential in
for antibiotics to prevent post-
pig nutrition, but the use of high
weaning diarrhea.
levels has been questioned due to environmental and public health issues (antimicrobial resistance), leading
Despite the NRC (2012) recommendation of 80-100 mg/ kg of zinc for piglets weighing 7-25 kg, the swine industry worldwide uses levels of up to 3000 mg/kg of zinc in the first weeks after weaning (Dalto e Silva,
2020; Yang et al., 2021, Faccin, et al., 2023).
European countries to restrict the use of supra-nutritional doses of zinc in pig diets since 2022. However, there is still limited knowledge about the interactions between zinc metabolism and that of other trace minerals in different organs, making it challenging to develop new nutritional strategies to replace high levels of zinc oxide without compromising piglet health.
24 nutriNews International December 2023 | Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
e
To illustrate, increased dietary zinc levels can lead to anemia and decreased tissue iron (Fe)
Zn
concentrations in several species.
(Yanagisawa et al., 2009; Hachisuka et al., 2021). While the mechanisms governing this interplay between zinc and iron remain poorly elucidated, there are hints of indirect zinc-induced effects via alterations in copper metabolism
In fact, copper deficiency negatively impacts iron utilization in swine.
In a recent investigation conducted in our laboratory
Study 1: basal diet supplemented with 100, 1000, or 3000 mg/kg of Zn (LZn, MZn, and HZn, respectively) in the form of zinc oxide. All three diets had similar copper levels (130 mg/kg; CuSO4). Study 2: basal diet supplemented with 100 (LZn) or 3000 (HZn) mg/kg of Zn in the form of zinc oxide in combination with 6 (LCu) or 130 (HCu) mg/kg of copper in the form of copper sulfate.
animal health
(Jeng and Chen, 2022).
(Galiot et al., 2018), it was demonstrated that piglets, which were fed 130 mg/kg of copper,
The piglets were slaughtered on days 21,
experienced a decline in both serum
23 (study 1), 28 (study 2), 35, and 42 for
and hepatic copper levels (a reduction
the collection of blood serum and body
of 20% and 76%, respectively) two
tissues.
weeks after weaning. It was postulated that this decline in copper status was initiated by the elevated levels of zinc oxide in the post-weaning diet. Hence, two studies were conducted to better understand the biological consequences of increasing dietary levels of zinc oxide and different zinc/copper ratios in the diet on the regulation of trace minerals (Zn, Cu, and Fe)
Growth performance The use of supra-nutritional levels of zinc oxide in post-weaning diets is known to promote growth performance, although some studies did not detect beneficial effects (Espinosa
et al., 2020ab).
in weaned piglets.
25 nutriNews International December 2023 | Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
Regarding copper sulfate, a compound recognized for its systemic effects, the influence of the experimental setup may have been relatively less disruptive.
Fe
Zn
Zinc Intestinal zinc absorption is inversely proportional to its intake
(Cousins, 1985; Krebs, 2000).
Cu
In both research studies, despite the fact that elevated zinc oxide levels decreased the expression of genes associated with the
animal health
absorption of zinc in the intestine, there In our two studies, high levels of zinc
was no corresponding decrease in zinc
oxide in the diet impaired growth.
concentrations in the jejunum, liver, and serum (as illustrated in Figure 1 and 2).
6.0
of high levels of zinc oxide and copper
5.0
sulfate (HZnHCu) resulted in the worst performance, while beneficial effects of high levels of copper sulfate were observed only when low levels of zinc
Zinc concentration in serum (mg/L).
Specifically in study 2, the combination
oxide were used.
that the detrimental effects of elevated zinc oxide levels on metabolism outweighed its beneficial effects observed in more demanding
Copper concentration in serum (mg/L).
In such circumstances, it is conceivable
2.0 1.0 26
36
41
100 mg/kg Zn 1000 mg/Kg Zn 3000 mg/Kg Zn
2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 21
26
environments characterized by high pathogenic pressure.
31 Age (days)
2.2
(experimental setting) in these studies may (intestinal lumen) of zinc oxide.
3.0
0.0 21
The optimized environmental conditions have interfered with the primarily local effects
4.0
100 mg/kg Zn 1000 mg/Kg Zn 3000 mg/Kg Zn
31 Age (days)
36
Figure 1. Zinc (A) and copper (B) concentrations in blood serum.
26 nutriNews International December 2023 | Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
41
d21
HZnLCu
HZnHCu
LZnHCu
LZnLCu
5000 4000
However, the 3-fold difference in zinc
3000
oxide levels in the diet between MZn and
2000
HZn resulted in a proportional increase
1000 0
1200
in serum zinc levels, suggesting that
21
d21
28 Age (days) HZnLCu
HZnHCu
regulation mechanisms were no longer
42
efficient in controlling zinc excess in animals supplemented with HZn.
LZnLCu
LZnHCu
1000 800
Across the two studies, serum zinc concentrations
600
ranged from 4.1 to 4.6 mg/L on day 42 in piglets
400
supplemented with HZn.
200 0
21
28
35 42 Age (days) Figure 2. Zinc concentrations in the jejunal mucosa (A) and liver (B).
These serum zinc levels are known to be detrimental to pig performance (Hahn and
Baker, 1993), supporting the reduced growth performance observed in our studies.
In order to avert zinc levels reaching toxic thresholds, distinct cellular mechanisms were initiated in the jejunum and liver, with the purposes of (1) capturing zinc within cells and (2) discharging surplus zinc into the systemic circulation.
Despite the activation of these mechanisms, serum and hepatic zinc concentrations increased significantly.
In study 1, the 10-fold difference in zinc oxide levels in the diet between LZn and MZn resulted in an approximately 2-fold increase in serum levels, indicating zinc concentration modulation.
27 nutriNews International December 2023 | Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
animal health
Zinc concentration in the jejunum. Zinc concentration in the liver.
6000
in the LZn groups on days 28, 35, and 42 represented 71%, 58%, and 66% of pre-
Copper concentration in the jejunum.
In study 2, hepatic zinc concentrations
treatment values (day 21), while serum
containing 100 mg of zinc oxide per kilogram during the initial weeks after
animal health
weaning might not adequately fulfill the nutritional needs of piglets.
Copper concentration in the liver.
These findings imply that a diet
d21
HZnLCu
HZnHCu
LZnLCu
LZnHCu
250 200 150 100 50 0
21
-50
values remained constant throughout the experimental period.
300
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
d21
28 Age (days) HZnLCu
21
HZnHCu
28 35 Age (days)
42
LZnLCu
LZnHCu
42
Figure 3. Copper concentrations in the jejunal mucosa (A) and liver (B).
Copper Similar to zinc, copper absorption and bioavailability are inversely proportional to its intake (Jondreville et al., 2002; Dalto et al.,
2019). Regardless of the copper levels in the diet (130 ppm in study 1 and 6 or 130 ppm in study 2), piglets supplemented with HZn had higher copper concentrations in the jejunum compared to piglets in the LZn group
(Figure 3).
28 nutriNews International December 2023 | Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
This increase was accompanied by lower hepatic and serum copper levels in the HZn group (Figure 1 and 3), suggesting a reduction in copper release by enterocytes.
Considering the rapid turnover of intestinal tissue (25% per day), this retention of copper in intestinal cells can act as a mechanism for copper excretion, as it serves as temporary storage for this
This inhibition of copper efflux
mineral that is eventually lost
by intestinal cells is related to the
through shedding of intestinal tissue.
activation of a mechanism responsible for mineral sequestration in different organs. Interestingly, in study 2, hepatic copper concentrations were lower than the pre-treatment values
This process is regulated by an enzyme
(day 21) from day 28 onwards,
known as Metallothionein (MT), which is
not only for the HZn groups but
sensitive to dietary zinc levels but exhibits
also for the LCu groups (Figure 3),
a significantly greater affinity for copper.
animal health
while serum values were lower for all treatments. This indicates that 6 mg of Cu/kg of diet (LCu,
In study 1, this enzyme exhibited a 357-fold
study 2) would not be sufficient
increase in expression in the jejunum of
to meet the copper requirements
HZn piglets compared to LZn piglets three
of piglets in the early weeks post-
weeks after weaning.
weaning.
Iron High dietary levels of zinc oxide also disrupt iron metabolism through systemic (hepcidin) and local (intestine and liver) mechanisms.
In both studies, piglets supplemented with HZn experienced a decrease in intestinal iron absorption, accompanied by an apparent increase in its retention in enterocytes, resulting in a reduction in hepatic iron content.
29 nutriNews International December 2023 | Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
This final aspect holds paramount The limited storage of iron in the liver might have been worsened by an amplified release of this mineral by hepatocytes, which was also prompted by elevated levels of zinc in the diet.
significance, as variations in iron metabolism observed across our two studies indicate that pre-weaning factors could exert a substantial influence on the metabolism of this trace mineral during the postweaning period, underscoring the need for further research.
However, these effects were not substantial enough to impact the overall blood and serum iron levels, as
Conclusions
well as the hemoglobin concentrations, all of which displayed an increase over time in both research studies.
During the first weeks after weaning, 100 mg of zinc/kg of diet appears to be insufficient to meet the zinc requirements
animal health
Therefore, high levels of zinc oxide
of piglets.
in post-weaning diets may not cause iron deficiency in piglets,
Conversely, elevated levels of zinc
but they hinder hepatic iron
oxide in the diet are inadequately
storage, which can be problematic
controlled across various organs,
in weaned animals with low iron
leading to exceedingly high serum zinc
reserves, as has been observed in
concentrations. This is probably the reason
recent years.
for the decrease in piglet performance and the disruption of copper and iron metabolism.
The low hepatic and serum copper concentrations underscore the potential risk of copper deficiency in piglets supplemented with high levels of zinc oxide in the post-weaning period.
However, regardless of these significant zinc-related effects, supplementing with 6 mg of copper per kilogram of diet appears to fall short of meeting the copper nutritional requirements of these animals.
30 nutriNews International December 2023 | Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
animal health Regarding iron, the reduced hepatic content did not have any impact on blood, serum, and hemoglobin
A low zinc-to-copper ratio in the diet is advisable to safeguard the health of weaned piglets.
concentrations, indicating that despite the interference with hepatic iron storage, the high levels of zinc oxide in postweaning diets are unlikely to cause anemia in piglets.
Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
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31 nutriNews International December 2023 | Zinc Oxide: High Levels and Their Adverse Effects on Swine Health
EXAMINING PIG FEEDING SYSTEMS ACCORDING TO PRODUCTION STAGES feeding systems
Laura Pérez Sala Swine Veterinarian & Personal Coach
S
everal years ago, we were deliberating over various pig feeding systems, attempting to present reasons for advocating the transition. Now, the transition is already a reality in practice. Upon arriving at a farm and hearing the owner express that the most beneficial decision they made was to introduce an automated feeding system in farrowing crates, tailored to meet the nutritional requirements of each sow, a sense of pride and profound joy is experienced. 32 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
Farmers are highly interested in utilizing tools that prioritize the welfare and health of their animals, as they witness the benefits of increased production and reduced problems. This article provides an overview of various feeding systems tailored to specific production phases, highlighting their advantages and limitations.
FEEDING SYSTEMS FOR BREEDING SOWS feeding systems
FEEDING STRATEGIES DURING THE INITIAL 28 DAYS OF GESTATION Following the insemination of sows, a critical period ensues, during which embryonic implantation takes place. Approximately on days 12-14 postfertilization, blastocysts undergo morphological changes and develop two filaments that enable attachment to the endometrial wall. This stage holds immense significance for the embryo’s survival, as it ensures the provision of essential nutrients for its development.
The success of embryo implantation is negatively affected by stress, as it directly affects the receptivity of the endometrium.
33 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
Challenges such as food competition and fights over group hierarchy can introduce risks during this period. To mitigate these concerns, the majority of producers place these sows in individual enclosures until the 28th day of gestation, guaranteeing adequate nutrition and a calm enviornment for the mothers. Feeding systems during this period are typically straightforward with minimal technological integration. Nonetheless, it is crucial not to disregard the requirements of sows that exhibit reduced body condition after
feeding systems
farrowing. This stage is critical for recovery and rest, and it is essential to furnish them with appropriate enrichment items like cotton ropes or straw. These materials enhance their comfort and overall welfare.
FEEDING SYSTEMS FOR GROUP-HOUSED PREGNANT SOWS In this phase, our objective is to satisfy the
Incorporating systems that
sow's maintenance requirements, avoiding
enable individual control of
excessive weight gain or loss.
the feed quantity per sow
It is important to remember that nutrition
will consistently provide a
during this stage has a direct impact on the
competitive edge.
birth weight of piglets and milk production, particularly in the final third of gestation.
34 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
Feeding stations
Self-catching devices and feeding systems
Electronic feeding stations are regulated
In this feeding system, the sow is placed
feeding systems controlled by an electronic
within a gestation crate equipped with a
machine connected to a computer system.
gate that closes automatically as soon as
Sows enter the electronic feeder where they are individually identified through an electronic chip embedded in their ear tag, allowing them to receive their corresponding ration based on their weight and gestation status.
Advantages feeding systems
Enable personalized feeding control, offering convenience and simplicity. This system ensures that every sow consumes their feed. This system is the only one that guarantees that each sow receives the appropriate ration based on her specific requirements.
she enters the enclosure.
Advantages It is suitable for groups of all sizes and effectively eliminates hierarchical competition. It allows for individual handling of the animal, if required, by securing the door.
Limitations Initial investment is high. From an animal welfare standpoint, this system contradicts the current trend as we are already moving away from the utilization of cages.
It offers a vast amount of information and a wide range of possibilities.
Limitations Require significant investment. It is vital to contemplate the positioning and arrangement of these systems. Considering the installation site and design is essential, as corners, dead ends, or steps can present a significant hazard. Given that the animals do not have constant access to food, fights among them can occur. For optimal performance, it is recommended to have expert personnel manage them. 36 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
Individual feeding system with box or semi-box This feeding system is extensively employed because of its simplicity and efficiency in modifying the existing gestation systems to comply with contemporary welfare
Consequently, farms that
regulations.
initially chose this swifter and
Advantages
cost-effective method are now confronted with the necessity to
A cost-effective system, as it demands labor only for the installation of the refurbishment.
reinvest in self-capture cages or even electronic stations, incurring extra expenses.
It involves minimal investment and enables a relatively personalized feeding control.
Limitations
These feed hoppers are equipped with a
The competition for food becomes more intense because, despite each sow having space, the quicker and dominant individuals typically displace the weaker ones once they finish their own ration.
motion sensor which enables the delivery
Younger or lower-ranking sows do not have a space where they feel protected, and they often don’t have access to food.
not provide the option for individualized
As a result, within the same group, we find animals with different body conditions. In such cases, it is crucial to organize groups based on parity and body condition.
it doesn’t possess the notable benefits
Despite the initial grouping of sows with similar characteristics, this system frequently encounters unsuitable sows, necessitating an alternative solution, such as relocating them from the group to the hospital pen.
of feed in small amounts and at specific intervals. Unlike electronic stations, they do not require a chip or computer, but they do feeding either. This system is not widely adopted because of feeding stations while still inheriting the drawbacks of other systems, such as greater expenses, elevated competition, and potential imbalances in body condition.
Food competition results in fights and a rise in lameness as well as specific diseases (such as leptospirosis). 37 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
feeding systems
Automatic feed hoppers
Feeding systems for lactating sows
Feed dispensers
The feeding system during lactation has a
This is the simplest and most commonly
direct impact on its success. While it was
employed system to date, where feeding
once the phase with the lowest investment
relies on the judgment and “willingness” of
priority due to its brief duration, these 28
the designated worker.
days will determine the productive and reproductive lifespan of our sows. During the lactation phase, we are not only influencing the next reproductive cycle but also the current litter. The production of milk and colostrum is closely related to the quantity and quality of water and feed consumed. Additionally, this has
feeding systems
implications for the weaning weight of the piglets.
Advantages Most cost-effective system.
Limitations The sow’s feeding is not “ad libitum”, and there are instances when her requirements are not met. Feed waste.
Ensuring that the sow can ingest as much food as she desires and is capable of is essential. Hence, at this point in time, the greater the degree of customized feeding for each individual sow, the more advantageous.
38 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
Automatic feeders These are the most innovative and sophisticated systems, allowing for individualized and regulated feeding through a computer and individual electronic regulators. These systems enable the automatic adjustment of feed quantities administered to each sow based on: Body condition Days of lactation Litter size Sows obtain their feed ration by activating an electronic agitator, which dispenses a small feed ration. This promotes higher intake and
feeding systems
Limitations Requires a high investment. Requires a certain level of training for the operators.
reduces feed losses because the sow needs to empty the feeder to activate the electronic activator. As a result, a new ration will not be dispensed if the previous one has not been entirely consumed.
Feeding ball Feeding balls are slow-release dispensers that rely on sows hitting a ball to activate the feed release mechanism.
Advantages
Various models are available, but they
Precise and monitored intake.
generally enable “ad libitum” feeding for sows,
Labor reduction.
productive yields.
leading to enhanced feed intake and better
Feed waste reduction. All generated data is stored in the computer for future analysis.
39 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
Advantages
Slow-release with electronic control
Easy to use, both for the farm workers and the sows.
A slow-release system with an electronic
Reduce feed waste and labor.
the programming of multiple feedings per
controller for each farrowing pen enables day with the desired quantity for each sow.
Limitations Some models may encounter issues related to blockages and cleaning.
Nonetheless, these systems lack automatic curve adjustment features, requiring manual adjustments by the controller.
feeding systems
Proper installation, including appropriate height adjustment, is necessary.
FEEDING SYSTEMS IN WEANING OR NURSERY During these phases, the focus will primarily be on productive efficiency, measured by parameters such as feed conversion ratio (FCR) and average daily gain (ADG). The key during the transition phase is to achieve a rapid adaptation to the feed, which will lead to adequate growth and good health. Hence, the emphasis should be on the feed’s quality rather than the feeder itself.
Providing ample space in the feeders
In this context, it’s crucial to remember some
is beneficial, as it reduces competition
essential principles, including ensuring the
and promotes higher average daily
availability of food and water (taking into
gains (ADG).
consideration the drinker’s height and the dish’s depth) and appropriately configuring the feeders.
Furthermore, in pens accommodating smaller animals, it is common to utilize milk feeders that provide more enticing and readily
During this stage, linear feeders in dry hoppers
digestible feed, addressing the needs of their
are commonly used.
developing digestive systems.
40 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
FEEDING SYSTEMS IN GROW-OUT FACILITIES The main focus in this phase is on productive performance (feed conversion rate), as well as durability and practicality. Therefore, you will find simple and costeffective systems that are easy to clean and long-lasting. Efficiency is prioritized, with feeders that wastage. Limiting factors include: The number of feeders per pen, based on the number of animals housed in each pen. The number and placement of water drinkers.
Advantages Simple dosage. The hopper drinker offers an extra water access point, separate from the pen drinker, enhancing the animals’ overall welfare.
Limitations The hopper nipple can become blocked by feed.
HOPPERS
Piglets have a tendency to play with the feeder nipple, which can result in its breakage.
Dutch Hopper
It is essential to perform regular checks and ensure its correct operation.
These are commonly used in grow-out facilities and are known for having a water access point integrated into the hopper itself, allowing pigs to drink and eat simultaneously.
41 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
feeding systems
are easily adjustable and minimize feed
Mixed hopper This type of feeder is becoming increasingly common in new and renovated farms. In this case, the hopper also has a nipple, but it is separate from the feed. Obstructions caused by feed are
Most dry hoppers are made of concrete or
less frequent, although its proper
stainless steel and do not have an integrated
functioning should still be checked
drinker. They are available in various sizes
regularly.
and models.
Certain models incorporate a float
feeding systems
Dry hopper
mechanism that guarantees a continuous
They are the most cost-effective option but also occupy more space, which reduces the number of available slots.
water supply in the drinker tray.
AUTOMATED FEEDING SYSTEMS While precision feeding technology is not yet
It also streamlines the management and
widely used in the finishing phase, we can
planning of pig groups, making it easier to
expect to see an increase in the adoption
send them to the slaughterhouse once they
of systems that enable automatic sorting
reach the desired weight. As this technology
and separation of pigs based on their
becomes more prevalent, it has the potential
weight. This development facilitates the
to enhance efficiency, optimize feed
customization of feed rations in accordance
utilization, and improve overall productivity
with the individual performance and
in the pig industry.
requirements of each pig.
Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages DOWNLOAD ON PDF
42 nutriNews International December 2023 | Examining pig feeding systems according to production stages
Performance starts with MASTERING LIQUID FEED HYGIENE BACTOCELL LIQUID FEED INOCULANT IS YOUR PARTNER IN IMPROVING LIQUID FEED HYGIENE REDUCES PH AND LIMITS COLIFORMS GROWTH creates a positive biofilm
REDUCED RISK OF UNDESIRABLE FEED FERMENTATION ASSOCIATED WITH LOSS OF NUTRIENTS
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SUSTAINABILITY, NUTRITIONAL, AND ECONOMIC VALUE OF
SOYBEANS ACCORDING TO THE ORIGIN
raw materials
Edgar O. Oviedo Rondón, DVM, PhD. Prestage Department of Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC
Soybean meal continues to be the most common protein source for animal nutrition worldwide. However, most soybean meal used worldwide comes from Brazil, the United States, Argentina, and Paraguay. The environmental cost of transporting these soybeans from the American continent to other regions causes great concern among environmentalists, translating into certain pressure from consumers of animal products.
44 nutriNews International December 2023 | Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
Likewise, there is concern about the environmental impact of soy production in tropical
Although egg and poultry production has the
environments, which can lead to
least environmental impact, feed is the area
deforestation, soil degradation,
with the most room for improvement.
and overall more significant greenhouse gas emissions.
The environmental impact depends 70 to 75% on feed ingredients and feed utilization.
has compiled the environmental impact
Table 1 summarizes the GFLI results on
parameters of animal feed ingredients. This
the impact of solvent-extracted soybean
is an independent institute of the animal feed
meal by country of origin. It can be
industry, and the feed industry is organized to
observed that the values currently
provide a standard database of the results of
available for sustainability parameters
Life Cycle Assessments (LCA).
such as climate change and land use favor
The objective is to improve the sustainability aspects of animal-origin food.
American soybeans due to the tradition in production and technology on lands
raw materials
The Global Feed LCA Institute (GFLI)
adapted to this crop.
Table 1. Sustainability parameters of solvent-extracted soybean meal depending on the country of origin according to the GFLI database. Climatic change
Eutrophication
LAND USE
Country of origin of soybean meal
kg CO2 eq/ton
Fossils (kg CO2 eq/ ton)
Biogenic (kg CO2 eq/ ton)
Acidification (mol H+ eq/ ton)
Freshwater (kg P eq/ ton )
Marine (kg N eq/ton)
Terrestrial (mol N eq / ton)
Change
(Pt/ton)
Brazil
4050.3
556.1
6.3
6.0
1.1
5.5
24.8
3488
325427
United States
522.3
469.7
4.7
5.1
0.4
3.4
21.6
9
159051
Argentina
3981.7
446.1
5.2
2.5
0.2
1.2
10.2
3529
180137
China
2625.8
683.4
4.9
9.0
0.8
5.2
35.6
1922
245415
India
1617.8
1066.9
4.8
15.3
1.1
6.8
65.8
546
440997
Spain
2787.5
538.3
3.8
6.5
0.8
4.9
26.2
2234
253371
France
1739.8
520.2
3.8
5.7
0.6
5.4
27.9
1207
239168
Source: Global Feed LCA Institute (GFLI) https://globalfeedlca.org/
45 nutriNews International December 2023 | Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
However, this concern about sustainability is not new, and for decades, other feedstuffs have been evaluated as alternatives to soybean meal. However, the amino acid digestibility of soybean meals and the total content of digestible amino acids are better than those of sunflower or canola meal and DDGS, among others. Therefore, the overall sustainability balance may still be better for soybean meal. Ingredients with better digestibility always have a positive effect on the local environmental
raw materials
impact of the diet. The utilization of the ingredient in the diet formulation depends mainly on a good description of the nutrient and energy content. In soybean meals, the country of origin is one of the factors by which a category can be differentiated or created for a more precise formulation. Variability has also been reported in the quality of soybeans and, consequently, in meals by regions within a country. There are differences between specific suppliers, as soy processing also plays a fundamental role in the final soybean meal product.
46 nutriNews International December 2023 | Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
These NIRS calibrations have different origins according to the chemical analysis methods used for all nutrients, including amino acids, calculations for amino acid digestibilities, and energy content. Therefore, the results of analyses for similar samples may give different values in the two methods. With so many factors causing variability, it is important to analyze the ingredients you receive and decide, according to the local database, how they can be divided into a few groups that consistently have different nutritional and quality characteristics.
In this case, we did not compare ingredients between the two systems.
Whoever wants to use them must choose a system and apply it consistently.
faster, and more economical way and obtain
AMINONIR calculates metabolizable
several important nutritional parameters at
energy for birds according to the
the same time, NIRS equipment is the best
WPSA (1989) prediction equations
tool currently available.
and uses digestibility coefficients for
Several companies have generated calibration curves to estimate proximal analysis, amino acids, and energy using NIRS spectra. To give an example of using this information in feed formulation for layers, we have chosen two of these nutrient estimation services with NIRS.
raw materials
To do these analyses in a more consistent,
each ingredient based on previous experiments. In contrast, the PNE uses a direct calibration method using data from in vivo experiments and likewise estimates the amino acid digestibility values for each ingredient evaluated.
We chose AMINONIR® from Evonik and the PNE® service from Adisseo. The intention is not to compare them since their development is very different. The important aspect is to demonstrate the usefulness of these NIRS systems in describing nutritional composition and energy content. In this way, its value in balanced feed formulation can be perceived.
47 nutriNews International December 2023 | Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
Using analyzed soybean samples, or the databases and reports of both AMINONIR and the PNE, it was possible to obtain the description of soybean meals of different origins. With AMINONIR, we described soybeans from three regions of the United States, Brazil, and Argentina.
Examples of the diets generated are presented in Table 2.
Meanwhile, with the PNE, soybean meals from Argentina, Brazil, and the United States were
Soybean meal prices varied between
raw materials
differentiated.
353, 471.50, and 590 $/ton. Corn prices
This information was used to formulate
varied between 198.82, 236.22, and 323 $/
diets for brown and white layers (Hy-Line)
ton. Figure 1 shows an example indicating
in phases 1 and 2. In each situation, the
that all diet prices for brown or white
prices of the ingredients were different
layers were almost always cheaper for
because they were two completely
diets formulated with American soybean
different market situations.
meals in red circles or triangles. This was observed with both NIRS systems.
198,82 323 236,22 198,82 323 236,22 198,82
300 350 Brown layers 1 diet cost, US/MT
323 236,22 198,82
SBM source
Argentina
USA
400
260
280 300 320 340 Brown layers 2 diet cost, US/MT
323 236,22
360
380
SBM price, US$/MT 590 471,5 353
Corn price, US$/MT
240
SBM price, US$/MT 590 471,5 353
198,82 323 236,22 198,82
300 350 White layers 1 diet cost, US/MT
323
400
323 236,22
250
198,82 323 236,22 198,82 236,22 198,82
Corn price, US$/MT
250
Corn price, US$/MT
323 236,22
SBM price, US$/MT 590 471,5 353
323 236,22
SBM price, US$/MT 590 471,5 353
Corn price, US$/MT
Figure 1. Prices of diets formulated using NIRS (PNE) information for brown and white layers with nutritional information for soybeans by country of origin in two years 2020 (•) 2021 ( ). The colors indicate the country of origin of the soybean meal.
198,82 323 236,22 198,82 323 236,22 198,82
250
300 350 White layers 2 diet cost, US/MT
Brazil
48 nutriNews International December 2023 | Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
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Table 2. Examples of diets formulated for brown or white layers (W36) according to Hy-Line 2022 recommendations. Brown layers Ingredients
PRICE, $
Phase 1 2020
2021
White layers Phase 2
2020
Phase 1
2021
Phase 2
2020
2021
2020
2021
raw materials
% Corn
236.22
50.12
50.20
61.64
60.27
53.19
53.18
57.99
57.99
Soybean meal
471.5
24.90
25.95
20.00
19.08
26.16
26.95
22.23
22.90
Distillers dried grains with soluble
215.55
8.00
7.00
4.58
6.69
5.34
4.63
5.33
4.72
Poultry fat
1000.99
4.39
4.31
2.31
2.50
3.58
3.51
2.86
2.79
Limestone
57.69
10.03
10.01
9.50
9.54
9.35
9.34
9.51
9.49
Dicalcium phosphate
706.75
1.20
1.23
0.82
0.75
1.01
1.03
0.77
0.79
DL-methionine
2585.65
0.30
0.28
0.21
0.20
0.30
0.30
0.24
0.25
L-Lysine
1683.1
0.09
0.07
0.07
0.10
0.07
0.06
0.09
0.08
Sodium bicarbonate
708.47
0.23
0.23
0.21
0.21
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
Salt
145.44
0.20
0.21
0.16
0.18
0.23
0.24
0.21
0.21
Trace mineral premix
1025
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
L-Threonine
1894.3
0.05
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04
Choline chloride, 60%
1406
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
Vitamin premix
1458.5
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
Phytase
4953.66
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
329.91
330.79
299.2
298.01
326.87
328.87
309.8
311.09
Diet price $/ton Nutrient composition Metabolizable energy, Kcal/kg
2,800
2,800
2,800
2,800
Crude protein, %
17.80
15.30
17.80
16.33
Calcium, %
4.23
3.94
3.94
3.94
Available phosphorus, %
0.39
0.29
0.34
0.29
Digestible amino acids Lysine, %
0.84
0.70
0.84
0.77
Total sulfur amino acids, %
0.76
0.63
0.77
0.69
Threonine, %
0.59
0.49
0.59
0.54
Valine%
0.74
0.64
0.74
0.68
Arginine, %
1.04
0.87
1.06
0.95
50 nutriNews International December 2023 | Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
If nutritionists do not consider differences in nutritional content and average all the nutritional information to use in the formulation, instead of using the specific information of each origin or supplier, they will be underestimating or overestimating the cost of the diet and nutritional composition as seen in the example in Table 3.
Layer diets (diet price with diets with average nutrients)
Table 3. Examples of differences in price and energy or nutrient content between a diet formulated with the average values or using the specific values of the ingredient’s origin, in this case, soybean meal from the United States, Brazil, and Argentina.
White layers ($328.70)
Brown layers ($332.73)
United States
Brazil
Argentina
United States
Brazil
Argentina
Diet price with diets with specific nutrient content by country of origin, $
328.37
331.28
329.22
330.79
333.78
334.29
Difference in diet price in comparison with average diet, $/ton
-0.33
2.58
0.52
-1.94
1.05
1.56
Metabolizable energy, Kcal/kg
35
4
11
37
6
13
Crude protein, %
-0.14
0.084
-0.086
-0.17
0.054
-0.116
Lysine
-0.007
0.009
0.004
-0.007
0.008
0.003
Total sulfur amino acids
0.002
0.004
0.015
0.001
0.004
0.014
Threonine
0.01
0.018
0.021
0.008
0.016
0.019
Tryptophan
-0.006
-0.001
-0.001
-0.006
-0.001
-0.001
Valine
-0.009
0.002
-0.004
-0.01
0
-0.005
raw materials
Items
Digestible amino acids
51 nutriNews International December 2023 | Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
For example, brown layer diets with average nutrients, regardless of actual origin, priced at $332.73/ton, will be apparently $1.05 and $1.56/ton cheaper when using Brazilian or Argentinian soybean meals, and $1.94/ton more expensive for a diet using American soybean meals. However, diets obtained with this nutrient average may underestimate the actual nutritional content and are overformulating, offering more energy and some nutrients to the hens. In contrast, others may be formulated below the expected specification. For example, the diet with average data without considering the origin would have
raw materials
35 or 37 kcal/kg more, or 0.14 and 0.17 percentage points less protein, if the actual origin of the soybean meal is coming from the United States. This variability between the theoretical average data and what the feed contains affects the performance and quality of the egg. Therefore, it is always best to segregate ingredients by origin and use this information for formulation.
Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
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The main message of this example is to improve precision in the formulation, obtain better results in nutritional content, and improve performance in egg or poultry production.
52 nutriNews International December 2023 | Sustainability, nutritional, and economic value of soybeans according to the origin
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AME VALUES IN BLACK SOLDIER FLY MEAL USED IN QUAIL DIETS
quail
Brena Cristine Rosário Silva1, Cheila Roberta Lehnen2, and Simara Márcia Marcato3 1 Ph.D. student at the State University of Maringá. 2 Professor at the State University of Ponta Grossa. 3 Professor at the State University of Maringá.
of birds Insects meet the dietary needs tion posi com al ition nutr in terms of 2019) and amino acid profile (Sogari et al.,
They are part of birds' natural diet s, which confers them high acceptance leve ls (Moula and Detilleux, 2019)
T
he primary concern regarding the future of food supply and agriculture revolves
Mass insect production emits low s not greenhouse gas levels and doe Huis (van land of s area e larg require and Oonicx, 2017)
around the question of whether global
systems can sustainably provide food for the growing global population by the year 2050, all while effectively handling and meeting the demand for agricultural products. In recent years,insects have been identified as a promising source of protein and energy for animal feed.
Insects are capable of converting organic waste into high-value protein. Constituting a new approach. and a remarkable example of circular economies and sustainabilit y (Wang et al., 2017)
Insect use in poultry diets presents itself as an attractive alternative for various reasons, such as:
54 nutriNews Inernational December 2023 | AME values in black soldier fly meal used in quail diets
However, no AME prediction equation for black soldier fly larval meal in Japanese quail has been reported thus far. Several insect species have been tested as ingredients in poultry feed, with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae
Accurate prediction equations can be
presenting itself as one of the most
obtained through the systematic analysis of
promising options. Their strong potential
quantitative findings from various studies.
as alternative feed ingredients is based on
This is also known as a meta-analysis.
the possibility to control their lifecycle and achieve their mass production. In addition to this, black soldier fly larvae contain large amounts of protein, lipids and essential amino acids such as methionine and lysine.
Meta-analysis bases itself on the processing of data derived from several published studies to build a statistical model that can explain
However, having reliable
can produce accurate prediction
information on the nutrient
equations to calculate the AME
content and digestibility of black
values of black soldier fly meal.
quail
those results. Thus, meta-analysis
soldier fly larvae is essential for the adequate formulation of diets. The application of in vivo assays to determine BSFL meal digestibility represents an expensive, timeconsuming, and impractical tool through which feed mills can obtain accurate estimates for feed formulation.
The study group on quail nutrition (GENCO) at the State University of Maringá, together with the study group on integrative biology and nonruminants (BIOMODEL) at the State University of Ponta Grossa, conducted a meta-analytical study with this in mind. Aiming to determine the chemical composition and digestibility coefficients of black soldier fly larvae meal
Predicting the apparent metabolizable
used for Japanese quail.
energy content (AME) of an ingredient based on chemical composition can be a useful and practical method for obtaining accurate values for diet formulation. In fact, prediction equations for various ingredients have already been published.
55 nutriNews Inernational December 2023 | AME values in black soldier fly meal used in quail diets
The database construction began with
A retrospective selection of predictors
a bibliographic search employing the
was conducted employing the REG
following keywords: “quail“, “insect”
procedure in SAS version 9.4.
and “nutrient digestibility“. The search
Significant predictors were retained in
was carried out on the following
the models while non-significant ones
indexed databases: Scielo, Science
were removed.
Direct, Scopus and Web of Science. Crude protein (52.9±6.38) and ether extract (20.8±10.0) contents of black soldier fly meal exhibited great variability (Table 1). These results can be
Studies were included based on the following
associated with the great variability of
criteria:
findings reported in the literature. Insects included as a feed ingredient. Available data regarding nutrient
quail
digestibility and energy. Reported the chemical composition of the insect being used.
Nutrient
Avg
Standard deviation
Dry matter %
94,13
2,105
Crude protein %
52,91
6,384
Ether extract %
20,84
10,013
Crude fiber %
5,34
0,205
Mineral matter %
7,34
1,475
Calcium %
3,63
1,011
Phosphorus %
0,58
0,011
Total lysine %
3,29
1,190
Total methionine %
0,95
0,364
Crude energy kcal/kg
5.578,63
350,038
The database occupied a spreadsheet with 32 rows (treatments) and 28 columns (exploratory variables), containing six articles published between 2016 and 2022. The studies that were included in the database, totaled 518 Japanese quail, with an initial mean age of 23 days and a final mean age of 35 days. Most studies (60%) used female quails and 40% involved mixed lots. The method of total excreta collection was used in all of the considered studies. The average black soldier fly meal inclusion level was 12.5%.
Table 1. Chemical composition (based on dry matter) of black soldier fly meal. Data from 32 samples used in the meta-analysis.
56 nutriNews Inernational December 2023 | AME values in black soldier fly meal used in quail diets
The heterogeneity in the chemical composition of
Another important component in black
black soldier fly meal can be influenced by:
soldier fly is related to its fiber content. Predominantly represented by chitin; a
The stage of development of the larvae
polysaccharide that is naturally present
used to produce the meal.
in the exoskeleton of insects. Recent studies have shown that chitin and its
The composition of the substrate used
derivatives have immunomodulatory
to breed the BSFL.
effects.
The procurement process of the meal
Several studies have also demonstrated
(degreased or not).
that chitin possesses antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities.
The crude protein content of BSFL meal is higher than that of soybean meal (50.7% based on dry matter).
Minerals play a key role in the nutritional value of poultry feed. Despite the fact that black soldier fly meal is mainly used for its protein and
concentrations and a better amino acid profile than traditional protein sources.
quail
amino acid content, significant calcium
Insects possess higher
and phosphorus levels have also been found in this type of insect meal. However, more research is still needed to quantify the availability of these minerals.
The levels of lysine and methionine in black soldier fly meal are higher than the levels of soybean meal and corn. These results prove that BSFL meal can be used as an alternative to soybean meal in poultry diets.
57 nutriNews Inernational December 2023 | AME values in black soldier fly meal used in quail diets
Digestibility coefficient
Avg
SD
Dry matter %
62,71
4,358
Organic matter %
66,70
4,099
Crude protein %
68,83
14,212
Ether extract %
88,13
3,549
Energy %
70,86
3,783
despite being characterized as a
AME, kcal/kg
3.674,65
255,128
black soldier fly meal attractive
The nutrient digestibility coefficients and AME (Table 2) suggest that black soldier fly meal is a good source of nutrients and energy. BSFL meal presented similar AME values to that of corn (3,784 kcal/kg in dry matter), protein source. This aspect makes and functional for the formulation of diets in Japanese quail.
quail
Table 2. Digestibility coefficients (based on dry matter) and apparent metabolizable energy (AME) of black soldier fly meal for quail. Data from 32 samples used in the meta-analysis.
Table 3. Equations (based on dry matter) for predicting the apparent metabolizable energy (AME) of black soldier fly meal for Japanese quail.
Equations
Intercept
CE
CP
EE
MM
R2
AME1
-32.712
2,99
243,78
208,47
338,55
0,949
AME2
-14.899
2,03
93,61
109,74
-
0,798
AME3
3.662
0,12
-
-
-89,39
0,271
AME4
4.303
-
-
-
-85,52
0,244
CE:Crude energy. CP: Crude protein. EE: Ether extract. MM: Mineral matter.
Four AME prediction equations were
The equation with the highest
generated through meta-analysis of data
number of variables (AME1=-
regarding the chemical composition of
32,712+2.99CE+243.78CP+208.47 EE+338.55MM)
BSFL meal (Table 3).
presented the best fit (R²=0.95), indicating that 95% of the variation in the AME content of BSFL meal can be explained by the contents of crude energy, crude protein, ether extract and mineral matter.
58 nutriNews Inernational December 2023 | AME values in black soldier fly meal used in quail diets
The equation with three variables (AME2=14,899+2.03CE+93.61CP+109.74EE) can also be used to predict the AME content of black soldier fly meal, although it presents a lower coefficient of determination (R²=0.80).
Equations composed by up to four chemical composition parameters require shorter times for their analysis as well as being simpler and cheaper to perform in the field.
In conclusion, AME prediction equations were developed based on the chemical composition of black soldier fly meal. Nutritionists can employ these formulas to effectively estimate the AME content in different meal sources derived from BSFL,
The equations AME3=3.662+0.12CE89.39MM and AME4=4.303-85.52MM are
enabling them to enhance the formulation of diets for quail.
quail
not suitable for estimating AME content in BSFL meal. This is due to their low coefficients of determination (R²=0.27 and 0.24, respectively).
AME values in black soldier fly meal used in quail diets
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59 nutriNews Inernational December 2023 | AME values in black soldier fly meal used in quail diets
CROSS FEEDING AND INTESTINAL MICROBIOME: IMPLICATIONS FOR NUTRITION AND HEALTH OF MONOGASTRIC ANIMALS gut health
Darío Cleofé R.; Carlos López T. Lípidos Toledo S.A. (Liptosa)
INTRODUCTION The gastrointestinal tract of birds is home to a diverse community of microorganisms, including bacteria, yeasts, fungi, and viruses. This community, known as the intestinal microbiome, engages in host immune modulation, nutrient metabolism, competitive exclusion of pathogens, etc. (Berg, G. et al, 2020). Therefore, an optimal and balanced intestinal microbiome is essential for the development of a healthy animal, and a requirement to ensure its best productive performance. 60 NutriNews International December 2023 | Cross feeding and intestinal microbiome: implications for nutrition and health of monogastric animals
3 On the third day of life, these populations increase to 10 9 and 10 11 and remain stable for a time, during which they adapt to environmental changes and to the stressors coming from the host animal (Baldwin et al. 2018). The type of production system (cage, free
THE INTESTINAL MICROBIOME: A COMPLEX ‘’ECOSYSTEM’’
range, etc.) defines the environment and the type of feeding to which the birds are exposed and, therefore, has a great influence on the microbiota, especially in systems with access to the open air , in which more strict biosafety systems are replaced by exposure to the microbiota of
intestine is a competitive process in which initial colonizers promote or inhibit the establishment of subsequent invaders - either beneficial or detrimental, - by modifying the intestinal microenvironment (e.g., pH) and/or the secretion of metabolites that promote or
the soil, water and outdoor vegetation; but, more dangerous, to the microbiota of wild animals (rodents, wild birds, etc.) that increases the load of pathogen agents in poultry (Ocejo et al. 2019 ) .
delay the growth of other microorganisms. The formation of the microbial community in birds is quite fast: one day after hatching, we already find approximately 10 8 and 10 10 bacteria per gram of content in the ileum and cecum, respectively. The latest studies suggest that, rather than due to parental influence, colonization would be due to the environment that surrounds the animals after they hatch (Stanley et al. 2013).
61 NutriNews International December 2023 | Cross feeding and intestinal microbiome: implications for nutrition and health of monogastric animals
gut health
Microbial colonization of the poultry
CROSS FEEDING: CONCEPT AND BENEFITS One of the most interesting characteristics of the gut microbiome is its ability to interconnect with other populations.
Cross-feeding is, therefore, a critical
There are different relationships between
aspect to maintain an optimal intestinal
microbial individuals, such as mutualism,
microbiome. Several studies have
commensalism, amensalism, competition,
reported the benefits of stimulating
etc. This is where the concept of “cross-
cross-feeding between microbiome
feeding” comes into play.
organisms in the field of animal nutrition,
This phenomenon is defined as the
and some of them are:
interaction between diverse groups of microorganisms in the intestine, so that certain metabolites produced by a certain
IMPROVEMENT OF THE DIGESTIBILITY OF RAW MATERIALS:
microbial population (from a substrate
gut health
assimilated by it) serve as nutrients for another population (Yongfei Hu, et al. 2022; Cavalier, M. et al 2017).
Likewise, the cross feeding may be:
Varied species of saprophytic bacteria collaborate with each other to decompose complex compounds of poor digestibility in monogastric animals, such as cellulose, into nutrients that can be assimilated by both the bacteria themselves and the intestinal cells (Flint, H. J, et al., 2012).
Unidirectional: one community generates secondary metabolites from which another community
GREATER PRODUCTIVE EFFICIENCY:
benefits. Bidirectional: when the metabolites generated are exchanged reciprocally between two populations, being a case in which both benefit (D’Souza, G et
As there are improvements over gut health, the capacity for digestion and absorption of nutrients is increased, which leads to an improvement in productive indexes (Pluske, J. R et al., 2018).
al., 2018).
62 NutriNews International December 2023 | Cross feeding and intestinal microbiome: implications for nutrition and health of monogastric animals
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COMPETITIVE AND NON-COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION AGAINST PATHOGENS:
gut health
Metabolites exchanged between bacterial populations stimulate the growth of saprophytic bacteria that compete for the same physical space with harmful agents. In addition, saprophytic microorganisms are also capable of establishing communications with pathogens to, for example, prevent their adherence to the surface of intestinal cells (Sekirov, I. et al., 2010).
PRODUCTION OF METABOLITES THAT ENSURE GOOD MICROBIAL STATUS:
STRATEGIES TO STIMULATE CROSS FEEDING: We cannot talk about good animal nutrition without a correct intestinal microbiome, and this can be achieved by ‘’feeding’’ the populations of saprophytic bacteria. To stimulate the growth of bacterial colonies and the cross-feeding among them, poultry farming’ professionals have at their disposal, different nutritional plans and strategies. Some of the most common approaches are:
USE OF PROBIOTICS AND PREBIOTICS: The administration of probiotics (live
Bacterial communities generate short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and B vitamins. These compounds are essential for the development of bacteria and enterocytes, and support the functioning of the immune system. (Ríos-Covián, D. et al., 2016).
microorganisms that confer health benefits) and prebiotics (non-digestible substances that stimulate the growth of saprophytic bacteria) in poultry diets is a common action when digestive problems appear. The effectiveness of including synthetic microbiome with an in ovo injection to establish a standardized bacterial population prior to hatching has been demonstrated (Yongfei Hu, et al. 2022). Studies indicate that the administration of XOS increases the population of butyrate-producing bacteria in the cecum and lactobacilli in the colon, confirming that cross-feeding occurs. (Maesschalck et al. 2015)
64 NutriNews International December 2023 | Cross feeding and intestinal microbiome: implications for nutrition and health of monogastric animals
THE QUALITY OF RAW MATERIALS: Provide high-quality fiber sources in the diet (oat hulls, wheat bran, beet pulp, etc.) that can be assimilated by the intestinal microbiota; and from there beneficial metabolites can be generated.
USE OF BOTANICALS: The inclusion of additives based on phytogenic active compounds phytobiotic and/or nutraceuticals in the
Furthermore, we must assess the
diet of production animals is nowadays
absence of other aspects that can
one of the most common tools used
worsen the quality and digestibility of
in the feed industry to support the
the raw materials, such as excess an-
maintenance of a proper gut health
ti-nutritional factors or the presence
while fully complying at the same time,
of mycotoxins.
with the strict regulations related to the use of antimicrobials. Numerous research studies have shown consistently the activity
The addition of enzymes in feed helps to break down macromolecules such as non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), phytic acid, starch or proteins, to make them more assimilable by the microbiome and so that it can produce metabolites that
of certain active components derived from botanical components over pathogenic agents such as Clostridium sp; Eimeria sp., Streptococcus sp… (Bozkur et al.,2013; Elsayed et al. 2020; Fabiana C. de Aguiar et al. 2018)
benefit other bacteria in their environment
Furthermore, the use of botanical
(Bedford, M et al, 2022).
compounds has emerged as a nutritional support in case of liver problems, leading into improvements over the feed
CONTROL OF INTESTINAL PH:
efficiency and how the animals
Maintaining an adequate intestinal pH
provided in the diet. (Hossein Zaker
favors the growth and functionality
et al., 2020; Gillessen et al., 2020)
take advantage of all the nutrients
of certain populations of saprophytic bacteria, as well as the morphology and physiology of enterocytes. The use of acidifiers in drinking water can be of major help to achieve this purpose (Fathima, S. et al., 2022).
65 NutriNews International December 2023 | Cross feeding and intestinal microbiome: implications for nutrition and health of monogastric animals
gut health
USE OF ENZYMES :
COMBINED SOLUTIONS OR PRODUCTS: interconnecting the previously mentioned strategies is also a remarkably interesting option, developing specific products that contain probiotics and prebiotics, enzymes, organic acids, and botanical derivatives. In this sense, the R&D strategies of the companies are focusing on maximizing the synergies between the different compounds in order to take advantage of the cross-feeding phenomenon and, consequently
gut health
improve animal health and zootechnical performance (Yaqoob, MU, et al 2021).
CONCLUSIONS The preservation of intestinal health throughout the birds’ productive life is a continuous task and subject to evolution. Problems may arise at the beginning of the productive life, due to poor colonization of the intestinal tract; However, commercially we have strategies to support the physiology of beneficial bacteria that, thanks to the cross- feeding, collaborate as a unique ecosystem, and they compete with other pathogenic microorganisms. If we learn to approach all these strategies together, we can achieve great benefits in the productive performance of our farms.
Cross feeding and intestinal microbiome: implications for nutrition and health of monogastric animals
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66 NutriNews International December 2023 | Cross feeding and intestinal microbiome: implications for nutrition and health of monogastric animals
FULFILLING THE NEEDS FOR FOLIC ACID AND VITAMIN B12 IS AN EFFECTIVE WAY TO IMPROVE THE METABOLIC EFFICIENCY OF LACTATING DAIRY COWS vitamins
Christiane L. Girard Centre de recherche et développement de Sherbrooke, Agriculture et agroalimentaire Canada, 2000 rue Collège, Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada, J1M 0C8 Christiane.Girard@agr.gc.ca
Clinical deficiencies in B vitamins are extremely rare in dairy cows under normal feeding conditions because the ruminal microbiota synthesizes these vitamins. Nevertheless, improvement in lactation performance following B-vitamin supplementations suggests subclinical deficiencies which reduce metabolic efficiency. Even when cows are fed diets adequately balanced for energy and major nutrients, the need for these vitamins can sometimes exceed the supply from the diet and the synthesis by the rumen microbiota, especially in early lactation, when dry matter intake is low.
68 nutriNews International December 2023 | Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
Due to their metabolic roles and interdependence, folic acid, and vitamin B12 are two B vitamins of interest for dairy cows.
Folates, the biologically active forms of folic acid, provide one-carbon units for DNA synthesis affecting cell division for fetal and mammary development.
Vitamin B12 also acts as a coenzyme in propionate metabolism, the primary source of glucose in dairy cows. The efficiency of folate and vitamin B12 metabolism depends on an adequate supply of both vitamins. On one hand, a lack of vitamin B12, even in the presence of an adequate folate supply, blocks the utilization of
vitamins
folates for DNA synthesis. On the other hand, a low folate supply interferes with the utilization of vitamin B12 for propionate metabolism. Both vitamins, folates and vitamin B12, are critical for de novo synthesis of methyl groups for methylation of DNA, controlling gene expression, and methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine to generate phosphatidylcholine, the major phospholipid in membranes and lipoproteins.
69 nutriNews International December 2023 | Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
A survey of the scientific literature shows that a supplement of folic acid alone or combined with vitamin B12 increased or tended to increase yields of milk or energy-corrected milk in 14 out of 19 experiments and increased or tended to increase milk protein concentration in 8 experiments during early and mid-lactation. Milk yields of fat and protein followed a pattern similar to milk yield. Except for one experiment, the increase in milk, energy-corrected
vitamins
milk, or milk component yields
A supplementation in folic acid and vitamin B12 increased glucose availability or decreased β-hydroxybutyrate plasma concentrations. In both cases, hepatic expression of MUT, the gene responsible for synthesizing the vitamin B12-dependent enzyme methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, was increased.
observed with the vitamin supplementation changed neither dry matter intake nor body weight. In some experiments, the supplements in early lactation decreased body weight or body condition loss.
To understand how it works, we need to remember that vitamin B12 is the coenzyme for a mitochondrial enzyme, methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, which converts methylmalonyl-CoA into succinyl-CoA, a critical step for the utilization of propionate.
The improved lactation performance without increasing dry matter intake or mobilization of body reserves indicates that folic acid and vitamin B12 supplements, especially when given together, improve energy partitioning in dairy cows during early or mid-lactation.
We must also remember that an adequate supply of folic acid is needed to enter vitamin B12 into the cell mitochondria.
70 nutriNews International December 2023 | Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
An increased expression of MUT in the liver contributes to restoring an efficient propionate flux toward the Krebs cycle to form oxaloacetate. In other words, it improves the efficiency of the utilization of propionate absorbed from the rumen. Oxaloacetate could then be used for glucose synthesis or to complete the oxidation of fatty acids released during the mobilization of body reserves (Figure 1).
vitamins
propionate propionyl-CoA methylmalonyl-CoA phosphoenolpyruvate Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (vitamin B12 dependent)
malate
oxaloacetate
fumarate
GLUCOSE
acetyl-CoA from oxidation of fatty acids
citrate
succinate
cis-aconitate
succinyl-CoA
isocitrate
alpha-ketoglutarate oxalosuccinate Figure 1. Propionate metabolism. Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (in blue) is the vitamin B12-dependent enzyme allowing the entry of propionate in the Krebs cycle and its further metabolism for the synthesis of glucose (in green) or entry of acetyl-CoA (in red) in the Krebs cycle to complete oxidation of fatty acids released by mobilization of body reserves. A lack of oxaloacetate to accept acetyl-CoA leads to the formation of ketone bodies (not illustrated).
71 nutriNews International December 2023 | Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
Providing adequate folic acid and The latter, i.e., entry of acetyl-CoA
vitamin B12 supply is also critical to
into the Krebs cycle, prevents the
stimulate milk secretion.
accumulation of ketone bodies
vitamins
resulting from the incomplete oxidation
Several experiments in different
of these fatty acids.
animal species, including dairy cows,
The fate of oxaloacetate toward
FOLR1, which allows entry of folates
glucose synthesis or as an acceptor of
into mammary cells, is involved in
acetyl-CoA to complete oxidation of
the regulation of the growth phase
fatty acids released during mobilization
of mammary tissues and is one
of body reserves is modulated by the
of the critical genes controlling
cow’s energy balance.
milk production and milk casein
In both cases, an adequate supply of folic acid and vitamin B12 improves the efficiency of energy metabolism, either by promoting glucose synthesis or by increasing the amount of energy available due to the complete oxidation of fatty acids, avoiding the accumulation of ketone bodies.
showed that the folate receptor α,
synthesis.
72 nutriNews International December 2023 | Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
The imbalance between the need and Folates could promote mammary epithelial cell development because
the supply of the vitamins modulates the production and metabolic
of their role in synthesizing DNA
responses to folic acid and vitamin B12
constituents such as purines and
supplementation.
thymidylate.
There is no further benefit to be
They may also improve the
expected from using supplements
metabolic efficiency of the
once the supply of both vitamins is
mammary gland by increasing
adequate.
methyl group supply for phosphatidylcholine synthesis and promoting methylation of genes
Consequently, estimation of the B-vitamin
and their expression.
supply, i.e., the summation of B vitamins from dietary ingredients escaping synthesized by the ruminal
modes of action needs to be
microbiota, is critical
confirmed in vivo in dairy cows.
to predicting the
vitamins
destruction in the rumen and B vitamins The relative importance of these
risk of subclinical deficiency.
As vitamin B12 is not present in plant materials, the supply of this vitamin is entirely dependent on its synthesis by ruminal bacteria as long as the dietary supply of cobalt (the central element of the vitamin B12 molecule) is adequate.
73 nutriNews International December 2023 | Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
Empirical models showed that a non-negligible proportion of folates present in the dietary ingredients is not destroyed in the rumen and is available for the cow. The folate supply also increases with dry matter intake and dietary starch concentration, which stimulates the synthesis of the vitamin by the rumen microbiota.
vitamins
Dry matter intake also increases the vitamin B12 supply. However, increasing dietary starch concentration decreases the amount of vitamin B12 available for the cow due to a change in the ruminal bacteria population using the vitamin or producing analogs of the vitamin that are not biologically active for the cow, as observed in previous studies.
The negative effect of dietary starch concentration on vitamin B12 supply is more significant than the positive effect due to increased dietary NDF concentration. Models are still being developed to refine the prediction of B-vitamin supply according to diet composition and nutritional management.
74 nutriNews International December 2023 | Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
CONCLUSIONS Improvement of lactation performance induced by folic acid and vitamin B12 supplements demonstrates that subclinical folate and vitamin B12 deficiency may occur in dairy cows, especially during periods of high metabolic activity, often coupled
vitamins
with negative energy and nutrient balances. The subclinical deficiency of one or both vitamins reduces the efficiency of energy metabolism and milk component synthesis. As knowledge is gained on nutritional factors affecting the supply of these two vitamins, it will be possible to identify precisely the contributing conditions leading to subclinical deficiency.
Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
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75 nutriNews International December 2023 | Fulfilling the needs for folic acid and vitamin B12 is an effective way to improve the metabolic efficiency of lactating dairy cows
MYCOTOXINS IN GRAINS AND CONCENTRATES FOR RUMINANTS: A REAL PROBLEM Carmen García y Santos, Lina Bettucci, Alejandra Capelli and Cecilia Cajarville
mycotoxins
University of the Republic, Route 1, km 42.200, PC 80.100, San José, Uruguay
INTRODUCTION Mycotoxin-producing fungi thrive on animal and human feedstuffs, utilizing them as their growth medium. These fungi generate mycotoxins, which are secondary metabolites characterized by their low molecular weight and high toxicity (Zain, 2011). Grains and plant-based concentrates, in particular, serve as optimal substrates for their proliferation (Yiannikouris and Jouany, 2002). Fungal colonization of grains can occur either before or after harvesting.
Mycotoxins can potentially emerge during both the exponential growth and stationary phases of fungal development, posing a substantial threat to animal and human health (Bullerman and Draughon, 1994). Exposure to mycotoxins in humans can occur through the consumption of contaminated plantbased foods or by ingesting animalderived products from animals that have consumed contaminated feed (WHO, 2018).
76 nutriNews International December 2023 | Mycotoxins in grains and concentrates for ruminants: A real problem
EFFECTS IN RUMINANTS
greater resistance to the toxic effects of mycotoxins in comparison to monogastrics. This enhanced resistance is ascribed to the ruminal microbiota, which degrades and neutralizes these metabolites (FinkGremmels, 2008). Nevertheless, numerous toxic effects associated with the consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated feed are still described.
The primary genera accountable for mycotoxin contamination in grain intended for ruminants are: Fusarium, Aspergillus y Penicillium (Bonifaz, 2012).
Fusarium fungi are widespread and often contaminate crops during their development, especially when conditions of humidity and temperature are favorable.
Various species within this genus generate mycotoxins that can induce intoxication in ruminants, humans, and other animals (Zinedine et al., 2007). The main toxins produced by this genus of fungi are fumonisins, trichothecenes, and zearalenone.
Fumonisins are of significant concern as they interfere with sphingolipid metabolism (Marasas, 1995). The primary fumonisin, fumonisin B1, is associated with esophageal cancer in humans (EFSA, 2005). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) considers it a potential human carcinogen (Group 2B).
mycotoxins
Animals typically encounter mycotoxin intoxication depending on the type of feed they ingest, whether it is grains or concentrates. Ruminants exhibit
Fumonisins have undergone more extensive research in swine and equines among animals. Ruminants, particularly beef cattle, appear to display increased resistance to the negative impacts of these compounds. However, there is ample evidence indicating that fumonisins undergo minimal metabolism in the rumen, resulting in hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic effects, along with adverse consequences for feed intake and production in dairy cows (Smith, 2012).
Trichothecenes like deoxynivalenol (DON) and T-2 toxin undergo metabolic transformation in the rumen, resulting in the production of considerably less harmful metabolites. As a result, they are unlikely to induce substantial disruptions in ruminant animals, although it’s worth noting that the available information on this subject is limited (Eriksen and Pettersson, 2004).
77 nutriNews International December 2023 | Mycotoxins in grains and concentrates for ruminants: A real problem
Zearalenone possesses a three-dimensional molecular structure resembling that of estradiol. This similarity allows it to bind to estradiol receptors, thereby stimulating them and functioning as an endocrine disruptor in both male and female individuals across various animal species
AAflatoxins demonstrate hepatotoxic, immunosuppressive, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic effects across diverse species, including humans (Zain, 2011). Of these toxins, Aflatoxin B1 stands out as the most potent naturally occurring carcinogen known (Coppock et al., 2018).
(D’Mello et al., 1999, Haschek et al., 2002).
mycotoxins
In female cattle, zearalenone adversely impacts fertility, resulting in issues like irregular estrous cycles, vaginitis, decreased embryonic and fetal survival, vulvovaginitis, and rectal prolapse. While certain detoxification processes take place in the rumen, notable levels of zearalenone and its derivatives have been detected in the milk of dairy cows that consume diets with substantial contamination
(Liu and Applegate, 2020). In males, a feminization syndrome is evident, characterized by diminished testosterone levels, reduced testicular weight, impaired spermatogenesis, and decreased libido (Zinedine et al, 2007).
In ruminants, the effects can vary from acute to chronic, depending on the dose and duration of exposure. Chronic intoxication poses a significant public health concern in dairy cows, especially considering that both Aflatoxin B1 and its milk-derived metabolite, M1, are carcinogenic in humans (IARC, 1993; IARC, 2002), and they also contribute to immunosuppression in nursing calves. Ochratoxins, produced by several Penicillium species, possess nephrotoxic and immunosuppressant effects (Perrone and Susca, 2017). Ochratoxin A, while highly potent, rarely exerts negative effects on ruminants, as it is converted into less active compounds within the rumen by protozoa (Perrone and Susca, 2017),
(Mobashar et al., 2010).
Meanwhile, fungal species belonging to the Aspergillus and Penicillium genera primarily proliferate during storage. Aspergillus spp. is notably recognized for its capacity to generate potent toxins such as aflatoxins and ochratoxins (Navale
et al., 2021).
78 nutriNews International December 2023 | Mycotoxins in grains and concentrates for ruminants: A real problem
Table 1 provides a summary of the primary effects observed as a result of mycotoxin consumption in ruminants, based on a review by Gallo et al. (2015). It underscores the relatively limited and inconclusive knowledge available on the topic.
Table 1. Key effects of mycotoxin exposure in ruminants observed in experimental or field studies (summarized from Gallo et al., 2015)
Species and animal category
Reported effects
Dairy cattle
Reduction: consumption, milk production, reproductive efficiency. Alterations: blood parameters (glucose, urea, creatinine, albumin), liver function.
Beef cattle
Decrease: growth, conversion efficiency, rumen motility. Increase: liver and kidney weight.
Sheep
Apathy. Reduction: consumption, gain, weight, decreased conversion efficiency, immune response. Alterations: blood parameters (glucose, urea, creatinine, albumin), liver function. Liver damage, neurological signs, death.
DON
Dairy cattle
Limited alterations: consumption, production. Decrease: microbial protein synthesis in the rumen, fiber digestibility, ruminal pH. Alteration of immune response.
Fumonisins
Dairy cattle
No observed alterations.
Beef cattle
Alterations: hepatocellular, biliary, hepatic function.
Lactating calves
Liver and kidney damage. Hepatic function alteration.
Sheep
Liver function and blood urea alteration. Death.
Dairy cattle
No observed alterations.
Heifers
Decreased conception rate.
Sheep
Reproductive disorders, infertility, reduced percentage of parturition.
ZEA + DON
Heifers
Irregular estrous cycles, vaginitis, early development of mammary glands.
Ochratoxins
Sheep
No observed alterations, reduced consumption.
Citrinin
Sheep
Uremia, fever, diarrhea.
Aflatoxin B1
ZEA
mycotoxins
Mycotoxin
79 nutriNews International December 2023 | Mycotoxins in grains and concentrates for ruminants: A real problem
mycotoxins
Beyond exerting specific actions on tissues or organs, mycotoxins seldom result in acute intoxications, and the symptoms in ruminants are typically nonspecific. Reduced production levels or feed intake without an apparent cause, feed refusal, heightened susceptibility to diseases, reproductive failures, or abortions may originate from the presence of mycotoxins in the feed. However, the presence of mycotoxins often goes unnoticed if the diagnosis is not performed correctly.
ONSET OF CONTAMINATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS FAVORING DEVELOPMENT The proliferation of fungi and the subsequent production of mycotoxins are not uniform but depend on environmental factors, such as humidity and temperature. Typically, higher temperatures and humidity levels encourage both fungal growth and mycotoxin production.
Fungi can flourish in food even without necessarily generating mycotoxins; however, they produce these toxins in response to particular stressors. Extreme weather conditions, such as drought or excessive humidity, the existence of damaged grains, or insufficient crop and storage management, can serve as stress factors that trigger mycotoxin production
(Whitlow and Hagler, 2005).
In this context, occurrences linked to climate change seem to be modifying patterns of mycotoxicosis outbreaks, leading to their occurrence in regions where they were previously uncommon (Tolosa et al., 2021). Grain contamination with fungi (and consequently mycotoxin levels) is uneven, with certain areas within batches, silos, or storage facilities exhibiting higher contamination levels than others, forming “accumulation hotspots” as indicated by the Food Safety authority of Ireland in 2009. Even grains within the same batch can display variation
(Tittlemier et al., 2022).
80 nutriNews International December 2023 | Mycotoxins in grains and concentrates for ruminants: A real problem
Regarding humid sorghum grains stored in bags, García and Santos et al. (2020) observed a positive impact of storage time. Under favorable storage conditions, the continual decrease in pH over time diminishes the levels of condensed tannins, which could serve as potential protectors against fungal contamination in the grain but might impede ruminal fermentation.
abundance of Fusarium decreased after 30 days of storage, and in grains with high tannin content, Aspergillus spp. decreased.
These results provide a fresh outlook on the potential benefits of utilizing grains with elevated tannin levels for silage production, especially in environments where there is a heightened risk of fungal contamination.
A distinctive characteristic of mycotoxins is their resistance to food processing techniques. They withstand processes such as drying and grinding, displaying remarkable thermal stability, making their elimination through cooking a formidable challenge (Kabak, 2009). These inherent properties significantly complicate their
mycotoxins
Taking into account these variations is crucial when collecting samples of grains for mycotoxin detection. For the specific material and storage, it is imperative to adhere to designated protocols, which entail extracting material from diverse areas while considering varying depths and heights.
Based on the findings of this study, the optimal duration for storing grains in bags to improve ruminal fermentation of hard-to-digest grains and minimize contamination would be 180 days. As reported by García and Santos et al. (2022), in sorghum grain silos, the relative
management, reinforcing the notion among nutritionists that when it comes to mycotoxin control, “prevention is far more effective than the cure.”
Within this context, the following recommendations are offered regarding food: the identification and quantification of mycotoxinproducing fungi and the evaluation of mycotoxin levels. With this information, measures can be taken to minimize the risk of contamination in feed intended for both human and animal consumption.
81 nutriNews International December 2023 | Mycotoxins in grains and concentrates for ruminants: A real problem
IDENTIFICATION & QUANTIFICATION Traditionally, the detection and quantification of toxigenic fungi in food have been conducted by isolating and morphologically identifying them using their phenotypic traits. In these techniques, the grown colonies of isolated food cultures are enumerated and transferred to specialized media for identification under a microscope, relying on their micro and macromorphological characteristics in accordance with conventional identification keys for the primary fungal genera.
To determine and quantify mycotoxin concentrations in food, various immunoassay and chromatographic methods can be employed (Díaz and Smith, 2005). Chromatographic techniques such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC), and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS).
The latter method, LC-MS, is extensively employed because
mycotoxins
These techniques demand extensive labor, a substantial level of expertise, and time-consuming efforts. Currently, molecular methods utilizing PCR for identification and quantification have emerged as alternatives.
of its capability to assess large volumes of samples while simultaneously detecting various mycotoxins (Krska et al., 2008). Another methodology currently in use is a combined and integrated rapid immunochromatographic technique.
These methods allow the identification of isolates at the species level by amplifying and sequencing different genes (Ward et al., 2002; O´Donnell et al., 2004) or through amplification with specific primers (Nicolaisen et al., 2009; Scauflaire
et al., 2012).
This technique integrates antibodies on a singular membrane strip, enabling the rapid detection of various analytes within minutes. It requires a portable lateral flow chromatography device that enables the determination of a wide range of mycotoxin concentrations on-site.
82 nutriNews International December 2023 | Mycotoxins in grains and concentrates for ruminants: A real problem
CONTROL + PREVENTION
implement effective practices in the field. This encompasses considerations such as the choice of crops, crop varieties, weed control, irrigation, and crop rotation (Edwards, 2004). Given that climatic conditions are beyond control and significantly impact fungal and mycotoxin development, fieldlevel measures may not always be entirely effective, necessitating intervention during harvesting and storage.
In food products, fungi thrive within pH ranges of 2 to 9, with water activities varying from 0.61 to 0.99 (Snyder et al., 2019). During storage, agents that inhibit fungal growth can be employed; however, these do not impact mycotoxin content if it already exists.
During harvest, grain damage should be avoided, as it predisposes to fungal contamination and mycotoxins. During storage, it might be feasible to regulate humidity and temperature to mitigate the risk of contamination (Shapira & Paster, 2004). Acidic environments and low water activity are effective ways to control and inhibit bacterial growth. However, fungi can grow under a broader range of physicochemical conditions than most bacteria.
In situations of mycotoxin contamination in food, a control method involves utilizing sequestering agents. These agents usually consist of high-molecular-weight polymers, whether inorganic or organic, that function to decrease the absorption of mycotoxins in the digestive tract, thereby reducing their toxicity within the animal’s organism.
mycotoxins
To manage and prevent food contamination by toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins, it is crucial to
entre 2 - 9
To achieve this, sequestrants form irreversible complexes with these toxins in the intestinal lumen, and these complexes are then excreted in the feces (Devegowda and Murthy, 2005). The majority of sequestrants are organic, inorganic, or multimodular compounds (Díaz
and Smith, 2005).
Mycotoxins in grains and concentrates for ruminants: A real problem
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83 nutriNews International December 2023 | Mycotoxins in grains and concentrates for ruminants: A real problem
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