BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River of Life Bosphorus The Bosphorus may look like a river but it is in fact part of the sea. It is a strait connecting the Sea of Marmara in the south with the Black Sea in the north. The Bosphorus is currently crossed by two suspension bridges and a third bridge planned between the current two. A rail tunnel is currently under construction at the southern tip of the Bosphorus. The city of Istanbul was founded at the southern end of the strait and has developed on both the European and Asian shore. These days, more than twothirds of the Bosphorus is within greater Istanbul (see adjacent photo). From earliest times, the Bosphorus has been of strategic naval importance and has been long associated with myth and legend. It is also a significant boundary, marking the edge of Europe and Asia. The name Asia may be interpreted as ‘land of sunrise’ whereas Europe may have meant ‘sunset’ or ‘land of darkness’. Early travelers cannot have failed to appreciate the significance of traveling a waterway marking a division between light and dark. The depth of the Bosphorus (also known as the Istanbul Strait or Boğaziçi in Turkish) at the middle of its channel ranges from 50 to 75 meters for the most part, but at one point about halfway along its course, around the suburb of Arnavutköy, it suddenly deepens to 110 meters. Its maximum width is some 3,500 meters, measured between the two lighthouses of Rumeli Feneri and Anaduli Feneri, and its minimum is 700 meters. One recent theory is that the Bosphorus originally followed the line of a pre-historic river-valley and that the channel we now know was formed in about 5600 BC when the rising waters of the Mediterranean and the Sea of Marmara breached through to the Black Sea, which at the time was a low-lying body of fresh water. Some people think that the resulting massive flooding of the northern shores of the Black Sea is the historic basis for the flood stories found in the Epic of Gilgamesh and Noah’s Flood in the Bible. Another theory holds that the deep and jagged cleft of the Bosphorus was formed as part of a cataclysmic earthquake caused by movement in the nearby African and the Eurasian tectonic plates. This theory is supported by the appearance of the opposing shores of the Bosphorus which seem to fit eachother like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. In fact, from a geological point of view, the zone is still notoriously active. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River of Life The Cow-Crossing The name Bopshorus comes from the Greek ‘bous’ meaning cow, and ‘poros’ meaning crossingplace so therefore Bosphorus is ‘crossingplace of the cow’. In Turkish, the strait is called Boğaziçi; boğaz means throat. The cow and the crossing place have their roots in a Bronze Age Greek myth of Zeus and his mistress Io, daughter of the river God Inachus. Zeus changed Io into a cow to conceal her from his jealous wife Hera. But Hera was not deceived and drove Io away, pursuing and taunting her with a relentless flying insect that forced her to swim the strait between Europe and Asia. Other legends associated with the Bosphorus include Jason in his Argonaut and the search for the Golden Fleece based on folk-memories of the first Greek voyages through the straits in about 1200BC. The surface water of the Bosphorus is not very salty because it is fed by the Black Sea and its current is north to south. Almost all of the streams that flow into the Bosphorus itself are insignificant. Only the streams known collectively as the Sweet Waters of Europe and the Sweet Waters of Asia can lay claim to be rivers. The former, which feed the Golden Horn are now heavily polluted and largely covered over. The fortress of Anadolu Hisari stands at the mouth of the Sweet Waters of Asia, two streams known in Turkish as Göksu Deresi (Great Heavenly Stream) and Küçük Göksu Deresi (Small Heavenly Stream). The Bosphorus empties itself in the Sea of Marmara at Istanbul and the speed of the current diminishes suddenly here. As a result, the surface waters and the waters of the salty under-stream start to mingle, sweet here, salty there. These mixing waters support many different species of fish from swordfish to hamsi (small fish belonging to the anchovy family). These days, even schools of dolphins can be seen frolicking in the waves as they make their way through the strait. The photo above shows early morning fishermen with the kilometre-long Bosphorus Bridge in the background. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River of Life Golden Horn The Golden Horn (Haliç, or Estuary in Turkish) stretches northwest for some 11 kilometers from Saray Point now a public park at the promontory of land at the confluence of the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. The Golden Horn has an average width of about 400 meters. No one is certain of the origin of the name Golden Horn. One suggestion is that it was coined during Mehmet the Conqueror’s siege of the city in the 15th century, when all the gold and precious objects that the Byzantine citizens could collect were thrown into the inlet to save them from being taken by the advancing Ottoman forces. At its northern end two little streams flow into it. Alibey Suyu on the west and Kâğithane Suyu on the east were once known as the Sweet Waters of Europe, but now they are little more than sewers. It is hard to believe that for centuries the meadows between them were the site of royal gardens, palaces and pavilions and was a favourite holiday destination for city-dwellers. Progress has replaced the palaces with ramshackle factories and the meadows have all but disappeared. Today the Golden Horn is settled on both sides, and there are parks along each shore. The Galata Bridge connects the districts of Galata and Eminönü. Two other bridges, the Atatürk Bridge and the Haliç Bridge, are located further up the Horn. Until the 1980s the Horn was polluted with industrial waste, but has since then it has been cleaned up. Many of the old waterfront buildings between Galata Bridge and Atatürk Bridge have been cleared recently in the construction of a new system of parks and promenades along the Golden Horn. From the latter bridge one can walk on the Stanboul shore all the way to Eyüp, which had in the nineteenth century, the reputation of being wildly romantic and picturesque. Unfortunately, on the opposite shore of the Golden Horn, are some of the worst slums in the city. The best way to reach Eyüp is by ferry from Galata Bridge, a journey of some 30 minutes. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
Polluted River Oil Spills The Bosphorus is one of the world's busiest waterways and navigation is made more difficult by the massive 120 to 150,000 ton oil tankers that can pass through the straits. The image on the rights is of the mosque at OrtakÜy with the Bosphorus Bridge in the background. Increased shipping traffic has heightened fears of a major accident that could have serious environmental consequences and endanger the health of the 17 million residents of Istanbul that live on either side of the Straits. Shipping traffic has been increasing since the end of the Cold War to the point that around 80,000 vessels per year (nearly one every 5 minutes) now pass through them. Around one-tenth of these are carrying crude oil or liquefied natural gas tankers from Russia, Central Asia and the Caucuses. Between 1988 and 1992, there were 155 collisions in the strait. To help solve this problem, in January 2001, work began on building a comprehensive radar and vessel control system for the waterway. In March 1994, the Greek Cypriot tanker Nassia collided with another ship, killing 30 seamen and spilling 20,000 tons of oil into the strait. The resulting oil slick turned the waters of the Bosphorus into a raging inferno for five days, but because the accident occurred a few miles north of Istanbul, a potential urban disaster was averted. Water-bourne traffic is likely increase as the six countries surrounding the Black Sea develop economically. In December 1999, the Volgoneft-248, a 25-year old Russian tanker, ran aground and split in two in close proximity to the southwest shores of Istanbul. More than 800 tons of the 4,300 tons of fuel oil on board spilled into the Sea of Marmara, covering the coastline with fuel oil and polluting about 5 square miles of the sea. While major spills can bring about immediate environmental consequences, the presence of large oil- and gas-carrying ships in the strait causes other problems, such as the day-to-day release of contaminated water as the ships ballast their holds. A recent survey has shown that pollution in the Bosphorus has contributed to a decline in fishing levels to 1/60th their former levels. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
Resourceful River Strategic Route As the only passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosphorus has always been of great commercial and strategic importance. The Greek city-state of Athens in the 5th century BC was dependent on grain imports from the Black Sea area and they maintained alliances with cities which controlled the straits. The strategic significance of the strait was also one of the factors in the decision of the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great to rename the city as Constantinople, in 330 AD and make it capital of the Roman Empire. To defend their growing city, the Romans built sea walls that extended along the shores of both the Golden Horn and the Marmara. These walls were rebuilt and strengthened during the reign of Theophilus in the 9th century to protect Constantinople from a sea-borne invasion. The sea walls joined to land walls built by Theodosius II in 447 totally enclosing the peninsula. The walls were about 10 meters high, protected by defensive towers at regular intervals and the interior of the city was only accessed through fortified gates. In 1394 the Ottomans built Anadolu Hisarı (the Fortress of Anatolia, pictured above) on the Asian shore at one of the narrowest points on the Bosphorus (just below today’s Fatih Bridge). And, in 1452, as part of his plans for the conquest of Constantinople, Mehmet the Conqueror ordered the construction of the mighty fortress of Rumeli Hisari (Fortress of Europe) on the opposite bank. With this in place he could control the strait and prevent reinforcements from reach the city he planned to besiege. Mehmet ordered each of his viziers to take responsibility for one of Rumeli Hisari’s three main fortifications. Mehmet said that if his tower was not completed on time then the vizier would pay with his life. Of course, the officials drove their workers hard and completed the whole fortress in just four months. Control over the Bosphorus has been the subject of a number of hostilities in modern history, notably the Russo–Turkish War of 1877 to 78, as well as the attack by the Allied Powers on the Dardanelles in 1915 in the course of the First World War. Today, the straits are treated as an international shipping lane. However, Turkey retains the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-Black Sea nations (such as that of Greece, a traditional enemy). Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
Resourceful River Chained Estuary The scimitar-shaped Golden Horn, a flooded prehistoric estuary, separates the old and new parts of European Istanbul. The Ottoman’s Topkapi Palace (see photo left) sits on the promontary betweent he Golden Horn, the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. The present Galata Bridge between Eminönü and Karaköy is the fifth structure to have been built between these two points, with the first one, a wooden structure, erected in 1845, and the first metal span in 1878. The Galata Bridge has been the main artery of Istanbul’s daily life since then. The Golden Horn is one of the best natural harbours in the world and has sheltered Greek, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman and other ships for thousands of years. It joins the Bosphorus just at the point where the Bosphorus enters the Sea of Marmara, forming a peninsula at the tip of old Istanbul. The Byzantine Empire had its naval headquarters along the Golden Horn and walls were built along the shoreline to protect the city from naval attacks. At the entrance to the Horn, a large chain was pulled across from the old town to the Tower of Galata on the northern side, preventing unwanted ships from entering. The enormous bronze-link chain (part of it is on display at the Military Museum at Harbiye – see left) was kept afloat by buoys. There were three notable times when the chain across the Horn was either broken or circumvented. In the 10th century marauding hoardes from the Black Sea dragged their longships out of the Bosporus, around Galata, and relaunched them in the Horn. At the beginning of the 13th century, the Crusaders crossed the Bosphorus and stormed the Castle of Galata, a fortress at the mouth of the Golden Horn, breaking the chain that closed the entrance to the port. They then constructed a bridge of boats to cross to the Horn. The chain was still in use 1453 when Mehmet the Conqueror came to the throne and laid siege to Constantinople. It repelled the Turkish fleet when they attempted to break the chain at the mouth of the Golden Horn but Mehmet knew his history and, like the marauders before him, had his fleet of 70 ships dragged across Galata into the estuary over greased logs. Cows and hundreds of soldiers hauled the boats out of the Bosphorus at the point where Dolmabaçhe Palace now stands. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
Resourceful River Water culture By the time of Theodosius I’s death in 395AD, all of the major houses in Constantinople had running water piped in from reservoirs, as well as lavatories, which drained into the sea, and most had private baths. There were planning rules that protected the rights of houseowners to a view of the sea. Two of the greatest aqueducts built in the Roman period are the Mazulkemer Aqueduct and the Valens Aqueduct. These aqueducts were built in order to channel water from the western edge of the city to the city centre where the water was later collected in the city's numerous cisterns. One of Justinian I (527 to 565AD) public works was the vast subterranean reservoir on the First Hill known as the Basilica Cistern or Yerebatansaray (the Underground Palace), by far the largest underground cistern in the city. It is 139m long by 65m wide with 336 columns (2 are mounted on classical pedestals in the form of Medusa heads, one upside down and the other on its side). It received fresh water from as far away as Belgrade Forest. Throughout the Byzantine period the cistern was used to store water for the Great Palace and the other buildings on the First Hill. General knowledge of its existence seems to have been lost in the century after the conquest and it was only rediscovered after 1545 and then cleaned and renovated in 1985 and opened to the public in 1987. The Turkish hamam is a direct descendents of the baths of ancient Rome and are built to the same general plan. There are well over 100 Ottoman hamams in Istanbul, which tells of the important part they played in the life of the city. Since only the very wealthiest Ottoman homes were equipped with private baths, the vast majority of people have, for centuries used the hamams of the city to cleanse and purify themselves. For most of the poorer people of modern Istanbul the hamam is still the only place where they can bathe. Nevertheless in Europe, largely due to ignorance, like the harem, the hamam was inextricably associated with eroticism and paintings like The Turkish Bath in 1862 by the French artist Ingres (see left) did much to spread a sensuous reputation for hamams throughout Europe. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
Working River Ferries & Fishing The surface current in the Bosphorus runs from 3 to 5 kilometers per hour from the Black Sea in a southerly direction to the Sea of Marmara. However, an extraordinary thing happens at a depth of about 40m. There is a sub-surface current here that travels in the opposite direction and this is so strong that fishing nets can sometimes drag boats north against the surface flow. Both shores of the Bosphorus are indented with bays and harbours and, in general an indentation on one shore corresponds with a cape or promontory on the other. These points and coves set up swirls and eddies that make navigation dangerous to the inexperienced. Sea transport is vital for Istanbul, as the city is practically surrounded by water on all sides: the Sea of Marmara, the Golden Horn, the Bosphorus and the Black Sea. Many Istanbulites live on the Asian side of the city but work on the European side (or vice-versa) and the city's famous commuter ferries form the backbone of the daily transition between the two parts of the city even more so than the two suspension bridges which span the Bosphorus. Karaköy port in Galata is used by the large cruise liners. Istanbul's main cargo port is located in the Harem district on the Asian side of the city. Istanbul is served by a cheap and relatively comprehensive ferry system. Ferries going up the Golden Horn to Eyup can be caught from the Eminönü side of Galata Bridge on the upstream side; while on the downstream side there are connections to piers along the length of the Bosphorus. Tickets are relatively cheap, costing anything between 3 and 10 Turkish Lira (£1.50 to £5). Kabitaş is the terminus for ferries across to Üsküdor on the Asian and on to the Princes’ Islands and other destinations in the Sea of Marmara. Local fishermen still ferry passengers across the strait for a modest fee, one of the most popular crossings being from Bebek on the European shore to Anadolu Hisari. The design of some of the old fishing boats is directly descended from the days of Jason and the Argonauts. For high-end water travel there is also a water taxi. Just like a land-based service you phone and the taxi comes to you. Prices are competitive too. At the time of writing, a trip from Kuracesme (by the Bosphorus Bridge) to Eminönü is 85 Turkish Lira (about £40). Fishing is a popular pastime on the Golden Horn and Bosphorus. Everyday, scores of enthusiasts hang rods from the upper and lower decks of Galata Bridge and around dawn and dusk the straits are peppered with small fishing boats. Some of the catch can be savoured in Istanbul’s old fish market, Karaköy Balik Pazan, which is located at the foot of the northern side of Galata Bridge. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
Working River Bosphorus Cruise The typical Bosphorus cruise involves zigzagging up and down the shores. You embark at Eminönü on the south side of Galata Bridge and stop alternately on the Asian and European sides of the strait. The 17 mile trip from Eminönü to Anadulu Kavaği takes about one and a half hours and costs about 4 Turkish Lira (about £2). You can jump on or off at any of these places, although you have to pay again to get back on. At Ortaköy, famous for its Sunday arts and crafts market, there is a striking mosque on a little promontory at the water’s edge. It was completed in1855 and is now overshadowed by the super-modern Bosphorus Bridge, one of the world's largest suspension bridges. Just decades ago, the villages beside the Bosphorus north of Ortaköy were small and tranquil, inhabited, as they had been for centuries, by fishermen whose livelihood was the catch from the Bosphorus. Today, the villages have been subsumed by the expanding metropolis of Istanbul, while land along the Bosphorus has become highly coveted real estate. The unbroken stretch of road that runs from Kabataş all the way up to the Black Sea is known by locals as the Sahil Yolu (Coast Road). It is particularly suited for pedestrians on the stretch between Kuraçeşme Park and Rumelí Hísari, where there is a walkway that skirts the Bosphorus for the whole distance. Just nera the Park is Galatasaray Island, a leisure complex in the middle of the Bosphorus owned by Galatasaray Football Club. Also known as Su Ada, it boasts two swimming pools, a host of restaurants , bars and clubs. Arnavutköy (below left) is one of the most attractive villages on the Bosphorus due to its abundant yalis. These wooden Ottoman mansions built by the water were once popular with the aristocracy, who followed the imperial court’s move from Topkapi Palace down to Dolmbahçe. The next village along is Bebek, one of the most afluent areas on the European shore. The Valide Pasa’s yali, built in 1902, is located here. It now serves as the Egyptian Embassy. Rumelí Hísari (above left), named after the monumental castle perched on the hill above, is the next village, which now sits in the shadow of the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge. People travel to here for miles around to eat at Iskele, one of the Bosphorus’ most famous fish restaurants. Opposite on the Asian shore is Kanlica, a fishing village that is now a favoured suburb for the wealthy. Crowds gather in the restaurants and cafes along the shores to sample its famous yoghurt. Shortly after, Hidiv Kasri (now converted into a restaurant and garden café) is built at the most dramatic promontory on the Bosphorus. Beykoz and Korusu woods are also popular retreats with cafes and restaurants with delightful views and clear fresh air. A little further on the narrow strait widens and disappears into the Black Sea. Yeniköy and Tarabya Bay on the European shore are fashionable villages with expensive restaurants and nightclubs. There are handsome yalis and a long line of summer embassies with beautiful gardens and parks. Beyond Sanyer is Rumelí Kavaği, the last ferry-stop on the European shore and after this is Altin Kum or Golden Sands, named for its beach. Two lighthouses flank the Bosphorus as it reaches the Black Sea. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River City Istanbul Istanbul is unique is so far as it is the only city in the world that stands astride two continents. Its population these days now exceeds 15 million. The first Greek colony on the Bosphorus was at Chalcedon (today’s Kadiköy), on the Asian side, founded in about 675 BC. Seventeen years later, Byzas the Megarian founded Byzantium at the confluence of the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus. Byzas was said to have consulted the Delphic Oracle, who advised him to settle ‘opposite the land of the blind’. Apparently, the oracle was referring to the residents of Chalcedon, who must have been blind not to appreciate the much greater advantages of the site chosen by Byzas. The great advantage of Byzas’ site was its defensibility, surrounded as it was by water on three sides and to the west, a defensive wall could be erected (see map from 1573 above) Another advantage was that the Golden Horn provided a superb natural harbour. The promontory of land also acted as a barrier to divert shoals of fish that swim down the Bosphorus from the Black Sea, forcing them into the port and creating an abundant fishery that became one of the principal sources of income for the people of Byzantium. Other important sources of income were the tolls and harbour fees paid by the ships that passed through the strait, for Byzantium controlled the Bosphorus from the beginning of its history, and this was the principal reason for its subsequent rise to greatness. The city was originally known as Byzantium and it was then renamed Constantinople when Constantine the Great made it the capital of the Roman Empire in 330AD. Then in 1453, Constantinople was captured by the Turks under Mehmet the Conqueror, becoming the capital of the Ottoman Empire under its present name Istanbul (from the Greek phrase which means ‘in the city’, ‘to the city’ or ‘downtown’). The Ottoman Empire reached its zenith with Süleyman the Magnificent (1520-66) whose empire extended throughout northern Africa and southern Spain and reached the gates of Vienna in the west. The Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1923 with the founding of the modern Republic of Turkey whose capital was then established in Ankara.
Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River City Bosphorus Bridge Two modern bridges now span the Bosphorus. The first of these, Bosphorus Bridge (or Bogazici Koprusu) crosses between Ortaköy on the European shore and Beylerbey in Asia. The view from the bridge looking south is shown left. The bridge opened on 29 October 1973, the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Turkish Republic. The second bridge, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Koprusu, crosses just upstream from Rumelí Hisari and Anadolu Hisari, the Castles of Europe and Asia. This opened in the summer of 1988; exactly 2,500 years after the Persian King Darius built his bridge of boats on the Bosphorus across this same stretch of the strait. When it opened it was the sixth longest suspension bridge in the world, the span between its two piers is 1,090 meters. The Bosphorus Bridge is a toll bridge, charges are made for passing from Europe to Asia, but not for passing in the reverse direction. This toll has been so successful that it has paid off the investment of the bridge’s construction within the first ten years of its operation. Since April 2007, a fully computerized LED lighting system of changing colours and patterns, illuminates the bridge at night (see below left). The only time that pedestrians are permited on the bridge is for the Istanbul Eurasia Marathon, organized annually in October. It starts from the Anatolian part of Istanbul, crosses the Bosphorus on the bridge and ends in the European part during which the bridge is closed to traffic. Visitors to Istanbul in October can sign up for the 'fun run' at many points round the city and take the opportunity to cross the bridge on foot, many take picnics to enjoy the view. On 15 May 2005, US tennis star Venus Williams played a show game on the bridge, the first tennis match ever to be played on two continents. On 17 July 2005, British Formula One driver David Coulthard drove his Red Bull racing car on the bridge first from the European side to the Asian side, and then turning with a spectacular powerslide at the toll plaza he raced back to the European side. Cameras located on the bridge issued him with an automatic fine for speeding. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River City Marmaray Tunnel Marmaray is an undersea rail tunnel being constructed under the Bosphorus. When completed, it will be the world's deepest undersea immersed tube tunnel. The name Marmaray comes from combining the name of the Sea of Marmara with ray, the Turkish word for rail. Construction started in May 2004 and completion is expected in 2012. After that, usage of rail transportation in Istanbul is predicted to soar from 4% to 28%, taking it to third highest in the world, behind Tokyo (60%) and New York City (31%). The project is currently two years behind schedule, largely due to the discovery of Byzantine-era archaeological finds on the proposed site of the European tunnel terminal. The excavations produced evidence of the city's largest harbour, the 4thcentury Port of Theodosius. Archaeologists uncovered traces of the city wall of Constantine the Great, and the remains of several ships, including what appears to be the only ancient or early medieval galley ever discovered. In addition, the excavation has uncovered the oldest evidence of settlement in Istanbul, with artifacts, including amphorae, pottery fragments, shells, pieces of bone, horse skulls, and nine human skulls found in a bag, dating back to 6000 BC. Tunnel construction is only about 18km from the active North Anatolian fault line, which runs from northern Anatolia to the Sea of Marmara. This fault line has been responsible for several deadly earthquakes. In August 1999 a catastrophic earthquake led to the collapse of a large number of buildings in the west of the city, including some of the unrestored sections of the Theodosian city walls. Scientists calculate the chances of the area being hit by a quake of 7 or higher on the Richter scale may be as high as 77%. The waterlogged, silty soil on which the tunnel is being constructed has been known to liquefy during an earthquake; to solve this problem, engineers are injecting industrial grout down to 24m below the seabed to keep it stable. The walls of the tunnel will be made of waterproof concrete coated with a steel shell, each independently watertight. The tunnel is made to flex and bend similar to the way tall buildings are constructed to react if an earthquake hits. Floodgates at the joints of the tunnel are able to slam down and isolate water in the event of the walls' failure. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River City Galata Bridge The oldest recorded bridge over the Golden Horn was built during the reign of Justinian I in the 6th century. In 1453, during the Fall of Constantinople, the Turks assembled a mobile bridge by putting their ships next to each other and used it for transporting their troops from one side of the Golden Horn to the other. In the years 1502–1503 plans to construct the first bridge in the current location were discussed. Sultan Bayezid II solicited a design from Leonardo da Vinci. The artist utilized three well-known geometrical principles, the pressed-bow, parabolic curve and keystone arch, to create an unprecedented single span 240m long and 24m wide bridge for the Golden Horn, which would have become the longest bridge in the world of that period if constructed. However, the ambitious design did not meet with the Sultan's approval. Michelangelo was also invited to offer a design for a bridge but he did not take up the offer and the idea of building a bridge across the Golden Horn was shelved until the 19th century. A smaller scale version of Leonardo da Vinci's Golden Horn Bridge was brought to life in 2001 near Oslo in Norway by the contemporary artist Vebjørn Sand, the first civil engineering project based on a Leonardo da Vinci sketch to be constructed (see left). The first Galata Bridge at the mouth of the waterway was constructed in 1845 by Valide Sultan, the mother of Sultan Abdül Mecid (1839-1861) and used for 18 years. It was known as the Cisr-i Cedid or New Bridge to distinguish it from the earlier bridge further up the Golden Horn, which became known as the Cisr-i Atik or Old Bridge. There was a second bridge in 1863 and a third a few years later in 1870. The fourth Galata Bridge was built in 1912. This was constructed on floating pontoons which had the effect of blocking pollution travelling down the Golden Horn. Unfortunately, it was badly damaged in a fire in 1992 and towed up the Golden Horn to make way for the modern bridge now in use. The fifth Galata bridge, completed in 1994, is a bascule bridge, which is 490m long. It has an upper deck for vehicles and trams and a lower pedestrian deck lined with shops and restaurants.
Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River Culture Princes’ Islands The most famous of all the beauty spots in the vicinity of Istanbul are the Princes’ Islands, the little archipelago of nine islands just off the Asian coast of the Sea of Marmara. The isles are about an hour’s sail by ferry from the Galata Bridge. Of the nine islands, only five are settled. In antiquity the islands were known as Demonisia, the People’s Islands. In Byzantine times, rebellious princes, deposed monarchs and troublesome associates were interned here in convents and monasteries, hence the name ‘Princes’ Islands’. A steam ferry service from Istanbul was started in the mid-19th century and the islands became popular summer resorts with Greek, Jewish and Armenian communities. These days, horse-drawn carriages known as Phaetons are used on the islands (motor vehicles are not permitted) and most of the architecture is pine and stone-pine wooden constructions. However, many of the wooden buildings are in a very poor state of repair and fire seems to strike frequently. When it does, the wooden buildings are often replaced by standard concrete structures and in the process, the islands are losing some of their distinctive historic character. The largest of the islands, Büyük Ada or Prinkipo, is the only island that most people visit and is fast becoming over-developed. Its rapidly expanding village has a large number of attractive summer residences and several good hotels and a posh country club. Out of the built-up area there are lovely pine groves and other forests, wild cliffs plunging down to the sea and sandy coves for bathing. En route to Princes’ islands the ferry passes Kiz Kulesi (otherwise called Maiden’s tower or Leander’s Tower – pictured left). In ancient times, a predecessor of the current 18th structure functioned as a tollbooth and defence point; the Bosphorus could be closed off by means of a chain stretching from here to Seraglio Point. According to popular Turkish legend, a sultan had a much beloved daughter. One day, an oracle prophesised that she would be stung to death by a venomous snake. The sultan had the tower built in the middle of the Bosphorus to protect his daughter. On her 18th birthday, the sultan brought her a basket of exotic sumptouous fruits as a present, but a poisonous asp was hiding among the fruits. The snake bit the young princess and she died in her father's arms, just as the oracle had predicted. Hence the name Maiden's Tower. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River Culture Sarayi Topkapi Sarayi (sarayi is Turkish for palace) was begun in 1462 by Mehmet the Conqueror and then extended by each succeeding sultan until it became a miniature city. At its height, at least 4,000 people lived inside the complex, serving the imperial household. Sultan Abdül Mecit moved into the newly build Dolmabahçe Palace in 1853 and by 1909, Topkapi was completely abandoned. In 1924 it was converted into a museum and has been undergoing a continuous programme of restoration ever since. The suburb of Beşiktaş on the European shore has the largest concentration of Ottoman pleasure palaces and pavilions in Istanbul. Early illustrations show this area as a green paradise of gardens and parks interspersed with waterfront palaces. The first and foremost palace is the magnificent Dolmabahçe (which translates as ‘filled-in garden’). It was built in the ‘modern style’, which is why its façade owes more to Verseilles than the domes and arches of Topkapi. Nearby Ciraĝan Palace, built in 1874 by Sultan Abdül Aziz, was also constructed in French château style. Dolmabahçe is sited on the harbour from which Mehmet the Conqueror launched his attach on Constantinople in 1453. The harbour was completely filled with stones on the order of Ahmet I at the beginning of the 17th century. The area was landscaped as a shore side grove of small palaces and pavilions set aside for imperial use. Sultan Abdül Mecit demolished these to build his palace. The construction of Dolmabahçe nearly emptied the imperial treasury and its running costs contributed to the empire’s bankruptcy in 1875.
Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org
BOSPHORUS / GOLDEN HORN
River Culture Yali For hundreds of years, the wealthy inhabitants of Istanbul have been building summer residences along what were once beautiful rural parklands on the banks of the Bosphorus. These days, with the surrounding landscape rising to heights up to 200m is densely developed with palaces converted into museums and hotels, waterside restaurants, mosques, docks and all the detritus of modern developments. The word ‘yali’ comes from the Greek word for ‘coast’, and describes the waterside wooden summer residences along the Bosphorus built by Ottoman aristocracy and foreign ambassadors in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, now all protected by the country’s heritage laws. Some 620 yali survive. The photo on the below left is the Afif Ahmet Pasa Yali. Finely worked wood was the predominant construction material chosen for yalıs, as it was for the large majority of traditional Turkish houses. Successive restorations often caused the wooden parts of the overall structure to be gradually reduced, but wood nevertheless remains the prominent and identifying material of historic yalıs. Asnavutköy and Bebek (Turkish for baby), two of the most beautiful Bosphorus villages, are famous for their beautiful yalis. Some of these have boat moorings carved beneath them. Caiques were used to row the sultans and their guests to and from their yalis. The oarsmen, called the Bostanci, reputedly barked like dogs while they rowed so as not to overhear the sultans talking. The largest of the sultans caiques dates from 1648 and needed an incredible 144 oarsmen to power it. The oldest surviving yalı is the one built by the grand vizier Amcazade Köprülü Hüseyin Pasha in 1699 at the Kanlıca district, on the Asiatic shores of the Bosphorus. The image above left was painted in 1720 and shows festivities on the Golden Horn. On the opposite European shores, the oldest to remain is the Şerifler Yalısı in Emirgan which was built in 1780. The most expensive yalı is Erbilgin Yalısı located in Yeniköy, Istanbul. Forbes magazine listed is as the fifth most expensive house in the world with a price tag of $100 million. Bosphorus / Golden Horn has been compiled by Adrian Evans Rivers of the World is a Thames Festival project delivered in partnership with the British Council’s Connecting Classrooms with support from HSBC Global Education Programme www.riversoftheworld.org