School Learning at NHM London: Past, Present and Future

School Learning at the Natural History Museum, London: Past, Present and Future

Central Hall of the Natural History Museum, London- A General Guide to the British Museum (Natural History), 1891:13

How did teachers integrate a museum trip with classwork in 1970?

How does this compare with teaching trends in 2009?

How might school visit trends change in future?

By Grace Kimble

Acknowledgements With grateful thanks to the following staff of the Natural History Museum for their time providing insight into life in the Learning Department: Dr Honor Gay, Head of Learning Martin Lawrence, Deputy Head of Learning Abigail Tinkler, Head of Schools Dan Wormald, Gallery Learning Margarita Petri, Head of Volunteer Programmes Caroline Thalund, Learning Evaluator Sharon Jarvis, Head of Bookings Sally Collins, School Programme Developer Dean Veall, Science Educator Archives Department Thanks to Polly Parry, Daisy Cunynghame and James Hatton for patience in providing research material.

Institute of Education Thanks to Dr Pam Meecham and Dr John Reeve for guidance.

Thanks to Pete Kimble; Bob, Edith and Frank Sim, Edith Strachan, Gaya Rabindra and Sarah Pegman for encouragement, much appreciated.

Published August 2009; revised July 2011

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Contents 4

Abstract

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1. Introduction

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2: Overview of the History of Education at the Natural History Museum 2. 1. The British Museum opens 2. 2. Natural History Collections move to South Kensington 2. 3. The first education appointment at NHM 2. 4. WW1 and the inter war years 2. 5. Jacqueline Palmer and the Children’s Centre 2.6 Roger Miles and the New Exhibitions Scheme 2. 7. The Teachers’ Centre and Discovery Centre 2. 8. 2000- Investigate and a new Strategy for Learning

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3: Evaluation with school audiences at the Natural History Museum 3.1: 1970 Methodology 3.2: 2009 Methodology

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4. Results 4.1 1970 results 4.2 2009 results

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5 Discussion

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6 Conclusion

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Bibliography

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Appendices: case studies 1-4; Pre-visit PDF.

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Abstract What were the key milestones in the history of education at the Natural History Museum? This dissertation explains important stages and shows how they relate to trends in museum, general and science education. The historical context explained in section 2 sets the scene for understanding two ‘snapshots’ of school audiences; looking at evaluation with 15 schools in 1970 and 2009.

Section 3 shows evidence to suggest that, although pre-visit lessons seem beneficial, a lower proportion of schools now prepare pupils compared to 1970 results. I conclude that there is a change in ethos largely caused by a focus on legal responsibilities for teachers on school trips.

I make a recommendation for increased quality of pre- and post visit support, and suggest that in future greater use of technology in providing resources will make it easier for teachers to integrate school trips with classroom teaching. In addition, changes implemented as a result of the Learning Outside the Classroom Manifesto may allow pedagogy to once again become a focus when planning class visits.

Future research could focus on: how best to take children’s views into consideration, further investigation of the benefit of pre-visit lessons, or considering how best to learn from museum practice in the past.

The Natural History Museum from Cromwell Road, 2009

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1. Introduction In one moment I've seen what has hitherto been Enveloped in absolute mystery, And without extra charge I will give you at large A Lesson in Natural History.

Lewis Carroll, The Hunting of the Snark (1867) London’s Natural History Museum (NHM) opened in 1881. It houses the natural history collections originally started by Sir Hans Sloane in the 1700s (Thackeray and Press, 2006). The social artefacts of Sloane’s collection remain in the British Museum (BM), whilst the natural specimens moved to South Kensington under the direction of high profile Victorian academic Richard Owen (Huxley, 2007).

The Natural History Museum from Cromwell Road c. 1890 © Natural History Museum Picture Library

Richard Owen was an educator ; part of his power stemmed from his appointment as tutor to Queen Victoria’s children (Stearn, 1980). His position may have been instrumental in helping him get his own way when it came to the extravagant design and size of the museum. Many others (particularly scientists) wished the museum to be a small collection for the public, with a separate site where the full plethora of species were stored for the learned, he was adamant that the full glory of God’s creation (in his opinion) should be available for the lay public to enjoy (Yanni, 2005).

NHM opened to mixed reviews, with many concerned by the sheer amount of specimens for public consideration.

Yanni summarises the dilemma: animals wrestling with each other cannot be studied by naturalists, and row upon row of dead stuffed things bores the public (2005:151)

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Richard Owen (1804-1892) with his daughter © NHM picture library

Section 2 of this dissertation aims to describe educational services provided to interpret the vast collection for school audiences. Sections 3 and 4 focus on evaluation; ‘snapshots’ of school trip evaluation in 1970 and 2009 will be compared to show that there is a decrease in the amount of pre-visit teaching.

Reasons for this trend are considered in section 5; is there a benefit to pre-visit lessons?

Are teachers struggling to find time to fit prior teaching into their timetables? What pre-visit lesson support is available? And how does the culture of learning outside the classroom now compare with that in 1970?

I conclude that pre-visit lessons do appear to increase the motivation of pupils in this sample, based on analysing language of pupils who have received prior teaching compared to pupils who have not. Time pressure in the curriculum is an issue; but there is evidence to suggest that a lack of time for teachers has been an ongoing concern for many years. The process of communicating with teachers has changed since 1970, and pre-visit support is different. In the current culture of learning outside the classroom, there is a focus on planning to avoid risks which has taken priority at the expense of planning to teach relevant subjects. The Learning Outside the Classroom Manifesto is one government strategy aimed at increasing teacher confidence for school trips, and future research could focus on the effects of this new development for teachers and pupils. Other directions for future research are methods of pupil consultation and how best to learn from archive material.

I recommend that pre and post visit material and activities are made easily accessible via the web in order to save teacher time and integrate one off events with classwork.

To explain my perspective, I currently work as a School Programme Developer at NHM. I previously worked as Education Manager on a boat, funded by the Heritage Lottery and based at the environmental/community support charity Groundwork.

My background as a primary teacher has underpinned my approach in these roles.

The next section describes the history of education at NHM to set the context.

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2. History of Education at the Natural History Museum In section 3, we will look at sources of evidence for school consultation at the Natural History Museum. In order to understand the background in which schools audiences would be consulted, it is important to have an overview of stages in education at this national museum. Milestones have been selected, as explained in the chart below. In each case, they will be related to trends in museum, general and science education.

1759 1881 1912 1918-1939 1948 1970 1980 2000

2.1 The British Museum opens 2. 2. Natural History Collections move to South Kensington 2. 3. The first education appointment At NHM 2. 4. WW1 and the inter war years; a change in purpose 2. 5. Jaqueline Palmer and the Children’s Centre 2.6 Roger Miles and the new exhibitions scheme 2. 7. The Teachers’ Centre and Discovery Centre 2. 8. Investigate and a new policy for Learning

1948 Source: Natural History Museum Picture Library

As a caveat (particularly to current NHM staff) these stages have been chosen to give a broad overview aimed at a reader who may not have visited NHM. I recognise that there are layers of nuance and subtlety that are outside the scope of this MA dissertation, but would make interesting subjects for future detailed research.

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2. 1. The British Museum opens

Robert Smirke, British Museum interior, Great Zoology Gallery. Illustrated London News 6 (29 March 1845)

In 1759 the BM was formed by an act of government, allowing Sir Hans Sloane’s collection to be seen by the nation (Thackeray and Press, 2006). Perhaps acts of social reform such as the French Revolution, resulting in the Louvre being made a public access gallery rather than a private collection of King Louis XIVth, paved the way for museums to be open to all in the early 1800s in enlightenment England (HooperGreenhill, 1991).

Museums and Education The Royal Institutions (‘intellectual societies’) and Mechanics Institutes (‘for the working classes’) which formed at the end of the eighteenth century existed to further education in the new industrial, urban era. Museums were seen, together with libraries and schools as methods to further the utilitarian need for an educated workforce. (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991). Where children could be sent to schools, museums were a way to allow uneducated adults to learn through pictures and objects.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century one of the founding objectives of the museum was to educate and inform.

(Hooper Greenhill 1991:9)

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Science Education Science education was in its infancy. Natural history had been studied largely by ‘rich, self-supporting amateurs’ (Huxley 2007) since the 1600s but these ‘natural philosophers’ were soon to diversify as increased knowledge led to specialisation; for example the new subjects geology and botany. The term ‘scientist’ was coined in 1833, when William Whewell used the term to refer to a natural philosopher who worked systematically (Ross, 1962). There was a divide about the benefits of teaching classics versus science; which was more suitable for instilling analytical thought processes and mental discipline in pupils? (DeBoer, 1991).

Science interpretation for the public at the British Museum Sloane’s collection included many natural history specimens from time spent as a Doctor in Jamaica (Stearn, 1980). For interpretation, visitors used the densely printed synopsis, available for one shilling which would have made it inaccessible for many.

Labels were rudimentary and the key aim seemed to have been to include as many objects as possible in each case (Thackeray and Press, 2006).

Interior of The Museum of Practical Geology. Stereoscopic photograph by Roger Fenton (1819-1869). c.1857 © The Trustees of the British Museum

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2. 2. Natural History Collections move to South Kensington

Illustrated London News, 18th July 1863

The eternal issue of ‘lack of space’ instigated planning of a new site for the Natural History Collection of the British Museum (Stearn, 1980). Sir Richard Owen was in charge of the move, and made a number of decisions unpopular with scientists; top of the list being the cathedral-like splendour intended to display the glory of creation (Yanni 2005). However, his eminent position gave him control of architectural decisions and in 1881 the South Kensington building opened (Stearn, 1980).

A 4 pence guide explained the Geology, Paleontology, Botany and Mineralogy Departments and was 170 pages long! It had illustrations, therefore was slightly more accessible than the epic Synopsis (Thackeray and Press, 2006).

Museums and Education By the time the Museums Act (1845) was in place, 40 museums existed in England.

What were institutions similar to NHM providing to educate the public?

Henry Cole was in charge of the South Kensington Museum, which was opened after the Great Exhibition of 1851 (now the Victoria and Albert Museum, V & A). He believed in the educational purpose of museums: Indeed, a museum presents probably the only effectual means of educating the adult, who cannot be expected to go to school like the youth, and the necessity for teaching in the grown man is quite as great as that of educating the child. By proper arrangements a Museum may be made in the highest degree instructional. If it be connected with lectures, and means are taken to point out its uses and applications, it becomes elevated from being a mere unintelligible lounge for idlers into an impressive schoolroom for everyone

(Minihan 1977: 112)

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At this stage, educating adults was still a key aim. By 1855 an outreach programme had lent over 400 specimens and artworks from the V & A, although their destination is not recorded (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991).

Objects were important in education. Educationalists such as Pestalozzi, Froebel and Rousseau advocated real experience for children (Jenkins and Swinnerton, 1998).

The Committee of the Council for Education (1895) explained that object teaching allows sense perceptions to be linked to facts; so two sorts of knowledge are used (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991) which leads to better learning.

Haslemere Educational Museum was founded by Sir John Hutchison in 1895. He was a believer in object lessons: ‘All objects should have detailed labels and be helped in the best possible manner by photographs and drawings, the museum would thus become a richly illustrated book which those who would, might read. It would be a place to which teachers would take their pupils, not once a year as a holiday outing, but frequently, and as their best method of serious study.

Never until something of this sort is accomplished will museums take their proper place, and never til they do will the natural sciences become attractive to the young, and a knowledge of them be easily got and well retained’.

Sir John Hutchinson quoted in Swanton (1947:7)

The British Association summarises the ethos regarding education and museums at the end of the 19th century: The town museum should be the place to which all students and teachers of science should naturally go for assistance. To bona fide students every facility and encouragement should be given, and loan collections should be prepared for teachers…the practical value of museums in all adequate systems of education is not yet recognised by the general public. Too many of these institutions have hitherto been but toys and hobbies, and require complete organisation.

British Association (1888:131)

Whilst object teaching was common in the 19th century, it began to be less popular from 1900 when it became too prescribed since very structured lesson plans were published (English educators might draw a parallel with criticisms of unit plans in the past five years). Teachers also began to be paid by results and focussed on tests.

General Education Liberal William Gladstone’s 1870 Education Act introduced compulsory universal education for children aged 5-13. It follows that the focus of education in museums could gradually move away from giving adults basic education, as the proportion of literate adults increased. In 1895 museum attendances were allowed to count as school attendances. Teachers were encouraged to take pupils to museums (Jenkins and Swinnerton, 1998).

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Science Education The number of departments teaching elementary science in England and Scotland went from almost none in 1890 to 20 000 in 1900, supported by funding incentives.

Object teaching was a means to teach Nature Study, a topic which was starting to be included in Elementary Science. Thomas Henry Huxley and JR Gladstone exerted considerable influence at government level, and wrote popular textbooks that facilitated the meteoric rise in science topics (Turner, 1927).

Number of Departments teaching Elementary Science

25000

Number

20000 15000 10000 5000 0 1890

1891

1892

1893

1894

1895

1896

1897

1898

1899

1900

Ye ar

Number of Departments under which Elementary science was taught as a Class Subject, 1890-1900 Source of data: Swinnerton and Jewnkins 1998:12. Graph- GK

To summarise this section, there were some examples of progressive education provision for school pupils in Victorian museums. The main role of museums was believed to be education, and the number of pupils studying Elementary Science was increasing. However, NHM did not have any specific education staff. An educator was not appointed until 1912, as the next section explains.

Image from ‘Nature Teaching on the Blackboard’, published in 1910.At this time many manuals for Nature study teaching were published, showing diagrams teachers should draw for pupils. Source: Whipple Library, University of Cambridge

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2.3 The first Education Appointment at NHM

John Leonard giving a tour of the Fossil Plants Gallery, 1920. Source: Natural History Museum Picture Library

Museum Education A key figure in the early twentieth century, Lord Sudeley, was an active campaigner for government support and interest (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991). One of his aims was: our museums and galleries should be made to supplement the work of our schools, and that these two parts of the nation’s educational equipment should be brought into one harmonious whole (1913: 1216) Cecil Hallett was appointed as Guide Lecturer at the BM in 1911. He is reported to have been very popular. In The Times, October 21, 1911 Lord Sudeley wrote: ‘whether, now that the experiment has been tried with such marked and undoubted success, steps should not at once be taken to extend largely the system to all museums, galleries and public gardens (especially at Kew), not only in London but also in the provinces. The Natural History Museum, a department of the British Museum, would seem specially marked out for the adoption of this system Quoted in Stearn (1998: 101) On 26th May 1912 (Stearn, 1980) the first education appointment was made at NHM. Science teacher John Henry Leonard gave tours which were so popular that he worked until 1931 (Tucker, 2007). He had a good reputation: He was knowledgeable and enthusiastic. Crowds of both the young and old followed him around the Museum and his talks as he led them from one exhibit to another gave a new educational dimension to the Museum. In the course of his service, from 1912-1931 he became the best known and most popular member of the Museum staff

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Stearn (1998: 101) At the V&A tours attracted 60 000 visitors from 1913-14. Tate, the Wallace Collection and National Gallery followed the lead of the National Museums (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991).

General Education At the start of the twentieth century the 1902 Education Act established a system of secondary education and Local Education Authorities were created. By 1904 a subject based curriculum was in place for secondary schools (Jenkins and Swinnerton, 1998). It was a time of perceived unlimited progression and modernist values, before the impact of the first world war.

Guide programme example. Source: NHM archives

DF1/44/40

Museum and general education partnership In 1913, when there were 16 museum education staff in the UK, the British Association commissioned a report to to examine, inquire into and report on the character, work and maintenance of museums, with a view to their organisation and development as institutions for education and research: and especially to enquire into the requirements of schools.

Lewis (1989:30)

The wording of this statement seems audience led: ‘the requirements of schools’.

The report was interrupted by war and not presented until 1920 in Cardiff, by which point the ethos was very different (Kavanagh, 1994).

Science Education Continuing progress in raising the profile of science was starting to increase the access of schools to apparatus, demonstration boxes, and even later, labs. The importance of science and technical education became elevated with the start of the first world war (Turner, 1927).

Photo of soldiers in NHM garden, taken

by John Leonard.

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Source: NHM archives DF1/44/40

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2.4 The Great War and the inter-war years; a change in purpose Museum Education During the Great War years museums some educated the public about matters of national importance such as health education. The 1915 NHM exhibition ‘War on Houseflies’ toured the country (Kavanagh 1994). In the inter-war years NHM education services increased at a time when the priority for museums became curation rather than education.

Museum and general education partnership Where school buildings were being used for military purposes museums became classrooms. Successful examples of pupil engagement strengthened the argument for positive relationships between schools and museums (Kavanagh, 1994), but the educational role of museums was low priority by 1918. Influential reports chart the changing context: The British Association The British Association rejected the Board of Education’s offer to take over education in museums, stating the move would ‘seriously prejudice the functions of museums as conservators of material and centres of research’. In 1920 the report (commissioned in 1913) was published, claiming: ‘teachers had been unable to realise the possibility of collections’ (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991) Exhibitions, outreach, lectures and advanced students’ activities were criticised. Loans and docents in America were praised instead. However, the BA supported some museum teachers to train with curators, and pre and post-visit work and teacher training became part of museum teaching.

By 1920 NHM offered tours to injured soldiers. These were initially for blind people and were later offered for adults and children, in 1927 (Tucker, 2007).

Differentiation (teaching according to ability) was a theme in education at the time. It was a time where intelligence tests were introduced in classrooms against a backdrop of genetic determinism (such as Burt, 1937).

Was this new focus on learner’s abilities reflected in museum education provision?

In 1932 ‘Special’ public tours were established at NHM, with the appointment of the new Guide Lecturer Mona Edwards.

They were about specific topics,

Following the death of the Museum's first Guide Lecturer, John Henry Leonard (1864-1931), Mona Edwards took over the role in 1932. She is shown here with a group of visitors looking at a stuffed Bengal tiger specimen in the Indo-Malay section of the Game Animals of the Empire exhibition. A dedicated guidebook to the exhibition was also published, providing visitors with a mass of scholarly zoological information on the specimens displayed. She didn’t really have horns.

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and conducted by scientists – the result of a perceived need for more advanced lectures since in the normal tours the information imparted is not couched on a very high plane (Snell and Tucker, 2003).

Carnegie Funding: The Miers Report Miers was appointed by the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust (CUKT) to investigate museum education. He found that ‘the hampering shackles of museum tradition’ were preventing them fulfilling a responsibility to school children. He described a public apathy for museums (although enthusiasm must have been a rare quality given the social circumstances at the time) and recommended that exhibits, publicity, space; guidebooks, index collections, labels and models needed to improve. The report generated a policy of match funding from CTUK (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991).

The Board of Education The Board of Education issued a Memorandum 1931: Museums and Schools: memorandum on the possibility of increased co-operation between public museums and public educational institutions. It outlined opportunities in school visits, loans, teacher information, collecting and publications. Good practice was cited in the St Louis’ loan service and the V&A collaboration with London County Council (LCC). Why did NHM not have a loan service when there were good examples? Unfortunately, an Act of Parliament prevents NHM specimens from being loaned anywhere other than other museums (HMSO; 1969).

Markham Report In 1938 CUKT commissioned a second report. Unfortunately this was not the glowing testimony that might have been expected given CUKTs investment.

Markham concluded that there was a lack of understanding between museums and their public, calling provision haphazard and neglected. He recommended better equipped lecture rooms and better chances for children to see and handle material related to school work (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991). In NHM a space was set aside in the basement with specimens suitable for handling (Tucker, 2007).

Science Education Nature Study was popular; seen to contribute to a reverse in the perceived evils caused by urbanisation: The child who has been taught to find joy and interest in nature is less likely in after years to exhibit the craving for unhealthy enjoyment so characteristic of urban life (Poulton, 1924, in Swinnerton and Jenkins; 1998:53) Nature Study included experimental approaches which matched calls for more discovery-based learning, such as those proposed by teacher Clothilde von Wyss (Jenkins and Swinnerton, 1981).

In 1939 NHM started the first series of lectures aimed at teachers (Tucker, 2007), showing how to use the collections for Nature Study class visits.

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The card, above, shows a local wildlife card that Cadbury’s sponsored for pupils who attended school. This was seen as a morally responsible move by the company at this time.

This section has shown that museum education suffered a setback after 1918.

Carnegie funding identified weak areas and rectified some issues, to a limited extent.

Advances in education at NHM were broadly in line with trends of differentiation, object handling and Nature Study teaching. However, there were no lectures specifically for children. It was not until after World War II that the Children’s Centre opened.

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2.5. Jacqueline Palmer and the Children’s Centre In 1947 Education became part of the new Exhibition Section at NHM. Guide lecturer Alfred Leutscher conducted daily lecture tours, arranged demonstrations and film shows, and gave lectures to parties from schools, colleges and hospitals. Most of the school visits were classes following up on BBC broadcasts on natural history (Tucker 2007).

Museum Education The inclusion of a children’s subject section in the International Council of Museums (IOCM) in 1948 could be said to be the start of the museum educators profession (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991). Certainly, learning out of school became a higher priority in the UK when the Clarke Report Out of school recommended spending on out of school facilities for children and parents (Jenkins and Swinnerton, 1998). This initiative provided funding for the Children’s Centre set up by Jacqueline Palmer, (LCC teacher on secondment) aimed at improving the quality of young visitors’ experience of the Museum.

The Children’s Centre at NHM opened in Christmas 1948 (NHM archives; DF 5006/1). It had twin aims: a) to provide a leisure time service for children and b) to allow activities for schoolchildren to be trialled. A school service was developed over three years of testing (DF 5006/11):

From 28 December 1948 to 11 January 1949, a series of lectures with a difference were held at the Museum. At 2.15p.m. every weekday, a member of one of the science departments imparted his knowledge to an eager audience of schoolchildren in the former Shell Gallery. Illustrated by films, slides and specimens, the lectures were quite informal and often took the form of question and answer sessions. Source: NHM picture library

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NHM archives DF 5006/58 Jacqueline Palmer was a contemporary of Molly Harrison at the Geffrye Museum (1954, 1970) René Marcousé at the V&A (1961) and Barbara Winstanley in Derbyshire, who recorded and developed educational philosophies with regard to teaching in museums (Hooper-Greenhill, 1991). There is evidence that Jacqueline Palmer collaborated with them: for example plans for a meeting, undated:

DF 5006/18

However, it seems that with the work involved in running the children’s centre Jacqueline Palmer didn’t get as much chance to publish her reflections on the relationship between teachers, pupils and museum educators as her contemporaries.

For example, there are many typewritten reflections: e.g. on teaching outreach: I think the main reason why people are willing to do this is that is gives them the stimulus of a new face every so often (DF 5006/23).

She wrote a book for the ‘Excursion series for Young People’ in 1954 ‘Going to Museums’.

General Education The 1944 Education Act outlined the responsibilities of Local Education Authorities (LEAs) in providing nursery, primary and secondary school care. A topic of debate was the existence of Independent, Comprehensive and selective schools. The General

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Certificate of Education, GCE, was introduced for the top 25% of pupils in 1951. It seems to have been a time where experiment in methods was encouraged, and it is interesting to note that LEAs also had a role in providing for education research (Gilliard, 2011).

Science Education As acknowledged in a Wellcome Trust report (2008:5) ‘The 1950s were a watershed in school science education’.

Post war demand for science students required support for secondary schools and cascaded down to a need for extra provision for primaries. The Nuffield Foundation and Schools Council played important parts in facilitation.

Illustrated London News, June 1st 1957 DF 5006/33

The report also explains: ‘At the same time there were moves to broaden the range of ‘nature study’ to include some physical as well as biological science and to involve children in active investigation.’

(2008:5)

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2.6 Roger Miles and the New Exhibition Scheme A major reorganisation brought the education and exhibition departments together to become the Department for Public Services in 1975, under the leadership of Dr Roger Miles. This had far-reaching implications for the way education staff and visitors could offer input to exhibitions (Miles, 1994).

Roger Miles was first seconded from Palaeontology to assist with re-organising museum galleries into four themes: Man, Ecology, Life Processes and Behaviour and Evolution and Diversity (Stearne, 1980).

These themes had been decided by the outcomes of surveys (1970- 71) for the Standing Commission on Museums and Galleries.

Museum Education The Earl of Rosse,Chair of the Standing Commission had made a powerful address to the 1968 Conference on Museums Association in London, urging Activities involved in planning, designing and producing exhibitions and related publications and educational services in NHM: Miles, 1994: 258 museums to provide for public wellbeing.

This was following the 1963 Rosse Report: it seems to us impossible to over-estimate the importance to future generations of teaching children the use and significance of museum objects, and we urge those local authorities which have not yet developed, or assisted museums in their areas to develop, a school museum service to do so without delay Cheetham, 1967:7 Surveys were carried out at NHM to ascertain the requirements of schools and other visitors as evidence that the NHM Education and Exhibitions department needed more funding (Stearne, 1980).

In 1970, the NHM Exhibition Section was reorganised. A separate Education Section comprised two guide lecturers and three teachers. The guides gave daily public lectures, and special lectures to trainee teachers and nurses, natural history societies, the Women’s Institute and sixth-formers. The teachers gave up to four lessons a day to under-13s, and helped out with the Children’s Centre and natural history clubs;

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field trips were arranged during the summer term (Tucker 2007). Nature trails were provided for teachers; they paid for photocopies by bringing the correct amount of paper to swap.

Teacher’s sheets with maps accompanied the trails DF 702/4

A post of Educational Technologist had been advertised in 1973 (NHM archives DF 10048); not only could education staff teach face to face, now they would have clear input into interpretation rather than adding extras to make sense of curators’ exhibitions. The work of the Section increased and by 1978, 50 ‘auxiliaries’ were working with the younger children.

In 1978-79 the Education Section at NHM was reorganised and renamed Visitor Resources, within the Department of Public Services, with additional responsibility for evaluating exhibitions. Traditional lectures phased out and a Family Centre was established in the holidays (Stearne, 1980).

General Education

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The controversial 1967 Plowden report called for radical child-centred education. The 1978 Warnock Report recommended provision for pupils with special needs (Jenkins and Swinnerton, 1998).

Science Education The Ministry of Education was renamed the Department of Education and Science in 1964. The number of secondary science students was declining, leading to publication of the 1968 Dainton Report Science and technology in higher education (Jenkins and Swinnerton, 1998). NHM started to advertise a separate secondary programme geared towards further study.

The Nuffield Science Projects (Wellcome Trust Report, 2008) emphasised the need for children to investigate phenomena based on their own questions (Wastnedge 1967a,b,c). Based on research, this child-centred approach worked well in informal settings, and elements of it could be seen in the principles of the Discovery Centre at NHM (1980s) and even the Investigate Centre (current).

School Brochures 1976 NHM archives DF 702/4

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2.7. The Teachers’ Centre and Discovery Centre NHM Museum Education The Natural History Museum Visitor Resources Centre opened in the North Hall in 1980, providing gallery guides for visitors. In 1982 a Teachers’ Centre opened, followed over the next few years by the closure of the Children’s Centre and natural history clubs, and the redevelopment of the Family Centre as the Discovery Centre (Tucker 2007). The Geological Museum gradually joined NHM between in 1985-89, bringing workshops to the NHM learning offer (Sharon Jarvis, in conversation Aug ‘09). In 1990, after evaluation and refurbishment during the late 1980s, the Discovery Centre reopened alongside the Teachers’ Centre as part of the new Activity Centres.

During this time, renowned museum researcher John Falk worked with Roger Miles in the Exhibitions department. He wrote two papers whilst at NHM, looking at visitor behaviour and personalisation of the visitor experience (Falk, 1983, 1984).

Children in the Discovery Centre studying fire bellied toads and their tadpoles.

The Travelling Discovery Centre was operational between 1991 and 1995 (Margarita Petri, conversation Aug ‘09); it was very popular and saw 50 000 pupils in one year alone. However, it was only operational as long as Marks and Spencer’s continued to fund it, and when funding dried up in 1995 it was no longer sustainable.

Sponsorship was a key theme given the need for museums to charge under the conservative government, and a good example is the Kaleidoscope of Life project sponsored by the mining company Rio Tinto, for a biodiversity project linking with the Australian Museum of Natural History.

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It was during this period that the new Wildlife Garden workshops were developed

by Martin Lawrence (conversation, Aug ‘09). These had considerable teacher guidance in the form of teacher packs.

Gallery Guides were available for teachers to use, and were tightly linked to the curriculum. These were phased out towards the end of the 1990s as educators recognised that teachers were ‘ticking off curriculum objectives’ rather than teaching (Dan Wormald, conversation Aug 09).

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Curriculum linked gallery guides General Education During the 1980s issues of diversity and initial teacher training preceded the 1988 Education 'Reform' Act which established the National Curriculum. Schools were struggling with Ofsted, and SATs at 7, 11 and 14. The Teacher Training agency was formed in 1994 (Gilliard, 2011). In 1997 the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) was established and went on to specify Schemes of work, used extensively by many teachers as sequences of lessons to cover the National Curriculum objectives.

These have made teaching more uniform; both increasing the quality of poor teaching but stifling the quality of creative excellent teaching (TES forum July 2009).

NHM school visits declined during the 1990s, perhaps because of the need to charge entry fees.

Science Education Moving on from more child centered approaches in the late 1960s, the UK science curriculum had become more didactic during the 70s during a time of social and economic struggle. In looking to raise results, an Assessment for Performance Unit investigated children’s learning. It became clear that children do form scientific views, regardless of teaching, in a Pigetian constructivist model.From the Wellcome Trust report ‘Perpsectives on Primary Science’: From 1990 to 1998, the Science Processes and Concepts Exploration (SPACE) project revealed a range of ideas about the scientificaspects of their surroundings that children had worked out for themselves on the basis of their limited experience and ways of thinking. It was clear that these ideas could not be ignored: children believed them, had worked them out for themselves, and indeed they had to be the starting-point from which more scientific ideas could be developed.

(2008:8) To summarise, the range and format of Museum education programmes was diversifying. Specificity in the curriculum had started to narrow the range of subjects teachers were willing to engage with. In science education research, there was evidence of pre-existing conceptions that children bring to science activities.

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2.8. Investigate and a new Learning Strategy In 1997 the Labour government came to power. Schools saw an increase in investment in technology, as well as the National Numeracy and Literacy Strategies.

Museum Education National Museums no longer had to charge entry fees. This, together with the Anderson Report (1999) A Common Wealth: Museums in the Learning Age (which took a current stance on the unrealised potential of museum education in the UK) allowed National Museums to focus staff resources on Learning activities.

At NHM, Investigate opened in April 2000 after the Discovery Centre and Teacher’s Centre closed the previous year. Investigate’s ethos is about encouraging children to explore and question the natural world for themselves, without being expected to follow a certain route to a specific answer (Dan Wormald, conversation Aug 09). The Department for Learning was created within Communications & Development directorate. In 2004 Dr Honor Gay became Head of Learning, and proposed a new Learning Strategy with the mission: ‘To be a global leader in museum learning, engaging and inspiring people to understand and empathise with the natural world’

Range of programmes for schools 2011: www.nhm.ac.uk/education The department was split into teams: Gallery learning, Lifelong learning, Formal learning, Nature Live and New Audiences (Honor Gay, conversation Aug 09). Pupil numbers have steadily increased and NHM has workshops which support teaching about science careers to support ‘How Science Works’ the process strand recently introduced in the secondary Science Curriculum. Sally Collins, School programme developer, worked with Andy Lee to consult teachers about their needs for the Real

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World Science Strategic Commissioning project (Collins and Lee, 2005) which partners NHM with the Hancock Museum, Manchester Museum and Oxford Museum. Schools always enjoy meeting museum Scientists; but it is a balance to ensure that the scientists have enough time for research as well as public engagement. A- Level days such as the Earth Science Fair aim to maximise pupil involvement for an efficient use of scientists’ time. Research about the involvement of scientists in public engagement is extensive. Amy Seakins, PhD student is jointly based at Kings College (London) and NHM; she is investigating the impact of meeting a scientist (2011).

Self guided tours Dino Scientists and Explorers: Ourselves, with pre visit material for teachers has been developed (Abigail Tinkler, conversation Aug 09) which has allowed teachers to use of galleries without Science Educator support.

Younger pupils can take part in puppet stories or meet a Gallery Character (for example mary Anning) to learn more about specimens and how they relate to the natural world.

The Darwin Centre opened at NHM in 2009. As well as housing the Entomology and Botany collections, it is also a public exhibition space showcasing the work of the 350 Scientists who work at NHM. The Attenborough studio has allowed the development of three new Science shows. Visits to the Darwin Centre Cocoon are supported by pre and post visit material online.

Web image: Animal Vision Science show. Accessed Summer 2011 www.nhm.ac.uk/education

General Education

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Currently, the museum is working to establish how best to work alongside schools and the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) as secondary diplomas are introduced, and to provide for primary schools as the Rose Review determines the future for the primary science and geography curricula.

Amend summer 2011: the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition have consulted stakeholders on the curriculum structure in England, and are yet to publish an outline.

Science Education The aim of science education is two fold; to develop expert scientists, and also to increase scientific literacy for pupils who will not study science beyond GCSE (Harlen, 2011). Big ideas that are necessary to make informed choices throughout life are the subject of discussion; about how pupils can best progress towards real understanding (Hareln 2011).

Themes in science education research have progressed towards considering a range of non-traditional pedagogies for teaching science. For example, the importance of role play for younger pupils, the chance to debate and explore ideas for secondary, and investigating pupil attitudes to science (Osborne and Dillon, 2010). Research has shown that opportunities for genuine open –ended inquiry are beneficial for learners (Harlen 2003).

Expedition videoconferences: schools can speak with scientists from their classroom

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3 Evaluation with Schools Audiences Defining the start and end of time periods characterised by prevailing attitudes is never easy. However, it is accepted that a shift in focus from collectiondriven museum provision towards audience-led programmes has occurred since the 1950s (Lang, 2006). Visitors’ views have not always been respected: The casual visitor to the museum has not usually had psychological training and there are few reports so untrustworthy as those of an unpracticed observer regarding what he think he thinks and what he feels he feels … Why should we seek such personal revelations when we know from sorrowful experience that they are sure to be more false than true?

Robinson (1928:11) In this section we will briefly consider factors that have prompted widespread evaluation, then consider sources of evidence for consultation with schools at NHM. Evaluation is defined as ‘a means of answering questions about the effectiveness of exhibits and programs, and it provides insight into how people learn in informal education settings’ (Diamond, 1999:11).

In this postmodern era many viewpoints are valued and individual engagement is key (Meecham and Sheldon, 2004a). Therefore, the post-museum (Hooper-Greenhill, 2007) puts the audience and their prior knowledge at the centre of the museum experience (Lord, 2007). There are several factors contributing to the paradigm shift towards thorough evaluation/visitor studies in museums (Lang, Reeve and Woollard, 2006); inclusion, learning theories, technology, entry charges, and accountability .

Inclusion Inclusion is a government priority. Whether or not museums can or should be agents of social change is outside the scope of this report. However, the need for in- depth audience development for under-represented groups has contributed to progress in methods of consultation and evaluation (Lang, 2006).

Learning Theories In the UK we have moved through behaviourist rote learning and child-centered education (Gregory and Miller 1998), to the current view of personalised learning which maximises individuals chance to link to their previous understanding and synthesise what they have learnt actively by making a response (Black, 2005). It follows that in order to provide better experiences that are relevant to audiences, steps have to be taken to better understand those audiences and how they related to their experience at a museum.

Technology As technology has allowed increasing access to information, sites that were previously didactic, authoritative guardians of knowledge are adapting; empowering visitors to discover more for themselves (Black, 2005).

This is reflected in the 1999 Museums Association statement Museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration, learning and enjoyment. They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make accessible artefacts and specimens which they hold in trust for society Lang, 2006:33

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Previously this was “ A museum is an institution that collects, documents, exhibits and interprets material evidence and associated information for the public benefit” There is a greater focus on the affective quality of the visit in the current statement, reflecting a greater need to enthuse, rather than transmit facts which are now readily available.

Essentially, museums have to work harder to provide something that visitors cannot find elsewhere, and it follows that understanding what visitors want is crucial to meeting that need.

Entry Charges National Museums have not always been free; the conservative government (19791997) required museums and galleries to source revenue from admissions, cafes and shops (Lang, Reeve and Woollard, 2006). Museums had to become attractive to visitors, which promoted a consumer driven approach.

Accountability Trusts manage National Museums, and targets which are in line with DCMS targets (Lang, Reeve and Woollard, 2006). Given the need to report Key Performance Indicators, institutions are under pressure to meet ambitious targets. Therefore, marketing techniques are used to ascertain visitor needs in a parallel with the process by which consumer needs are gathered to better develop suitable products and services.

The section above summarises accepted discourses about reasons to understand visitors’ museum experiences. Evaluation is currently categorised as ‘front-end’ (to ascertain visitor preconceptions), formative (to refine services) or summative (to summarise successes and highlight weaknesses) depending on whether it takes place before, during or after a project respectively (Foster, 2008) There is evidence of formative evaluation as early as 1889, when a loan system for museums was established. Henry Higgins, school inspector, was appointed President of the new Museums Association (MA). A student of Pestalozzi, he believed in the importance of emotion when handling specimens. One of his aims was to make museums collections available to schools. He invited 100 teachers to a meeting about loan collections, and asked for opinions. Teachers came up with ‘not costly rarities’ and ‘associated with man’ as some key criteria for objects. (HooperGreenhill, 1991). A similar example exists for Barbara Winstanley who established a loan service based on teacher consultation in Derbyshire ( 1937).

The next section will examine the evidence for school consultation at NHM. 3.1 Overview of Sources Foster (2008) proposes methods for data collection. These will be considered in turn and are highlighted in bold.

Questionnaires The first evidence of questionnaires for teachers can be found in the NHM archives (DF 702/11, 12). These are from 1969-1971 and will be considered in more detail in the subsequent section. Evaluations have been carried out with school groups for major

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exhibitions and new developments, and a section of the NHM website describes recent reports: www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/visitor-research. It is carried out in-house and also by external freelancers (Caroline Thalund, conversation Aug 09). Within the education department, the Bookings Team send out a survey about the booking process, which covers practical aspects of the trip. School Programme Developers evaluate teachers’ views on individual workshops; asking questions about learning objectives. Pupils are asked a simple question: what did they learn from their workshop?

Interviews with local authority science advisers have been carried out for specific projects such as the Real World Science Strategic Commissioning project . Evidence has been published - Collins and Lee, 2005. This also includes focus group research.

A recent Teacher Panel (2008/09) took the form of focus groups; results were circulated internally. Verbal Comments are sometimes reported by Science Educators and circulated internally via the Learning Operations Manager report each day. Postcode data is available for all schools that have visited the museum; prior to 1983 this was recorded manually (Sharon Jarvis, Aug 09). Pupil work exists from the 1950s; annotated drawings showing what pupils understood about adaptation (DF 5008/5). Recent evidence of pupil work is not systematically saved. Observation of users has been used as a method for assessing gallery learning since the 1980s, and is usually summarised in an internal report (Caroline Thalund, conversation Aug 09) .

Media coverage is recorded when relevant. Diaries from the 1950s show the development of the Children’s Centre (DF 5008/1-6). NHM staff were obliged to keep diaries at this time and they contain the names and addresses of visiting schools, as well as plans and reflection on sessions.

Creative methods are used in New Audience projects, (e.g. where people are filmed talking about their favourite specimen) but not yet routinely for schools. Teacher enquiries and letters are not currently recorded. Also absent are ‘full teacher reports’ described in the 1951 report ‘Description of work with schools’: The teacher takes all the work back to school and sends in a full analysis of the visit, its preparation, follow up and value to the class, together with suggestions for alterations in methods etc. Our record of the visit is kept with this in the centre.

DF 5008/11 Factors promoting evaluation have been discussed; inclusion, learning theories, technology, entry charges, and accountability. In addition, we have seen that there are examples of teacher consultation in Victorian times. There is evidence to suggest that detailed reports informed the teaching program at NHM in the 1950s; but details have not been retained. The information which is saved is a product of the culture and it seems that evaluation was not regarded as an end in itself although the products of the process, pupils’ work, were. This highlights the need for collaboration between Learning and Archives Department to communicate which sources of evidence are relevant and should be retained.

In the next sections, we will look at questionnaires from 1970, and repeat the topics of enquiry using modern research methods.

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3.1: School Audience Survey 1970 It is unusual that 2 years worth of teacher surveys (DF 702/11-12) are one of the few pieces of evidence of early evaluation present as evidence. Why are they significant?

In 1963 The Earl of Rosse, chair of the Standing Commission, recommended that more provision be made for education. When the NHM Director, Gordon Claringbull, requested more money, the Standing Committee asked for evidence of school requirements to justify the extra budget. Therefore, 2 years of data were collected, from 1970-1971 (Stearne, 1980). Stearne records that ‘in consequence, the bookshop was enlarged, the Museum Guide was improved, a number of audio and visual guides were made available and facilities for schools were improved’ (1980:367)

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The survey asks a mixture of closed and open questions, but is largely quantitative in nature, meaning that it provides more opportunities to gather numerical data. This is a positivist, scientific approach, meaning that it is more likely to show patterns in data and give statistical significance.

There are a number of ways that it differs from current accepted best practice; it asks a large number of questions, does not include a range of options for attitude questions, and does not have an introduction. The questions ask about all aspects of the trip. It has not been possible to ascertain how these were given to teachers.

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3.2 Schools Audience Perceptions in 2009 It is clear that the 1970s surveys offered a snapshot of teacher perceptions of their visit to the museum. The holistic approach to the trip; the way that all aspects were considered, is different to current evaluation where booking and activities are considered separately by learning staff. How would teacher opinions of the whole trip in 2009 compare with those in 1970?

I decided to use a qualitative method and to repeat the 1970s survey, but changed the methodology in two ways: I planned a qualititative, interpretivist paradigm. In addition, I decide to include learners as well as teachers in the survey.

Data Collection

NHM School Reception

Methodology I approached 15 teachers and their groups of pupils in the schools reception over consecutive lunctimes. This area was chosen because the round tables make ideal focus groups, and at lunch time I anticipated that they would be willing to answer questions. Results were gathered in the first week of June, the same as the 1970 data.

A sign was displayed to inform them that evaluation would be taking place.

The wording used each time was as follows:

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Introduction I work at the museum in the learning department.

I’d like teachers to fill in a questionnaire, and I would like to ask you some questions.

They will take about 10 minutes.

Is that ok?

If yes- get group gathered round I would like you to answer as honestly as you can.

I would like one person to speak at a time.

If you are not speaking please listen carefully to the person who is.

We will make sure you all get a chance to answer at least one question.

After- thank you very much for your time.

Give out postcards.

Unfortunately, no data from consulting pupils are available from 1970 for comparison.

Why consult learners?

The Children’s Plan (DCSF: 2007) states that ‘services need to be shaped by and responsive to children, young people and families, not designed around professional boundaries.’ This builds on guidance from Every Child Matters (DfES: 2003) and Youth Matters (DCSF 2005). Working Together: Listening to the voices of children and young people (DCSF: 2008) requires all governing bodies to ensure that pupils have a say in the operation of their school. There are a number of contentious issues in this area. The fact remains that the school system has recognised learner voice has a role in encouraging pupils to engage with democratic processes. Creative Partnerships’ Review ‘Consulting Young People’ (Bragg, 2007) gives a persuasive argument for the need to consult young service users, citing legal, commercial and policy trends as drivers for the change away from didactic programming. Wheeler et al. (2008: 14) state ‘as public venues we have a responsibility to ensure equality of access to our services’ and go on to explain that consultation is the route to prevent exclusion of young people.

It is accepted practice for teachers to ask their class what their prior experience about a topic are at the start of a unit (Wellington and Ireson, 2008). This is encouraged in QCA schemes of work. In contrast, museums and galleries do not often have the opportunity to do this as contact time is short.

To triangulate the study, teachers filled in questionnaires whilst pupils answered questions in groups. I also made notes about pupil behaviour.

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4 Results A sample size of 15 was used for both the 1970 and 2009 surveys. One element of a visit to the museum has been selected based on results; the fact that many teachers integrated a museum visit with class teaching in 1970; but that few did in 2009.

Data will be summarised, then weaknesses in method will be considered.

4.1 1970 data

R

7 5

1 a. school Archbishop John Henry King

#

William Davies William Tyndale Crofton Junior School

8

Highfield Junior School

6

# #

3

4

# # #

Cheam Church of England Northborough CP School Wood End Junior Girls School Oliver Goldsmith's Primary school

Barrow Hedges Primary School Warren Road Primary Rowdown Junior School

10.

Age

13. lesson prep

14. specific topic of study

5.0

yes

Yes

6.5

yes

yes

7.5

yes

yes

8.5

yes

yes

9.0

yes

yes

9.0

yes

yes, this was not a class but a nature study group.

seashore trail The topic was entitled 'wings' birds. Insects, fossil birds, cases upstairs containing flying squirrels, lemurs etc. a study of the flora and fauna of the sea and the sea shore. The relevant nature trail kindly supplied by the museum was followed.

9.0

yes

yes

nature trails

10.0

yes

yes

prehistoric animals

yes

shapes and sizes of the backbones of animals

10.0

10.5

yes not a lesson, but a brief idfea of what to expect.

10.5

yes

yes follow up to BBC 'man'

10.5

yes

yes

15. which

Dinosaurs whales, prehistoric creatures animals-mammals, birds, fish, pre-history.

the tree as a habitat, the insect gallery Fossils Thursley Nature Trail

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1

St Peter's school Finchley Grammar School

9

St Mary's high School

2

11.5

not specifically but I was glad to be able to connect work we had done on Australian mammals

no

14.5

no

yes

15.0

no

yes

Na Comparative anatomy, Physiology, Botany (14/15) human biology (girls) sketching mammals/birds (boys) prep for cse HB course. CSE art and craft.

Table 1: Relevant results of 15 schools from 1970, sorted by age.

1970: How many school did a previsit lesson bef ore visiting?

yes no other

This pie chart shows that 73% of the school groups surveyed undertook previsit lessons. Where schools did not do a pre-visit lesson, the other category included the comments: “not a lesson, but a brief idea of what to expect.”

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“not specifically but I was glad to be able to connect work we had done on Australian mammals” This will be compared to data from 2009.

Positivist methods- the drawbacks Mary Ellen Munley: Director of Education at the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago described questions explored from positivist approach “as being analogous to looking for lost keys under the light of streetlamp after dark, not because that’s where you dropped them but rather because that’s where the light is best” Foster 2008: 41 Whilst data is more likely to be repeatable, it is less likely to discover deeper issues which have not been thought of by the evaluator. In addition, it is unfortunate not to know how these questionnaires were given to teachers. The fact that many have lots of writing suggests they were not completed hastily at the museum.

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4.2 Data Analysis 2009 10. Age range

R

1a school

1 11 3 4

St Johns Holloway Roe green Primary Norlock school

14. one 13.lesson specific prep topic

8 Willington Prep school 9 Noel Park 12 Lessness Heath

6.50 Yes 7.50 yes 7.50 yes

No No No

14 Nelmes Primary Barrowby C of E primary 5 school 6 Colham Manor Uplands Community 13 College

9.50 yes

Yes

15. which plants and animals in local environment dinosaurs no plants and animals variation, plants and animals dinosaurs natural disasters Earthquakes and volcanoes

10.50 no 10.50 no

Yes no

no no

12.50 no

yes

no done earth quakes in geography in the past no no no

4.50 4.50 6.50 6.50

No Yes No No

Yes No No inspiration

2 Tayber College 13.00 not sure yes 7 Oldfield school 14.50 no no 10 Hatch End High school 14.50 no yes 15 Oak Wood College 17.00 no no Table 2 Relevant results of 15 schools from 2009, sorted by age.

2009: How m any schools did previsit lessons before visiting?

yes no other

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The pie chart shows that 33% of schools taught a pre-visit lesson before their trip. Where the comment was ‘other’, trips were being used for inspiration but specific pre visit lessons had not been taught.

The graph below clearly shows that smaller proportion of teachers (54% fewer) are teaching specific lessons before their museum visit.

Chart to compare the numbers of pre-visit lessons for NHM school groups in 1970 and 2009 12 10 8 2009

6

1970

4 2 0 yes

no

other

Topics studied In order to understand how the museum visit could integrate with classwork, it is important to look at the topics studied:

Graph to compare range of topics taught in NHM visits in 1970 and 2009

1970 2009 ar t ea com bi rth rd pa s qu r ak ativ bot a es e n an ana y t d vo om y lc an oe s hu m an fish b na iolo gy tu no re ne tra sp il s ec pl an phy ific ts s an iolo pr gy eh d a is to nim ric a an ls im se als as ho re tr va ee ri a tio n w in gs

an im

al s

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

42

There is a clear decrease in the variety of topics studied in 2009 compared to 1970; 4 separate topics compared to 14.

Limitations in Method Whilst qualitative methods can yield unexpected insights, there are drawbacks. The nature of conversations with children meant that the order of questions asked in each school interview varied. The length of interviews also constrained the sample size.

Schools that appeared engaged in the trip could influenced by factors other than previsit lessons, such as worksheets. The number of pupils and adults varied, as did the parental support and experience. The journey to and from the museum, and whether workshops are booked would also contribute to a change in engagement.

This section has shown that more teachers taught pre visit lessons in 1970 than in 2009. In addition, the range of topics was reduced in 2009. Reasons for this will be considered in the next section.

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5 Discussion and Analysis This discussion will focus on the question raised by the results: Why are there less pre-visit lessons in 2009 than in 1970? The following questions will be considered: 1. Is there a benefit to pre-visit lessons?

2. Does a lack of time prevent teachers from teaching pre-visit lessons in 2009?

3. Which topics are being studied?

4. How does the pre-visit support compare in 1970 and 2009?

5. How does school trip guidance for teachers compare in 1970 and 2009?

First, the context will be considered in 1970 and 2009.

1970 Education Context It was not possible to find a specific education policy for 1970. The Annual Report from 1970 (NHM Archives) shows that 117 000 school pupils visited the museum. There was also teacher training: During the summer instruction was given to teachers in how to make educational use of the Surrey Naturalists Trust Nature trail at Thursley Common, and classes of schoolchildren were given special preliminary lessons at the museum before going on the Trail. 40 teachers and 1200 children attended these classes.

In the Autumn the Museum’s senior teacher gave a s course of three lectures to teachers on the use of the museum by schools, followed by a series of practical demonstrations which was attended by 20 teachers.

Publicity Material New editions of the Junior and Senior schools’ leaflets were prepared and published. The information leaflets had notes on a different public gallery each quarter, linked to the cover illustration.

Staff There were four staff: The Senior Staff were Education Officer- FH Brightman and.Senior Guide Lecturer AG Leutscher. The teacher in charge of childrens centreLJ Moore and Miss Mansfield was an additional teacher.

2009 Learning Context Like many museums, there has been a change from ‘Education’ to ‘Learning’, reflecting the view that learning is an active process; (Hooper-Greenhill, 2007) Learning Strategy Learning is relevant to 3 out of the 7 Corporate Priorities for NHM (Corporate Plan 08/09): 4. Delivering learning opportunities: to enable development of knowledge and understanding about the natural world 5. creating engaged and scientifically literate citizens: to structure our public offer to provide knowledge, enable critical examination and empower people to act on their understanding

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7. Inspiring a life-long commitment to the natural world: to ignite a love for the natural world in young people and provide multiple opportunities throughout their lives to build and grow that passion These are influenced by reports such as Science in Society (DIUS 2008), stating the need for science engagement, and Public Service Agreements for 2008/2011 set out in the Comprehensive Spending Review (2007): In 2008 174,000 primary and secondary school pupils visited the museum. In addition, teachers were offered evening events as pre-visits, but uptake was low.

•

•

•

Sustainable Growth and prosperity o PSA 4: Promote world-class science and innovation in the UK (DIUS)  Number of young people taking A-levels in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biological Sciences Fairness and Opportunity for all o PSA 10: Raise the educational achievement of all children and young people (DCSF) o PSA 15: Address the disadvantage that individuals experience because of their gender, race, disability, age, sexual orientation, religion or belief  Participation in public life by women, ethnic minorities, disabled people and young people (Government Equalities Office) Stronger Communities and a better way of life o PSA 21: Build more cohesive, empowered and active communities  Percentage of people who participate in culture or in sport (DCLG)

CPD opportunities were offered in collaboration with Science Learning Centres, but not well attended.

Learning Strategy Dr Honor Gay is the Head of Learning, and implemented a new Learning Strategy when she took on the post from Roy Hawkey in 2004. There was a pressing need to increase school visits, because failing to meet DCMS learning attendance targets was seen as the third highest corporate risk at the time (Honor Gay, conversation Aug 09). A major change was restructuring the Learning Department Staff. Staff are now in two subgroups of the Learning Department: a) Face to Face Learning (subgroupsLearning Operations Managers and Science Educators) and b) Learning Development (subgroups- Formal Learning, Family Learning, New Audiences, Volunteers and Visitor Studies). There are approximately 50 people in the Department. Since 2011 the structure has merged Family, Schools and Community learning sections.

Having established the context for school visits in 1970 and 2009, we will now look at reasons why there may be fewer pre-visit lessons in 2009.

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1. Is there a benefit to pre-visit lessons?

I am using two pairs of case studies to compare groups which did have pre-visit lessons compared to schools that did not. In interviewing pupils, it started to become apparent that pupils who had pre-visit lessons were better able to use more complex vocabulary related to their topic. Complex vocabulary is defined as words that are scientific vocabulary, not high-frequency words. Four case studies will be used to illustrate this.

My initial impressions led me to place the schools on a continuum of engagement, depending on the level of their vocabulary and emotion regarding the visit.

The schools in case study 1 and 2 are both predominantly English speaking children of approximately 10 years old, therefore comparable. Case studies 3 and 4 were groups of children who were approximately 7 and spoke a language other than English as their first language, therefore could be compared.

See appendices for the transcripts of these case studies relevant to pre-visit teaching. Specialist words, which are not high frequency words and that would be encountered in science topics are highlighted green. Actions are highlighted yellow.

Questions are blue. This approach is inspired by Allen (2002).

Data Analysis Most Least engaged engaged Case Study 1 3 4 2 Data no 14 12 3 5 Lessness School Nelmes Heath Roe Green Barrowby Location Essex Bexley Brent Lincolnshire Age of pupils 9.5 7.5 6.5 10.5 Specialist 12 10 9 6 Actions 12 9 2 2 Questions 4 1 0 0 Total 28 20 11 8 Previsit lesson y Y N n Results are sorted according to the total number of specialist, action and question phrases used. The two schools that taught pre-visit lessons have the highest totals.

10 year olds Pupils from Nelmes Primary appear to be more engaged in their museum experience than pupils from Barrowby. a) they are able to generate specific vocabulary such as ‘obsidian’ and ‘pumice’ b) there are 12 mentions of actions c) several people are able to generate a thoughtful question such as: “Will I be alive when , well I saw the earth in the past and the future and now, will I be alive when it reaches that picture of the earth in the future?” d) They did not require prompting to recall their experience in the galleries

46

In contrast, I was alarmed by how little pupils from Barrowby could recall about their visit. The teacher prompted them as well, and I reassured them towards the end of conversation by saying that it was usually hard to remember The main difference in the groups could be the focus provided by having a pre-visit lesson. Equally, it could be the fact that pupils from Nelmes were taking notes. The pupils from Barrowby had no specific purpose.

7 year olds There is a difference in the level of emotion and engagement between case study 3 (pre-visit teaching) and case study 4 (no pre-visit). Pupils from Lessness Heath Primary a) are able to generate specific vocabulary such as ‘volcanoes’ and ‘natural disasters’. b) they talk about actions, and in particular link these to vocabulary such as: “I never knew that lava turned into glass because when I touched it, it was like glass and I never knew that” –Riduan c) one person is able to generate a thoughtful question d) They were extremely animated and certainly did not need prompting to tell me about their experience.

In contrast, pupils from Roe Green Junior School recalled the names of a few animals from the mammals gallery, but were not forthcoming. Questions were from pupils who recieved pre-visit teaching. Anderson et al (1999) highlight the importance of planning in elucidating preconceptions which can be challenged.

Jarvis and Pell (2004) confirmed the importance of preparation for children to maximise the benefits of a visit to the National Space Centre. Essentially, using Falk and Dierking’s Contextual Model of Learning, preparation increases the learner’s motivation, prior knowledge and control (2000).

Again, there is a caveat: pupils from Lessness Heath Primary school had worksheets as well. This highlights the difficulty of isolating correlating factors when working with schools; there are so many variables it is difficult to find comparison points . Based on these case studies I think that the prior experience is priming children’s attention to focus on salient stimuli. Where the teacher has taught pupils about a specific experience, they have episodic and semantic memories of particular words and phrases (Eysenck and Keane, 1999), and therefore attend to these key themes as they are going through the galleries. Koran et al. (2006) found that instruction focussed pupil attention in the Florida State Museum. To a certain extent, René Marcousé, educator at the V&A is explaining the same process: What we see, the sensation, the emotion aroused, the associations induced; these make up pour experience. It is immediate, but it is not simple. The process has many implications; it is related to our tactile sense, to visual memory, to past experience, to our predilections, to the ability to discriminate and to our sense of values. ( 1961:2) Where they are not prepared, pupils are guided by other features which control salience; that is, novelty and size. Therefore, the T Rex, blue whale and earth galleries escalator were the most commonly mentioned specimens. This matches findings by Anderson and Lucas (1997); the most frequently recalled exhibits shared

47

a combination of characteristics such as large physical size, prominence in the exhibit galleries, and the diversity of sensory modes that they used.

This interview methodology has an open ended approach, which means that it can be harder to find out specific information, especially from children. Future research would be necessary to further investigate these initial findings, and to ascertain the importance of museum follow up work.

There is some evidence that pre-visit lessons contribute to engagement.

Moffat and Woollard (1999:54) cite best practice ‘pupils must always know why they are at the museum and what they are going to do’. Many texts from longer ago devote a large proportion of writing to this theme e.g. Harrison (1954;1970) and Marcouse’ (1961).

Some literature strongly supports the benefit of pre-visit teaching. This study has found some evidence that pupils are more engaged if they have had pre-visit teaching.

Hooper-Greenhill (2007) acknowledges that in order to answer this question, more work needs to be done.

2. Does a lack of time prevent teachers from teaching pre-visit lessons in 2009?

SATs have been cited as a reason why teachers have a lack of time.

These tests could be responsible for the findings in two ways. Firstly, several teachers of Year 2 and 6 commented that their pupils had just finished SATs, and were being taken to the museum as a treat. Therefore, they did not teach a specific lesson because they were busy doing tests, and they wanted the pupils to have a visit with no particular focus. Kisiel (2005) found eight different motivations for school visits: to connect with the curriculum, to provide a general learning experience, to encourage lifelong learning, to enhance interest and motivation, to provide exposure to new experiences, to provide a change in setting or routine, for enjoyment, and to meet school expectations. Therefore, teachers would not give pre-visit lessons if they perceived it unnecessary to their aims.

Secondly, it is widely documented that SATs put a great pressure on the curriculum (e.g. Teachers Association Summer news 2009) and prevent teachers from using their time creatively. Other time pressures include increased requirement to teach sport, culture and to keep pace with numeracy and literacy requirements.

Storksdieck (1998) also found that teachers cited lack of time as a reason for not carrying out pre-visit teaching in Germany. Lack of time should not prevent teaching a pre-visit lesson; as long teachers are clear where their visit dovetails with existing learning objectives. Pre-visit ideas and learning material has recently been revised (Summer 2009) to allow teachers to make more use of their NHM museum visit. Time pressure was cited as a problem for teachers in 1954(Harrison), so it is not a new phenomenon.

3. Which topics are being studied?

There is less variation in topics in 2009, and the majority of teachers are not looking at a specific topic. It must be appreciated that, as explained in section 2, a child-centred approach was prevalent throughout the 1970s. In addition, there was more freedom for teachers to invent their own units- such as the topic

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'wings' birds. Insects, fossil birds, cases upstairs containing flying squirrels, lemurs etc.

Teacher, Highfield Junior School, June 1970 Many primary teachers use QCA schemes of work. In fact, the topics mentioned in 2009 are the names of the following QCA units:

Unit 2B: Plants and animals in the local environment Through this unit children learn about plants and animals in their immediate environment and how differences between places very close to each other result in a different range of plants and animals being found. They learn that like humans, plants and other animals reproduce.

Unit 2C: Variation Through this unit children will become more aware of the huge variety of living things within their local environment and of differences between them. They will learn that although individual living things are different there are similarities which can help to sort them into groups and that this is helpful.

In addition, Earthquakes, volcanoes and dinosaurs are mentioned as topics.

These are being used to cover key geography and science objectives. Dinosaurs is a topic often covered in Early years, but in this case it was being used in year 3, by a teacher who had made her own unit as part of a creative curriculum. Perhaps because there is more uniformity in topics in 2009 than 1970, teachers are less likely to get in touch and make individual arrangements with the education staff to accommodate their personal circumstances. In addition, normal class teaching is more likely to support the museum topic, rather than being seen as specific ‘previsit’.

Several teachers are starting to use the International Primary Curriculum (informal feedback) as it has more room for creativity. At this stage the Primary Curriculum is becoming more free, and the Rose Review has reassessed subject priorities.

Therefore, I would predict changes in the most popular topics in future, and for the range of topics to increase.

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4. How does the pre-visit support compare in 1970 and 2009?

Prior to 1970 pre-visit support for schools was extensive.

Description of work with schools, 1951

The fact that children coming in a party often have initial difficulty of being unfamiliar with the museum and with the museum teacher makes it important to have close co-operation with the class teacher from the beginning.

Our practice at the moment is to discuss the topic to be studied during the museum visit with the class teacher beforehand, usually by telephone, but often at the museum; she then prepares her class in the manner we have both decided is most useful for what the children are to do, and when they arrive the museum teacher goes over this in the centre by means of question and answer and informal discussion. In the Centre during the first 20 minutes the children can also handle and examine specimens and make drawings and notes if necessary.

When the are ready the museum teacher, having explained what they are going to do, takes the class into the galleries and shows the children how to find what they want to study. The children then settle to work for about 30-45 minutes, and during this time the are helped by their own teacher and the museum teacher. When the work is completed or when the children show signs of being ready to stop, there is a short discussion on the things seen, further handling of specimens and opportunity for questions in the centre…. In particular we hope to encourage more schools to come for a series of lessons; experience has shown that children are more likely to produce good work and to understand its meaning if they come to the museum on a series of visits spread out over time.

Jacqueline Palmer, DF 5006/ 11 This explains the early stages of the trialling process with schools

This was developed into the following:

DF 5006/58

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Notice that there are six lessons. Continuity between museum teachers and pupils used to be an issue. The museum teacher would go to the school to get to know the pupils and to show them wildlife in their own area either before or after they came to the museum. They would then do 4 lessons in the museum and have another at the school. It is noticeable that lesson planning is less extensive; but that there are notes on what to teach when in the series.

The lesson subjects that were available are shown below. Teachers could choose a lesson, a series of lessons, or just to take the worksheet. They had to bring in paper to swap for the worksheets.

DF 702/4

Now, in 2009 previsit material takes the form of PDF guidance as shown in appendix 5. It is now downloadable, which makes it easier to access. There is not detail about content before and after a series of lessons as shown above. The majority of the previsit information explains Health and Safety and Behaviour considerations. Learning Objectives and National Curriculum links are explained in detail. This is consistent with other museums.

There is a now a far wider range of activities- as shown by the school brochure menu on p29. The majority of schools visit one activity, rather than making multiple visits.

There was good previsit guidance in 1970. There was a culture of individual discussion and preparation, which was necessary owing to the lack of uniformity in topics studied.

In 2009 there are more topics and teachers are less likely to discuss their visit extensively with staff. Pre-visit information now focuses on class management and teacher responsibilities rather than pedagogy and content. The next section will examine whether this trend is consistent with general school trip guidance.

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5. How does school trip guidance for teachers compare in 1970 and 2009?

Bitgood’s literature review (1989) stated that there was work to be done in working out how to guide teachers to maximise the benefits of school trips. Whether teachers feel pre-visit teaching is necessary will depend on their experience and training. Diaries and records show that there was an active collaboration between Initial Teacher Training Colleges and NHM in 1960-70. Student teachers helped with non-school time activities. Colleges visited regularly, such as the Institute of Education and Froebel Educational College (diaries: DF 5008/1-6). Now, NHM receives occasional requests from teaching colleges (Abigail Tinkler, conversation Aug 09). Metz (2005) found that teachers benefited from intensive teaching at science centres. When actual visits are not possible, guidance for student teachers can be found at sites such as www.teachernet.gov.uk and Teachers TV. Evidence showing how teacher guidance for school visits has changed since 1970 can be found in books: In 1954 Molly Harrison, education officer for the Geffrye Museum, wrote ‘Learning Out of School’. This is full of prose, and covers the following topics: Why take Children Out? How do we take them out? When do we take them out? What can they do when they get there? Where else can we take them? What happens after a visit? And finally ‘Some practical suggestions’- which includes worksheet ideas. This book is entirely focussed on how to make sure children are well prepared and able to learn when at a museum. She emphasises planning: An unplanned, unprepared visit to even the most important and interesting exhibition on earth is of no more value than an excursion to the circus; indeed the circus is more obviously fun and so far more valuable.

1954: 15 And makes a fleeting comment about behaviour: A word or two about behaviour will be reasonable if they are unused to going out in a group, but this, and all the preparation of the children’s minds and feelings for their visit needs to be lightly and skilfully done if the whole thing is not to become ponderous and even a little boring.

1954: 15 This book had been revised by 1970. Comparing the two versions, it is possible to detect trends in museum education. It now has subheadings and photos, and is designed to be read by the hurried professional.

Behaviour is emphasised to a greater extent: they are on show in more senses than one. They are ambassadors and if for any reason they behave badly attitudes will harden towards the next school group to visit the museum

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Arrangements with parents are mentioned for the first time- tranquilising drugs to prevent johnnie being sick on the bus; mary’s mum actually wanting her to be at home to look after the baby 1970:21 A checklist is included, as is a list of useful organisations. She mentions the rapidly increasing number of teachers in museums, and the importance of communicating about the class with these professionals to ensure they hit ‘just the right note’ with a group.

René Marcousé was the educator at the V&A. Although largely about Galleries, ‘The Listening Eye’ (1961) has useful information for teachers and museum educators and describes the optimum training for teachers: The minimum course consists of three two hour visits, with a group of 15 students; when possible we will arrange four to six visits, in order that the students acquaintance with the exhibits shall be wider, and to permit of at least some practical experience in which the students work with children in the galleries. We recommend a week’s course for students outside London.

1961:12 In Museum School Services (Cheetham, 1967) the importance of pre and post visit information is emphasised: ‘Instruction of classes inside the museum and the field can and should be integrated; work in the museum can be provided as an introduction before an excursion, or as a follow up study afterwards.

1967:33 Ann White focuses entirely on content in ‘Visiting Museums’1968. There is no mention of pedagogy but instead a prepared trail: “Here is a short walk in which you can see some of the different ways in which living creatures protect themselves. Go first to the second bay on the right in the central hall (as you face the stairs) to the case marked ‘Adaptation’.In this case is a white bird perching on a rock.

This is the male ptarmigan. Now look more closely and you will see that the female bird is also there. She is brown, and her feathers match the background so well that she is hard to see.

In this way she is protected from her enemies as she sits quietly on her nest hatching her eggs 1968:46 Moving forward to 1985, Lynn Lois Smyth’s ‘Your Educational Visit’ jumps straight into sections; Before, During and After your visit. Her practical examples are illustrated so well with pitfalls that at first it would seem disastrous to take any advice from this person. However, what emerges is practical advice which is concerned with pedagogy, whilst at the same time bringing in the more pressing “Important footnote: make sure you are aware of local authority guidelines on liability and insurance and follow them to the letter” (1985:8). This is the first mention of legal responsibilities in the school trip guidance books.

Clearly, there was a paradigm shift between this publication and the National Union of Teachers’ ‘Beyond the Classroom’, printed in 1986. It states: In preparing this booklet of guidance to Union members we have inevitably in mind the tragedy which occurred recently during a school journey. Such an event serves to underline the responsibilities which teachers assume every working day…. We make no attempt here to deal with the range and variety of activities which can constitute a school visit or journey in the sense of examining their educational content. But we have studied them for the scores of problems and pitfalls which they reveal for the teacher organising them. This booklet is not so

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much about how to organise school visits and journeys as how to organise them safely.

1986:2 It goes on to outline insurance, supervision, medical issues and transport.

‘Out and About’ (O’Connor, 1987) ‘seeks to engender positive attitudes to school journeys’ (foreword). Planning is mentioned: The aim of planning and preparing for every out of school activity must be to take the obvious precautions against the obvious hazards, and then to assist both the adults and the pupils involved to deal competently and confidently with the unexpectedwhether it is the accidental separation of a child from its group on the London underground or the experience of an unexpected and potentially lethal blizzard on a shelterless mountainside (1987:9) Keith Richmond (1997) carried out research for Collins Essential Guide to School trips. He found that many teachers regard taking pupils out of school as a major professional challenge. There was evidence trips were declining although the National Curriculum required that all children gained experience of ‘outdoor and adventurous activities (1997:3). This decline was due to work overload, changes in legislation and a pervasive sense of teachers being vulnerable when they took other people’s children out of school . Topics covered included Paperwork, Managing your group, Avoiding problems and True stories.

Holmes (1999) includes a check list listing all the first aid needs; Cowley (2002) asserts that NQTs should not have to organise a trip in their first year, but if they do it should go on their CVs. By 2004 the ‘Tips and Visits Pocketbook’ (West) is only A6 size, perhaps to suit the ever-increasing pace of life in teaching; likewise ‘Tips for Trips’ (Leeder, 2003) is a very small book crammed with bullet points for the harassed.

Both books contain checklists about Risk Assessments, Insurance, Liability, Guidelines for trip proposals, Ratios and advice about Parental Financial Contributions. There are small paragraphs about the need to integrate work with the curriculum.

I looked back at guidance I received on a PGCE course. It focuses on risks, with the phrase ‘make sure you choose a suitable topic’ to encompass the vast topic of integrating a trip with class teaching (PGCE Handbook 2004, IOE).

It is no wonder that teachers have less time for previsit teaching, given the legal responsibilities currently implicated. Reading the guidance is enough to send most people into panic, certainly enough to prioritise filling in a risk assessment above planning an effective lesson. Storksdiek’s teacher research concluded ‘Organising a field trip can be such a daunting task for teachers that the pedagogical aspect of a ‘museum’ visit may suffer’ (2001:12). Anderson and Zhang uncovered confusion about whether the teacher should even be expected to provide pre-visit teaching materials (2003).

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This difference in ethos is part of the reason why the Learning Outside the Classroom Manifesto (DfES 2006; www.lotc.org.uk) and Quality Badge scheme has been implemented. The Quality Badge Scheme aims to raise teacher confidence (Peter Carne, March 2006, WWT LOTC meeting) and has specified requirements for pre and post-visit materials to be available. NHM has recently applied and been awarded the badge. I hope that increased teacher confidence could lead to the focus of school trip guidance returning to pedagogy and content rather than risk assessment; however I realise that this is a high hope given the culture of culpability.

Pre- and post-visit teaching was accepted as vital in the 1960s but has been pushed out by a focus on legal responsibilities. Therefore, it is even more important for Museums to provide support for teachers in ways that are rapidly accessible (Martin, 1999) and suited to the level of technology in their classrooms. The fact that the majority of classrooms have Interactive Whiteboards, and pupils have access to the internet and social media gives the opportunity for web-based material to be used (O’Neil and Perez, 2006). Sites such as www.24hourmuseum.org.uk, www.culture24.org.uk, and www.show.me.uk give general information. The National Museums Online Learning Project ‘Webquests’ are online lessons combining digitised collection material from National Museums with narratives and activities. Evaluation of this project is yet to be completed, but initial responses are positive. As the new Darwin Centre opens, NHM is set to have web-based pre and post-visit lessons. In addition, visitors will be able to store relevant information to access later in a personalised learning space: NaturePlus. The MA Conference (2009) advert asks ‘In a volatile world of diminishing funding, proliferating technologies and evergreater expectations, how can museums come of age in promoting learning?’ Two themes which will be covered are Digital Change and The Learning Age; therefore themes raised in this dissertation are current concerns in the wider field.

Future research could ascertain whether online school trip support increases teachers’ likelihood to prepare classes specifically.

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Conclusion This report has highlighted milestones in education at NHM from 1759 to the present day, and explained sources of evidence showing teacher consultation.

Fifteen surveys from the 1970 Standing Commission report, examples of a quantitative research paradigm, were analysed. Fifteen schools were consulted in 2009, as a comparison. This time, qualitative research was carried out with teachers as well as pupils. Results showed 54% fewer pre-visit lessons in 2009 than 1970.

The discussion considered reasons for this trend. There is some evidence to suggest that there is a benefit to pre-visit lessons. Comparisons of case studies show that, in NHM examples, pupils who had pre-visit lessons were able to generate some specific vocabulary and ask some critical questions. There may be a number of other factors involved in this conclusion therefore more research is required.

Lack of time for teachers to teach pre-visit lessons is considered. Testing is proposed as a reason why teachers have little time; but this is not a new phenomenon. The topics studied are more uniform now owing to the curriculum and QCA schemes.

Harrison (1970) cites the reason that every class is different to persuade teachers to plan carefully; perhaps the notion that everyone is doing the same removes the perceived need for individual preparation.

We saw that in 1970 a series of integrated lessons was offered, in which the same museum teacher both visited the school and hosted a number of sessions in the museum. Now, with 174 000 school visits it is no longer possible to provide such an in-depth service. The detailed guidance on integrating the trip now is a product of a culture change in school trips. There is less information about content and pedagogy and more about legal responsibilities towards risk avoidance. The Learning Outside the Classroom Manifesto aims to increase teacher confidence in school trips and to what extent this is possible remains to be seen.

Future Recommendations Further research could look in detail at the benefits of pre and post visit material, using a range of evaluation methods. A key issue is how to make support materials easily accessible so that they saves teacher time rather than adding to an already busy day. Successfully achieving this is likely to involve online resources. It may be that social media plays a key role in pupil consultation in future; this report has also raised a potential area for future research into school audience evaluation.

The focus on risk assessment and litigation has been well publicised with regard to school trips and in future a more flexible curriculum and guidance from LOTC should start to counteract the anonymity of teachers bringing their classes to NHM. This would avoid a clear risk; that pupils do not maximise the potential for inspiration and enjoyment from a museum trip.

Despite popular perception there were examples of excellent practice in the past, and further research would be needed to further investigate how best to build on lessons learnt long ago.

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Appendices 1-4: Pre and post visit case studies Case Study 1: Nelmes Primary School, Essex

Year 5 Aged 9/10

Pupils: Megan, Rachel, Tarryn, Tienna, Morgan, Louis and Nicole When you were at school, did you have a lesson about your trip to this museum?

Megan: We made volcanoes Rachel: We done volcanoes …on to a piece of paper Louis: For our homework we are drawing a poster about earthquakes and you got facts that you have to write on the sheet and you can print off pictures off the computer and draw pictures and stuff What will you remember from your visit today?

Tarryn: You know the stone? Forgot what its called ?

Nicole: Obsidian?

Morgan: Pumice?

Tarryn: that’s it and it was really light when you picked it up.

Louis: You know the obsidian, I didn’t know that it came from iceland and it cools off from iceland and it cools from the lava and it goes to iceland and it cools off and i didn’t know that.

Grace: Did you read that from the label?

Yes. Did anyone else read any?

Tienna: I read about the rocks and how they melted.

We done notes.

Morgan: Our bags and notes are over there.

Grace: Do you always take notes?

Louis: This is the first museum we’ve been to.

Rachel: The first school trip.

Do you think you will do any more about your trip when you get back to the museum?

We are going to do a poem about volcanoes.

We have already done lots of our projects so now we are going to do a poem.

Do you have any comments or questions about the Natural History Museum?

Will I be alive when , well I saw the earth in the past and the future and now, will I be alive when it reaches that picture of the earth in the future?

Do you have explorer hats in the shop?

Do you have toy guns?

Grace: what do you think?

I think you should because who killed all the animals?

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Case Study 2: Barrowby Primary School, Lincolnshire

Year 6 aged 10/11

Pupils: Sophie, Alex, Megan, Josh, Adam When you were at school, did you have a lesson about your trip to this museum?

Sophie: No Alex: We’ve just finished SATs Have you got a particular topic you are looking at?

No Miss Sugden: Their topic is London and they are just looking at anything that might equip them for the rest of the year.

What will you remember from your visit today?

Josh: Blue whale Adam: mammals.

Sophie: Dinosuars Alex: Electronic dinosaurs Is there anything in particular Josh: The size of the whale?

Anything else?

Quiet What was the thing that you remember seeing the most?

Megan: The dinosaur.

All of them?

Did anyone read any of the labels on the way round? quiet Any more detailed info on any of the labels? shrug Can you remember anything you read (teacher asks) ….

Grace Don’t worry it is quite difficult to think about What might you do when you get back to school?

Sophie: Probably write a report.

Any questions?

No comments or questions

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Case Study 3: Lessness Heath Primary School, Bexley

Year 3 aged 7/8

Pupils: Kasparov, Tyler, Riduan, Mohammed, Risul, Shah, Ebil, Hamza When you were at school, did you have a lesson about your trip to this museum?

Risul: Yes, we have started a topic called natural disasters.

What will you remember about your trip to the museum today?

Shah: Dinosaurs Hamza: There were activities for us and I played all the activities.

What sort of activities?

Mohammed: Volcanoes Pinball Risul: Natural disasters are happening part of the museum Tyler: The shop…was shaking (he is talking about the Japanese Earth quake exhibit) Kasparov: TV in the shop and when it was shaking it was real and the shop got lifted up turned up and back in the ground.

Riduan: I never knew that lava turned into glass because when I touched it, it was like glass and I never knew that.

Mohammed: The Escalator went into the earth Shah: The eqg and the dinosaur Tyler: Broken glass. It was all cracked Ebil: Moving dinosaurs I haven’t saw that.

What will you do when you get back to school?

Risul: Loads of stuff Tyler: Make books Ebil: Make a model Riduan: Lots of cool stuff about natural disasters Mohammed: we’ve got worksheets Hamza: it says give me a name of a rock or what happens during a volcano eruption.

Have you got any comments or questions about your trip to the museum?

Risul: When I came here I saw some birds that were unusual so I thought they couldn’t be real. How come they are still?

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Case Study 4: Roe Green School

Year 2 aged 6/7

Jeness, Yashec, Rowen, Andy, Manni, Jay, Gucci, Amy When you were at school, did you have a lesson about your trip to this museum?

No Teacher: As they have finished their SATs then this is a treat day to say well done for working so hard.

What will you remember about your trip to the museum today?

Skeletons and dinosaurs.

A Giraffe.

Has anyone else seen anything new today?

Something surprising or something new?

A fish A horse.

What was it doing?

It was running.

A crocodile.

A fox.

When you were going round, did you manage to read any of the information that was next to the animals?

I read a bit about the dinosaur.

What did you read?

I read that the dinosaur had an egg and that it was an elephantine egg.

Has anyone else remembered anything else that they managed to read?

When you go back to school will you do any more?

No. We saw the blue whale.

Was there anything that surprised you about it?

It was big.

63 Any questions? none

Appendix 5: Pre-visit Information

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