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NOxEMISSIONCONTROLTECHNOLOGIESIN STATIONARYANDAUTOMOTIVEINTERNALCOMBUSTIONENGINES

ApproachesTowardNOxFreeAutomobiles

Editedby B.ASHOK

AssociateProfessor,VelloreInstituteofTechnology, Vellore,TamilNadu,India

Elsevier

Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates

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Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythe Publisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein).

Notices

Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperience broadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedical treatmentmaybecomenecessary.

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TypesetbySTRAIVE,India

Thisbookisdedicatedtoallmyresearchteammembers,students,and collaborators.

Contributorsxiii

Preface xvii

Abouttheeditorxix

1.EmissionformationinICengines1

B.Ashok,A.NareshKumar,AshwinJacob,andR.Vignesh

1.1 Introduction1

1.2 Emissionstandards3

1.3 Exhaustpollutantsfromsparkignitionengines8

1.4 Exhaustpollutantsfromcompressionignitionengines13

1.5 Environmentalandhealtheffectsofengineemissions17

1.6 SIengineemissionformationanditsrootcause21

1.7 CIengineemissionformationanditsrootcause24

1.8 ConceptofemissionmitigationtechnologiesforNOxemissions26

1.9 Conclusions36 References38

2.NOx formationchemicalkineticsinICengines39

AvinashAlagumalai,AminJodat,OmidMahian,andB.Ashok

2.1 Introduction39

2.2 ChemicalkineticmodelofNOformation43

2.3 Thermodynamicproperties43

2.4 Reactionmechanism45

2.5 NOx formationinICengines45

2.6 ThermalNOformation48

2.7 PromptNOformation50

2.8 NOproductionfromfuelnitrogen50

2.9 MechanismsfortheformationofNO52

2.10 UncontrolledNOx emissionlevelsinICengines55

2.11 FactorsinfluencingNOX emissionsfromICengines55

2.12 Effectsofalternativefuel(biodiesel)58

2.13 Ambientconditions61

2.14 Concludingremarks62 References63

3.NOx andPMtrade-offinICengines69

AshwinJacob,B.Ashok,R.Vignesh,SaravananBalusamy, andAvinashAlagumalai

3.1 Introduction69

3.2 Legislativenormsaimedatcontrollingvehicularemissions71

3.3 NOx reductiontechniquesinICengines72

3.4 DifferencesinPMemissionsbasedontheirnatureandsize78

3.5 PMcontroltechniquesinICengines79

3.6 Trade-offrelationshipbetweenNOx andPMemissionsinICengines83

3.7 SimultaneousreductionofNOx andPMemissions87

3.8 Conclusion90

References91

4.EffectofenginedesignparametersinNOx reduction95

R.Sakthivel,S.Sidharth,P.GaneshKumar,T.Mohanraj,A.Tamilvanan, andB.Ashok

4.1 Introduction95

4.2 RoleofenginedesignparametersonNOx emission98

4.3 EffectofintakesystemdesignonNOx emissions99

4.4 EffectofinjectionsystemdesignonNOx emissions101

4.5 Designofcombustionchamber104

4.6 EffectsofchambergeometryonNOx emission105

4.7 EffectsofchamberdesignparametersonNOx emissions108

4.8 EffectofcompressionratioonNOx emissions109

4.9 RoleofcompressionratioinNOx mitigationforCIengines109

4.10 RoleofcompressionratioinNOx mitigationforSIengines110

4.11 EffectofvalvetiminganddesignonNOx emissions113

4.12 EffectofthermalbarriercoatingonNOx emissions115

4.13 Low-temperaturecombustionforNOx reduction117

4.14 Overallenginedesignrequirementsandconsiderations forNOx mitigation120

4.15 Conclusion121 References121

5.EffectofengineoperatingparametersinNOx reduction125

A.Tamilvanan,B.Ashok,T.Mohanraj,P.Jayalakshmi,P.Dhamodharan, andR.Sakthivel

5.1 Introduction125

5.2 EngineoperatingfactorsinfluencingNOx emissionsinCI andSIengines127

5.3 EffectoffuelinjectionparametersonNOx emissionsinCIengines132

5.4 EffectoffuelignitionparametersonNOx emissionsinSIengines134

5.5 Effectofair-fuel/equivalenceratioonNOx emissions138

5.6 EffectofinletconditionsonNOx emissions139

5.7 EffectofinletconditionoffuelonengineNOx emissions144

5.8 EffectofcoolanttemperatureonNOx emissionsinCI andSIengines145

5.9 EffectofenginespeedonNOx emissions147

5.10 EffectofengineloadonNOx emissions149

5.11 Comparisonofdifferentoperatingparameters149

5.12 Conclusion150 References151

6.ApplicationofexhaustgasrecirculationofNOxreduction inSIengines155

DhineshBalasubramanian,InbanaathanPaplaVenugopal,RajarajanAmudhan, TanakornWongwuttanasatian,andKasiananthamNanthagopal

6.1 Introduction155

6.2 DifferenttypesofEGRset-up158

6.3 StratifiedformofEGR160

6.4 HotandcooledEGR162

6.5 CorrelationbetweenknockandNOxemissions163

6.6 EGRvs.NOxandsootemissions166

6.7 EGRinadvancedSIengines174

6.8 EGRimplementationinadvancedSIengines175

6.9 Conclusion182 Acknowledgment184 References184

7.ApplicationofexhaustgasrecirculationforNOxreduction inCIengines189

C.KannanandT.Vijayakumar

7.1 Introduction189

7.2 Exhaustgasrecirculation190

7.3 Designconfigurations192

7.4 EGRoperatingwindowandsignificance194

7.5 EGRcontrolstrategies195

7.6 EGRimplementationinconventionalCIengines200

7.7 EGRimplementationinadvancedcombustionCIengines203

7.8 EGRimplementationforalternatefueledengines210

7.9 EffectofEGRonoilcontamination,enginewear,andsoot212

7.10 EGRinconventional/advancedSIandCIengines–A comparison217

7.11 Conclusion218 References219

8.NOxreductioninICenginesthroughaftertreatment catalyticconverter223

G.SathishSharma,M.Sugavaneswaran,andR.Prakash

8.1 Introduction223

8.2 Evolutionofcatalyticconverter226

8.3 Designandfabricationofthree-waycatalyticconverters231

8.4 CatalystsforNOxcontrol235

8.5 NOxreactionmechanismandchemicalkineticsinthree-way catalyticconverter239

8.6 Factorsaffectingperformanceofthree-waycatalyticconverters243

8.7 Recentdevelopmentsincatalyticconverters248

8.8 Conclusion249 References250

9.NOx reductioninICenginesthroughadsorbingtechnique255

S.SathishkumarandM.MohamedIbrahim

9.1 Introduction255

9.2 ActiveNOx adsorptionorleanNOx trap(LNT)256

9.3 Influencesofexhaustgasspecies,temperature, andhydrogeninLNT259

9.4 SelectiveNOx recirculation(SNR)263

9.5 PassiveNOx adsorberorlow-temperatureNOx adsorber(LTNA)265

9.6 OperatingconditionsforNOx adsorption267

9.7 NOx desorptioncharacteristics275

9.8 Conclusions278 References279

10.SelectivecatalyticreductionforNOx reduction285

R.VigneshandB.Ashok

10.1 Introduction285

10.2 OverviewofSCRsystemanditscomponents285

10.3 De-NOx chemistryinSCR291

10.4 AnassortmentofreductantsusedinSCR294

10.5 AnassortmentofcatalystsforvariousSCR295

10.6 SCRcontroller310

10.7 Conclusion314 References315

11.EffectsoffuelreformulationtechniquesinNOx reduction319 AshwinJacobandB.Ashok

11.1 Introduction319

11.2 Commonfactorsthatarecrucialforfuelreformulations321

11.3 Methodsoffuelrefininganditsroleintailoringfuelcomposition326

11.4 FormulationoffuelsbyblendingtoreduceNOx emissions inICengines328

11.5 ImportanceofadditivesonfuelreformulationsforNOx reduction inSIengines330

11.6 ImportanceofadditivesonfuelreformulationsforNOx reduction inCIengines335

11.7 Distinctionsinfuelreformulationtechniquestomitigate NOx emissions342

11.8 Conclusion343 References344

12.InfluenceofalcoholandgaseousfuelsonNOxreduction inICengines347

C.Karthick,KasiananthamNanthagopal,B.Ashok,andS.V.Saravanan

12.1 Introduction347

12.2 Suitabilityofalcoholfuelsfortheengineapplication350

12.3 InfluenceofalcoholfuelsonNOxreductioninCIengines355

12.4 InfluenceofalcoholfuelsonNOxreductioninSIengines359

12.5 Suitabilityofgaseousfuelsforengineapplications365

12.6 InfluenceofgaseousfuelsonNOxreductioninCIengines368

12.7 InfluenceofgaseousfuelsonNOxreductioninSIengines374

12.8 Conclusion380 References381

13.ImpactofNOxcontrolmeasuresonenginelife387 MadhuSudanReddyDandu,KasiananthamNanthagopal,B.Ashok, DhineshBalasubramanian,andR.Sakthivel

13.1 Introduction387

13.2 Variousmethodsforthedeterminationofenginelife390

13.3 CorrelationofsmokeandNOxemissionsonenginelife395

13.4 EffectofNOxreductiondevicesonSIenginelife397

13.5 ImpactofNOxreductiondevicesonCIenginelife399

13.6 Effectofadvancedtechnologiesonenginedurability402

13.7 Effectoffuelsonenginedurability403

13.8 Reformulationoffuelsonenginelife415

13.9 Conclusions416

References417

14.NOX reductionthroughvariouslowtemperaturecombustion technologies423

PajarlaSaiteja,B.Ashok,PemmareddySaiteja,andR.Vignesh

14.1 Introduction423

14.2 Homogeneouschargecompressionignitionengine425

14.3 Premixedchargecompressionignitionengine435

14.4 Reactivitycontrolledcompressionignitionengine443

14.5 ComparativestudyonLTCmodeadvancedcombustionengines451

14.6 Conclusion455

References457

Contributors

AvinashAlagumalai

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,GMRInstituteofTechnology,Rajam,Andhra Pradesh,India

RajarajanAmudhan

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,MepcoSchlenkEngineeringCollege,Sivakasi; DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,CKCollegeofEngineeringandTechnology, Cuddalore,India

B.Ashok

EngineTestingLaboratory,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

DhineshBalasubramanian

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,MepcoSchlenkEngineeringCollege,Sivakasi, India;MechanicalEngineering,FacultyofEngineering;CenterforAlternativeEnergy ResearchandDevelopment,KhonKaenUniversity,KhonKaen,Thailand

SaravananBalusamy

DepartmentofMechanicalandAerospaceEngineering,IndianInstituteofTechnology Hyderabad,Hyderabad,India

MadhuSudanReddyDandu

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,SreeVidyanikethanEngineeringCollege,Tirupati, AndhraPradesh,India

P.Dhamodharan

SSNCollegeofEngineering,Chennai,TamilNadu,India

P.GaneshKumar

AlstomTransportIndiaLtd,Chennai,India

AshwinJacob

EngineTestingLaboratory,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

P.Jayalakshmi

HindustanCollegeofEngineering&Technology,Coimbatore,TamilNadu,India

AminJodat

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,UniversityofBojnord,Bojnord,NorthKhorasan, Iran

C.Kannan

DepartmentofAutomotiveEngineering,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,Vellore InstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

C.Karthick

EngineTestingLaboratory,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

A.NareshKumar

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,LakireddyBaliReddyCollegeofEngineering, Mylavaram,AndhraPradesh,India

OmidMahian

SchoolofChemicalEngineeringandTechnology,Xi’anJiaotongUniversity,Xi’an, Shaanxi,China

M.MohamedIbrahim

AutomotiveResearchCentre,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteof Technology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

T.Mohanraj

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AmritaSchoolofEngineering,AmritaVishwa Vidyapeetham,Coimbatore,TamilNadu,India

KasiananthamNanthagopal

EngineTestingLaboratory,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

InbanaathanPaplaVenugopal

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,MepcoSchlenkEngineeringCollege,Sivakasi, India

R.Prakash

SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,India

PajarlaSaiteja

EngineTestingLaboratory,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

PemmareddySaiteja

EngineTestingLaboratory,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

R.Sakthivel

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AmritaSchoolofEngineering,AmritaVishwa Vidyapeetham,Coimbatore,TamilNadu,India

S.V.Saravanan

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,AsianCollegeofEngineeringandTechnology, Coimbatore,India

G.SathishSharma

SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,India

S.Sathishkumar

AutomotiveResearchCentre,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteof Technology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

S.Sidharth

RobertBoschEngineeringandBusinessSolutionsPvtLtd,Coimbatore,India

M.Sugavaneswaran

SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,India

A.Tamilvanan

DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,KonguEngineeringCollege,Erode,TamilNadu, India

R.Vignesh

EngineTestingLaboratory,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

T.Vijayakumar

DepartmentofAutomotiveEngineering,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,Vellore InstituteofTechnology,Vellore,TamilNadu,India

TanakornWongwuttanasatian

MechanicalEngineering,FacultyofEngineering;CenterforAlternativeEnergyResearch andDevelopment,KhonKaenUniversity,KhonKaen,Thailand

Preface

Inrecentyears,increasedawarenessofclimatechangeandenvironmental deteriorationduetovehicularpollutantshassparkedgovernmentstoestablishcontrolpoliciestomanagethesecrises.Modernenginesarenotonly focusedonengineperformance,butalsoonemissionaspects.Recentemissionlegislationhasparticularlyfocusedonlimitsonnitrogenoxides(NOx). Mostcountriesintheworldtrytoreducepollutionsbyformulatingvarious emissionnorms,recentfocusingonnitrogenoxides.Inthiscontext,extensiveresearchhasbeencarriedoutoninternalcombustion(IC)enginesto mitigateharmfulemissions,mainlyNOx emissions.NOx emissionsgeneratedfromvehicletailpipeshavedetrimentaleffectsonhumanhealthandthe environmentwhilecausingimbalancestotheecosystem.Hence,theauthors identifiedthatthereisaneedtounderstandthecurrentstanceof NOx emissionformation,controltechniques,andthecorrespondingtechnologiesemployedinICengines.Tofacilitatethis,theauthorsdecidedto formulateanin-depthliterarycorrelationbetweenthetheoryandpractical aspectsofNOx formationandcontroltechniquesinICengines,thereby educatingandprovidingthescientificresearchcommunitywithacomprehensiveresearchwork.

Theprimarymotivationforwritingthisbookistoprovideapossible solutiontoreduceglobalNOx emissionsgeneratedfromautomobilesby establishingcontroltechniquesthatareefficientinreducingharmfulemissions.Theauthorsalsointendtoprovideresearchersworkinginthefieldsof automotive,mechanical,mechatronics,andchemicalengineeringaconcise workcoveringthetheoreticalandexperimentalaspectsofNOx emission formationandcontroltechniquesforICengines.Furthermore,theauthors aimtoprovideadvancedNOx controltechniquesthathavethepotentialto becommerciallyviablewithoutmajormodificationtotheexistingengine designasperthelegislativeemissionnorms.Withinthiscontext,thisbook coversNOx andparticulatematterformation,NOx control,after-treatment devices,andfuelmodificationtechniques.Also,relatedinformationforIC enginesisdiscussedinaveryextensivemanner.Theresultsobservedinthe literaturearescrutinizedanddeconstructedtounderstandeveryaspectthat ledtoNOx formationandcontrol.Insomecases,controversialresultsare cross-examinedbyexperimentaltestingtounderstandtheNOx formation conceptsinapracticalmanner.

Hence,toprovideanin-depthunderstandingrelatedtoNOx emission formationandcontrolaspectsinICengines,thisbookwillbeanessential literarytoolforacademics,researchers,andindustrialexpertsworkingin theautomotivesector.Thewholeideaofthisbookwasinitiatedandcarried byDr.B.AshokandhisresearchteamfromtheVelloreInstituteofTechnology,India.Thecontributorsforthisworkareselectedinsuchaway toprovideabetteroutcomeintheproposedarea.Further,aseditorand author,Ashokwouldliketoexpresshisheartfeltgratitudetoallthecontributorsforbeingapartofthisexceptionalwork.Iamhumbledbytheir sincerityandcommitmentthroughoutthisjourney.Moreimportantly, Iwouldliketospeciallythanktheresearchscholarsandcollaborators whoareworkingwithmeforhelpingtoorganizeandevaluatethechapters foranyinconsistenciesinthestructureandcontentasawhole.Moreover, AshokandhisresearchteamwouldliketothanktheVelloreInstituteof Technology,India,forprovidingtheresearchfacilitiesandawealthof knowledgeintheformofliterarysubscriptionsfore-resourcesandbooks fromthelibraryforreference.

Abouttheeditor

B.Ashok startedhisprofessionalcareeras specialistengineerinvehicleelectricaland electronicsatM/S.ForceMotorsIndia Ltd,PuneafterhisM.Techdegree.Duringhistenure,heplayedaleadroleinthe implementationofelectroniccontrolfor theBSIVengineandtheantilockbraking systeminthevehicleportfolio.Afterthe industrialexperience,hejoinedtheautomotivedepartmentatVelloreInstituteof Technology,Vellore,India.Duringhis doctoralresearchwork,hedevelopeda low-costvirtualsensorforthethrottle positionsensingapplicationforICenginesusingsoftcomputingtechniques. Ashokhasdevelopedvarioustechniquesfortheeffectiveimplementationof biofuelsinICengines,includingfuelreformulation,engineparameteroptimization,anddesignmodification.

Furthermore,hisexpertiseinmechatronicsengineeringhelpstoevolve novelinterdisciplinaryresearchintheareasofautomotiveelectronicsand automotiveengineeringsystems.Thoseoutcomesofhisresearchhaveled tothepublicationofeightbookchaptersand110researchpapersaswell astwopatents,withacumulativeSCIImpactFactorof456.Furthermore, hisresearchisintheareaofICengines,emissioncontrol,andalternate mobilityforthetransportsector.Theoutcomeofthatresearchisacknowledgedstronglybytheinternationalresearchcommunitythrough2500citations,anH-Indexof30,andanI-10Indexof50,aspertheresearch database.Hesecuredanamountof1.4Crores(INR)worthfromvarious fundingagenciessuchasDST,ASEANandtheRoyalAcademy,UK,in theareasofbiofuels,flex-fuelenginesandelectricvehicledevelopment. Ashokhasbeennamedasa“Top2%scientistintheworld”inarecentstudy conductedbyresearchersatStanfordUniversity.Hiscurrentresearchis focusedontheestablishmentofahybridstrategyforICengines,flex-fuel enginedevelopment,andeffectivecontrolstrategiesforelectricpowertrain configuration.

EmissionformationinICengines

B.Ashoka,A.NareshKumarb,AshwinJacoba,andR.Vignesha

aEngineTestingLaboratory,SchoolofMechanicalEngineering,VelloreInstituteofTechnology,Vellore, TamilNadu,India

bDepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,LakireddyBaliReddyCollegeofEngineering,Mylavaram,Andhra Pradesh,India

1.1Introduction

Theemissionsgeneratedbybothtransportationandnontransportationsectorinternal-combustion(IC)enginesareconsiderableandareamajorchallengeforboththeresearchcommunityandgovernments.Initially,toxic pollutantsgeneratedfromICengineswerelower.Also,therewerefewer vehicles.However,inthemid-20thcentury,improvementsinlivingstandardshaveledtoincreasingenergydemands,resultinginahugenumberof automobilesonroads.Heavyvehiclesusedforcarryingdifferentgoodsalso contributedtothisincrease.Asaresult,fossilfuelconsumption,bothinliquidandgaseousform [1,2],severelyincreasedfrom1960,causingairpollution.Ontheotherside,oilsobtainedfromwastevegetableseeds [3] and peelsnodoubthavefewerhydrocarbonchainsbutgeneratelessbrakepower.Duetotheincreaseinthenumberofautomobiles,extremelevels ofpollutantsarereleased,causingseriouseffects.Theuseofpetroleum-based fossilfuelsistheprimaryreasonbehindtheseadverseeffects.Thesepollutantsappearinsolidorgaseousstates.Butthechemicalsubstancescontaining carbonasaconstituentareofmajorinfluence.Someofthepollutantsfrom vehiclesarehydrocarbons(HC),carbonmonoxide(CO),nitrogenoxides (NOx),andparticulatematter(PM).Outofthese,gasessuchasCO2 and H2Oarereleasedduetocompletecombustionwhileamajorityoftoxic gasesarereleasedduetovariousreasonssuchasincompletecombustion, heterogeneityoftheair-fuelmixture,andthenonavailabilityofoxygen. Meanwhile,thedevelopmentofhightemperaturesduetocompletecombustionalsogeneratesNOxcausedbyinbuiltdiatomicnitrogenpresentin airandfuel.Alltheabove-mentionedemissionssuchasHC,CO,NOx, CO2, andPMareprimarypollutantsreleasedfromICenginesandare anthropogenicinnature.ThevarioustoxicemissionsformedinSIand CIenginesareshownin Figs.1.1and1.2.COisgeneratedduetoa

Fig.1.1 Emissionsresultingfromcompleteandincompleteburning.

Fig.1.2 Pollutantsformedinspark-ignitionandcompression-ignitionengines.

deficiencyofoxygenandaccountsfor50%ofthetotalemissions.Theother pollutant,HC,isgeneratedduetoincompletecombustionandevaporation ofthefuel,whichishighlycarcinogenicinnature.Particulatematterformed insidetheenginecylinderismuchlessindiameterandcontainssolidcarbon particles.NOxgeneratedinsidetheenginecylinderreactswithatmospheric gasesandformstoxicsubstancessuchasnitricacid.Butthereactionofthe primarypollutantswiththechemicalconstituentspresentintheatmosphere generatessecondarypollutantssuchasozone(O3).Thepresenceofozoneat

higheraltitudesprotectstheEarthfromultravioletradiation,butitspresence intheloweratmosphereisharmful.Thiscandamagevegetationandcause lungdisordersinhumanbeings.Notonlyautomobilesbutpollutantsfrom powerplantscanalsocauseadverseeffectssuchasanincreaseinthetemperatureoftheEarth’satmosphere,respiratorydisorders,cancerousdiseases, andgreenhouseeffectssuchasdepletionoftheozonelayer.Allthesefactors haveforcedgovernmentstoimposestricterregulationsonvariouspollutants fromautomobiles.Theseregulationswereinitiallyimposedindeveloped countriesbutwerelaterimposedbygovernmentsofdevelopingnations aswell.Adetaileddiscussionregardingtheemissionregulationsisillustrated inthenextsection.Thetypesofpollutantsformedduetodifferentreasons andtheircharacteristicsarepresentedin Table1.1.

1.2Emissionstandards

Pollutantsemittedfromautomobileshavebeenamatterofconcernfor manyyears.ComparedtoSIengines,pollutantsfromCIengines,particularlyfromheavy-dutyvehicles,causeconsiderabledamagetohumanhealth. Additionally,theCIengineapplicationinviewofvariousadvantagesis comparativelybroaderthanSIengines.Differentpollutantsemergingfrom thetransportationsectorcausesignificantdamagetohumanhealthandthe atmosphere.Inviewofthedamagecausedtoairquality,manynationshave setregulationsforemissionsreleasedfromthetailpipe [4].Theseregulations weresetforhighlytoxicgasessuchascarbonmonoxide,particulatematter, hydrocarbons,andoxidesofnitrogen.Emissionregulationsrepresentthe maximumpermissibletoxiceffluentsthatcanbereleasedfromvariouscategoriesofvehicles.AstepforwardinthisdirectionisinitiallydonebyEuropeannations,theUnitedStates,andJapan.Thestandardsweresetseparately bythesenationswithotherdevelopingnationsfollowingoneoftheabovementionedemissionstandards.ThedevelopingcountryIndiaalsoinitiateda mildemissionregulationprogramin1996andfollowedEuropeanemission regulationswithdifferencesintestingconditionssuchasspeedandtemperature.EmissionstandardswererepresentedasBharatStageEmissionsStandards(BS)inIndia.Inspiteofdifferencesintestingconditions,the maximumpermissiblepollutantlimitssetbyIndiawerethesameasEuropeanemissionstandards(EURO).Accordingtothedirectionsofthe supremecourt,EURO-IemissionnormsweremademandatoryforallprivatevehiclesinIndiain1999andEURO-IIemissionnormsin2000.Allthe newervehiclesmanufacturedhavetobecompliantwiththeseregulations.

Table1.1 PollutantsformedinICenginesandtheircharacteristics.

S.No.TypeofpollutantCharacteristicofpollutant

1ParticulatematterTinyparticleswithdiameterslessthan 2.5 μmthatprimarilycontaincarbon 2HydrocarbonsCompoundscontainingcarbonand hydrogenatoms

3CarbondioxideOdorlessatlowconcentrationsbutexhibits acidiccolorathighconcentrations. Containsacarbonatombondedtotwo oxygenatoms

4CarbonmonoxideContainseachatomofcarbonandoxygen withbondlengthof112.8pm.Itisa colorless,tasteless,andodorlessgas

5Oxidesofnitrogen emissions(NOand NO2) NOisacolorless,flammablegashavinglittle odor.NOhasoneunpairedelectron(free radical).NO2isanonflammablegasbut poisonousandhasadeeporange-red color

6Sulfuroxides(SO2)and Leadoxides(PbO2)

SO2 iscolorless,toxic,andhasasuffocating odor.Furthermore,SO2 leadstothe formationofsulfuricacidandresultsin acidrains.PbO2 isdarkbrownincolor, nonflammable,andinsolubleinwater

7Ozone(O3)Ozone(O3)isbluishincolorandastrong oxidizerwithgoodsolubility.Ozonecan beexplosiveifitsconcentrationexceeds 20%inamixture

8AldehydesandketonesTheyareorganiccompoundsthatare solubleinwater,buttheirsolubility decreaseswithanincreaseincarbon length.Withanincreaseinmolecular weight,theirboilingpointincreases

Emissionstandardshavebeenrevisedfromtimetotimeinviewofthethreat totheatmosphere.BS-IIIandBS-IVemissionregulationswereenforcedin Indiain2010and2017.Further,BS-VIemissionregulationswereimposed inNewDelhiin2018inviewoftheheavyairpollutioninthenation’scapital.However,BS-VIregulationsweremademandatoryfortheentirecountryonApril1,2020.TheoverviewoftheEUROemissionregulationsfor light-duty,heavy-duty,andoff-roadvehiclesisshownin Tables1.2,1.3, and1.4.Tomeetthesestricteremissionregulations,particularlyindiesel engines,after-treatmentdevicessuchasdieselparticulatefiltersand