Semiautomatic

SEMI AUTO MATIC AUCKLAND URBANISATION 1 SEMIAUTOMATIC

RESILIENT SPRAWL

AN ALTERNATIVE AUCKLAND PLAN MATTHEW BRADBURY

DUSHKO BOGUNOVICH

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Publishing details ............ ............ ...........

ISBN etc

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Assistance and contribution from the following people is gratefully acknowledged by the authors: Heather Docherty Grace Lunberry Athena Sommerfield Nikolay Popov Unitec Bachelor of Landscape Architecture Year 3 (2012) Daisy Tang (photos) ... ...

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CONTENTS

01. Context 02. Contemporary research 03. Proposition 04. Potential Periurban Growth Areas East of Auckland 05. Landscape metrics 06. Growth strategies 07. Typology + Morphology 08. Green Infrastructure details 09. Reflection 10. Conclusion 11. References 12. Bibliography

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01.

CONTEXT

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The world population continues to expand and this means the growth of all major world cities. The world faces a conundrum of how best to include all these new people within their cities while reducing the consumption of increasingly sparse commodities.

The United Nations has forecasted a population growth of 2 billion between 2011 and 2041, and that approximately 2/3rds of the world’s population will live in urban environments (Auckland Plan). This is an overwhelming number and means cities will be competing against each other to develop new technology, improve their economies and create higher quality living.

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Global planning will be in a radical state of change between now and 2040 due to climate change and population expansion. Not only is the population growing it is also aging. This means that healthcare systems, transport, housing etc. will be have to be tailored to manage this change and adjusted to the meet the needs of a more elderly demographic. The expansion may also mean the creation of mega cities with populations of up to 80million people in one city. These are likely to be in developing nations such as China and India, which may displace the world’s 30 largest economies such as San Francisco, Sydney, and Toronto. By 2040 the effects of climate change will be obvious with the increasing frequency of extreme weather events and the likely change of existing climate patterns. This may cause the shifting of populations from one location to another for safety and comfort. New Zealand is less likely to be effected by these patterns so may be encouraged to take refugees and other shifting populations. Sustainable locations will become more and more attractive to people and have an increasing importance in the global economy.

Cities will compete to attract skilled workers by being liveable; “Liveable cities need a

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competitive business climate and tax levels, a business-friendly culture, and excellent connectivity. To be recognised as innovation centres, cities will need to support education in the sciences and engineering; support the creation of leading research centres; foster closer links between those research centres and business; and foster collaboration between complementary sectors to encourage the development of new products and solutions to pressing issues.� (Auckland Plan, pg.23, 2011) Cities consume three quarters of all planetary resources and generate more than three quarters of all waste. And they are growing -- more than half of humanity is already urban. In about a decade we will have about four billion people in urban areas, and in two decades, about five. Ensuring that these staggering numbers of people have such basics as food, water, energy, shelter and sanitation is the most daunting task that humanity has faced. And the task will only get harder as the affects climate change become more obvious and a peak oil crisis looms. Auckland is not immune to these challenges.

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Continuing the historic coastal linear urban growth pattern of auckland

FIGURE 1.

SUSTAINABLE SPRAWL

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Auckland is New Zealand’s largest city, home to an estimated 1.5million people and one of the main commercial centres. This is one third of the entire country’s population. Auckland is economically unmatched by other New Zealand centres and is a hub of transport infrastructure with airports, ports, freight stations making Auckland a gateway to the rest of this trade dependent nation. Because of Auckland’s importance to the economy and trade, the wellbeing of the entire country is closely intertwined with its success or failure.

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FIGURE 2.

STUDY AREA: EAST AUCKLAND

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Situated outside the edge of the Metropolitan Urban Limit (MUL), the growth study area is focussed within three catchments: Maraetai, Whitford and Wairoa (Clevedon).

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68%

of international visitor arrivals

76%

of business arrivals

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of p

s and

s to New Zealand come through Auckland Airport.

permanent and long-term arrivals in New Zealand have settled in Auckland.

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Auckland’s unique character has been primarily shaped by its history and geography.

To this day, Auckland maintains its feel as a collection of villages joined together rather than just one big metropolis. The extensive waterways permeating the region help provide a lovely temperate climate and contribute to the wide diversity of the flora and fauna. This expansive city is set in an incredible natural setting rare amongst cities and is also very culturally diverse, giving Aucklanders a unique setting to live in.

This prominent metropolis is a typical post-industrial city. Valued as a lifestyle destination, surrounded by three harbours, and processing a benign climate it is at the same time guilty of many of the sins of the western new world city. Despite its setting, it is a sprawling car based suburban city where the citizens connect to a city of malls, big box retail, and office park through a pervasive motorway infrastructure.

Until recently, Auckland was divided into seven different councils; these have been joined into one overarching council to create the new ‘super city’. This new governing structure has led to the recent release of ‘The Auckland Plan’, a draft spatial plan to direct the development of Auckland and manage its growth from now until 2040. This is primarily as a response to the predicted population expansion for the region. The aim is for Auckland to become ‘the world’s most liveable city’ while accommodating a new estimated population of 2.5million by 2041. The plan proposes a rough 60/40 split of development, 60% within the existing cities boundaries and 40% outside.

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The Auckland Plan aims to help Auckland achieve the goal of becoming the world’s most liveable city. This means a place that residents are proud of and want to stay in or return to and others want to visit, move to or invest in. A beautiful and loved city that is culturally rich and creative.

Creating the world’s most liveable city would attract and retain the skilled people needed for a strong economy. A good lifestyle isn’t enough to meet this goal, there also needs to be a more resilient and sustainable economy. A green Auckland with an emphasis on fairness, safety, and health would encourage prosperity and opportunity for all Aucklanders.

The council spatial plan aims to create a ‘quality compact city’ by increasing density within new boundaries (metropolitan urban limits) and limiting development growth outside of these boundaries with the exception of a few selected locations (Warksworth and Pukekohe). High quality design and the preservation of rural land are key components to this plan. The compact city model proposed is loosely based on New Urbanist thinking and a number of overseas case studies, and suggests that increasing density is the solution to creating a sustainable liveable city. Ideally the compact city model is supposed to limit and contain the much-maligned urban sprawl that is seen to be taking over Auckland. The increased density should provide a more

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efficient use of public transport and is thought to reduce energy consumption, create a better social mix and a tighter community (Frey, 1999). The council also hopes that the denser city will:

GENERATE GREATER PRODUCTIVITY AND ECONOMIC GROWTH MAKE BETTER USE OF THE EXISTING INFRASTRUCTURE MAINTAIN RURAL CHARACTER AND PRODUCTIVITY REDUCE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS CREATE GREATER SOCIAL AND CULTURAL VITALITY The new Auckland plan uses several techniques to concentrate urban growth within a defined geographical limit to encourage the compact city; encouragement of highdensity apartments and arbitrary development lines – RUB or Rural-Urban Boundary at the edge of city.

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There are several principles that are essential to the council’s compact quality approach:

QUALITY FIRST GENERATIONAL CHANGE AND TRANSITION TO A QUALITY COMPACT FORM GROWTH PRIMARILY WITHIN EXISTING URBAN AREAS A RURAL-URBAN BOUNDARY AND STAGED RELEASE OF GREENFIELDS SITES DECADE-BY-DECADE HOUSING SUPPLY The details of these principles and how they will affect Auckland can be seen in the official ‘Auckland Plan’.

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Much of the Auckland region is rural and it is proposed to continue to keep these areas rural and productive with limited development. In fact, approximately 70% of Auckland’s landmass is currently rural. Much importance is placed on rural land in Auckland, there needs to be a sustainable balance between production, protection and all activities associated with rural character.

Auckland’s urban environment is desired to become just as beautiful as the city’s natural setting. This is the aim of the quality compact urban plan suggested.

Accessibility and aesthetics are an important part of this aim both in existing urban areas and in greenfield sites.

This book outlines a possible alternative growth strategy for Auckland to the official ‘compact city’ vision. This proposition recognizes that the link between density and sustainability is much weaker than commonly understood, and that the topology and technology of urban infrastructure is bound to profoundly change over the next couple of decades. We argue that the next million inhabitants of Auckland should be allocated, roughly evenly, to four main zones of the city-region – urban, suburban, peri-urban and ex-urban.

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This proposition stems from the recognition that, in the face of climate change and expected resources shortages in the not too distant future, Auckland has neither time nor money to rapidly or radically transform its predominantly suburban urban form.

In addition, a high-density city model carries significant risk for a city founded on a very precarious natural site. We need an urban technological revolution. It will consist of a profound change in the design of urban technical systems. They will have to be clean, green, small, smart and decentralised. Think of the new city as a giant farm - a sprawling artificial landscape that harvests clean energy, food, rainwater and treats and recycles its waste locally.

We believe that for Auckland to retain its status as one of the most liveable cities in the world, it has to exploit precisely its low density, because that factor makes its famous lifestyle possible.

Rather than trying to become a sustainable, compact city, New Zealand’s largest metropolis should strive to become a super-liveable, resilient urban region. A low-density city that settles around its extraordinary landscape. We see that the implication of this idea has relevance to not only Auckland but too many other socalled sprawl cities around the world.

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02.

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH

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Urban planning is a very relevant subject in today’s world of major urban growth. As a result there has been a lot or research and literature on planning looking at different models of development and how they can be applied to cities across the globe.

Although many authors have written about city planning with focus on increased densities and compact cities there is also a large amount of literature about new approaches to the design of the future urban fabric. Here is a brief summary of some of contemporary literature addressing the need for new planning techniques.

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For many the focus is on the best way to create a sustainable city through a wide variety of techniques and approaches. Setting aside and conserving productive land is one way suggested to achieve the goal of sustainability. This is not a high density approach as it involves allowing plenty of green space to permeate the urban environment and if land is of productive value it’s kept from being developed. This means looking at landscape character and features to influence the form the city takes. The compactness of the city is not necessarily what makes it sustainable, it often is features such as accessibility, connectivity and proximity rather than overall form and shape. If sprawl is treated in a different manner it may not be as detrimental as many think.

The modern economy and increasingly mobile infrastructure also have an effect on planning. No longer do people always have to commute and meet face to face. People can afford to live away from their place of work and choose the lifestyle they want.

The market and new technological advances have led to an increasingly decentralised urban environment. This decentralisation doesn’t have to be unsustainable if connectivity, interactions, and infrastructure are carefully considered and planned for.

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It could actually be more sustainable than the traditional compact city model. Maybe there should no longer be a definitive boundary between urban and rural as each takes on roles of the other and the city becomes more decentralised? The two can interact and relate to each other creating a harmonious unity and fostering increased diversity. This would increase sustainability.

It’s obvious that there is more than one way to increase a city’s sustainability depending on its region, economy, and population. Different approaches to urban planning should be utilised depending on each individual urban centre.

Many contemporary researchers have written about the sustainable and future development and planning of cities. Some propose the compact city model based off successful Old World cities but many others are suggesting new ways of dealing with city growth.

The desire to increase sustainability and liveability is a strong theme through several authors’ works. This ranges from the importance of open space (conservation) to how sustainability and form relate to prepare for future crisis.

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Arendt is the author of a number of articles dealing with city growth and urban planning. In all his work Arendt suggests that a key part of new urban planning and development is the creation and preservation of open space networks. Arendt argues that current practices for land development are developing all land available without any green vision or real thought for the landscapes that they are building over. He maintains that every landscape is unique right down to the neighbourhood level and full of biodiversity that is lost when the homogenous suburban landscape is applied.

He argues that this does not need be the case as we expand our cities and offers a different solution to developing the landscape. “The special places that give our rural and semi-rural communities their distinctive character need not all be cleared, graded, and paved over just because they contain flat, dry, buildable land, although that has been the fate of countless similar natural areas in virtually all suburbs built up to this time.� (Pg xviii, Arendt, 1994) His suggested solution is to develop in a density neutral fashion. By density neutral he means “that the overall number of dwellings allowed is the same as would

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be permitted in a conventional layout. Dwellings not constructed on buildable conservation land are erected in other more appropriate locations on the site.� (Pg 6, Arendt, 1996). This results in conservation subdivision design. His ideas are designed to complement the new urbanist approach of compact development while suggesting that their designs are better suited to transport corridors and metropolitan nodes. He argues that homes designed in the conservation subdivision design offer the economic advantages of smoother review, lower costs, marketing and sales advantages, faster appreciation and reduced demand for new public parkland.

Arendt believes that conservation subdivision design should preserve and create green open space networks. He argues that overall density can be maintained in conjunction with land conservation. He continues that open space protection is the organising principle in development and that open space becomes a green network across a region. He argues 50% of developable land should be put aside for conservation. Arendt lists ecological, social and economic benefits to conservation design.

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Yaro argues that small towns are often ill-equipped to deal with a rapid, unplanned growth and town character, open space, natural resources, public services, and infrastructure, and stock of affordable housing are jeopardised. “…most towns are governed by zoning by-laws that often unwittingly prescribe development patterns that are inappropriate for the their rural areas. Suburban sprawl is spawned by large lot development requirements and by highway corridors zoned for unlimited commercial development – precisely the pattern mandated by many town by-laws.”

(Pg7, Yaro et. Al., 1989).

Yaro offers the solution of “by-law amendments which would require all new developments proposed on open fields or pastures to be laid out so that no more than 50 percent of the farmland is consumed by streets and lots. Lots would be reduced in size by (typically) 50 percent, and the resultant open space would be permanently protected by conservation restrictions for future agriculture use. Buildings would either be located in a woodland fringe at the edge the fields, or screened from the fields by a newly planted shelterbelt of trees.” (Pg 13-14. Yaro et. Al., 1989).

“Zoning, which regulates land-use location and density, does not address the visually important design issues which have such a significant impact upon our townscapes.

Exerting some positive influence over the design of new developments is often essential if a town’s image is to be protected and reinforced.” (Pg 127, Yaro et. Al., 1989).

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Frey questions what form and structure would make the city more sustainable. He notes that “the city we have – with dense cores accommodating much of the city’s workplaces, retail outlets, commerce, services and amenities; sprawling and low density, single-use suburbs; a city structure which by default generates the need to travel and, owing to overall low population densities, car dependency and, as the result of the burning of fossil fuel, massive pollution; unattractive public transport because of low densities and underfunding; congested roads as a result of car dependency; and high energy consumption – is in the long term not sustainable owing to the destructive impact on the regional and global environment .” Pg 23.

He identifies the compact city concept as the leading practice in sustainable city design and lays out arguments for and against it.

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For:

CONTAINMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE REJUVENATION OF URBAN AREAS HIGHER DENSITIES CONSERVATION OF COUNTRYSIDE AFFORDABLE PUBLIC TRANSPORT REDUCED VEHICLE VOLUMES AND POLLUTION CONGESTION REDUCTION REDUCED TRAVEL DISTANCES VITALITY OF MIXED USES POTENTIAL OF SOCIAL MIX CONCENTRATION OF LOCAL ACTIVITIES

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Against:

CONTRADICTS MARKET FORCES AND DESIRES TO LIVE IN LOW DENSITY. LESS GREEN SPACE RESULTING IN REDUCTION IN ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY. COMPACT CITY WILL CAUSE CONGESTION, INCREASE IN POLLUTION, LOSS OF AMENITY SPACE, LOSS OF PRIVACY. SOCIAL SEGREGATION WILL OCCUR AS PRICES RISE IN CITY CENTRE AND ADVANTAGED OUTER SUBURBS. WILL FAIL TO RESPOND TO DEMAND FOR HOUSING IN TIME FRAMES NEEDED. NEEDS LARGE FINANCIAL INCENTIVES AND HIGH DEGREE OF SOCIAL CONTROL WHICH ARE ECONOMICALLY AND POLITICALLY UNREASONABLE.

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He concludes there is no solid evidence that the compact city model is more sustainable. He argues that density and urban containment become relative when considered against wider criteria and that sustainability now needs to consider the countryside as well as the city. Frey concludes that the micro structure (accessibility, proximity and functional mix) of city form appears to be more important than macro structure (type of city form). He sums up that sustainable regions may implement combinations of different city models. â€œâ€Śit has become clear that cities and conurbations can have a variety of different macro-structures as long as they have the appropriate micro-structure of nodes and linkages that is responsible for access to provisions and services and mobility.â€? (Pg 69, Frey, 1999).

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Jenks and Jones seek to provide an answer the question “to what extent and in what ways does urban form contribute to sustainability.� (Pg12, Jenks & Jones, 2010). They argue that while much research has been done on the urban form of cities and what forms are likely to affect sustainability much of this has been focused on the widely adopted concept of the compact city and sprawl reduction. They question whether this is the most sustainable type of urban form, as research points multiple types of urban form being sustainable. Included in their research are others perspectives.

Fuller et al. explores the relationship that types of urban form have on the environmental structure and performance of environmental processes. They use density as a key measure of urban form and conclude that there is a strong correlation between increased density and reduction in total green space coverage and connectivity of vegetated patches. They argue that this affects the ability of ecosystem services, biodiversity as well as social factors such as recreation, experiences with nature and quality of life.

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Bramley et al. qualify that “urban forms cannot be considered sustainable in the full sense if they are not acceptable to people as places to live, work and interact.�

(Pg 105, Jenks & Jones, 2010). Bramley et al. conclude that for the majority of social sustainability indicators it is the lower density urban form that rate the highest. They add some aspects favour higher density development (access to services) while medium density rates highest for interaction. Jones et al. add that the housing market prefers low density housing, and that to change this to higher density would require significant change to the current market forces.

Irvine et al. recognise the importance of urban green space and the positive effect of human contact with nature. They suggest that a multitude of interactions with green space be created based on local differences. They also note that public involvement through the private urban garden be used to boost biodiversity resulting in landscape wide effects.

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Gleeson takes the point that energy insecurity and climate change are serious threats to our way of life. He argues that suburbs are not the main source of environmental degradation but they are the most vulnerable to the effects of the coming crisis such as oil default and climate change problems.

Gleeson acknowledges the compact city movement as the leading action for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and argues that the compact city idea cannot and will not reduce emissions in the timeframe that is needed.He continues that a more important role for planning is emerging in adapting to climates and landscapes that have been modified by climate shifts. He clarifies that he is not an advocate of business-as-usual urban growth approaches.

Gleeson comments on the arguments against the low density suburb, summarising that they are viewed as the “source and worst reflection of the sustainability crisis.�

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(Pg 106, Gleeson, 2010). He argues that while sprawl is defined as “unplanned low density urban development� (Pg 106, Gleeson, 2010) it is often used in describing all of suburbia. He continues that the critique by green standards has led to the premature conclusion that suburbia is wasteful and polluting, focusing on the lifestyles of the inhabitants rather than the urban dwellings that they reside in.

Gleeson believes that global warming and oil vulnerability cannot be solved by compact urban form nor ignored, he sees urban adaption and climate change resilience as the most important tasks for planning. He argues that campaign against suburbia is distracting from the possibility that the best suited to climate change adaptation may actually be the suburban form.

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The modern economy and increasingly mobile infrastructure have to be taken into account in regards to the modern city’s development according to many experts.

Blais argues that sprawl is considered an undesired and inefficient urban form compared with a compact city, and identifies several planning and urban design movements or initiatives that have been put forward over the last couple of decades to combat this. These are growth management, smart growth and new urbanism. Blais makes the argument that market forces have led to sprawl and that while the problem has been attempted to be solved with regulatory and design approaches these are not equipped to deal with the main causes of the issue. She concludes the desired outcome is to have planning and pricing work together as a unified approach to sprawl and when this is achieved the market will be more united with the compact city urban form.

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Hall and Pain note that a new urban form is emerging in the world classified as the “Polycentric mega-city region.” (Pg 3,Hall & Pain eds, 2006). They attribute the emergence of this condition to decentralization and believe that cities are becoming more polycentric over time. They attribute this to the globalisation of the world’s economy and a shift from manufacturing and goods-handling to service economies.

They reason that because face-to-face meetings require agglomeration there is a process of concentrated deconcentration . “they disperse over the scale of wide city region, but simultaneously reconcentrate at particular nodes within it, limited only by time distance constraints. Traditional central city locations still matter, but increasingly they are not the sole clustering points for economic activity; they form merely a part of a wider spatial division of labour within the urban area, with other significant clusterings.” (Pg 11 Hall & Pain eds, 2006). They argue this translates to the polycentric urban structure seen many large cities today. Hall and Pain note the implications of polycentricity on sustainability and economic success of the urban form. They note that it can be viewed to increase development in large towns but that it can lead to increased cross commuting which is unsustainable. They stress that improving the regions interactions between the centres is the most effective way of achieving the “metropolitan potential” (pg 203, Hall & Pain eds, 2006).

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Varnelis uses the city of Los Angeles to describe the infrastructural city by stating that by no means should the city be there except for the vast modern infrastructural systems that support it. He sees Los Angeles “as a local manifestation of global conditions.” (Pg 15, Varnelis, 2008). Varnelis argues cities today are reliant on layers of infrastructure, water, power, telecommunications and roading that connect the city to the rest of the world. He points out that this also has the consequence of making them susceptible to disruption from external forces. He believes that the unseen infrastructure of wires and cables that make up the invisible city are becoming ever more dominant in determining spatial form.

Sherman argues that cities today develop too fast for architects and planners efforts to structure them. “political and economic circumstances change so rapidly that by the time a plan is realized, it is often obsolete; a mere election or market downturn can radically alter the assumptions and objectives of a project or master plan.” (Pg 180, Varnelis, 2008).. He continues that if designers ignore the conditions that their projects will be subject to, and focus on expressing the way that things currently work or designing so many contingencies the result is that none of them work well.

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Bruegmann argues that the main contributor to sprawl is a rising quality of life and wealth that give a greater percentage of the population the ability to make choices that were historically only available to the wealthy. He concludes that with this choice more people have sought out the comforts of the suburban house. He believes that the word sprawl is ill-defined, shifting in definition between one era and the next. He defines it “as low density, scattered, urban development without systematic largescale or regional public land-use planning.” (Pg 18, Bruegmann, 2005). Bruegmann talks about The Perverse Consequences of Regulation that the commonly used urban growth boundary can create. He uses the example of the boundary depressing property values of individuals whose land falls outside the boundary while at the same time creating benefits for those whose property is well located within the boundary.

This affects the economic climate of a city. A classic quote from Bruegmann is “The only thing that citizens dislike more than sprawl at the edge is high density near themselves.” (pg. 208, Bruegmann, 2005).

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Another important and common discussion is the importance and issues arising from the new urban and rural relationship.

Champion and Hugo argue that there is a need to reconceptualise the way that we interpret settlements and create new classifications other than the categorisation of urban or rural at present. “There is no longer any clear dividing line between town and countryside for individual settlements or their inhabitants: indeed, many people reside in one but work in the other.” (Pg 3, Champion & Hugo, 2004). They take the perspective that the lifestyles of the population are an indicator in defining a place as urban or rural and find that “the outward, suburban, spread of more diverse population groups and economic activities has created the need for new settlement categories pertaining to new activity spaces and local labour market areas.” (Pg 86, Champion & Hugo, 2004).

They argue that with telecommunications, information technology and transport development urban functions have begun to relocate to rural areas. They argue that it is very difficult to draw a line to define each category when modern ways of living mean that the countryside exhibits many characteristics of the city now. They add that the relationship between the suburb and city has also changed as suburbs are becoming far more heterogeneous as suburban populations have taken on more of an urban character. This is due to the decentralisation of city’s economic markets and populations.

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Sieverts uses the term Zwischenstadt to describe the place that contemporary cities occupy between the historical old city type and the open countryside. This new city is an urbanised landscape or landscaped city, where the lines between country and city have blurred. He points out that only the city cores now resemble the old cities but the vast majority now is the Zwischenstadt. Because of the new urban dynamics and form, Sieverts argues that the old city model is obsolete and cannot be re-achieved in this new age.

He argues the cities we see today have moved away from the traditional city structure as the expansion of the amenities in private premises have resulted in a loss in urbanness as they satisfy many activities previously sought out in the public realm. He continues that cities are no longer organised in a hierarchical tree structure instead now resemble a network with dispersed nodes. Sievert notes that the conditions that made the 19th century old city density model functional have changed and that the previous success of this urban condition is now somewhat misleading. He notes that ecology has become the overriding principle of city development, as sustainable city development is now the objective. Sieverts outlines that only under the right circumstances can the compact city model now be successful. Despite the positives that it offers, the social, commercial, cultural and political parameters have changed making this model very difficult to reproduce in today’s cities.

He argues of a new decentralised cultural landscape which fosters diversity in which the production of food, recreation and ecological balance forms a new unity between built up and open spaces. He predicts that in the future the largest driver of commercial development will become cultural, ecological and landscape qualities as the standard of infrastructure is uniform across a city.

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03.

PROPOSITION

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From the research we have done and the observations we’ve made we believe that the compact city model is not appropriate for the Auckland region and will prove ineffective and unachievable in the time frame proposed. Unfortunately we don’t see how it can change Auckland into “the world’s most liveable city” in the time frame proposed and without great cost. As can be seen in contemporary urban planning research there are other options available to us that may suit the topography and form better and create a more resilient city.

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There are 6 main reasons we do not believe the compact city model suited for Auckland:

THE CAR HAS ALREADY SHAPED AUCKLAND’S GROWTH. THE GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF AUCKLAND POSES PROBLEMS FOR CREATING A HIGH DENSITY CITY. THE ISTHMUS CONSTRAINS GROWTH PATTERNS WITH ITS MANY ESTUARIES, HILLS, BASINS AND VOLCANIC CONES. MODERN TECHNOLOGY (IT/ET) INDICATES INCREASED DECENTRALISATION AND MOBILITY. PERSONAL AUTOMOTIVE TRANSPORT WILL BECOME MORE EXPENSIVE WITH THE EXPECTED PEAK OIL CRISIS, BUT THE IMPACT WILL BE MODERATED BY TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY SUCH AS FUEL EFFICIENCY GAINS, AND ENERGY SOURCE SUBSTITUTIONS. THERE IS PLENTY OF EVIDENCE THAT THERE IS MORE TO SUSTAINABILITY THAN CARS, TRAVEL DISTANCES AND DENSITY. BUILDINGS ARE A PRIMARY CULPRIT IN GHG EMISSIONS AND DIRTY ENERGY CONSUMPTION. A NEW FOCUS ON RESILIENCE (INSTEAD OF SUSTAINABILITY, UNDERSTOOD AS MITIGATION) TELLS US THAT LOW DENSITY URBAN DEVELOPMENT IS LESS RISKY. ON MANY ACCOUNTS HIGH DENSITY CITIES ARE DANGEROUSLY DEPENDENT ON OUTSIDE RESOURCES AND IN THE CASE OF A NATURAL DISASTER MORE DAMAGE COULD BE DONE WITH THE CONDENSATION OF PEOPLE AND SERVICES.

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Liveability and lifestyle is an important factor if Auckland is indeed to become one of the best cities in the world to live. Enabling a close connection to its extraordinary natural landscape is more likely to attract the type of people we are told we must draw to make Auckland a successful city. A unique city rather than attempting to imitate the dense urban environments of the Old World.

Our alternative development strategy sees landscape as the new infrastructure and is based on a close study of the recent history of Auckland’s development, which is a low-rise sprawling city along the north-south motorway system; with a strong acknowledgement of the importance of the natural water landscapes that permeate Auckland. We have also looked at the global economic and environmental picture and have concluded that cities play a critical role in the global battle for sustainable development. A new green urban economy seems inevitable, and is not only applicable for Auckland but may actually be easier to achieve in Auckland than in many other cities.

Why is there such opposition to low-density cities? Critics believe that low density equals urban sprawl. However, with strict protections in place for: areas of exceptionally fertile soil; vital watershed drainage; sensitive and/or rare habitat; attractive landscape, and the adoption of clean and autonomous urban infrastructure, low-density cities can assume a coherent urban form. Such a form includes many nodes of denser development, with services such as public transport, and facilities for

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a vibrant social life. As our prior research into other experts demonstrated this in not the first time an idea like this has been proposed as an alternative to the compact city model.

Our research indicates that Auckland should grow along two different rationales. The first is industrial and commercial growth in a linear pattern that follows the existing State Highway One and the second is residential growth seeking natural landscape and climate amenity patterns reflecting the many waterways and coastlines along the isthmus. These can be considered the’ Linear City’ and the ‘Water City’ respectively.

The shape of the Auckland isthmus has guided Auckland’s pattern of growth into a roughly cross shaped structure with a main north-south axis. The main linear axis is focused around State Highway One and the historical railroad that connect Northland to the rest of the North Island through Auckland. The linear shape and organisation is almost inevitable due to the natural suitability of land for urban development. The overall land suitable for urbanization is about 100km long and on average 15-25km in width. Even if there should be a reason to fight against the natural linearity, policies and instruments aimed at alternating the form would struggle to succeed. This is the essence of the ‘Linear City’. The linear city is the backbone of the transport network and metropolis. A series of urban nodes along the linear spine such as high-density, mixed-use town centres would punctuate important points along the backbone. Each

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node would have a specific emphasis on a particular service or industry or amenity that would make them unique and important in the greater scheme and complement the other development nodes.

As previously discussed, waterways form an important part of Auckland’s isthmus giving rise to the ‘Water City’ concept. Aucklanders have a special relationship to the water due to its permeating presence. The beach acts as a social catalyst to bring people together no matter their social position, similar to the square’s role in Europe.

The challenge for intensifying Auckland’s urban development by the water is to find sites that are not going to attract the criticism of existing inhabitants, yet can provide a water experience. The use of industrial/brownfield sites is one opportunity that has not been fully explored for this purpose. Many obsolete industries are located on the edges of both the Manukau and Waitemata harbours. Although they are often heavily contaminated and in need of extensive remediation, their location next to the water means they have high real estate value. We suggest that local government agencies could take the lead in decontamination the foreshore and establishing treatment facilities. Auckland would then gain remediated harbour, a new green public foreshore and a zone of intensified accommodation for the increasing population—the ‘Water City’. The water city symbolises the attraction of the beach and waterside living and embodies the idea of a good life between nature and city.

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The resulting concept is a combination of the water and linear city, creating a deliberate duality. The two ideas highlight the tension in contemporary life between the rationality of work and the hedonism of free time and consumption. This new combination heralds a new culture of urban living—the interaction of work and play and economy and lifestyle. The linear city is the symbol and guarantee of Auckland’s efficiency and the water city is the symbol and locus of Auckland’s status as the ‘world’s lifestyle capital’. The new urban sustainability paradigm sees horizontality as a strength, not a weakness. It is about a regional approach, smarter use of low density areas, and hybrid infrastructure. In other words, about creating a symbiotic relationship between the city and its region; pursuing polycentric development with multiple densities across the entire region; and an integrated mix of green, blue and grey infrastructure.

Most of the global urban landscape in the 21st century will be suburban and periurban. However this is not the parasitic suburbia of the 20th century, completely dependent on urban infrastructure. This is a productive, low-density landscape, consisting of partly autonomous properties, which are supported by a highly decentralized, ‘smart’, ‘clean’ and literally green infrastructure.

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04.

POTENTIAL PERIURBAN GROWTH AREAS EAST OF AUCKLAND: IN PRACTICE

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To explore how our proposed landscape approach could be applied to Auckland, 7 groups of BLA students from Unitec undertook a project to apply this methodology to east Auckland (Maraetai, Whitford, Wairoa) to see what forms of development could arise. They were to use a landscape ecological approach rather than a zoning approach to create a structure plan and divide selected development sites spatially based on the different landscape patterns and determine development types accordingly.

The first stage was for each group to design a growth strategy (structure plan) for an area outside the city limits in south-east Auckland. Then in the second stage each individual student took a selected site located within their initial group growth strategy plan and further developed it into an urban design scheme. In the third stage students

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created detailed designs of green infrastructure included in their urban design scheme. The overall focus of the studio was on low impact urban design, ‘liveability’ (high quality of life) and ecological performance.

There were 3 main outcome aims of this studio project using main landscape features, elements, processes and patterns of the wider Auckland region.

Identify areas where innovative forms of settlement growth can be located and implemented.

Illustrate and demonstrate landscape architectural analyses and design processes to support informed spatial decision making.

Apply landscape ecological design principles to measure and enhance ecological performance.

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The methodology that was used included undertaking a development suitability analysis to identify any areas which should be retired. The criterion used included slope, existing native vegetation, geotechnical stability, significant heritage and cultural features, significant natural character features, riparian areas and estuarine and coastal margins. The next step was to propose development types for the non-retired land. The way in which the developable terrain was organised was guided by logic’s for the area of study, and was based on a landscape analysis that complemented the suitability analysis. The final strategy created was to guide and regulate the development of chosen sites and clearly show constraints and opportunities. Finally they identified where different development types could occur according to landscape capabilities.

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05.

LANDSCAPE METRICS

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Landscape metrics refers to a method that uses algorithms to quantify specific characteristics of a landscape. This can be applied to both the spatial arrangement and the composition of the land. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is used to calculate the landscape metrics of a chosen area. This covers a wide variety of information from land cover/land use, to soil types, to hydrological and vegetation patterns in addition to many other landscape features. Individual layers of information both spatial and compositional can be overlaid to create comprehensive mapping of a region. This type of information is frequently used in landscape planning and ecology to inform decisions and for research purposes.

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Landscape metrics were used in this project to create a development suitability analysis and identify any areas not suitable for use. GIS data for the study area was used to analyse landscape patterns and spatial relationships between a number of factors. The analysis results differed from group to group depending on what layers of information were used and how they were overlaid to create a specific landscape pattern. Given access to the same landscape metric data, seven student groups came up with varying growth strategies. The prioritisation of data, combined with density objectives resulted in seven potential scenarios.

A number of examples of the resulting maps created through the use of landscape metrics can be seen on the opposite page.

FIGURE 3.

LANDSCAPE METRICS GIS data for the study area was used to analyse landscape patterns and spatial relationships between a number of factors.

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Hydrology

Land Use Capability

Legend River Systems

Natural Drainage Catchments

Legend Study Catchments

LUC_1 0 1

100-year floodplain

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Study Catchments

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Maraetai

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Road Infrastructure

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Study Catchments Maraetai Wairoa Whitford

Road hierachy (low-high) 1 2 3 4

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06.

GROWTH STRATEGIES

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Given access to the same landscape metric data, seven student groups came up with varying growth strategies. The prioritisation of data, combined with density objectives resulted in seven potential scenarios.

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FIGURE 4.

SEVEN SCENARIOS

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PROJECT ONE HIGH-DENSITY COASTAL CITY (GROUP RAEJ)

Embracing Vertical sprawl enables maximum density over a small footprint, ensuring valuable productive and amenity landscapes are used to their full potential; all centred around a planned ferry system.

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1.

VERTICAL SPRAWL: FERRY INFRASTRUCTURE AND URBAN COAST Embracing vertical sprawl to enable maximum density over a small footprint, to ensure valuable productive and amenity landscapes are used to their full potential.

This will be centred on a planned ferry system.

This strategy is based on coastal, ecological and

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public transport systems which can enhance and provide for the broad urban environment as wells as ecological enhancement of waterways and established existing vegetation. Zoning densities are integrated with ecology and coastal infrastructure.

As the metropolitan area of Auckland continues to grow we need to utilise a wider variety of public transport.

Using case studies of Sydney and Vancouver we have created a viable and

enjoyable compact urban layout embracing many of Auckland’s natural features. This is one of the main reasons for concentrating on developing the Beachlands / Maraetai area. The aim is to provide similar recreational values to the Northshore in a southeast Auckland context while providing a viable alternative to living on the Northshore and commuting to East Tamaki, thus reducing peak flows North/ South on Auckland’s SH1.

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PROJECT TWO HIGH-DENSITY COASTAL CITY (GROUP RAEJ)

Compact quality. Our main focus is improving the quality of life in the new Beachlands/Maraitai development.

Using Tauranga as an example for how a compact city looks and functions with a high quality of living we have analysed our site according to landscape conditions with the awareness that in the next 50 years another million people will be living in the Auckland area. The expectations of such a significant population increase directed our analysis to give us areas to preserve, develop and enhance.

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2.

SOUTH EAST AUCKLAND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY—SLOPE RETIREMENT

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A focus on compact quality aims to improve the quality of life in the new Beachlands/ Maraitai development. Site has been analysed with an emphasis on landscape conditions and the awareness that within the next 50 years the population will increase by approximately 1million in the Auckland region. The target is to preserve, develop and enhance.

Analysis resulted in the selection of an area for the extension of the Auckland MUL. The new boundary follows a series of ridgelines and roads to develop and protect catchments inside and out of this new boundary, particularly the Clevedon Valley flood plain. It was important to connect this new development with the existing Auckland city.

The focus of the development is on the coastal settlements of Beachlands and Maraetai. This zone is defined by two main ridge lines that form a catchment and create a clear geographical boundary. This zone makes up 1/5 of the total extended MUL area, and development ideas in this section would be projected throughout the extended zone. This is representational of the mixed use model, such as that employed in Tauranga, which will be applied throughout the extended zone.

The final result of the analysis combines all of the important information and provided the basis for determining the areas of development and density. These zones are shaped according to the relevant landscape elements and also the key ideas of high quality of living and ecological performance and enhancement. The influence of Tauranga helped to formulate a model for density zones and provided a framework for forming a city with a high quality of life. This new type of development has the potential to help cities grow in a positive way with less impact on the landscape. This model could help Auckland in maintaining its status as one of the most liveable cities in the world.

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PROJECT THREE LOW DENSITY SLOPES (GROUP ??)

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A focus on development in the foothills surrounding the Clevedon floodplain intends to preserve the high quality soils and rural character within the floodplain. This concept has been derived through a landscape ecological approach with a goal to define the areas in need of revegetation.

This strategy investigates the possibilities of an alternative model of urban development– horizontal urbanization outside the proposed Auckland urban limits.

The focus is on the ecological performance and ‘liveability’ (high quality of life) of the proposed developments. This development strategy is channelled through a framework of understanding landscape ecological systems.

The focus is on the Clevedon valley, located east of Papakura, in South-East Auckland.

After investigation it was discovered that the majority of the Clevedon valley is a floodplain with highly productive soils and that the locale residents are want to keep the regions rural character. A key aspect of this growth strategy is the preservation of the floodplain as productive land for crops and pastoral use with no development.

Through the preservation of the natural floodplain, the rural character will also be preserved.

Analysis of the site revealed that development was best suited to the foothills of the Clevedon Valley where there the soils are not as productive and on appropriate slopes with no important land cover. The slight variations in these characteristics of the site and also the closeness to existing infrastructure and settlements dictated the densities of development in the foothills. Because of the development in the foothills, revegetation was considered due to the possible contamination of the water running through the valleys in the foothills and down in to the floodplain due to the development. Revegetation was also considered within the floodplain to filter runoff that might negatively affect waterways in the valley.

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3.

AUCKLAND GROWTH STRATEGY— LOW DENSITY SLOPES

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PROJECT FOUR HIGH-DENSITY RIDGES (GROUP ??)

An extension of the current metropolitan urban limit into the Whitford Valley. The goal is to create a RURBAN environment able to accommodate 250,000 of the estimated 1million people predicted to swell the Auckland region in the next 50 years. Preservation of the native vegetation and restoration of streams and catchments with a reasonable buffer on either side is also a priority.

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4.

INTENSIFYING RURBAN SYSTEMS —HIGH DENSITY RIDGES

RURBAN: “Creation of an urban age in a city, maintaining an open structure that connects with the natural network of the environment which penetrates the city.”

Different density zones have been created in this development strategy. These include high, medium and low densities. The low density zones have more potential for farming and agricultural use because the area is less populated and has more open space. Another reason for this is because each lifestyle block in the low densities has around 1ha of land per block.

While many of these zones are highly intensified, the area that is taken up with dwellings and similar is very low in comparison to the amount of space that is left for open space, roads, schools and agriculture. A small portion of this extra area will be used as a 20m buffer (minimum) for stream and riparian areas. Another

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use for these areas are roads, both existing and the future roads that will need to be built as the Whitford valley population increases over the next 40 years. Open space (recreational spaces, parks and reserves) play an important part in the lives of New Zealanders as we are never located far from any of them. They also create an environment for birds and other native animals.

By integrating various density types, native forest, open space and agricultural areas, the image and definition of the Rurban lifestyle is able to be maintained. Whitford is the most practical area for this as it has a wide variety of land forms and vegetation which allows it to be used in many different ways. The many different functions of this area will allow 250,000 of the people that will be arriving in Auckland in the next 50 years to be housed with sufficient space for agricultural use. This will mean that our aim of a Rurban environment will be accomplished in a way that will even allow for more development in the future if needed.

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PROJECT FIVE HIGH-DENSITY COASTAL SUBURBS (GROUP ??)

An intensification of the Beachlands /Maraetai area, based off a landscape analysis. A high density mixed use development within a rural and coastal context.

The Pohutakawa Coast is the site of our project. This was chosen after viewing the cliff top sea view and tasting the rural flavour of the area. The design model chosen was based off the plan for Perth 2040 with the addition of theories from architect Le Corbusier and landscape architecture professors Weller and Merten.

The idea is to preserve the rural context and inject higher density community complexes of 3-5 story mixed use, residential, and commercial uses with superior views of the seaside on the ridge lines of Pohutakawa Beachlands/Maraetai coast. Retail and commercial would be located on the lower 1-2 levels and residential high quality apartments on levels 2-3. There would be approximately 20-30 apartments total. It aims to be a seamless development with well-considered view shafts and buildings not exceeding 25 meters in height.

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5.

POHUTAKAWA COAST—HIGH DENSITY COASTAL

The Main Idea: A goal to reduce the use of the car led to the idea of developing within 2 kilometres; a 25 minute walk to the coast. The existing farming and lifestyle blocks would be kept as is, while having walking tracks through them. The apartment complexes would be placed around parks, the golf course and green space corridors thus creating a community development for 50,000 people. This would create a smaller footprint, become more sustainable(less car use), and develop the ferry service around the coast. Thus it would create a more insular society, a satellite city within our present community setting without upsetting the rural flavour of the greater area. Lastly, we envisage greater tourist potential via the ferry service into Beachlands/Maraetai by connecting to Waiheke now, and at a later date providing transport south to Thames (possible option).

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An aim to retain the local identity and historical significance of the Clevedon area. The proposed area of development is based on Clevedon’s significant hydrological patterns and the hill ranges around Clevedon Valley. Ecological connectivity between the two hill ranges (Hunua’s & Clevedon Reserve) has been

PROJECT SIX

used to keep the development strategy compact and

RURAL TOWN CENTRES

sustainable.

(GROUP ??)

A structure plan has been generated for the development of the Clevedon catchment, based on the model of Auckland becoming a compact city. The new development is targeted at existing infrastructure essentially making Papakura a new satellite town for Auckland and making Clevedon a sub-suburb of Papakura. The structure plan aims to introduce new growth into the area while still retaining its existing self-sufficient resilience, the local identity and historical significance of the Clevedon area.

This was done by using Clevedon’s significant underlying hydrological patterns (flood plain and major river systems) combined with slope, to identify areas for potential growth. A critical link was discovered between Papakura and Clevedon through the Clevedon-Papakura Road as a possible transit upgrade to link together the two areas.

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The areas proposed for development have been selected on the following grounds.

Minimal risk of flooding (i.e. not including yearly/ high risk 100year flood area) Different areas have been selected for different density according to soil types/ erosion risk/ slopes/ proximity to infrastructure and surrounding land use.

Area 1 - High Density: near existing Village, infrastructure to support beginning of development. Soil structure can support. High-density development is directly linked to Papakura via Clevedon- Papakura Road.

Area 2 - Medium Density: This area has been selected for medium density because it is further away from the town centre.

Area 3 - Low Density: This area has been selected due to its proximity to sensitive hill slopes and native vegetation.

The density of growth is dependent on the proximity to the Hunua Ranges, Clevedon scenic reserve, and the Clevedon Village. This is to identify densities of development suitable for that area and to buffer the development edge to protected forests and ecological systems. High density is near the transport infrastructure (PapakuraClevedon Rd) and located within 1.5km of the Clevedon Village.

Medium density is within a 2.5km radius of Clevedon Village to allow for small ecological buffers such as gardens, parks and small groves of trees. Low density is located within a 4.5km radius from Clevedon Village, in order to reduce the impact on forests and ecosystems, but still allow for lifestyle properties to enjoy the bush lifestyle.

6.

CLEVEDON COAST AND COUNTRY RURAL TOWN CENTRES

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The creation of a strategy with the ability to adapt to change. A development with the capability of tolerating disturbance and having a restorative capacity. A focus on the reduction of Auckland’s ecological footprint, localisation, interdependence, a community that identifies with their landscape and sustainable

PROJECT SEVEN LOW-DENSITY RURAL LIFESTYLE (GROUP ??)

development (current and future).

Basic development strategy: 1000 hectares of the highest quality productive soils reserved for feeding the local and wider community.

Ecological connectivity and biodiversity are enhanced by a revegetation programme of riparian corridors and flood plains.

80 hectares of an increased density ‘MUTT’ based on proximity to existing settlement and ferry infrastructure 780 hectares for 1600m2 lifestyle zones.

New ferry links enable coastal intensification via mixed use transport towns and connection to the Hauraki Gulf islands and central Auckland.

Greenfields resilience represents a growth strategy that creates highly liveable spaces through low density, mixed use transport towns and 1600m2 lifestyle options, helping to reduce Auckland’s ecological footprint. 45,000 people can be accommodated within the 860 hectares of appropriate land with low density outcomes. Highquality soils are prioritised for food production.

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Ecological integrity is enhanced through revegetation of riparian margins to create 100m patch corridors and connectivity with existing native vegetation. Mixed use is prioritised around infrastructure proximity i.e. intensification around transport hubs, with the addition of ferry services to coastal villages creating commercial centres.

New 1600m2 lifestyle choices are designated in the surrounding land, dispersed and clustered within the landscape. Commercial activity occupies the lower levels of apartment buildings enlivening town centres while shared open space encourages community interaction. Recreational opportunities are provided alongside existing and restored vegetation which act as connective pathways.

Live/work developments support localisation creating diverse and resilient communities. The greenfields resilience strategy outlines a means to achieving a quality, sustainable lifestyle, providing for Aucklanders now and in the future. A positive move towards the goal of being the most liveable city in the world.

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7.

LOW DENSITY RURAL

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07.

TYPOLOGY + MORPHOLOGY

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After creating overall development strategies for South-East Auckland in groups, students branched out on their own to create individual urban design schemes for a selected site within the initial group growth strategy. The overall focus was on low impact urban design, ‘liveability’ (high quality of life) and ecological performance while aiming for the ‘maximum people minimum footprint’ strategy.

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HIGH DENSITY MIXED USE COASTAL Rudolf Iseli

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HIGH DENSITY APARTMENTS RIDGELINE Jessie Huston

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LOW/ MEDIUM DENSITY RURAL VILLAGE FLOODPLAIN Amanda Tisdall

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MEDIUM DENSITY COASTAL TOWN Daisy Tang

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MEDIUM DENSITY SUBURBAN FOOTHILLS Aidan/ Blair/ Dave??

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MEDIUM DENSITY TERRACE HOUSING FOOTHILLS Eli Nathan

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LOW DENSITY SUBURBAN VALLEY Jasmine Lister

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LOW DENSITY RURAL LIFESTYLE VALLEY Vicki Williams

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INDUSTRIAL PARK VALLEY Alistair McCullough

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COMMERCIAL CENTRE COASTAL John Allan

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COMMERCIAL CENTRE VALLEY Mae Tang

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TYPOLOGY + MORHPOLOGY

GROUP CASE STUDY

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South-East Auckland High Density

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y Development Plan

Existing Site

Building Site Established

Removal Of Existing Green Space

Removal Of Revegetated Riparean Margins

A new high density development emerges from current landscape conditions to provide a unique living environment for a high quality life style.

Existing native vegetation and urban parklands are retained and enhanced. 100 meter river buers protect waterways and provide ecological corridors from estuarine environments in to the hills north of the Clevedon valley.

New road ways cut across the landscape, over ridges and through small valleys to provide an experience of the changing landscape character.

2375 dwellings are situated along these new pathways within 5 story tower blocks to provide views of the harbour and new revegetated areas.

8.7 Ha of retail and oďŹƒce spaces are provided in two story blocks, attached to the residential towers. These create mammoth forms on the landscape to provide close promity living, shopping and working opportunities.

8 Ha of new public open spaces are woven through the landscape, along valleys and between mammoth building forms. These integrate stormwater management with recreational and passive use spaces throughout the area.

Removal Of Existing Roads

Increasing Permeability

Additional Green Space Through Valleys

Complete Development Plan

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Southeast Auckland Growth Strategy

BEACHLANDS-MARAETAI DEVE Chris Judd

This new development is a portion of a larger zone within the wider catchment between Beachlands and Maraetai in South East Auckland. This portion of the proposed development contains medium density housing that will house approximately 2500 people in both suburban style properties and terraced housing units.

The larger suburban properties are situated on the steeper land surrounding rivers and valleys that have been revegetated to help enhance the ecological value of the area, increase the stream water quality and prevent erosion. These properties form communities based around the central revegetated area, creating an improved living environment with increased amenity value that exposes inhabitants to native plant species.

Within these revegetated areas are a series of walking and cycle paths that help to integrate amenity and recreation for the people in the area. These paths follow the streams out to the coast and provide a network that links the new development via walking and cycling.

The notion of communities based around high amenity areas is repeated in the terraced housing zone, with houses based around community parks and gardens.

The gardens enclosed by the terraced housing are private, owned and maintained by the inhabitants and serve the important purpose of dealing with stormwater run o in the form of communal raingardens and native vegetation plantingsv.

The suburban style section is based on an average plot size of 500m2 with a 250m2 building footprint, while the terraced housing is based on an average of two 100m 2 two story units on a plot size of 250m2. These units are connected.

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PUBLIC-PRIVATE OWNERSHIPHYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES MEDIUM DENSITY STRUCTURE PLAN PLANAMENITY COMMUNAL SPACEECOLOGICAL VALUES INTEGRATED NETWORKSQUALITY OF LIFE

ELOPMENT

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08.

GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN DETAILS

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Once developed, a strategy for each of our individual zones which created a single cohesive entity we moved on to a smaller resolution into an area of each of our developments. As per the brief of project 3 we were to each develope a unique water management plan. Here are the A0 posters we presented, 4 very individual ideas all of which we think could make a grerat environment for living

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perspective_1

Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions.

A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.

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INTEGRATED TRANSPORT NETWORKS Student Student

perspective 2

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Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions.

A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.

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WETLAND RESERVOIR Jordan Draffin

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PUBLIC SPACE Thomas Keal

A

d crossings, e road from ave a clear K IPJ`JSL e treatment WSHU[LK ^P[O

Roof water is manipulated through a network of pipes and collected in a treatment pond. The pond is part of a large fountain, which continually airates the water, creating a more habitable ecosystem, as ^LSS HZ \UPX\L WHYR LU]PYVUTLU[ ;OL WVUK PZ WSHU[LK ^P[O H ZTHSS ]HYPL[` VM Ă…H_ ^OPJO PZ WHY[PJ\SHYS` attractive to native birds. These plant will treat the water, and be harvested periodically to remove contaminants. The pond is less than 1m deep, so that it does not require a fence. The fountain will be light up at night and provide attraction to tourists and value to the area. It is made from corten steel to show the beautiy in things which are old, and changing over time, representing the changes the town is

The rain gardens are designed to Z\P[ [OLYL ZWLJPĂ„J YLX\PYLTLU[Z This diagram shows a typical cross ZLJ[PVU ^P[O TPUPT\T ZWLJPĂ„JH[PVUZ accordording to Auckland Regional Council Storm water management guidelines

Calculating the required surface area of [OL ÄS[LY Af = surface area (m2) WQV = treatment volume (m3) df = planting soil depth (m) R $ JVLɉJPLU[ VM WLYTLHIPSP[` T KH` h = average height of water (m) = ½ max. depth tf = time to pass WQV through soil bed (use one day to be conservative)

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The Plants chosen for the site are all eco-sourced natives, which have characteristics suitable to the site conditions, and provide food and habbitat to the local native bird species A. ) C. D.

Alectryon Excelsus - titoki, NZ Oak main street tree, as it is tolerant of varying conditions 7OVYTP\T [LUH_ W\YW\YL\T Ă…H_ Planted around pond Dacrycarpus dacrydioides - kahiktea Specimen trees planted at edge of park Caprosma robusta - karamu Ground cover on slope between road and park

7m x 4m

T _ T <30m x 8m 2m shrub

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B

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mary rate U K KV^U efore it

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In this model of street design, people frequently occupy the space on the wide, ungoverned crossings, Roof water is manipul making cars drive at a slow pace. Planting the specimen trees along the opposite side of the road from part of a large fountain the park include the road into this public space. trees are trimmed so people have a bones. clear Caption.

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and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.

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Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions.

A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This

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straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.

RAIN GARDEN John Allan

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Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions.

A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This

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straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones. Caption.

The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”.

SWALE Student Student

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SWALE Student Student Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”.

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09.

REFLECTION

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The resulting project outcomes generated a few conclusions.

Depending on landscape metric prioritisation, outcomes fell into three strategic categories: promote development opportunities, enhance ecological areas or protect productive land.

The approach tended to be landscape conservative; only a couple of projects favoured extreme development scenarios.

Concluded that not one strategy was more feasible over another for such a large area, and that aspects of each could potentially be adopted over time.

Each project could be framed within a longer timeframe e.g. initial growth around existing settlements + transport nodes, followed by development of slopes and then finally ridges.

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Not surprisingly each group came up with unique growth strategies and designated areas of land retirement. The general observation after this first phase was that there wasn’t actually that much land in east Auckland suitable for development without encroaching on land that either wasn’t appropriate for building or was more suited to other purposes such as agriculture.

The individual urban design development phase also differed depending on each student’s areas of research and conclusions as to what would create the most sustainable landscape driven development. These ranged from more compact nodes of high density development to low density subdivisions. Images from these projects demonstrate some of the resulting outcomes reflecting possible new planning options for the Auckland region.

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10.

CONCLUSION

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This investigation demonstrates how a landscape-based methodology for an ecological urbanism can be developed from a close understanding of both infrastructure and landscape to produce a radically new design for the post-city Auckland. Approaching the city as a landscape, internally supported with green, grey, smart infrastructure, offers a fresh direction. In Auckland’s case, due to a fortunate set of historic and geographic circumstances this new model would be easy to implement. By accepting a low-rise, regionally polycentric city, Auckland can become a new model of urban-regional development of relevance for all low-density cities in the world. This is significant as similar cities now compromise 60% of all the urban fabric in the world, and within 10-20years might even reach 90%. For them, the compact city model is of little relevance.

Auckland 2040 will be a linear city, with a 100 km long ‘infrastructure spine’ running through its middle. On both sides of the spine, there will be suburbs with town and suburban centres. The spine itself is like a necklace - a corridor of fast-transit and

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other high order infrastructure connects a dozen of city-hubs. On the spineâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s flanks, both along the sea and the land side, are the suburbs with varying densities. They are endowed with all the local and natural amenities and supported by a mix of green and technical infrastructure, with varying degrees of independence/reticulation.

In the process of developing a new plan and strategy for growth based off landscape methodology, NZ could discover gold; its industries would be embarking on a form of green knowledge economy that is certain to be the greatest growth stimulus in the 21st century and a big exports booster. As the student projects demonstrate there are many ways this method can be applied while protecting New Zealandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s natural heritage. Continuing to grow Auckland based on a centric, compact layout, supported by traditional, expensive and vulnerable infrastructure, while fencing it off from one of the best residential landscapes in the world - would be an environmental, cultural and economic tragedy.

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11.

REFERENCES

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Chapter 01. Context http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20 Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-20113BW.pdf

Chapter 02. Contemporary research http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20 Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-20113BW.pdf

Chapter 03. Proposition http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20 Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm

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http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-20113BW.pdf

Chapter 04. Potential Periurban Growth Areas East of Auckland http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20 Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-20113BW.pdf

Chapter 05. Landscape metrics http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20 Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-20113BW.pdf

Chapter 06. Growth strategies http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20

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Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-20113BW.pdf

Chapter 07. Typology + Morphology http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20 Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-20113BW.pdf

Chapter 08. Green Infrastructure details http://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/documents/Conceptual%20 Background/Landscape%20Metrics/Landscape%20Metrics.htm http://landscaperesearch.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrlr-2011-3/download/lrlr-20113BW.pdf

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12.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Arendt, R. (1994). Rural by Design: Maintaining Small town Character. Chicago: American Planning Association Arendt, R. G. (1996). Conservation Design for Subdivisions: A Practical Guide to Creating Open Space Networks. Washington D.C.: Island Press Arendt, R. (1999). Growing Greener: Putting Conservation into Local Plans and Ordinances. Washington DC: Island Press.

Blais, P. (2010). Perverse Cities: Hidden Subsidies, Wonky Policy, and Urban Sprawl.

Canada: UBC Press Bruegmann, R. (2005). Sprawl: A Compact History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Champion, T. and G. Hugo., (2004). New Forms of Urbanization â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Beyond the UrbanRural Dichotomy. Burlington: Ashgate.

Frey, H. (1999). Designing the City: Towards a More Sustainable Form. London: E & FN Spon Press

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Gleeson, B. J. (2010). Lifeboat Cities. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press.

Hall, P., & Pain, K. (Eds.) (2006). The Polycentric Metropolis: Learning from Mega-city Regions in Europe. London: Sterling Jenks, M., & Jones, C. (2010). Dimensions of the Sustainable City. New York: Springer Sieverts, T. (2003). Cities Without Cities: An Interpretation of the Zwischenstadt. (3rd ed.). London: Spon Press.

Varnelis, K. (Ed.). (2008). Infrastructural cities: Networked Ecologies in Los Angeles.

Barcelona: Actar Yaro, R. D., Arendt, R. G., Dodson, H. L., & Brabec E. A. (1989). Dealing with Change in the Connecticut River Valley: A Design Manual for Conservation and Development.

Massachusetts: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy and the Environmental Law Foundation

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The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of lowincome settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.

Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.

The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of lowincome settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.

The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of lowincome settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.

Caption. The term “slum” is used in the Report to describe a wide range of low-income settlements and poor human living conditions. A simple definition of a slum would be “a heavily populated urban area characterised by substandard housing and squalor”. This straightforward description reflects the essential physical and social features of slums, but more meat needs to be put on these bones.

Body copy. The term slum includes the traditional meaning, that is, housing areas that were once respectable or even desirable, but which have since deteriorated, as the original dwellers have moved to new and better areas of cities. The condition of the old houses has then declined, and the units have been progressively subdivided and rented out to lower-income groups. A typical example is the innercity slums of many historical towns and cities in both the industrial and the developing countries The term slum has, however, come to include also the vast informal settlements that are quickly becoming the most visual expression of urban poverty. The quality of dwellings in such settlements varies from the simplest shack to permanent structures, while access to water, electricity, sanitation and other basic services and infrastructure tends to be limited. Such settlements are referred to by a wide range of names and include a variety of tenurial arrangements. (UN Habitat. “Cities without Slums’ paper

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