Reference Guide

REFERENCING GUIDE

References and Bibliography All statements, opinions, conclusions etc. taken from another writer’s work should be cited, whether the work is directly quoted, paraphrased or summarised. It does not matter, whether or not the source is an official document, journal article, book or unpublished working paper etc., if it is the work of someone else, we need to clearly indicate the source.

This referencing guide follows the “Harvard Method” or “Author Date Method” which is recommended for use in the Business School.

Content 1. Summary of important rules on referencing ......................................................... 1 2. Referencing ..................................................................................................... 2 3. Writing a bibliography ....................................................................................... 5 3.1. Reference to a book .................................................................................. 5 3.2. Reference to a contribution in a book .......................................................... 5 3.3. Reference to an article in a journal.............................................................. 6 3.4. Reference to a newspaper article ................................................................ 6 3.5. Reference to a conference paper................................................................. 6 3.6. Reference to a publication from a corporate body (e.g. a ................................ government department or other organisation). ........................................... 6 3.7. Reference to a thesis................................................................................. 7 3.8. Reference to a video, film or broadcast........................................................ 7 3.9. Reference to electronic material (incl. internet) ............................................ 7 4. The University’s stance on Cheating, Plagiarism and Collusion ................................ 8

- If you refer to information, ideas or arguments you take from an article, book, website, database, statistic, interview etc you need to clearly indicate this in your summative and formative work. It is immaterial whether the source has been officially published, is an in-house report, another student’s work, a lecture note etc. As soon as you are using somebody else’s work you need to clearly indicate this both in references and the bibliography.

- If you quote somebody verbatim, i.e. word for word, somebody else’s thoughts, statements, or information, put the passage in double inverted commas and state the source (direct quote).

- If you summarise or paraphrase information, and you do not quote verbatim, you still need to reference the source (i.e. name, year and possible page of the source[s] should be noted at the relevant passage) as an indirect quote.

- If you use secondary quotes, i.e. the source you read quoted somebody else, you need to show this clearly [e.g. (Smith 1996 in Jones 2003).

- You also clearly need to state your sources if you use tables, graphs or figures developed by other people. If you have modified tables, graphs or figures developed by other people, you need to indicate this clearly as well.

- Make sure that you provide full bibliographical detail of all sources used in the bibliography. However, never list any articles or other sources you have not read yourself in the bibliography. In particular with regard to secondary quotes, make sure that you only list the source in which you read the quote, not the original source of the quote.

Copying and pasting bibliographies from other authors into your bibliography is never acceptable.

It is vital that you fully reference the information you use. This not only means that you need to follow referencing conventions for your (direct, indirect and secondary) quotes, graphs, tables and all other sources of information but that you reference the information you use consistently. If you have many pages without any references this usually

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Referencing Guide

1. Summary of important rules on referencing

indicates that you either have failed to reference sources of information or that you base the passages on surface knowledge, e.g. common knowledge that you hold, but which is not cross-referenced and supported or critically evaluated by reference to theoretical or empirical research.

All students have signed a note stating that you are aware of what plagiarism means and that you promise not to do it. As in any other case, when you sign something, you need to make sure that you comply with the rules.

If you are in any way dubious about your understanding, you need to make sure to read the relevant passages at the end of this guide, in your programme handbook and ask academic members of staff for advice!

- Consider the validity and rigour of the sources of information you use Remember e.g. that articles on private web-sites, even if they are academic working papers or conference manuscripts, usually have not gone through a rigorous review.

For instance the internet encyclopaedia Wikipedia says about itself that it is a "free encyclopaedia that anyone can edit"; this means that the information contained is not proof-read or peer reviewed, so you have no idea whether the people who wrote the entry are really experts in their field or whether the information is likely to be inaccurate.

- Remember that it is important to demonstrate your understanding. If you use a lot or lengthy direct quotes you might be able to show that you can identify an interesting argument presented by somebody else, however, it does not show your understanding of the argument.

Similarly, some students tend to let themselves be driven by the literature, i.e. they describe and summarise the findings of one article after the other. Even if this is done using indirect instead of direct quotes, this merely shows that the students understand the main gist of the paper but provides no evidence that they can apply the information critically on their own.

You should read a number of articles, identifying the relevant arguments raised in them which relate to the topic you are researching. Then consider e.g. whether the same arguments are raised by different sources or whether different authors take different viewpoints on certain arguments. This will help you identify the importance of an argument (e.g. if it is raised by very few or very many researchers) and allow you to demonstrate a critical understanding of an argument by e.g. contrasting different views on it and evaluating, which of these perspectives is the most relevant (e.g. taking account of potential methodological problems, sample, timing etc.) or convincing.

This is a word count saving way to show that you have critical understanding of the arguments raised in the literature.

2. Referencing The easiest way to reference is by mainly sticking to the so-called “Harvard”, “Cambridge” or “Author-Date” method (Surname Year). In your programme handbook or any half-decent book on research methodology you’ll be able to find a guide on this.

The big advantage this type of referencing has over the “Oxford” method of using footnotes is that footnotes are reserved for additional information.

Additionally, the Harvard method is less messy and usually leads to a lower word count.

Two qualifications: - The original Harvard method to reference internet sites suggested that it was sufficient to provide the internet address of the article. However, given the changes on the internet, this is no longer appropriate since this information frequently does not provide sufficient information to identify the source (e.g. newspaper articles might have a different address depending on whether they are recent or are retrieved via a catalogue). You therefore need to reference internet sites as similar to a hard copy as possible. I.e. state author or editing institution, year or date, title of the article and

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Referencing Guide

just put in the internet address in the end. E.g. when you reference the Economist and you did not use the paper copy but the web-site: Author surname, Author first name (Year), Title, Economist, vol. x, no. y, at: http// … (the site might even provide you with page numbers, particularly when the link is to Adobe-files).

- When you quote from monographs or long articles provide, if possible, page numbers.

Otherwise it is almost impossible to check whether what you write is what these authors said (this applies even more so if you use direct quotes).

Always reference your sources properly – non-compliance will lead you straight into academic hell and in front of a plagiarism panel!!

In order not to waste a lot of time come completion of your assignment or dissertation, always keep a file (either in the computer or on paper) in which you immediately write the bibliographical data of all your sources you even just consider using. It is much easier to delete a source which turned out to be useless then to try to track down the bibliographical information of a source you lost.

1 Further tips on referencing using the Cambridge method - Quotations: as a general rule in the University, if you copy four or more words from another source, you should identify this as a direct quote. If the quote is not much longer than a line it may be included in the body of the text in quotation marks.

Longer quotations are indented and single-spaced. For citations of particular parts of the document the page numbers etc. should be given after the year in parentheses.

Examples of direct quotes: Some commentators, such as the head of the ORR, Tom Winsor, worry that members are “an inadequate substitute for traditional shareholders with a financial interest in the business” (Clark 2003, p.18).

“Two-thirds are lay members chosen from more than 1,200 applicants; the remaining third are representatives of worthy bodies such as the National Farmers' Union and the Royal Association for Disability and Rehabilitation. An industry observer describes this ‘stakeholder’ structure as ‘a pantomime horse with 230 legs’.”

(The Economist 2003, p.9) - Summaries or paraphrases: give the citation where it occurs naturally or at the end of the relevant piece of writing. If the text relates to a specific part of the source, page numbers should be given.

Examples of paraphrases or summaries (also called indirect quotes): Particularly the fact that costs for track maintenance and improvement continue to increase at an alarming rate is frequently linked to the lack of financial incentives of members to ensure that management operates efficiently (Osborne 2003b, 2003c, The Economist 2003, Warner 2003, The Daily Telegraph 2003, Harrison 2003).

According to Maritmort (1999, p.219), the longer and the more closely regulators, such as ministry officials, and regulated parties, such as public corporations, interact, the greater the risk that regulators fall prey to capture. In this event the regulators will strive more to please ‘private interests’ of those they are supposed to regulate than to safeguard ‘public interests’.

- Diagrams, illustrations: should be referenced as though they were a quotation if they have been taken from other sources.

If details of particular parts of a document are required, e.g. page numbers, they should be given after the year within the parentheses.

1

This guide is based very closely on: Holland, M. (2002) Guide to Citing Internet Resources [online]. Poole, Bournemouth University. Available from: http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/guide_to_citing_internet_sourc.html [Accessed 4 November 2002]

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1) If the author’s name occurs naturally in the sentence the year is given in parentheses: e.g. Arthur (2001) as well as Shivdasani and Yermack (1999) indeed find evidence of a significant negative correlation between CEO power and the proportion of independent NEDs on the board of directors e.g. According to Fama (1980, p.294) the incentive for the independent NED to fulfil this duty is said to derive from the discipline “by the market for their services which prices them according to their performance as referees”.

2) If the name does not occur naturally in the sentence, both name and year are given in parentheses: e.g. It has allowed companies to gain unprecedented economies of scale, scope and specialisation (Stratling 2000, p.22-23) and at the same time made it possible for owners to reduce their investment risk via diversification (Fama 1980, p. 291). e.g. While executive share ownership does indeed provide managers with ownership interests in the company, large-scale share ownership also furthers managerial entrenchment and managerial risk aversion (Hubbart and Palia 1995; Barkema and Pennings 1998; Core et al 2003).

3) When an author has published more than one cited document in the same year, these are distinguished by adding lower case letters (a,b,c, etc.) after the year and within the parentheses: e.g. The responses to questions about the right to dispense with AGMs, the right to hold dispersed AGMs and the right to ‘virtual’ AGMs, which were published by the DTI in 2000 (DTI 2000b), form the basis of the following analysis.

4) If there are two authors the surnames of both should be given: e.g. Hermalin and Weisbach (2003, p.9-10) reason that, while the existence of directors or a board of directors is often specified by corporate law, …

5) If there are more than two authors the surname of the first author only should be given, followed by et al.: e.g. Office costs amount to 20% of total costs in most business (Wilson et al. 1997, p.73).

(A full listing of names should appear in the bibliography.)

6) If the work is anonymous then “Anon” should be used: e.g. In a recent article (Anon 1998, p.269) it was stated that…

7) If it is a reference to a newspaper article with no author the name of the paper can be used in place of “Anon”: e.g. Despite their public criticism of Vodafone’s directors who developed the remuneration policy, NAPF also did not recommend to abstain from or vote against resolution 23, which asked for an increase in the directors’ fees (Daily Telegraph 2000a, 2000b).

(You should use the same style in the bibliography.)

8) If you refer to a source quoted in another source you cite both in the text: e.g. A study by Vafeas (1991 cited Barkema 2004, p.57) showed that…

(You should list only the work you have read, i.e. Barkema, in the bibliography.)

9) If you refer to a person who has not produced a work, or contributed to one, but who is quoted in someone else’s work you should mention the person’s name and you must cite the source author: e.g. Richard Hammond stressed the part psychology plays in advertising in an interview with Marshall (1999, p.67). e.g. “Advertising will always play on peoples’ desires”, Richard Hammond said in a recent article (Marshall 1999, p.67).

(You should list the work that has been published, i.e. Marshall, in the bibliography.)

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Personal communications: They do not provide recoverable data and so are not included in the reference list. Cite personal communications in the text only. Give initials as well as the surname of the communicator and provide as exact a date as possible. e.g. Many designers do not understand the needs of disabled people according to J. O. Reiss (personal communication, April 18, 1997).

3. Writing a bibliography The term bibliography describes references to cited documents given in a list at the end of the text. These are usually described as bibliographic references.

They can also be called a references list when there is a separate bibliography of works that have been read but not cited. However, in most cases such a second list is redundant. Only include sources which actually contributed to your understanding and which you did not use in form of direct or indirect quotes.

In the Harvard System, the references are listed in alphabetical order of authors’ names.

If you have cited more than one item by a specific author they should be listed chronologically (earliest first), and by letter (1993a, 1993b) if more than one item has been published during a specific year.

Whenever possible, elements of a bibliographical reference should be taken from the title page of the publication.

Each reference should use the elements and punctuation given in the following examples for the different types of published work you may have cited.

Reference to a book

Elements to cite: Author’s surname, initials.

(Year of publication) Title (underlined, omit lengthy subtitles).

Edition (if not the first).

Place of publication: Publisher. e.g. Dicken Peter (2003) Global Shift: Reshaping the Global Economic Map in the 21st Century. 4th edition. London: Sage Publications: Only if a book is better known by its title than by its authors or editors (e.g. reference books) should you use the title instead of the authors/editors as an identifier. For instance: Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. (1964) Prepared by W. Little. Revised and edited by C.T.Onions. 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

You might find books where it is impossible to identify an individual author or editor but where a specific organisation is mainly responsible for its publication. E.g.

World Bank, (1997) Health, nutrition and population. Washington DC: World Bank.

3.2.

Reference to a contribution in a book

Elements to cite: Contributing author’s surname , initials.

(Year of publication) Title of contribution. Followed by In: surname, initials of author or editor of publication followed by (ed.) or (eds.) if relevant.

Title of book.

Place of publication: Publisher:

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3.1.

Referencing Guide

Page number(s) of contribution. e.g. Boehmer, E. (2001) Germany. In: Gugler, K. (ed). Corporate Governance and Economic Performance. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 139 – 155.

3.3.

Reference to an article in a journal

Elements to cite: Author’s surname, initials., (Year of publication) Title of article.

Title of journal.

Volume number and (part number): Page numbers of contribution. e.g. La Porta, R., Lopez-De-Silanes, F. and Shleifer, A. (1999) Corporate Ownership Around the World. Journal of Finance. 54(2), pp. 471-517.

3.4.

Reference to a newspaper article

Elements to cite: Author’s surname, initials., (or newspaper title) (Year of publication) Title of article.

Title of newspaper.

Day and month: Page number/s and column number. e.g. The Guardian (1947) State Ownership of the Railways. The Guardian. 30 December, p. 1.

Reference to a conference paper

Elements to cite: Contributing author’s surname, initials.

(Year of publication) Title of contribution. Followed by In: Surname, Initials., of editor of proceedings (if applicable) followed by (ed.)

Title of conference proceedings including date and place of conference.

Place of publication: Publisher: Page numbers of contribution.

Crawford, G.I. (1965) Oxygen in metals. In: Lenihan, J.M.A. and Thompson, S.J., (ed.), Activation analysis: proceedings of a NATO Advanced Study Institute, Glasgow, August 1964, London: Academic Press. pp. 113-118.

3.6.

Reference to a publication from a corporate body (e.g. a government department or other organisation).

Elements to cite: Name of issuing body (Year of publication) Title of publication.

Place of publication: Publisher, Report Number (where relevant). e.g. Office of the Rail Regulator (2000) Report by the Comptroller and Auditor General.

Ensuring that Railtrack maintain and renew the railway network. London: HMSO.

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3.5.

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3.7.

Reference to a thesis

Elements to cite: Author’s surname, initials.

(Year of publication) Title of thesis.

Designation, (and type).

Name of institution to which submitted. e.g. Kyei, P.O. (2000) Decentralisation and poverty alleviation in rural Ghana. Ph.D. thesis. University of Durham.

3.8.

Reference to a video, film or broadcast

Elements to cite: Title, (Year) For films the preferred date is the year of release in the country of production.

Material designation.

Subsidiary originator. (Optional but director is preferred.) Surname.

Production details – place: organisation. e.g. Macbeth (1948) Film. Directed by Orson Welles. USA: Republic Pictures.

Birds in the Garden (1998) Video. London: Harper Videos Programmes and series: the number and title of the episode should normally be given, as well as the series title, the transmitting organisation and channel, the full date and time of transmission. e.g. Yes, Prime Minster, Episode 1, The Ministerial Broadcast (1986) TV, BBC2. 1986 Jan 16. e.g. News at Ten (2001) Jan 27. 2200 hrs.

Contributions: individual items within a programme should be cited as contributors. e.g. Blair, Tony (2004) Interview. In: Six O’clock News. TV, BBC1. 2004 April 14. 1805 hrs.

Reference to electronic material (incl. internet)

While the Harvard System has no generally agreed rules on how to deal with electronic material, the following rules are based on practices developed by academic publishers: 1. Citation in the Text Follow the author, date procedure specified above.

2. The bibliography at the end of a piece of work Reference to web pages/sites Author/editor (Year) Title [online]. (Edition). Place of publication, Publisher (if ascertainable). Available from: URL [Accessed Date].

Nielsen, J. (2000) Drop-down menus: use sparingly. [online] Available from: http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20001112.html [accessed 15th November 2000] Reference to E-Journals It is only necessary to indicate that journals have been accessed electronically, if the electronic publication differs in lay-out (e.g. page numbers) or content from the hard copy or if the journal is not available in hard copy.

Author (Year) Title. Journal Title [online], volume (issue), location within host. Available from: URL [Accessed Date]. e.g. Uys, T. (2000) The politicisation of whistleblowers: a case study. Business Ethics. [online] 9 (4) Available from: http://www.swetsnet.nl/link/access_db?issn=0962-8770. [accessed 15th November 2000] Reference to mailbase/listserv e-mail lists

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3.9.

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Author (Day Month Year) Subject of message. Discussion List [online]. Available from: list e-mail address [Accessed Date]. e.g. Brack, E.V. (2 May 2000) Re: Computing short courses. Lis-link [online]. Available from: mailbase@mailbase.ac.uk [Accessed 17 Jun 2000].

Jensen, L.R. (12 Dec 1999) Recommendation of student radio/tv in English. IASTAR [online]. Available from: LISTSERV@FTP.NRG.DTU.DK [Accessed 29 Apr 2000].

It should be noted that items may only be kept on discussion group servers for a short time and hence may not be suitable for referencing. A local copy could be kept by the author who is giving the citation, with a note to this effect.

Reference to personal electronic communications (E-mail) Sender (Sender’s E-mail address) (Day Month Year) Subject of Message. E-mail to Recipient (Recipient’s Email address). e.g. Lowman, D. (deborah_lowman@pbsinc.com) (4 Apr 2000) RE: ProCite and Internet Refere. E-mail to P. Cross (pcross@bournemouth.ac.uk).

Reference to CD-ROMs This section refers to CD-ROMs which are works in their own right and not bibliographic databases.

Author/Editor (Year) Title [type of medium CD-ROM]. (Edition). Place of publication, Publisher (if ascertainable). Available from: Supplier/Database identifier or number (optional) [Accessed Date] (optional). e.g. Hawking, S.W. (1994) A Brief history of time: an interactive adventure. [CD-ROM].

Crunch Media.

Cheating, plagiarism and collusion are considered very serious offences. Students who are guilty of cheating, plagiarism or collusion will find themselves subject to disciplinary procedures, and in the most serious cases may be expelled from the University.

Cheating involves actual or attempted deception and / or fraudulent action on the part of a student and includes aiding or attempting to aid another candidate in deception or fraudulent action or any attempt at such action.

Plagiarism is the presentation of another person’s thoughts, writings, inventions as one’s own. Plagiarism includes the incorporation of another person’s work from published or unpublished sources without indicating that the material is derived from those sources. The University regulations state that: “In formal examinations and all assessed work prescribed in degree, diploma and certificate regulations, candidates should take care to acknowledge the work and opinions of others and avoid any appearance of representing them as their own. Unacknowledged quotations or close paraphrasing of other people’s writing, amounting to the presentation of other persons’ thoughts or writings as one’s own, is plagiarism and will be penalised.

Deliberate plagiarism is a dishonest practice and as such is a very serious matter which may be dealt with under section IV2(a)(viii) of the General Regulations and can in extreme cases lead to expulsion.” General Regulations Section VIII(D).

You should be careful to avoid close paraphrasing and you should ensure that whenever you repeat the words of others you indicate that they are not your own by placing them in quotation marks and by giving the reference of the source.

Collusion occurs when you work with one or more other students to produce work which is then presented as your own in a situation in which this is inappropriate or not permitted and/or without acknowledging the collaboration. We encourage students within the degree programmes to discuss course material and to learn from each other; however you need to be careful to avoid collusion. There have been cases in the past where an examiner has been unable to distinguish one student’s work from another’s; in this situation the University guidelines require the examiner to mark both submissions

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4. The University’s stance on Cheating, Plagiarism and Collusion

Referencing Guide

with respect to only that material which is clearly original. In order to avoid this problem we suggest that, whilst you may discuss the challenges contained in assignments, you do not continue such discussions once you have started writing, nor should you read another student’s work prior to submission. The Teaching and Learning Handbook (http://www.dur.ac.uk/teachingandlearning. Handbook/) provides further information.

Plagiarism and collusion with other students: If the source is another student’s work, then even summarising is entirely unacceptable. All students are reminded that they have a duty of care to ensure that their work is not made available to others where it could be plagiarised for assignments. Students who allow their own work to be used by others for assignments will be equally subject to disciplinary procedures.

Example of Plagiarism Below is an example of the sort of approach to be avoided in writing assignments. It is based on the following assignment topic and extract from the book by Lipsey, An Introduction to Positive Economics.

‘The determinants of movements along a demand curve must be distinguished from the factors which shift a demand curve.’ Explain.

From: R.G Lipsey, Introduction to Positive Economics, 4th edition, p. 84. The Original Text: “(2) THE EFFECT ON THE DEMAND CURVE OF A CHANGE IN THE PRICES OF OTHER GOODS: Here the effect depends on whether the good, whose price changes, is a complement or a substitute. Consider, for example, the effect on the demand curve for electric cookers of a rise in the price of electricity. Electricity and electric cookers are complementary commodities and the rise in the price of electricity makes cooking with electricity more expensive than previously. Some households will switch to gas when they come to replace their existing cookers and some newly formed households will buy a gas rather than an electric cooker when they are setting up their household. Thus the rise in the price of electricity leads to a fall in the demand for electric cookers. Now consider the effect of a rise in the price of gas cookers. Gas and electric cookers are substitutes for each other and when gas cookers rise in price some households will buy electric rather than gas cookers, and the demand for electric cookers will thus rise.”

A second factor which can shift the demand curve is a change in the prices of other goods. Here the effect depends on whether the other good is a substitute or a complement. Take the example of the effect of a rise in the price of gas on the demand curve for gas cookers. Obviously, gas cookers and gas are complements, so with the rise in the gas price cooking with gas is made more expensive. Some households will switch to electricity when they decide to buy a new cooker, and some newly formed households will buy an electric rather than a gas cooker. Thus there is a fall in the demand for gas cookers. Now suppose the price of gas cookers were to rise. Because electric cookers are substitutes for gas cookers, the rise in the price of the latter will cause the demand for electric cookers to rise.

Comments This is a fairly blatant piece of plagiarism. The minor alterations, additions and omissions do nothing to disguise the source. No knowledge of economics is required to do this. Do not be surprised if you get a zero mark for such work if submitted for formative assessment. Expect to be subject to University disciplinary procedures for this type of plagiarism in summatively assessed work. Other, less extreme forms of plagiarism, such as close paraphrasing or summarising the work of others are also unacceptable.

Be careful when taking notes from books or articles. Notes should normally be made in your own abbreviated form. Try to avoid copying out the author’s exact words. This will make it easier to avoid ‘borrowing’ phrases and lines of argument when you come to write up your assignment or assignment.

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Example of Plagiarism: