Spring 2019 Currents

EWRI CURRENTS VOLUME 21, NUMBER 2 Spring 2019

ASCE Government Relations Update The Need for Gender Sensitivity in Designs For Water Sanitation and Health International Stormwater BMP Database 2019 Update Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Key Issues and Environmental Response Pharmaceuticals and Hormones Few and at Low Concentrations in Groundwater, USGS Scientists Find Massive Changes over Last 50 Years in Human Influences that Affect Water Quality

I recently had the opportunity to make a presentation to several engineering graduate students as part of their graduate seminar class. I appreciated this opportunity because I am very proud of my profession and enjoy sharing it with others. The main goal of my presentation was to help these students understand Kevin Nielsen, that there are many rewarding EWRI President opportunities ahead of them and that they are part of something very big and exciting. To accomplish this, I shared with them several of the fascinating projects on which I have worked over the past 35 years. I want to summarize some of these projects here but only to set the background for my most rewarding project.

My very first project was to perform a study for the design of a major flood mitigation project in Utah.

This was a fast track project to which we had to complete the study in 3 months and the final design in the following three months. I had the opportunity to perform several of the hydrologic and hydraulic calculations for this project and assist in the design of several control structures and river stabilization areas. After completing the design, there was a small break for bidding construction and then I had the opportunity to be the observation engineer on the site for the construction of a major lake outlet structure that was part of the project. This was a unique opportunity to be part of the study, design, and construction phase of a major flood management project all with the first 2 years of my career. This project gave me my first glimpse of how our work is truly to protect the health, welfare, and safety of society and the environment.

I later had other fascinating projects that took me on jet boat rides up Hells Canyon on the Snake River as we investigated the impact of hydropower operations on fishery spawning areas. I have canoed the Trinity River in Dallas, Texas looking at flood management and recreational development opportunities. I have hiked into remote areas in Idaho looking at methods to control runoff through mine tailings and to improve fish spawning and

PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE fish trapping alternatives. I have camped on the South Fork of the Salmon River in Idaho while collecting river data for evaluating stream stabilization alternatives.

I led the hydraulics and stream crossing investigation of a major project across remote areas of Alaska. Prior to starting this work, I became a certified bear guard as part of the safety protocol to work in these remote areas within the habitat range of grizzly bears and black bears. We spent several weeks camping in the bush of Alaska using helicopters to investigate over 300 stream crossings. During these helicopter reconnaissance trips, I saw grizzly bears, black bears, mountain goats, big horn sheep, and a variety of other wildlife and some of the most spectacular scenery in the world. I have spent several summers collecting water samples in lakes to investigate opportunities for fisheries improvement along with surveying numerous streams and rivers to perform instream flow studies.

I have had the opportunity to apply Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) to solve some of the most challenging hydraulic problems across the globe including major tunnel dropshafts, large spillway and river projects, pump stations, and numerous water and wastewater applications. These and many other fascinating projects have given me the opportunity to use my education, knowledge, and experience to improve the standard of living for people across the globe while providing for the needs of my family. I am truly proud to be part of this profession and grateful for the wide variety of rewarding projects on which I have been able to participate.

However, the most rewarding project of my career is not one of those I have described above. It was a volunteer service project in Africa. The project was to investigate opportunities to build a small dam and provide a reliable water source to a village in the bush of Kenya. A close friend had been building schools in the area but soon realized that if the village did not have a reliable water source, many of the children were unable to come to school because of demands to travel long distances and bring water to their home. He asked if I could assist

www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

by leading the construction of a small dam to store rain water that would normally quickly runoff leaving the village without water for several months between rain storms.

I traveled to the area to review the local conditions, to identify available construction materials, and to determine the available labor force. I then selected a site and method to construct a small dam with only manual labor. We made the cutoff wall with compacted clay and the structure of the dam was constructed of rock filled gabions. The rocks for the gabions were collected by school children in the area. All excavation of the cutoff trench was done with picks and shovels. The dewatering was achieved with a small coffer dam and a bucket brigade to keep the construction area dry. The dam was successfully completed in a two-week period and has provided a reliable water source for the area for almost 10 years. To show their gratitude for my efforts they named the creek Kevin’s Creek. In addition, before traveling to Kenya, we collected baby blankets from women in our community and church to give to women in Kenya who had recently given birth.

This project gave me the opportunity to see firsthand and directly that our work is not about concrete and rebar, dams and spillways, water and wastewater plants, or a variety of the other things we build but that it is about the health, welfare, and safety of society and the environment. I am proud to be part of the engineering profession and assist with the goal of EWRI to advance water resources and environmental solutions to achieve a sustainable future.

Kevin Nielsen, EWRI President 2019

EDITOR’S CORNER Contamination of our water resources by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is a hot topic, with new developments occurring continuously. The analytical methods for detecting PFAS, the regulatory structure, and the methods for treating PFAS-contaminated water are all in the very early stages of development. In February 2019, the United States EnVironmental Protection Agency published a PFAS Action Plan that identifies EPA-led short-term actions, longer-term research, and potential regulatory approaches designed to reduce the risks associated with PFAS in the environment. PFAS in our water resources is a topic that most environmental and water resources engineers will need to be familiar with in the very near future. Therefore, we thought it was appropriate to provide technical articles related to PFAS in this and upcoming issue(s) of Currents.

This Spring edition of Currents includes an introduction to PFAS, including its physical and chemical properties, potential sources to the environment, and remediation methods. In the Summer 2019 edition, we plan to include an article on Emerging Treatment Technologies for PFAS. If you have any questions related to PFAS, please feel free to reach out to the authors of these articles.

If you have an article you would like to contribute for a future edition of Currents, please reach out to me (csoistman@geosyntec.com) or Jennifer Jacyna, Manager of Members Services for EWRI (jjacyna@ asce.org). Please enjoy this edition of Currents, and we look forward to seeing you at the national EWRI Congress in May! Catherine Soistman, P.E. csoistman@geosyntec.com 3

ASCE Government Relations Update Natalie Mamerow, Senior Manager, Federal Government Relations, ASCE ASCE Testifies Before Congress In early 2019, ASCE testified three times in front of Congress about the importance of federal investment in our nation’s infrastructure. ASCE 2019 President Robin A. Kemper, P.E., LEED AP, F.SEI, F.ASCE testified at a House Appropriations Subcommittee on Interior, Environment and Related Agencies hearing regarding Fiscal Year (FY) 2020 funding. ASCE Past-President and Chair of the Committee for America’s Infrastructure, Greg DiLoreto, P.E. testified at a House Ways and Means Committee hearing entitled “Our Nation’s Crumbling Infrastructure and the Need for Immediate Action.” The following week, ASCE Board of Direction Member Carol Haddock, P.E. testified at a House Appropriations Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies hearing entitled “Building Resilient Communities.” ASCE urges all infrastructure stakeholders to reach out to your Members of Congress and tell them to put forward a long-term plan to modernize our nation’s infrastructure systems.

ASCE Celebrates Largest-Ever Fly-In On March 12-13, 258 ASCE Key Contacts from 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico arrived on Capitol Hill to advocate for infrastructure and the civil engineering community. Armed with everyday civil engineering experiences, issues briefings, and insight from keynote speakers, attendees spent Wednesday afternoon advocating for a 25-cent per gallon motor fuels tax increase to fix the Federal Highway Trust Fund and full funding of key infrastructure programs in FY2020. They also urged Members of Congress to follow ASCE’s Principles for Infrastructure Investment as they draft a bipartisan infrastructure bill.

ASCE Endorses the IMAGINE Act ASCE endorsed S. 403/H.R. 1159, the Innovative Materials for America’s Growth & Infrastructure Newly Expanded (IMAGINE) Act, a bipartisan, bicameral bill (House support letter, Senate support letter) that encourages the research and use of innovative construction materials and techniques in transportation and water infrastructure projects. ASCE believes that a critical component to raising our nation’s infrastructure grade, which was given a “D+” in our 2017 Infrastructure Report Card, is careful preparation for the needs of the future.

ASCE Endorses CWSRF Legislation ASCE endorsed H.R. 1497, the Water Quality Protection and Jobs Creation Act, which was recently introduced by House Transportation & Infrastructure Committee Chairman Peter DeFazio (D-OR), along with Reps. Napolitano (D-CA), Katko (R-NY), and Young (R-AK). ASCE supports this legislation which reinvigorates the federal government’s commitment to wastewater and stormwater infrastructure by reauthorizing the Clean Water State Revolving Fund (CWSRF) for $20 billion over five years, funding non-point and point source water pollution control programs and creating pilot programs to promote stormwater best management practices and resiliency. This is a first step towards raising our nation’s wastewater infrastructure grade of “D+” from the 2017 Infrastructure Report Card. Read more.

ASCE Seeks Full Funding for Infrastructure Programs The Senate and House Appropriations Committees have held multiple hearings on President Trump’s Fiscal Year 2020 budget request for agencies across the board, including the U.S. Department of Transportation, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Department of Energy, the National Science Foundation, and the Department of the Interior. The White House budget request —a blueprint of the Administration’s priorities—was released earlier this year.

Key Contacts participating in this year’s Legislative Fly-In also asked Congress to consider ASCE’s funding requests, which have been followed up with a series of letters to key Appropriators.

ASCE Releases Six New Infrastructure State Report Cards In the past few months, ASCE has released six new Infrastructure State Report Cards, including for Georgia, North Dakota, Kentucky, Vermont, Northeast Ohio, and Hawaii. If your Section or Branch is interested in starting a Report Card, ASCE has developed an online toolkit that offers direction on building an ASCE Report Card and will give you a staff www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

contact to assist throughout the process. To get started on a new Report Card or update an existing Report Card, email reportcard@asce.org.

ASCE Submits Public Comments to the Proposed Waters of the U.S. Rule ASCE, with technical assistance from a task force of EWRI members, submitted public comments in response to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ (USACE) proposed rule to alter definitions under the Waters of the U.S. (WOTUS) existing Obama-era rule. This proposed rule redefines the scope of the federal government’s jurisdiction over waters covered by the Clean Water Act. ASCE also submitted public comments during the proposed rule process in 2014, and many of ASCE’s suggested substantive changes were included in the final 2015 rule.

This coming quarter the EWRI Environmental Committee and the EWRI Groundwater Quality Committee is being invited to team up with the ASCE Government Relations Department to draft comments to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) draft recommendations for addressing groundwater contaminated with PFAS and PFOA. According to EPA’s website: “The EPA is seeking public comment on a draft set of recommendations for cleaning up groundwater contaminated with PFOA and PFOS. When finalized, the recommendations will provide a starting point for making site-specific cleanup decisions.

The guidance provides recommendations on: • Screening levels, which are used to determine if levels of contamination may warrant further investigation; • Preliminary remediation goals (PRGs) to inform site-specific cleanup levels for PFOA and PFOS contamination of groundwater that is a current or potential source of drinking water. PRGs are initial targets for cleanup, which may be adjusted on a site-specific basis as more information becomes available.

Comments are welcome on any part of the guidance, including the use of EPA’s Lifetime Drinking Water Health Advisory level of 70 ng/L or parts per trillion as the recommended PRG for groundwater, or whether higher or lower values would be supported. Comments must be received by June 10, 2019.”

Similarly, the EWRI Desalination and Water Reuse Committee is being invited to assist with drafting comments to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) draft National Water Reuse Action Plan that was recently announced.

According to EPA’s website: “The Agency will facilitate the development of a National Water Reuse Action Plan that will better integrate federal policy and leverage the expertise of both industry and government to ensure the effective use of the Nation’s water resources.

The National Water Reuse Action Plan will seek to foster water reuse as an important component of integrated water resources management.

Anyone may submit input to inform development of the draft National Water Reuse Action Plan. Ideas and input related to water reuse are welcome, including but not limited to: • Specific actions that can be taken now and in the future by federal agencies, states, tribes, local governments, water utilities, industry, agriculture, and others with keen water interests; • Relevant sources of information, such as literature, about water reuse not already identified in the Discussion Framework; • Examples of water reuse, both past and future, which demonstrate opportunities and barriers; • Concepts for applying water reuse strategies within integrated water resources management planning; and, • Ways water reuse can improve water resiliency, security and sustainability through a more diverse water portfolio.

Comments and input received by July 1, 2019 will inform the draft National Water Reuse Action Plan.”

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The Need for Gender Sensitivity in Designs for Water Sanitation and Health Faisal Hossain, University of Washington A recent article (Aug 28, 2018) in UK’s Daily Telegraph screamed “Lack of toilets and water at school puts girls' education at risk.” The article cited a recent study released by World Health Organization (WHO) that 620 million children lacked access to decent toilets at school. Currently, there are many research studies that report a direct correlation between education success of girls and the number of clean and functioning sanitation facilities in schools. Popular media has also given a lot of attention to this issue. For example, in the film ‘Hidden Figures’ we see a scene (from a real life incident) of a brilliant female astrophysicist as always late for afterlunch meetings at a NASA research facility working on the Apollo mission. The tardiness is due to the nearest female restroom being half an hour away, as restrooms at that time were segrated on the basis of race. As an immediate and short-term solution, the male NASA supervisor is shown taking down the sign of the male restroom that was located nearby and making it open to both genders and races. In Bollywood, recent blockbuster films like ‘Toilet’ and “Pad-man” have boldly connected the critical issue of girl’s sanitation to education success that remains a taboo topic in South Asia.

An Apple Falling Moment In the summer of 2018, I had an apple falling moment on gender sensitivity that had eluded me and my chosen profession (civil engineering) for as long as I could remember. While visiting a high school that was my father’s alma mater in rural Bangladesh, I noticed unusually longer lines during recess in the girl’s restrooms, in stark contrast to the relatively empty boys’ restrooms.

Following up on my curiosity and listening to anecdotes from experts made me realize that mainstream instructional pedagogy in engineering does not equip future engineers to recognize the gender-based sanitary needs in their engineering designs for water sanitation and health (WASH) facilities. The current crop of civil engineers, water specialists and managFigure 1. Long lines in a rural school ers are challenged to help girls achieve a successful education experience using their knowledge of hydraulics, pipe/pump/tank design and water management. This lack of gender sensitivity in school’s sanitary designs is not just a developing world problem. This exists in the developed world as well. Many academic buildings at US Universities where classes are now held were originally designed in the early 1940s with the assumption that men would always be the primary student body.

For example, in More Hall (built in 1946), at University of Washington where I work, the women’s restrooms are currently inadequate to meet female enrollment needs and class schedules.

The Long-term Solution The first step to a long-term solution, is to assimilate the missing link of gender sensitivity in engineering design and curriculum. We need to make future civil, water engineers and their professional bodies (such as American Society of Civil Engineers -ASCE) more cognizant of gender issues. We need to revise curriculum and current design and management practices to teach students in classroom that when they design WASH facilities in educational institutions, they must factor gender and sanitary needs of male and female students.

As a classically trained civil engineer, it has unfortunately taken me 44 years to gain an appreciation that the engineering philosophy behind WASH infrastructures we design and manage must recognize gender sensitivity as a www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

key design criterion. It took watching long lines of girls banging on the toilet doors during recess in a remote Bangladesh school for me to finally accept that we are doing something fundamentally wrong in the way we train our civil and public health/water engineers. The current approach to tackling gender-based problems is to be reactive, such as increasing the number of toilets to improve access to better WASH facilities for girls. This is certainly needed. However, this approach ignores the root cause of the problem. We need to change mindsets of future generation of engineers who will be designing WASH infrastructures of the future so that they are able to better integrate gender sensitivity in their physical designs (that use principles of hydraulics, pipe network, pumps and water tanks).

This root cause (i.e., lack of gender sensitivity training for trainee engineers) is perhaps the reason why the problem is endemic not only in the developing world, but also in many places of the developed world. As instructors on campus, we now see frequent tardiness among female students between classes. The rigid class schedule set by the University cannot mitigate this as optimization of recess times for different classes is not logistically possible.

It is clear that we as engineering professionals and faculty need to shed light on the need for assimilation of gender sensitivity in what we teach in our engineering programs. I teach senior design (a capstone class) for graduating civil engineering majors and it has never dawned on me until recently that gender sensitivity could even be mission critical design criterion. Furthermore, this issue needs to get official recognition by professional bodies such as the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and other organizations that have the mandate to effect change through enforceable design guidelines that most of the world follows as an accepted standard.

About the Author: Faisal Hossain is a Professor at University of Washington in the Department Civil and Environmental Engineering. He can be reached at fhossain@uw.edu.

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International Stormwater BMP Database 2019 Update Jonathan Jones, P.E., P.H., D.WRE and Jane Clary, F. EWRI - Wright Water Engineers, Inc. Denver, CO; Eric Strecker, P.E., B.C.E.E. and Marc Leisenring, P.E. - Geosyntec Consultants, Inc. Portland, OR; Harry Zhang, Ph.D., P.E. - The Water Research Foundation, Alexandria, VA

The International Stormwater Best Management Practices (BMP) Database is a long-term project with deep roots in EWRI’s Urban Water Resources Research Council dating back to the mid-1990’s. This article provides a synopsis of the project history and current areas of focus that may be of interest to both new EWRI members and long-term stormwater management practitioners who are already familiar with the project.

The BMP Database project is a collaborative effort focused on providing science-based information to advance the state of the practice for stormwater management. The long-term purpose is to provide scientifically sound information that informs improved design, selection, implementation, cost-effectiveness and ultimately performance of BMPs. The Database includes voluntarily shared performance monitoring data and study site metadata in a consolidated, publicly accessible repository that can be used to support selection of BMPs appropriate to achieve stormwater management goals. Additionally, information in the Database can be used to set realistic expectations for BMP performance for various pollutants and to identify information gaps and research needs.

In the early 1990s, the American Society of Civil Engineers’ (ASCE) Urban Water Resources Research Council (UWRRC) recognized the lack of standardized technical design and performance data for urban stormwater BMPs that made the selection and design of BMPs based upon scientifically supported data difficult at best. To address this problem, the International Stormwater BMP Database Project (www.bmpdatabase.org) was initiated. Initially funded by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to meet the goals of the Clean Water Act (CWA), the Database has significantly expanded in scale from domestic to international studies. Additionally, the Database includes studies of traditional urban stormwater controls as well as novel green infrastructure practices. These BMP types include grass strips, bioretention, bioswales, composite/treatment train BMPs, extended detention basins, media filters (mostly sand filters), porous pavement, retention ponds (wet ponds), green roofs, wetland basins, and wetland channels. It also includes distributed controls studies (Low Impact Development). Over the past five years, the Project has also expanded to include not only urban stormwater BMPs but also agricultural and stream restoration BMP to support a variety of stormwater quality issues at the watershed scale.

Current efforts underway include development of a national cost database for stormwater BMP capital, and operation and maintenance costs. Additionally, the National Cooperative Highway Research Program is supporting an effort to develop a more focused transportation portal to support the needs of state departments of transportation.

In recent years, there have also been coordinated special projects with entities such as the Harris County Flood Control District in Texas and the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation working in the Chesapeake Bay. The Database cosponsors have also expanded over the years to include: • The Water Research Foundation, formerly as Water Environment & Reuse Foundation and Water Environment Research Foundation (manages the overall project) • Federal Highway Administration • Environmental and Water Resources Institute of ASCE • American Public Works Association • National Corn Growers Association • United Soybean Board • Urban Drainage and Flood Control District • National Cooperative Highway Research Program www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

Four “modules” are accessible through the Database website that can support communities working to attain Clean Water Act Goals. Figure 1 illustrates these four modules that include: Urban Stormwater BMPs, Urban Stormwater Runoff Characterization (NSQD), Agricultural BMPs, and Stream Restoration BMPs. A Department of Transportation (DOT) BMP portal to the Urban Stormwater BMP Database is expected to be completed in late 2019.

Figure 1. International Stormwater BMP Database Modules

The Urban Stormwater BMPs module, the original core of the database project, remains the largest repository of urban stormwater BMP design and performance study dataset in the world. The Urban Stormwater Database now hosts over 700 BMP studies, along with data analysis summaries of individual BMPs and overall BMP categories. Studies include conventional BMPs, over 100 manufactured devices, and innovative green infrastructure practices, including over 60 bioretention sites. The Agricultural BMP Database has focused primarily on practices to reduced nutrient and sediment loading in row crop settings, such as corn and soybeans. The Stream Restoration Databases is the newest of the databases and provides a framework for storing performance information for stream restoration projects. The Stream Restoration Database serves as a companion project for WRF-sponsored guidance developed to support quantification of stream restoration benefits in the context of water quality crediting programs. The National Stormwater Quality Database (NSQD), developed by Professor Emeritus Robert Pitt of the University of Alabama, recently transitioned his work to the BMP Database website. The NSQD contains urban runoff water quality characterization by land use for hundreds of field studies across the United States.

The overall repository of information on the Database website is useful in practice as it provides consolidated access to a variety of guidance and interpretive reports related to BMP design and performance at no cost. For example, stormwater practitioners can find detailed monitoring guidance on performing and reporting on BMP studies, recommendations for statistically sound approaches for performance analysis, and reporting protocols, including data entry spreadsheets and user’s guides. The website also features on-line statistical analysis tools, presentations, and summary reports that focus on BMP performance for commonly monitored pollutants including suspended solids, nutrients, metals, and bacteria, as well as other pollutants when available (e.g., PAHs, PCBs, etc.). The performance summaries are intended to provide technically and statistically sound analysis, presented in a straightforward manner that is usable by a wide range of entities such as municipal stormwater managers, regulatory agencies, university researchers, students and other stormwater professionals.

To learn more about the International Stormwater BMP Database or to submit data, visit www.bmpdatabase.org or contact any of the authors. *A similar version of this article was originally published in the American Institute of Hydrology’s Spring 2019 Bulletin.

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Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Key Issues and Environmental Response John P. Merrill, Elisabeth L. Hawley, P.E. (CA) and Rula A. Deeb, Ph.D., BCEEM Geosyntec Consultants, 1111 Broadway Ave., 6th Floor. Oakland, CA 94607 PART 1. WHAT ARE PFAS? Introduction Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were invented in the 1940s and are used in a variety of industrial and consumer products. Awareness of PFAS in the environment first emerged in the late 1990s following developments in analytical methods to detect ionized substances. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) were phased out in the United States in the mid-2000s due to concerns about their persistence, occurrence in humans and the environment, and adverse health effects. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) issued provisional drinking water health advisories for PFOA and PFOS in 2009 and replaced these with health advisories in 2016.[1] Multiple states have also issued screening levels and guidance for PFOA, PFOS, and other PFAS in drinking water and groundwater as low as 10 ng/L (nanograms per liter) and soil as low as 0.16 µg/kg (micrograms per kilogram).

Physical and Chemical Properties Because the term PFAS includes thousands of different compounds, specific terminology is used for consistent communication within the global scientific, regulatory, and industrial communities.[2] PFAS are all fluorinated substances with a carbon chain structure. Perfluoroalkyl substances have a carbon chain that is fully fluorinated (carbon-fluorine bonds only), whereas polyfluoroalkyl substances have a carbon chain that is only partially saturated with fluorine and also contains carbon-hydrogen bonds.

Figure 1. (a) Perfluoroalkyl substance, PFOS; (b) polyfluoroalkyl substance, 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate (6:2 FTSA).

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Environmental Concern Perfluoroalkyl substances are very stable and do not biodegrade. They are found globally throughout the environment, and trace amounts have even been detected in the Arctic.[3] Due to the presence of weaker carbonhydrogen bonds, polyfluoroalkyl substances will partially degrade to form shorter-chain perfluoroalkyl substances.

In humans and other animals, perfluoroalkyl substances typically associate with proteins, the bloodstream, and the liver. Half-lives in humans range from 2 to 9 years.[4] Toxicological studies indicate adverse effects to the kidney, liver, immune system, reductive and developmental systems.[4] The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified PFOA as a possible carcinogen (Class 2B). Reference doses have been developed for PFOS, PFOA and several other PFAS (perfluorononanoic acid [PFNA], perfluoroheptanoic acid [PFHpA], perfluorohexane sulfonic acid [PFHxS] and perfluorobutane sulfonic acid [PFBS]) and provide a basis for risk-based screening levels.

Uses and Potential Sources to the Environment PFAS are stain-resistant, heat-resistant, oil- and water-repellant, and stable under acidic or corrosive chemical environments.[4,5] Due to these unique properties, PFAS are used in many industries and products as surfactants, additives, surface coatings, and polymers. Examples include fire-fighting foams, insecticides, chromium plating, photography, photolithography, semiconductor manufacturing, and carpet, textile, and leather production.[4] PFAS are also found in a variety of consumer products, including non-stick coatings on cookware, food paper and packaging, textiles and furnishings, floor polish and cleaning products, waterproof clothing, and cosmetics.[6] The presence of PFAS in consumer products creates an urban background concentration in stormwater[7], wastewater[8], and landfill leachate[9].

Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) is a known source of PFAS to the environment (Figure 2.) AFFF was released in large quantities to extinguish hydrocarbon fires at fire-fighting training areas, by fire suppression systems, and accidentally through AFFF storage, transport, and day-to-day handling. AFFF was routinely used at military sites, airports, and refineries. The composition of AFFF varies by manufacturer, which can assist in forensic identification of PFAS sources.[10,11] Figure 2. A documented source of PFAS in the environment is AFFF, which is used to extinguish hydrocarbon fires.

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PART 2. THE RESPONSE TO PFAS Regulation In 2016, the U.S. EPA developed a drinking water Health Advisory level for the sum of PFOA and PFOS of 70 nanograms per liter (ng/L).[1] In 2018, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) released a draft Toxicological Profile for PFAS that included minimal risk levels (MRLs) for PFOS, PFOA and two other PFAS. ATSDR assumptions are more conservative and would equate to a drinking water health advisory level of approximately 7 to 11 ng/L. In February 2019, the U.S. EPA published a National PFAS Management Plan outlining actions it had taken in 2018 and is planning to take to address PFAS.[12] States have published their own screening levels and guidance for PFOS, PFOA, and several other PFAS as low as 10 ng/L. Differences in toxicity values result from selecting different toxicity studies, applying different safety factors and animal-to-human extrapolation factors, and assuming different life stages and exposures from other sources.

New Jersey has adopted a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for PFNA in drinking water and has published recommended MCLs for PFOS and PFOA.[13] Site Investigation PFAS site investigations are being conducted across the nation, primarily in response to site-specific regulator requests, statewide orders, and Department of Defense (DoD) policies. Michigan formed an inter-agency response team known as MPART that has led the testing of drinking water supplies and investigation of PFAS sources.

California recently issued statewide Orders to conduct PFAS sampling at landfills, airports, and drinking water wells; refineries, bulk terminals, non-airport fire training areas, and urban fire areas will also receive Orders.

Because PFAS are present in many common consumer items, precautions are taken to avoid cross-contamination of samples (e.g., no sampling equipment with fluoropolymer components, no clothing with a waterproof coating, and the need to decontaminate equipment using water that is laboratory-certified as PFAS-free). A newly funded SERDP project (ER19-1205) is focused on assessing and mitigating bias during PFAS sampling. The list of PFAS analyzed during site investigations continues to expand to include other PFAS of interest (e.g., GenX) and matrices other than drinking water are being sampled and evaluated.

Remediation Methods The most common full-scale treatment technology is pump-and-treat coupled with granular activated carbon (GAC).

Ion exchange systems have become more competitive as PFAS-targeted resins can have shorter residence times, greater capacity, and/or less frequent regeneration or replacement. Reverse osmosis systems are also effective following membrane pre-treatment. Several examples of PFAS treatment research topics are as follows: • PFAS Sequestration: Research is ongoing to develop sorbents with a greater capacity for PFAS, particularly for shorter-chain PFAS. Sorbents are also being investigated with the long-term goal of using them in in-situ barriers as a low-cost, long-term treatment solution, combined with a method for periodically regenerating or renewing the emplaced sorbent material and treating waste streams on-site using ex-situ chemical oxidation (ESTCP project 2423). ESTCP has also funded research (ESTCP project ER-2425) to test in-situ injection of chemical coagulants (e.g., polyaluminum chloride, cationic polymers) to enhance sorption.

• Advanced Oxidation Processes: Advanced oxidation processes for PFAS include electrochemical oxidation, photolysis, and photocatalysis. Electrocatalytic and catalytic approaches using Ti/RuO2 and other mixed metal oxide anodes have been used to oxidize PFAS in the laboratory under a range of conditions (ESTCP project 2424).

• In Situ Chemical Reduction: Methods being investigated include the use of zero-valent metals/bimetals (Pd/ Fe, Mg, Pd/Mg) with clay interlayers and co-solvent assisted Vitamin B12 defluorination. One ongoing project (SERDP project ER-2426) focuses on PFOS, which is recalcitrant to many oxidation processes.

[14]

www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

• Surface Activation Foam Fractionation: The surfactant nature of PFAS make them prone to accumulation at surface interfaces. Surface activation foam fractionation generates fine air bubbles rising through a narrow water column. PFAS that accumulate at the top of the column as foam are vacuumed off for separate disposal. Using hundreds of columns, PFAS is progressively stripped out until drinking water standards have been achieved. The technology was developed and built in Australia and is currently operating at full-scale. The process has also been used in situ in a downhole configuration using compressed air introduced at the base of the well and harvesting of PFAS foam at the top of the well.[15,16] The Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) PFAS Team has developed fact sheets on PFAS treatment and other topics and is in the process of publishing a guidance document with more detail on developing technologies and technologies with limited application.[17] Summary Perfluoroalkyl substances are highly stable, recalcitrant, and bioaccumulative. Health-based advisory levels for several PFAS are low, and state guidance continues to rapidly evolve in the absence of near-term Federal action; consequently, site investigations for PFAS are burgeoning in several states and continuing within the DoD. PFAS remediation is costly and primarily consists of ex-situ water treatment. Research to develop feasible in-situ treatment technologies and more effective ex-situ treatment systems is currently a priority for U.S. EPA and DoD research and development programs.

References 1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2016. Drinking water health advisories for PFOA and PFOS. U.S. EPA Water Health Advisories PFOA and PFOS 2. Buck, R.C., Franklin, J., Berger, U., Conder, J.M., Cousins, I.T., de Voogt, P., Jensen, A.A., Kannan, K., Mabury, S.A. and van Leeuwen, S.P., 2011. Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment: terminology, classification, and origins. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 7(4), 513-541. doi: 10.1002/ieam.258 3. Young, C.J., Furdui, V.I., Franklin, J., Koerner, R.M., Muir, D.C. and Mabury, S.A., 2007. Perfluorinated acids in arctic snow: new evidence for atmospheric formation. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(10), 3455-3461. doi: 10.1021/es0626234 4. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2014. Emerging contaminants – perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Fact sheet. March Fact Sheet 5. Krafft, M.P. and Riess, J.G., 2015. Selected physicochemical aspects of poly-and perfluoroalkylated substances relevant to performance, environment and sustainability - Part one. Chemosphere, 129, 4-19. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.039 6. Birnbaum, L.S. and Grandjean, P., 2015. Alternatives to PFAS: Perspectives on the Science. Environmental Health Perspectives, 123(5), A104-A105. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1509944 7. Houtz, E.F., 2013. Oxidative measurement of perfluoroalkyl acid precursors: Implications for urban runoff management and remediation of AFFF-contaminated groundwater and soil. Ph.D. Dissertation. Available online at http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4jq0v5qp 8. Pan, C.G., Liu, Y.S. and Ying, G.G., 2016. Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in wastewater treatment plants and drinking water treatment plants: Removal efficiency and exposure risk. Water Research, 106(1), 562-570. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.10.045 9. Lang, J.R., Allred, B.M., Peaslee, G.F., Field, J.A. and Barlaz, M.A., 2016. Release of Per-and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) from Carpet and Clothing in Model Anaerobic Landfill Reactors. Environmental Science & Technology, 50(10), 5024-5032. doi: 10.1021/acs. est.5b06237 10. Backe, W.J., Day, T.C. and Field, J.A., 2013. Zwitterionic, cationic, and anionic fluorinated chemicals in aqueous film forming foam formulations and groundwater from US military bases by nonaqueous large-volume injection HPLC-MS/MS. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(10), 5226-5234. doi: 10.1021/es3034999 11. Place, B.J. and Field, J.A., 2012. Identification of novel fluorochemicals in aqueous film-forming foams used by the U.S. military.

Environmental Science & Technology, 46(13), 7120-7127. doi: 10.1021/es301465n 12. U.S. EPA, 2019. EPA’s Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Action Plan. EPA 823R18004. Action Plan 13. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, 2018. Drinking Water Quality Standards. Table 14. Appleman, T.D., Higgins, C.P., Quinones, O., Vanderford, B.J., Kolstad, C., Zeigler-Holady, J.C. and Dickenson, E.R., 2014.

Treatment of poly-and perfluoroalkyl substances in US full-scale water treatment systems. Water Research, 51, 246-255. doi: 10.1016/j. watres.2013.10.067 15. McLennon, C., 2018. New Science to Treat PFAS. Katherine Times. News Article 16. OPEC Systems, 2018. Surface active foam fractionation (SAFF) brochure. Brochure 17. Interstate Technology Regulatory Council (ITRC), 2019. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Fact Sheets. Fact Sheets

Please see the upcoming Summer 2019 issue of Currents for a planned article on emerging treatment technologies for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).

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Pharmaceuticals and Hormones Few and at Low Concentrations in Groundwater, USGS Scientists Find The topic of pharmaceuticals and hormones in drinking water gets people’s attention, but if that drinking water is pumped from a well, those chemicals are less likely to be present, according to a new study by the U.S. Geological Survey. The results of the national study are published in the journal Environmental Science and Technology.

USGS scientists analyzed 103 pharmaceuticals and 21 hormones in samples from nearly 1,100 groundwater wells that tap drinking-water aquifers. Six percent of samples from public-supply wells and 11 percent of samples from wells used for domestic supply or other uses contained one or more pharmaceuticals or hormones. When detected, the chemicals were at low concentrations and not expected to have adverse human-health effects. Just one sample contained a pharmaceutical—hydrocortisone—at a concentration that exceeded its human-health benchmark.

This is the first large-scale, systematic study of the occurrence of hormones and pharmaceuticals in groundwater used as a drinking-water supply for an estimated 80 million people across the United States. The aquifers sampled provide about 60% of the groundwater used for drinking. Samples were collected prior to the water undergoing any type of treatment. The hormones and pharmaceuticals most frequently detected were not necessarily those most heavily used, but rather those that move through groundwater easily without adhering to soil, sediment, or rock. Samples from shallow wells, particularly those drilled into fractured crystalline rocks, were more likely to contain pharmaceuticals and hormones than samples from wells in other groundwater settings. Overall, detection frequencies and concentrations for pharmaceuticals and hormones in groundwater were lower than those reported by other studies for pharmaceuticals and hormones in surface water, and similar to or lower than those for other types of organic chemicals, such as pesticides, in groundwater.

For more information, contact Laura Bexfield (bexfield@usgs.gov).

Citation: Bexfield, L.M., Toccalino, P.L., Belitz, K., Foreman, W.T., and Furlong, E.T. 2019. Hormones and pharmaceuticals in groundwater used as a source of drinking water across the United States. Environmental Science and Technology, DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05592.

Learn more about this study and others that are part of the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment Project.

www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

EWRI Vice President Election The Environmental and Water Resources Institute’s Nominations Committee has unanimously decided to recommend that both Holly Piza, P.E., M.ASCE and Carol Ellinger Haddock, P.E., MPA, M.ASCE be placed on the EWRI ballot as the Official Nominees for EWRI Vice President on the EWRI Governing Board for FY20.

Voting for the EWRI FY20 Vice President election begins on Wednesday, June 12th. Eligible voting members will receive their voting credentials via email on that date. More details about the process may be found in the ASCE-EWRI Bylaws, Article VII, or in the most recent ASCE Official Register.

Any EWRI member in good standing may file a petition nomination with the EWRI Director, no later than the first day of June 2019. Petitions for such nominations must contain the signatures of at least 200 individual voting members of the EWRI. Petition Nominee(s) will be so designated on the ballot. Petitions must be in accordance with the ASCE-EWRI Bylaws as stated in the most current ASCE Official Register.

The position on the GB progresses as follows: • EWRI Vice President – FY2020 | Commences October 1, 2019 • EWRI President-Elect – FY2021 | Commences October 1, 2020 • EWRI President – FY2022 | Commences October 1, 2021 • EWRI Past President – FY2023 | Commences October 1, 2022 Please contact Nicole Erdelyi at 703-295-6034 with any questions.

Carol Ellinger Haddock, P.E., MPA, M.ASCE Director, Houston Public Works

Holly Piza, P.E., M.ASCE Standards Development Manager, Urban Drainage & Flood Control District

15

Massive Changes over Last 50 Years in Human Influences that Affect Water Quality Some of the major human influences on water quality, in particular the ways we use land, water, and chemicals, have undergone dramatic changes over the last five decades, according to a new study by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) National Water Quality Program. Patterns of urbanization, chemical use, and agricultural production are profoundly altered.

Some U.S. urban and agricultural areas and practices are almost unrecognizable from the way they were in the 1970s. From 1974 to 2012, urban areas increased by almost 70% (50 million acres), with the greatest growth in low-density “exurban” residential areas. Crop production increased 114% while cropland area increased only 23%, reflecting a vast growth in agricultural productivity. Animal production, particularly of hogs and pigs, became much more concentrated—the number of hog and pig farms decreased from a half million in 1974 to 63,000 by 2012, yet the number of hogs and pigs increased 45%.

The USGS study assessed a total of 61 human influences in 16 categories, including land use, agricultural practices, and population density. Some of the changes in those influences reflect regulatory actions. For example, from 1974 to 2012 there was a widespread and rapid increase in the use of the herbicide glyphosate with concurrent decreases in other herbicides resulting from their regulatory phaseout. Another example was the widespread decrease in atmospheric deposition of sulfate related in part to the Clean Air Act. This publication provides comprehensive maps and summary statistics for the 61 human influences considered.

Information on how major potential influences on water quality have changed over time provides a foundation for research to quantify the effects on water quality in U.S. rivers and streams.

Citation: Falcone, J.A., Murphy, J.C., and Sprague, L.A. 2019. Regional patterns of anthropogenic influences on streams and rivers in the conterminous United States, from the early 1970s to 2012, Journal of Land Use Science, https://doi.org/10.1080/1747423X.2019.1590473.

www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

EPA Announces the Winners of the 7th Annual Campus RainWorks Challenge The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced the winners of its seventh annual Campus RainWorks Challenge, a national competition that engages college students in the design of on-campus green infrastructure solutions to address stormwater pollution.

“EPA’s Campus RainWorks Challenge encourages students to transform classroom knowledge into innovative ideas to solve real-world environmental problems,” said EPA Administrator Andrew Wheeler. “I congratulate this year’s winners, and it is encouraging to see how contestants worked closely with their local communities to develop ways to protect water resources from harmful stormwater pollution.”

Stormwater runoff is a significant source of water pollution in America. Managing runoff remains a complex environmental challenge for local communities across the country. EPA’s Campus RainWorks Challenge asks students and faculty members at colleges and universities across the country to apply green infrastructure design principles, foster interdisciplinary collaboration, and increase the use of green infrastructure on the nation’s college campuses.

Through this year’s Challenge, EPA invited student teams to compete in two design categories: the Master Plan category, which examines how green infrastructure can be broadly integrated across campus, and the Demonstration Project category, which focuses on how green infrastructure can address stormwater pollution at a specific site on campus. With the help of a faculty advisor, teams of students focused their expertise, creativity, and energy on the challenges of stormwater management and showcased the environmental, economic, and social benefits of green infrastructure.

Read more about this year’s winners!

SAVE THE DATE

lidconference.org

17

Member Recognition

Deborah H. Lee, P.E., P.H., D.WRE, F.ASCE, SES, director of NOAA’s Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL), has been named a Fellow by the ASCE Board of Direction.

As director of GLERL, and a member of the federal Senior Executive Service, Lee serves as the laboratory’s leader, providing guidance through conceptual development, implementation, and management of integrated, interdisciplinary scientific research and communications programs.

With a staff of nearly 130 federal, cooperative institute, and contract employees and visiting scientists, NOAA-GLERL and its partners conduct integrated scientific research on the Great Lakes and coastal ecosystems, develop and transition products and services, and share knowledge and information to advance NOAA’s goals of science, service, and stewardship.

Deborah Lee, EWRI Vice President

Lee also serves as NOAA’s Regional Team Lead for the Great Lakes, facilitating collaboration across a network of more than 800 NOAA employees and partners representing the agency’s diverse capabilities across the region. She brings 30+ years of professional experience in water resources research and management at the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and NOAA. She served as the chief of water management for the Great Lakes and Ohio River Division of USACE from 2001 to 2014. In that role, she directed lower Ohio and Mississippi River flood control and oversight of Great Lakes regulation. During that time, she served a detail as the Acting Regional Business Director and Dam and Levee Safety Officer.

Lee is a licensed professional engineer and certified professional hydrologist, is board certified by the American Academy of Water Resources Engineers, and is currently vice president of the ASCE Environmental Water Resources Institute. She has received multiple awards, including three Superior Civilian Service Awards, certificates of appreciation from the International Joint Commission (IJC) and the Mississippi River Commission, the IJC Award of Merit for Professional Contribution, and most recently, the 2017 NOAA Research Inclusion and Diversity Award.

She holds bachelor and master’s degrees in civil engineering from The Ohio State University and completed postgraduate civil and environmental engineering studies at the University of Michigan.

www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

Professional Practice Day | May 22, 2019

SESSIONS OF INTEREST

Emerging Trends in Stormwater Maintenance Water Resources Modeling, Management, and Policy Stream restoration Lake and reservoir processes Education, Outreach, and Tools for Green Infrastructure and Stormwater Management International Issues

TECHNICAL WORKSHOPS

Stormwater Management in a One Water Sustainability Framework Resource Efficient Desalination & Zero-Liquid Discharge Systems Next-Generation Wastewater Treatment Technologies with Bioelectrochemical Systems Ask about the special municipal rate!

Contact registrations@asce.org

19 RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE FOR A CHANGING PLANET | ewricongress.org

Mentoring & Student Awards Presentation Room Sterlings 2 | 4:00 - 5:30 p.m.

Are you a student or a new professional and have questions about work?

What’s it like to work in the public sector?

Industry? Consulting? Academia?

How do I get a job in one of these sectors?

How did you get your job?

How do I switch sectors?

Would you like feedback on your resume?

How do you balance work and family?

Don’t stop there! All questions are welcome.

Join us on Tuesday, May 21, for refreshments and a special Students and New Professionals session! We will begin with an hour of mentoring with industry leaders, and conclude with the presentation of the Student Award Winners from this year’s Student Competitions!

www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

Operation & Maintenance of Stormwater Control Measures Minneapolis, MN | August 4 - 7, 2019

REGISTRATION IS OPEN

Join leading environmental and water resource professionals at this national forum for O&M of green and gray stormwater infrastructure

omswconference.org 21

Featured Publications

Thank you to the EWRI Communications Council: EDITOR Catherine Soistman NEWS CORRESPONDENTS Irrigation and Drainage Council Robert Evans Watershed Council Jeff Rieker

Sponsored by the River Basin Planning, Policy, and Operations Technical Committee of the Planning and Management Council of the Environmental and Water Resources Institute of ASCE Adventures in Managing Water: Real-World Engineering Experiences is a collection of essays that present the challenges of providing adequate, reliable, affordable, and clean water supplies to communities around the world. These stories, shared by engineers and other water management professionals, express the trials, successes, lessons learned, and moments of enlightenment each professional faced while building institutions and creating water management policies in the United States and abroad.

Learn more!

Call for Submissions: Concentrate Management Case Studies The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) is accepting new Case Studies for the next edition of the Concentrate Management in Desalination: Case Studies book Please send a brief description of your case study using the Case Study Template by end of August 2019 to Luzma Fabiola Nava, Chair of the ASCE EWRI Desalination and Water Reuse (DWR) Committee.

www.asce.org/ewri • EWRI Currents • Volume 21, Number 2 • Spring 2019

Hydraulics & Waterways Council Kit Ng Sustainability Task Committee Rick Johnson WR Planning & Management Tim Feather Environmental Council Wendy Cohen Standards Development Council Conrad Keyes Urban Water Resources Research Council Shirley Clark Urban Stormwater Committee Christine Pomeroy Emerging & Innovative Technology Council Sean McKenna