African Farming May June 2012

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www.africanfarming.net May/June 2012

Europe m14.50 - Ghana C1.3 - Kenya KSH150 - Nigeria N200 - South Africa R18 - UK £9 - USA $15

Palm oil nutrients A question of balance

Poultry

Grappling with coccidiosis

Serving

AGRICULTURE for

32

YEARS John Deere’s 7R series tractors offer an improved power steering system. See page 38.

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Tractor progress

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for field vaccination

EFFECTIVE PROTECTION AGAINST GUMBORO DISEASE

Ceva Santé Animale S.A. - www.ceva.com - contact@ceva.com 10, av. de La Ballastière - 33500 Libourne - France - Phone: 00 33 (0) 5 57 55 40 40 - Fax: 00 33 (0) 5 57 55 42 37

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CONTENTS

Contents

www.africanfarming.net May/June 2012

News and Events

4

Europe m14.50 - Ghana C1.3 - Kenya KSH150 - Nigeria N200 - South Africa R18 - UK £9 - USA $15

A topical digest of news, views and events including Farmers’ Calendar.

Palm oil nutrients A question of balance

Poultry

Grappling with coccidiosis

10

Tractor progress

Grappling with coccidiosis.

Machine vision technology find defects in poultry processing.

Crops

Serving

16

AGRICULTURE for

32

YEARS

Seed potato ‘fast-track’.

John Deere’s 7R series tractors offer an improved power steering system. See page 38

Biotechnology

Adequate nutrition is essential during the growth and development stages of the oil palm in order to reach its full potential.

18

Desert Edge is helping pastoralists develop environmentally sound and viable enterprises.

Cassava

www.africanfarming.net

Poultry

20

Replacing imported barley with locally grown cassava starch for beer brewing has created a market in South Sudan.

Oil Palm

22

Nutrients for oil palm: A question of balance.

Rice

26

Chicken management and housing are critical in controlling coccidiosis.

Africa shifts from backbreaking operations to almost labour-free threshing.

Irrigation

29

African Farming looks at sprinkler irrigation systems.

Grain storage

34

Fighting fungi in grain storage preserves cereal quality.

Tractors

38

Some of the latest features and design developments from the leading tractor companies are alreadily available in Africa and others are on the way, bringing performance and efficiency.

Managing Editor: Zsa Tebbit Editorial and Design team: Bob Adams, David Clancy, Andrew Croft, Prabhu Dev, Immanuel Devadoss, Ranganath GS, Prashanth AP, Ian Roullier, Genaro Santos, Nicky Valsamakis, Julian Walker and Ben Watts Publisher: Nick Fordham Advertising Sales Director: Pallavi Pandey Magazine Sales Manager: Richard Rozelaar Tel: +44 (0) 20 7834 7676, Fax: +44 (0) 20 7973 0076 email: richard.rozelaar@alaincharles.com Country China India Italy Nigeria Russia Singapore South Africa Qatar UAE USA

Representative Wang Ying Tanmay Mishra Camilla Capece Bola Olowo Sergei Salov Tan Kay Hui Annabel Marx Saida Daha Camilla Capece Michael Tomashefsky

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Valtra’s experimental four-cylinder tractor is fuelled by a mix of biogas and diesel.

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Subscriptions: circulation@alaincharles.com Chairman: Derek Fordham Printed by: Wyndeham Roche Ltd. US Mailing Agent: African Farming & Food Processing USPS. No. 015-224 is published six times a year for US$90 per year by Alain Charles Publishing Ltd, University House, 11-13 Lower Grosvenor Place, London, SW1W 0EX, UK Periodicals Postage Paid at Rahway, NJ. Postmaster: send address corrections to: Alain Charles Publishing Ltd, c/o Mercury Airfreight International Ltd, 365 Blair Road, Avenel, NJ 07001.

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African Farming - May/June 2012

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EVENTS

Farming Calendar

Kenyan international flower expo a success

May 19-22

SIPSA-Agrisme & SIPSA-Agrofood 2012 www.expovet-dz.net

27-30

World Potato Congress www.wpc2012.net

ALGIERS EDINBURGH

June 28-30

AGRENA 2012 www.agrena.net

CAIRO

July 11-13

East Africa Irrigation Technology Week irrigationweek.com

15-17

Africa's Big Seven 2012 www.exhibitionsafrica.com

NAIROBI JOHANNESBURG

August 5-9

XXIV World Poultry Congress www.wpc2012.com

SALVADOR

September 2-6

11th Intl Conference on Goats www.iga-goatworld.org

LAS PALMAS

October 13-16

ADDIS AGROFOOD www.addisagrofood.com

ADDIS ABABA

THE FIRST INTERNATIONAL flower trade expo, IFTEX, which was held recently in Nairobi at the Visa Oshwal Community Centre, turned into a total success. Nobody knew what to expect, but from the moment the trade show was opened by the Minister of Agriculture, Hon. Sally Kosgei, the fair filled itself with both national and international visitors including international flower buyers from Russia, Japan, Holland, Dubai, Qatar, Canada, Bulgaria, Spain, Germany as well as buyers from many more other countries.

A total of 140 companies exhibited in this first-time Kenyan flower trade event, representing 17 countries including 67 growers from Kenya. On the part of the visitors a total of 2,374 received a three-day entry badge at registration.

The winner of the grower competition was Xpressions Flora (Omang) from Kenya, who received a Platinum Award for being elected “Best Grower” of the expo. Gold was there for Harvest Flowers, Silver for Magana Flowers and Bronze for Sian Agriflora.

In the breeder competition it was Danziger from Israel who walked away with the Platinum Award for “Best Breeder” of the trade fair.

NIRP East Africa Ltd received the Golden Award, Plantas Continental from Spain Silver and Interplant from Holland was awarded with Bronze.

In one step Kenya has put itself in the top five of the most important cutflower sourcing exhibitions of the world. Together with the 67 exhibiting growers and 58 visiting growers from Kenya, who all expressed an interest to exhibit next time, the number of expected exhibiting Kenyan growers in 2013 will double and make it an even more valuable place to source fresh cut flowers.

New Holland sponsors sustainable development NEW HOLLAND HAS confirmed its commitment to the environment with its sponsorship of the Rio+20 Summit which will take place between 13-22 June 2012 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This summit will bring together the key stakeholders in a series of high level events with the objective of securing renewed political commitment for sustainable development, assessing the progress to date and the remaining gaps in the implementation of the outcomes of the major summits on sustainable development, and addressing new and emerging challenges. Organised jointly by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention for Biodiversity (CBD), it will celebrate the progress made since first Rio Summit held 20 years ago in 1992.

New Holland is a title sponsor of the event, which is fully aligned with the brand’s Clean Energy Leader strategy. New Holland has been at the forefront of environmentally sustainable farming since 2006, with an unswerving commitment to providing the world’s farmers and agribusinesses with the latest technology to reduce the environmental impact of farming whilst concurrently increasing the productivity and sustainability of agriculture.

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NEWS Singapore partnership to develop rubber production in Gabon US$183MN WILL BE invested to develop a rubber plantation and a processing plant through a partnership between the Gabonese Government and the multinational Singapore firm Olam.

The joint venture, in which the Gabonese government will hold a 20 per cent interest, will fund the development of a 28,000-ha plantation in the Bitam area (Woleu-Ntem province, northern Gabon). Planting will start in 2013 and should be completed in 2019 with the first harvest planned for 2020. The plantation is expected to yield 62,000 tonnes of rubber per year.

In line with President Ali Bongo Ondimba's policy of diversification and industrialisation introduced in 2009, a processing plant with a capacity of 225 tonnes per day will also be built. Processed natural rubber will be produced for export to meet a rising global demand in consumption of 3.5 per cent per year.

"One of the key thrusts of our long term strategy is to selectively invest in upstream plantations in countries that enjoy a long-term sustainable competitive advantage in the production of agricultural raw materials. We believe Gabon is one of the most competitive locations for rubber plantations given the availability of land, suitable soil and agro-climatic conditions, superior yields and the long-term support and fiscal incentives by the Gabonese government for pioneering projects of this nature and scale", said General Director of Olam for Gabon, Gagan Gupta.

Gabon entered an era of change when President Ali Bongo Ondimba took office, thanks to his ambitious political reforms designed to diversify and industrialise the country’s economy through a sustainable development strategy called "Emerging Gabon".

This policy, centred on economic openness and reform and designed to create a more competitive business environment, has already started to bear fruit in Gabon, which has, since 2010, attracted more than four billion dollars of direct foreign investment through contracts with American, Asian and European companies.

For Magloire Ngambia, Gabon's Minister in charge of promoting investment in the country, this new project is the perfect example of the type of partnership sought by the Gabonese government and is consistent with the Emerging Gabon development strategy: "The development of a 28,000-ha rubber plantation, in partnership with Olam, corresponds perfectly to our desire to diversify our economy based on real added value for Gabon. This added value is being created by the construction of a processing plant, which

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corresponds to our ambition to industrialise our economy, and also in terms of the socio-economic impact of this project. In the long term, more than 6,000 direct jobs and 5,000 indirect jobs will be created, with Olam providing additional support in the form of a training programme available to both the skilled and unskilled workforce needed at the plantation and the plant. So this is an important project for us, in line with our strategic plan to make Gabon an emerging country by 2025 and to develop the rural areas of the country."

As part of the Emerging Gabon Strategic Plan, the Government's goal is to significantly increase agriculture's contribution to GDP (currently five per cent) and ensure that Gabon has food autonomy by developing modern agricultural, fishing and aquaculture practices.

To this end, an agricultural programme centred on growth and food security was launched by the Gabonese Government.

The main investment opportunities involve: ● Biofuel production, following the adaption of one million hectares of humid savannahs to develop this sector; ● The yearly production of 2,500 tons of coffee and cocoa by 2012-2013; ● The production of palm oil: the aim being to eventually produce one million tonnes of palm oil and to position Gabon as one of the leading African exporters; ● The development of aquaculture and fisheries.

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NEWS

ADB to fund Phase 2 of Lower Limpopo irrigation

Initiative to improve tilapia farming in Africa

THE MOZAMBICAN GOVERNMENT and the African Development Bank (ADB) are working on the final details of the contract to fund the second phase of the rehabilitation of the Lower Limpopo irrigation scheme, in the southern province of Gaza.

Budgeted at US$35mn, the project should take off early in 2013, and should cover an irrigated area of about 2,000 ha, on which the main crops to be grown will be rice and vegetables.

According to a report in the Maputo daily “Noticias�, the second phase of the rehabilitation is part of an overall package of $300mn of loans from the ADB to finance infrastructure such as rural roads and irrigation schemes over a three year period.

Among other major projects in this package are repairs to the Massingir dam on the Elephants River, also in Gaza, and the rehabilitation of the road from the northern port of Nacala to the city of Cuamba, in Niassa province.

Adriano Ubisse, the National Director of Investment and Cooperation in the Ministry of Planning and Development, said he believed that the ADB will disburse the money for the Lower Limpopo irrigation scheme by the end of this year.

The first phase of the project was undertaken in 2005, and covered an area of 4,000 ha. The second phase, in addition to adding a further 2,000 ha, will also make small repairs to defects noted in the previous work.

The ADB, Ubisse said, is undertaking consultations in order to draw up a long term strategy seeking to provide greater support to member countries.

UK-BASED SUPPLIER New England Seafood, Zimbabwe's Lake Harvest Aquaculture and Waitrose are collaborating on a project to improve tilapia farming practices in Africa.

The UK agency, the Department for International Development (DID) says the initiative is progressing well, according to Aquaculture Zimbabwe, an NGO supporting aquaculture activities in Zimbabwe.

Partly funded by the DID's Food Retail Industry Challenge Fund (FRICH), the project is designed to help tilapia farmers in Africa enter the global tilapia supply chain and access higher value markets like the UK. According to Aquaculture Zimbabwe, the project - which is still in its early stages - is a shining example of how FRICH funding is being used to bolster the food trade between Africa and Europe.

Grants requested from FRICH must be between US$239,000 and $1,593mn, with applicants contributing a minimum of 50 per cent of the total project cost.

Mark Thomas, FRICH Project Director says the main objective of FRICH is to improve market access for African food by working with food businesses to develop successful new approaches that can be scaled up.

The funding offers opportunities for European food companies to test new business models with a shared risk, while benefitting some of the poorest regions of Africa in a very real and tangible way.

New England Seafood is working with Waitrose on a tilapia marketing campaign. New England Seafood is also working with Lake Harvest Aquaculture in Zimbabwe to improve environmental and fish welfare standards, quality assurance, freezing and handling methods and logistics among tilapia producers in Africa so that they can access the UK market.

Wallace Mawire

Ethiopia dairy study A STUDY CONDUCTED by the International Livestock Research Centre (ILRI) in the Amhara region of Ethiopia observes that there is a need to boost livestock breeding since there is a shortage of improved stock and artificial insemination (AI) services.

The study, by Addisu Bitew and colleagues, was aimed at developing a systematic understanding of the links between market opportunities and productivity increases in livestock, with a focus on dairy production.

Funded by the OPEC Fund for International Development, the study showed that milk marketing co-operatives were the dominant milk buyers from producers at all milk

6 African Farming - May/June 2012

marketing quality levels.

Milk marketing co-operatives have been increasing in number, although there were limitations in recruitment of members, and the capacity to collect, process and market milk.

Veterinary and artificial insemination (AI) services were provided from district agricultural development offices, except for some villages that had veterinary clinics and AI centres.

Stall feeding and feeding of concentrates for crossbred dairy cattle was more prominent in high market quality sites compared to medium and low market quality sites, which indicated the level of feed intensification as the market quality improved.

The contribution of grazing to total diet was higher for indigenous than crossbred cows.

The proportion of crossbred cows exceeded that of indigenous cows in high market quality sites but the reverse applied in medium and low market quality sites. Milk yield data indicate that there is room for increasing average productivity by improving management practices.

Beyond constraints in breeding, the study noted that shortage and high cost of feed and water, as well as the high cost of disease control and low milk prices were also major hurdles in developing the dairy sector in Ethiopia.

Mwangi Mumero

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NEWS

Bayer CropScience supports battle against malaria BAYER CROPSCIENCE’S INNOVATIVE LifeNet mosquito nets are now available, as the company has received all necessary regulatory approvals for large scale production. As a first step, the delivery of millions of LifeNet mosquito nets is about to start, with registrations already received in Malawi, Namibia and Zambia with further registrations pending. LifeNet represents a longer-lasting, user-friendly alternative to currently available nets.

Malaria, still one of the world’s deadliest diseases, has been eliminated in some parts of the world. Yet in certain parts of sub-Saharan Africa, malaria infections have increased over the last three decades. According to the WHO, populations living in this region have the highest risk of acquiring malaria. Malaria significantly affects the quality of life of communities and impacts local economies by reducing the income of individuals and families, thus slowing economic growth and threatening food security and rural development in already deprived regions.

"Our motivation was to set a new standard in bednet durability and to thereby increase the impact of malaria control programmes for the benefit of those in need," said Dr. Gunnar Riemann, Head of Bayer CropScience´s Environmental Science Division. "LifeNet is the world´s first long-lasting polypropylene net, with deltamethrin incorporated deep into the fibre providing a unique combination of efficacy, strength and softness - a new tool in the fight against malaria," added Nadim Mohr, Commercial Operations Manager at Bayer Environmental Science and responsible for Sub-Saharan Africa. "LifeNet is the first net which is recognised by the World Health Organization to be effective even after 30 washes - providing more, effective nights of protection."

Intercropping watermelon mitigates drought A RESEARCH STUDY carried out in two semi-arid areas in Mozambique has found that watermelon is a good companion crop for intercropping with grain to mitigate the risk of total crop failure due to drought.

The findings, published in the academic journal “Experimental Agriculture”, show that although the yield of each crop does fall, the overall productivity of the land increases by 13 per cent.

Researchers from Mozambique and Denmark, led by Paulino Munisse of the Agriculture Research Institute of Mozambique, point out that intercropping is common practice in tropical developing countries, but state that most research has gone into intercropping with legumes, due to their ability to fix nitrogen into the soil.

Intercropping has the advantage of increasing canopy coverage, which reduces water loss and weeds. In addition, it provides a safety net in case of complete crop failure due to pests or disease affecting the main harvest.

In this study, the researchers looked at two villages in Mabalane district, in the southern province of Gaza (namely Mathize and Yimba Yimue B).

The study found that intercropping maize and watermelon has important implications for food and income security, because the drought-tolerant watermelon yields, even under extreme conditions where the cereal crop might fail.

The study does not look at whether profit rates would rise due to the intercropping, but pointed out that, during the experiment, farmer income was “supported by a group of women traders who transported part of the watermelons about 300 km to a better price market in Maputo”.

The research noted that although maize is not recommended for the specific agro-ecological conditions of this area, the crop is highly valued by local communities and is still a dominant crop in the area.

Pace of Nigerian reform picking up THE PACE OF reform and deregulation is picking up in Nigeria, according to a report to international investors by the Imara financial services group.

The pan-African asset management and investment research company backs its range of African-focused equity funds with on-the-spot evaluations from seasoned analysts.

The latest report to Imara’s international clients contains good news on the regulatory front; specifically in the agri-sector.

Jon Chew, manager of the Imara Nigeria Fund, said the new Nigerian government and its economic advisers had been taken aback by recent petrol riots. “The response,” he added, “had been to speed up the pace of reform and deregulation. In agriculture, for example, which is 44 per cent of GDP, each crop’s value chain has now been analysed and proposals made.”

Historically, Nigeria had a large global market share in crops like cocoa, coffee, cotton, ground nuts and palm oil.

Chew noted: “If this share had been maintained, these crops would now be a US$10bn industry – five per cent of GDP. These industries fell into ruin.”

8 African Farming - May/June 2012

Corruption set in and farmers had “given up”, but change is on the way.

He explained: “The new economic team is now encouraging private markets on the basis that if farmers get the correct price (and tariff protection in the early days) they will start to produce again.”

The previous failure to encourage private enterprise had created numerous structural problems. For instance, the local subsidiary of Unilever had not expanded into a basic product line, like shampoo as Nigeria no longer had any local supplies of the basic raw material, palm oil.

However, expansion of the brand’s range would become feasible once reforms ensured reliable local supplies.

Word on the ground is that large palm oil plantations are being planted by Indonesian entrepreneurs and preparations are being made to set up a new rubber plantation. Reforms would bestow significant benefits on the economy.

Chew commented: “Amazingly, Nigeria spends $10bn on importing wheat, rice, sugar and fish – despite the fact that the last three can be produced locally and that cassava is an acceptable local substitute for wheat.”

www.infoworks.biz

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POULTRY

Across Africa, poultry farmers have to grapple with four main diseases namely New Castle, fowl typhoid, coccidiosis and Gumboro. Mwangi Mumero reports.

Grappling with coccidiosis in poultry

I

N WEST AFRICA, 52 per cent of chicken mortality in Ghana and 80 per cent in Nigeria is attributed to coccidiosis, according to findings published in African Journal of Ethnobiology.

Globally, the disease leads to 51.38 per cent of overall chicken deaths.

In Kenya, the prevalence of coccidiosis is highest according to a study conducted at the University of Nairobi which shows that it accounts for over 35 per cent of all poultry diseases diagnosed.

For instance, Western Kenya - where chicken is considered a local delicacy - prevalence of the disease is over 48 per cent.

“The disease is perhaps the most common in the country affecting broilers and even indigenous chickens. Rural farmers only notice the problem once their chickens start dropping dead after a spell of low production”, observed Dr. Maina Chege, a Nyeri based veterinary officer.

Diseases such as coccidiosis can hamper progress in poultry production from free range systems to more sophisticated battery cage systems.

Coccidiosis is a poultry disease caused by coccidia protozoa that is characterised by diarrhea, decreased feed consumption, rough feathers, brownish to bloody mucus in faeces as well as reduced growth and egg production.

“Under poor poultry rearing systems, mortality can exceed 60 per cent, a huge loss for farmers across the country. Signs of an outbreak include the birds becoming pale and, droopy and they tend to huddle together as if they are cold. Also feed consumption drops dramatically.

Farmers should take quick steps at this point to avert deaths”, notes Dr. Chege.

Mostly indigenous chickens In most African countries, 70 per cent of the poultry production and 20 per cent of the animal protein intake come from indigenous chickens.

For instance, in rural Kenya, every household has some chickens, providing vital protein through eggs and meat. Indigenous chickens also provide a quick source of money in case of emergencies and they have to be sold fast in rural markets.

Chickens also provide guano - a form of farmyard manure needed in improving soil fertility and food production.

However, diseases such as coccidiosis can hamper progress in poultry production from free range systems to more sophisticated battery cage systems.

“We have to spend some monthly income to buy coccidiostats to control these problems and this has been an issue in my farm for a while now. Chicken dropping marked with blood - a sign of coccidiosis - is quite common in the farm”, observes George Thumbi, 10 African Farming - May/June 2012

Chicken management and housing are critical in controlling coccidiosis.

Photo: Mwangi Mumero

a smallholder poultry farmer in urban Kitengela Estate on the outskirts of Nairobi.

Like other urban farmers, Thumbi raises between 50 and 100 chickens - mainly indigenous or crosses - to supplement the family protein sources as well as earn some extra coins when eggs are sold to a local supermarket.

“The disease increases the overall cost of production in terms of the purchase of drugs and occasional loss of birds through death”, he says.

Easy management is possible Experts say that coccidiosis can easily be managed through hygiene and provision of prophylactic drugs in the form of coccidiostats.

These are mixed in water or feed and taken regularly to control the disease.

It is common to introduce the coccidiostats in certain feeds such as starter and finisher feeds in broilers. Chick and duck mash also have coccidiostats.

But hygiene in the poultry units remains the key in stemming the tide of the disease. The protozoa are transmitted through ingestion of contaminated feed or water in the poultry houses.

“The protozoa causing the disease prefer wet places, and eliminating dampness in the poultry houses is vital to reduce cases of the disease. Wet litter harbours the coccidian for long periods and it is therefore necessary to turn litter and occasionally change it completely”, asserts Dr. Chege, the vet.

According to the vet, feeders and waterers should be placed where they will not be contaminated by faeces. They should also be in good condition to stop spillage. At the same time, a good flow of air through adequate ventilation helps to remove dampness and accumulation of ammonia gas in the poultry house.

Overcrowding is another chief contributor to fast coccidiosis

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POULTRY

transmission. Too many birds increase dampness, contaminate waterers and feeders as they scramble for feeding space.

“Equally diseases are transmitted faster once the birds are in close proximity, as contamination of feed is fast through infected faeces.

Ammonia gas which accumulates in the poultry unit affects growth of chicken and especially broilers”.

In Kenya, the majority of smallholder and large scale farmers use the deep litter system to rear their poultry.

Proper litter maintentance essential However, without proper maintenance of the litter, diseases - such as coccidiosis - are quite prevalent in the wet litter.

“Litter has to be changed when introducing new flock immediately after cleaning and disinfecting the floor. People entering the poultry unit must also dip their gumboots into an antiseptic to reduce introduction of the coccidian into the poultry house”, warns Dr Chege.

During an outbreak, experts recommend the use of anti-coccidial drugs, given according to the manufacturer’s recommendations. At the same time, the use of vitamin-antibiotic formula in drinking water medication is necessary to support the recovery process.

In Ghana, West African research has shown that neem extracts can be used by rural farmers as an alternative to expensive cocciostats.

Over the years, the neem tree has been recognised to contain chemicals used in curbing parasites, viruses, bacteria and fungi.

The research shows that aqueous extracts of Neem (Azadiracta indica) could be a possible first aid against coccidiosis in chickens in rural settings in developing countries, and suggests that application of simple aqueous extracts of neem parts may act as a first aid. It concludes that the neem

Hygiene in the poultry units remains the key in stemming the tide of the disease.

Overcrowding is another chief contributor to fast coccidiosis transmission. bark seems the most potent anti-coccidia in chicken.

The neem barks are oven dried-dried at 50°C and pulverised with a hammer. The aqueous extracts are then prepared by placing a known quantity in nine times its volume of drinking water overnight at 25°C. Decanting is then done and is designated as 10 per cent concentration. It may later be diluted. h

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African Farming - May/June 2012 11

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POULTRY

Georgia Institute of Technology researchers believe they're on the edge of a breakthrough, but they don't want to count their chickens before they're processed.

Machine vision technology to find defects

R

ECENT ADVANCEMENTS IN computer-vision technologies now make it possible to collect a wealth of information pertaining to process performance in poultry processing plants.

This type of data collection can provide poultry plants with information that enables personnel to better understand how product quality is varying and to implement control measures to reduce process conditions that may be contributing to that variab ility. As a result, productivity and profitability can be significantly improved throughout the plant.

Study nearing completion In a study nearing completion at Gold Kist’s Carrollton, GA, USA, poultry processing plant, Georgia Tech researchers and plant management are discovering that kill line product quality screening data can be a valuable tool in identifying trends that can be used to better control processing operations.

The wealth of data produced by the system is valuable in its own right.

The Georgia Tech/Gold Kist partnership began several years ago when Georgia Tech researchers sought a plant in which to test an on-line imaging system they had developed.

Initially, a single imaging cell was installed on one of the plant’s two kill lines, primarily to screen for systemically defective birds (septicemia/toxemia, unbled birds, and severe overscalding). As the system began to prove its reliability, a second cell was placed on the other line, and new features were added that included the ability to track the occurrence rates for broken wings and bruising. These new data sets soon proved to be extremely valuable to plant management.

“The wealth of data produced by the system is valuable in its own right,” comments John Stewart, Georgia Tech’s lead investigator on the project. “Alarms can be set to be triggered when defect rates exceed preset levels, quickly alerting managers to problems on the line as they are occurring so

12 African Farming - May/June 2012

corrective actions can be taken as quickly as possible to reduce re-work and downgrades.”

Post analysis of the data, he explains, also allows managers to compare the performance of different processing shifts and growers. These comparisons can help identify more subtle problems needing correction.

However, to be effective, more information is needed relative to understanding the relationships between defect levels measured by the inspection system and the factors contributing to them. Ongoing study in this area is being conducted using funds from Georgia’s Traditional Industries Program for Food Processing in coordination with the Food Processing Advisory Council (FoodPAC).

“Kill room operations are the one part of the process that can be dynamically controlled to influence the defect levels being observed by the screening system. As these settings change, their impact on quality is immediately seen by the screening system.

Therefore, relationships between screening system measurements and kill room settings offer a strong basis for automated supervisory control,” says Stewart.

Studying those relationships, nonetheless, called for a more in-depth tracking system for kill line operations than currently exists. This was achieved by instrumenting one line at the plant with additional sensors to monitor scalder temperatures, picking machine positions and motor current, stunner settings, and environmental conditions. BOCThinkage, an industrial partner on the project, donated the necessary measurement instrumentation.

As the study has progressed, the team has begun to observe that bird size plays an important role in broken wing rates. After experimenting with several size measurement options, including total projected area, breast width, and total length, researchers have found that the strongest relationship exists between breast width and broken wings.

Analysis of production data where the pickers were set for optimum feather removal shows that birds with wider breast widths had more than twice the rate of broken wings compared to smaller birds.

Productivity and profitability can be significantly improved throughout the plant.

Further analysis ongoing While these findings are confirming suspicions that picker settings have the highest potential impact on the rates, further analysis is still ongoing. One of the main challenges to be faced is balancing the need for effective feather removal with the need to minimise wing breakage. Thus far, the team has clearly shown that high breakage rates can be decreased on a consistent basis by reducing the aggressiveness of the picker settings. However, less aggressive picker settings can result in poor feather removal efficiency. In addition, Stewart says, the team is evaluating the impacts of stunner settings and scalder temperatures on broken wing rates and discoloration.

Regardless of the outcome, the study is already proving that the imaging cell can provide feedback to operators who are adjusting the pickers, enabling them to immediately understand the repercussions of those adjustments on wing breakage. This is an important step forward in striking a better balance between feather removal efficiency and the rate of broken wings.

The team is also working with plant personnel in the hopes of devising control schemes that might eventually allow kill room machinery to be changed automatically to minimise the defect rate measured by the vision system.

S03 AF MayJune 2012 Poultry_Layout 1 16/05/2012 10:15 Page 13

A valuable tool “The imaging system will be a valuable tool in the near future. It will enable production to track flock size, percent of bruising, percent of wing damage, along with other quality issues. This will give production time to react to the quality of product being sent to second processing,” adds Thomas Bradford, unit manager 1st processing at Gold Kist-Carrollton.

The imaging system is the target of ongoing commercialization efforts that include a partnership with Gainco, Inc., which is currently marketing the design under an exclusive manufacturing license.

In addition, BOC-Thinkage holds a use license on the design and is currently offering it as part of its in-plant optimisation service.

Engineers at the Georgia Tech Research Institute have developed a machine vision system that could open the door for automating many visual-inspection tasks in the poultry processing industry.

Cone line bone detection system Further processed products are the mainstay of the poultry industry, with the key player usually being deboned breast fillets.

However, missed bones, particularly the clavicle and fan, in these fillets continue to be of concern to processors. Current screening techniques for finding missed bones are labourintensive and expensive, not to mention, they are not as accurate as desired.

FPTD researchers have developed a prototype automatic screening system to identify the presence of bone on the cone line providing an opportunity not only to assist in avoiding missed bones in product but also providing real-time monitoring of product yield.

Currently, one of two methods is used to inspect the product for bones. Plant personnel manually screen the product through sight and feel, or the processing plant uses sophisticated x-ray systems to inspect the product. However, neither method fully addresses the missed bone challenge, and missed bones still manage to end up in the final product.

“Because of this, deboned product customers are now placing additional

From a quality control perspective, the ability to detect these bones early in the process could improve production efficiencies pressures on suppliers to further reduce the incidence of missed bones,” explains Wayne Daley, project director.

In addition, he notes, current bone detection methods are reactive as opposed to proactive, allowing little opportunity for process control.

Complicating the problem is the fact that some bone types are extremely difficult to find at inspection stations after deboning.

“From a quality control perspective, the ability to detect these bones early in the process could improve production efficiencies by helping to reduce the amount of rework needed while optimising yield. We set out to develop an approach that allows for detection of missed bones where the information can be used to control the process because the problem is more tractable,” says Daley.

The prototype system functions by scanning for missed bones on the debone line immediately after the fillets have been pulled from the cage or frame. This allows for a timely response to observe if bone pieces are missing from the cage and check suspect fillets before they are mixed through general transfer mechanisms.

The approach uses a specially designed cone with internal illumination that has the effect of backlighting the cage (skeleton) so that it appears like an x-ray image. This image provides a clear view of the bone structure that makes up the cage. The system then analyses the image to determine if the fan bone or clavicle bone is present. If these bones are absent, the potential exists for them to be in the meat that was just removed from the cage. These suspect fillets can then be removed for closer examination. Daley says the approach reduces the screening effort and will work on both automated and manual deboning lines.

In addition to missed bone, it would also be possible to monitor the frame for excess meat so that a measure of yield could be tracked and fed back into the process so as to maintain acceptable levels of performance, adds Daley. The team plans to continue conducting more extensive testing of this approach. h

African Farming - May/June 2012 13

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NEWS

Infectious bronchitis in poultry may be controlled with vaccine regimen INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS IN poultry may be controlled with a regimen that includes priming with at least one live vaccine followed by boosting with an inactivated vaccine, according to Aris Malo, DVM, global technical director for poultry at MSD Animal Health during a recent workshop in the UK. The infectious bronchitis virus is persistent and disseminates quickly, making it a continuing menace to the poultry industry, said Malo, and new versions of it emerge often due to the fact that it is an RNA virus and subject to mutations

and recombination. According to other studies, layers not vaccinated against infectious bronchitis had over a 70 per cent drop in egg production. In contrast, vaccination at three and 16 weeks of age with an inactivated M41 infectious bronchitis vaccine, and without a live primer, resulted in egg-production declines of about 30 per cent. A protocol employing a live infectious bronchitis Massachusetts-strain vaccine at three weeks of age, followed by a different live infectious bronchitis Massachusetts-strain vaccine at 16 weeks of

,age, resulted in a 10 per cent drop.

No decline in egg production occurred in birds vaccinated once with a live infectious bronchitis vaccine at three weeks of age followed by an inactivated vaccine at 15 weeks of age. “The best results were achieved when live priming was followed by boosting with an inactivated vaccine,” said Sjaak de Wit, of the Animal Health Service in The Netherlands. De Wit said he advocates testing to determine what strains of the virus are circulating and to enable wise vaccine protocol choices.

Tanzania’s efforts to boost poultry industry underway MUVEK DEVELOPMENT SOLUTIONS has organised a two day event to launch Research Into Use (RIU) Programme in knowledge outputs in Dar es Salaam to be opened by the Prime Minister, Mr Mizengo Pinda.

The knowledge outputs are lessons and recommendations from implementing the RIU Programme in Tanzania between June 2008 and June 2011. The programme worked to develop the indigenous chicken industry towards increased productivity and competitiveness.

The launch event will highlight policy and practical lessons which

have the potential to socially and economically transform the industry as well as promote rural innovation, entrepreneurship and consequently improve rural incomes and wealthy distribution. RIU will briefly present its work in Tanzania including the analysis of the indigenous poultry industry, lessons and challenges.

Key policy and practice recommendations from the knowledge outputs will be presented as specific issues that need to be addressed to successfully commercialise the indigenous poultry industry that is inclusive of rural producers.

Chevron partner in Libera for poultry hatchery/feed mill OIL DRILLING COMPANY Chevron and not-for-profit development organisation BRAC-Liberia have signed an agreement to

Facilities will create jobs, expand industry, build awareness.

contribute US$375,000 to a poultry hatchery and feed mill project that, when developed, will address the growing demand for eggs on the Liberian market by the public and create job opportunities for poultry and livestock farmers, according to reports.

BRAC-Liberia livestock manager, Dr. Mahmud Hossain, said that Liberia has a lack of poultry feed and day-old chicks in its industry, and that developing a hatchery and feed mill in the country is essential. The project is beneficial in terms of job creation and capacity-building for Liberian employees at the facility level, such as hatchery supervisor, farm supervisor and technicians, as well as opportunities offered for BRAC-supported community

Newcastle disease outbreak threatens Free State AN OUTBREAK OF Newcastle disease (NCD) has hit Taung local municipality, killing more than 180 chickens.

According to Gareth Lloyd-Jones, MD of Ecowize - a leading hygiene and sanitation company servicing the food sector, the outbreak is severe and urgently needs to be addressed, as the risk of the disease spreading by movement of infected poultry,

14 African Farming - May/June 2012

people and vehicles is extremely high. Drastic measures, such as culling all infected birds, need to be taken in order to curb the spread of this disease and safeguard the poultry industry.

Lloyd-Jones says it is crucial that they implement stringent surveillance and monitoring measures to prevent this kind of outbreak becoming a nationwide threat.

livestock and poultry promoters, who are micro-entrepreneurs spreading livestock and poultry-related messages among others. Hossain said special awareness will be created and community residents will be mobilised, informed on incomegenerating activities, as well as support for rearers through a supply of chicks, feed, medicine and vaccines.

After receiving training about commercial poultry rearing, farmers will be able to rear commercial layer birds. The 1,000 parent stock from the project are expected to produce about 225,000 hatchable eggs per year, with 50 per cent to be commercial layer hens, according to BRAC-Liberia. The hatchery and feed mill should be fully self-sustaining in three years, according to plan estimates.

South Africa says 'no crisis' with Brazil on poultry SOUTH AFRICA DOES not believe Brazil will go to the World Trade Organization over its decision to impose higher tariffs on some poultry imports, and that there's "no big crisis" with Brazil on poultry, according to South Africa Trade Minister Rob Davies.

Brazil's poultry association has said that it would ask the government to approach the World trade Organization about import charges of six per cent to 63 per cent that South Africa imposed on Brazil's exports. Initial information showed that Brazilian producers were dumping products in South Africa and neighboring countries, according to legal representation for the South African Poultry Association.

S03 AF MayJune 2012 Poultry_Layout 1 16/05/2012 10:15 Page 15

NEWS

Sudan Poultry Expo THE SUDAN POULTRY Expo is a major specialised event dedicated to the development of poultry, livestock and agricultural production in Sudan, with animal numbers exceeding 180mn cattle - the largest in Africa and Middle East.

SPE 7th Session will witness a dramatic change in exhibitors and visitors due to constant development of the event and the rapid development and leapfrog growth of the poultry industry in Sudan, leading to doubling the stands sold at SPE for this session .

With its spacious halls and spectacular gardens, KIFG avail to organisers, exhibitors and visitors a wide range of services and it is considered as one of the leading venues in Africa and Middle East.

SPE has been widely promoted at international events like VIV Asia in Bangkok, Agrena in Egypt, Space in France, Vetrana in Jordan and the Khartoum International Fair.

Ghana government not to ban poultry imports GHANA HAS NO immediate plans to ban poultry imports into the country, in spite of farmers' concerns that the domestic market is being hampered by foreign business, according to reports.

While a ban isn't being ruled out, there must first be a boost in local production, said Deputy Agriculture Minister Dr. Sugri Tia. Tariffs are another option not completely ruled out, but not being put into effect at the moment. “Consumption of poultry has been very low and people’s purchasing power has not been the best: We are trying to push local production while encouraging people to consume more," said Tia. "So we want to keep their appetite for chicken there.”

Cost is also a consideration — reducing imports would mean a price increase that the government says it doesn't want to impose on consumers. “At the same time we don’t want our farmers to be out of production, so we are trying to find innovative ways of helping them produce locally while we watch what is going on," said Tia.

The 7th session of SPE will include the following sectors: ● Sudan Dairy Cattle Show ● Milk Technology Show ● Refrigeration Exhibition ● Poultry, Meat and Milk Festival Sudan recognised the potential of the poultry industry early in the 1950s and now it is booming. Sudan has the potential to be a major exporter of poultry products, as a large number of local and international investors are starting new poultry business in Sudan.

Major companies from Europe, including Big Dutchman, Tecno, FACCO, Specht, C-Lines, Bovan, Hyline, Intervet, Petersime, Myne Food Processing Technology, Systemate, Celtic, CID-LINES, VDL and PasReform are amongst the highly valued exhibitors.

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African Farming - May/June 2012 15

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CROPS

Enhancing food security in Kenya through a business-to-business approach: seed potato ‘fast-track'

Seed potato ‘fast-track’

I

N KENYA POTATO is the most important food crop after maize. It has a high potential to contribute positively to food security, provided that good quality seed potatoes become available to boost yields and increase the overall availability of potatoes to a wide range of consumers. Potato fits well in the strategy of the Ministry of Foreign affairs and the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation to develop ‘fast track initiatives’ aimed at having a rapid impact on food security with private sector involvement.

With this background, the Netherlands Embassy in Nairobi selected the fast track seed potato initiative as one of their

16 African Farming - May/June 2012

priority projects. The Wageningen UR Centre for Development Innovation was invited to formulate the seed potato project and co-ordinate its implementation in close collaboration and engagement with private sector partners in Kenya and the Netherlands.

The project builds on the considerable experience of the Dutch seed potato sector to supply high quality seed potatoes to many tropical countries where potato is an important food crop and where good quality seed is scarce.

The approach taken in the project is to develop a suitable protocol with the Kenyan authorities for the annual import of a limited quantity of high quality Dutch

The project builds on the considerable experience of the Dutch seed potato sector to supply high quality seed potatoes to many tropical countries. seed potatoes in accordance with international trade agreements. The imported seed potato is then multiplied in Kenya for two generations by qualified seed potato growers. They produce, store and market seed potatoes that are certified by the Kenyan seed certification

S04 AF MayJune 2012 Biocontrol_Layout 1 16/05/2012 10:25 Page 17

CROPS

certified seed potatoes to produce (informal) seed or ware potatoes for both fresh and processing markets.

In parts of southern and eastern Africa, where maize currently dominates crop production, less reliable rainfall is making some farmers plant potato instead.

agency Kephis. The multiplication of imported seed potatoes is needed to: ● rapidly increase the small quantity of imported seed; and

● to reduce the cost price to make good

quality seed affordable to a wide range of local growers, most of them small scale famers. These farmers plant the locally-

Business-to-business In the project a business-to-business approach is taken, where Kenyan business partners import and multiply seed potatoes of suitable varieties from the Netherlands that are well adapted to Kenyan conditions.

The project also has a strong public–private partnership dimension. The public sector in Kenya provides the framework and regulations to control the quality of locally multiplied seed while the actual seed multiplication and marketing is done by the private sector. The project facilitates matchmaking between business partners, supports local seed multiplication and marketing, as well as collaboration between the Kenyan and Dutch seed certification agencies to ensure optimal quality of locally multiplied seed.

To conclude, this fast track initiative on seed potatoes shows that through a commercial trade and business approach the local supply of high quality seed potatoes can be significantly improved within a few years. This in turn can triple current potato yield levels, thus enhancing food security. h

Exceeding expectations in Eastern Africa THE ‘WEALTH CREATION Through Potatoes Project’ in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda has been described as a model project by an FAO monitoring and evaluation consultant, noting that several of its achievements have surpassed their targets. The project had a Steering Committee meeting in Addis Ababa last year with participants from Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda at which project progress was reviewed. With one more year to go, the project had already exceeded targets for training, the amount of quality seed produced and distributed, and construction and use of diffused light stores.

The purpose of this project is to reduce poverty among target smallholder potato farmers in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda. It includes parallel interventions in seed potato production and marketing, along with the implementation of improvements in ware potato production and marketing chains.

The Wealth Creation Through Potatoes Project in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Uganda has been described as a model project bythe FAO.

African Farming - May/June 2012 17

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BIOTECHNOLOGY

Desert Edge is helping pastoralists develop environmentally sound and viable enterprises.

Sustainable development of bio-products

I

N KENYA, THE arid and semi arid regions of Laikipia and Samburu are rich in biodiversity, but the erosion of traditional management systems has resulted in widespread unsustainable use of natural resources. To benefit from increasing demand from national and international markets for honey, beeswax and beauty products from indigenous natural ingredients, the not-for-profit company, Desert Edge, is helping pastoralists to develop environmentally sound and viable enterprises. As a result community members have tangible opportunities to diversify and supplement their livestock-based incomes from their own natural resources.

The aim is to provide tangible incentives to producers to sustainably manage natural resources.

Harvesting African honey.

To build and strengthen organisational structures and value chains, the project has provided extension support and training (in business and finance management, bee keeping technologies, and organic farming) to more than 831 producers, organised into 34 groups. By providing these services, Desert Edge aims to assist producers in the region to operate more efficiently and achieve higher quality products, while maintaining their natural resource base. "Developing ethical businesses in this remote and underdeveloped region requires organised groups, experience in technical aspects of production, exposure to fair markets, existence of traceability and an understanding of financial management," explains Susie Wren from Desert Edge.

"Desert Edge upholds ethical and sustainable trade in bio-products that is based on sound management, and strong value chains that operate through

18 African Farming - May/June 2012

transparency and traceability systems," Wren adds. To achieve this, the company provides technical training and extension support, development of internal control systems, used for the development of strong supply chains and for organic certification compliance, and on-going monitoring. "The aim is to provide tangible incentives to producers to sustainably manage natural resources."

Desert Edge has also established a laboratory to chemically analyse plant compounds, and field trials to develop viable enterprises from the domestication of certain indigenous plant species, such as hypericum, plectranthus, ocimum and hypoxis species.

Desert Edge enables women to play a stronger role in harvesting, processing and packaging by providing skills and guidance through on-going technical and business training and mentoring. Women have also been helped to open bank accounts in order to receive payment from Desert Edge for their products. The

training sessions have also been designed to be practical, and are held in community areas, to allow women to participate more easily.

Adding value Raw and semi-processed bio-products that have met quality control standards are purchased at a nationally competitive price from the producers at seven depots constructed and equipped by Desert Edge. With the use of a central processing facility and two honey refineries, the semiprocessed products are then processed, packed and branded before being dispatched to retail or export markets. An additional ten per cent of the profit from the processed products is then given to the producers. "Desert Edge is using ethical trade to achieve positive social and environmental change, and assisting vulnerable communities to develop more resilience to climate change," Wren adds.

Honey, herbal teas, healthcare products and body and face care

S04 AF MayJune 2012 Biocontrol_Layout 1 16/05/2012 10:25 Page 19

BIOTECHNOLOGY

to increase supply and trade, while protecting the natural resource base. In addition to selling honey and wax products, the company also hopes to expand its collection, processing and marketing to include apitherapy products, phyto-medicines and supplements.

"Sustainable development of these enterprises provides valuable opportunities for communities to diversify into sound, viable and climatically resilient enterprises, at the same time as taking an active role in the long term conservation of the environment," Wren concludes. h Aloe leaves harvesting.

products are currently sold to national retail outlets and hotel chains. Desert Edge has also developed links with ethical buyers of organic and natural products elsewhere in Africa and internationally. In March 2011, full organic status was gained for honey, wax and cape chestnut seed sold for bodycare oil.

Positive policies To harness extension opportunities and to seek advice and support in relation to creating an enabling legal and policy environment for plant-based enterprise development, Desert Edge established strong links with the Ministry of Livestock Development and the Ministry of Agriculture. "This pioneering and innovative approach has attracted strong interest from the Kenyan government and the development sector," Wren says.

"Desert Edge is working in conjunction with a government consortium to ensure that the process informs national policy and meets international sustainable wild harvesting regulations."

"From the training and extension input, the groups have grown in size, supply has increased and both women and men are confident to adapt and diversify their livelihoods to include bio-enterprise activities," explains Maxwell Lumbasi, product and business development manager for Desert Edge. "Through the income raised from the sale of honey and aloe to Desert Edge I am now able to send my second child to school," adds Ngina Muthoka.

Ensuring sustainability To ensure lasting impact, Desert Edge is aiming to reach the point where profits gained through the ethical trade of bioproducts will finance the service provision.

And by continuing to build producers' capacity to improve production and processing techniques, Desert Edge hopes

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CASSAVA

Replacing imported barley with locally-grown cassava starch for beer brewing has created a market in South Sudan

Cassava - big business in South Sudan

T

WO HOURS DRIVE from South Sudan's main city of Juba, the Jujumbo Farmer Field School might seem an unlikely partner for one of Africa's leading brewing companies. But this well-organised group of 20 smallholders is among 2,000 South Sudanese farmers who from July 2012 will be selling their cassava crop to Southern Sudan Beverages Ltd (SSBL), part of the South Africa-based SABMiller (an African-originated, global, fast moving consumer goods company).

In so doing, and if all goes well, they will be providing a valuable illustration of how the private sector can become a key player in boosting small-farmer productivity.

Replacing imported barley with locally-grown cassava starch for its beer brewing has created a market in South Sudan for a crop that in the past has been widely regarded as a poor man's food and an insurance against drought. But the reward of a higher price depends on growing a high quality crop that can meet the brewer's standards. Achieving greater yields is also important, in order to maintain adequate supply, with the company keen to significantly expand its current capacity.

The reward of a higher price depends on growing a high quality crop that can meet the brewer's standards.

Fortunately for these farmers, SABMiller has been ready to invest to get the quality of produce it needs, supplying improved planting material, tools, fertilisers and pesticides, as well as an assured market for the crop to 14 farmer groups. Tools are communally owned, and can be borrowed by group members.

Each group also has a 'seed for seed' agreement, by which they supply planting material equal to that received, to be shared with another group.

Healthy cassava plant in the South Sudan cassava project.

20 African Farming - May/June 2012

SABMiller (whose motto is "Making a Difference Through Beer") has seized on the abundance of cassava to create a market for small farmers.

Cassava champions Introducing new farming techniques has proved challenging, with many group members cautious about abandoning their traditional methods. Cassava plants take a relatively long time to produce a crop, so growers must be prepared to wait for up to a year to realise results. Language barriers and low literacy levels have increased the challenge, and government agriculture officers have only offered limited support to the project.

Support from Farm-Africa Support has come, however, from a UK-based NGO, FarmAfrica, which initially facilitated the farmer-brewer partnership.

The partnership underpins Farm-Africa's cassava growing project, which is supported by funding from the Africa Enterprise Challenge Fund. The NGO has trained a team of 15 champion farmers in best practices for cassava production, including use of disease-resistant varieties, crop rotation, intercropping and soil fertility management. The champion farmers are now training the 14 farmer groups which have been established and which are already functional. With guidance from the champions, group members have also been able to investigate the new techniques through demonstration plots. Approximately 500 farmers have now received cassava cuttings.

The plots, which are around 70m by 60m, have been established in each sub-county throughout the project area.

Each plot is divided in two, with one area cultivated traditionally and the other planted with the new varieties according to the recommended techniques. Correct spacing and regular weeding are emphasised, and the farmers are encouraged to try new planting methods, including horizontal planting of stems for rapid germination and deeper vertical planting to protect the cassava tubers from predation by wild animals.

By working directly on new methods with the groups, carrying

S05 AF MayJune 2012 Cassava & Oil Palm_Layout 1 16/05/2012 12:12 Page 21

A woman chops up cassava stems for her colleagues to plant.

out regular monitoring of their fields and making comparisons between traditional and new methods, widespread adoption of better farming practices among group members has been achieved. "Improved methods of cultivation allow us to use less planting material," says Emmanuel Kenyi, a lead farmer in the Mirikiyo farmer group.

“Improved methods of cultivation allow us to use less planting material.�

Collective marketing In addition to these steps to increase cassava production, FarmAfrica's project co-ordinators have also trained the farmer groups in business, finance and collective marketing skills. This will provide them with the support needed to access the assured market provided by SAB Miller and other markets outside SAB Miller’s supply chain in order to get the best price for their crop. All 14 farmer groups that are working with the project now meet regularly, and have organised activities to build skills such as book-keeping and recording of sales. The groups are also serving as a useful forum for sharing information on potential threats to the cassava crop, such as water-logging and termite attack.

Adding value to the crop Adding value to the crop is another way in which these former subsistence farmers are hoping to develop a more businesslike approach. Currently SSBL is planning to buy fresh cassava tubers from the groups, but is also interested to give them access to processing equipment, so that the raw crop can be dried and turned into chips or flour. Any surplus not bought by the brewery can then be sold in this processed, higher value form to local food industries and livestock feed enterprises.

It is hoped that actual sales of tubers to the brewery will begin in the second half of 2012. At the time of writing, a final price had not been agreed, but initial estimates are that the annual income of participating farmers could rise from US$300 to US$500 per one acre plot of cassava, thanks to the increase in quality and quantity of the crop, plus the higher price earned.

Project coordinator for FARM-Africa, Stephanie Wachira, acknowledges the difficulty of introducing commercial standards of production among subsistence farmers in Africa's newest country. Despite this, however, she remains hopeful: "The long war period has made farmers hesitant to invest in agriculture," she says, "but as they begin to see the benefits, both in terms of income and food security this will change." h

African Farming - May/June 2012 21

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OIL PALM

Adequate nutrition is essential during the growth and development stages of the oil palm since nutrient uptake establishes the plant’s production potential.

Nutrients for oil palm: A question of balance

E

VERY CROP HAS essential nutrient requirements for proper growth and development, and oil palm, in spite of its tough and robust appearance, is no exception. An insufficient amount of a specific nutrient will arrest growth, reduce yield and in acute circumstances cause deficiency symptoms. Plant nutrition is all about balance. A specific nutrient has to be supplied at a particular level, not only in its own right but also in relation to other nutrients. For instance, soils with an excess of iron may limit the availability of sulphur. Oil palm clearly requires more nitrogen than aluminium but if the aluminium becomes available in just moderate amounts, it will lead to phytotoxicity and crop damage.

The other aspect of balance relates to replenishment of nutrients lost from the soil by runoff and leaching, but also through biomass removal during agronomic practices like leaf pruning and particularly harvesting of the fruit bunches. This avenue of nutrient loss can be kept to a minimum by recycling as much of the oil palm debris and tissue as possible. For instance, if shed male flowers and pruned old leaves are left on top of the soil they are quickly broken down and the nutrients within re-cycled.

Similarly, bunch stalks should be left behind at harvest, but removal of the fruits for processing eliminates a huge store of nutrients. All that is lost must be re-introduced into the oil palm ecosystem by measured fertiliser application based on requirements as determined by soil testing and foliar analysis.

Oil palm, along with all other green plants, has nutrient requirements as follows: ● Macronutrients – nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K).

These three, which are generally required in the greatest amounts, are applied as ‘single source’ fertilisers (e.g. urea and calcium phosphate) or as NPK composites, the exact ratio of N, P and K depending on crop requirement as related to the stage of growth and development. ● Mesonutrients – sulphur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg). These have been traditionally categorised as macronutrients. They are required in substantial amounts but nowhere near as large as N, P and K and therefore warrant a separate category. ● Micronutrients – iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Aluminium (Al), Boron (B), Molybdenum (Mo), chlorine (Cl).

Alternatively called trace elements because they are only required in the tiniest quantities.

Other soil-sourced elements which are not essential but may be beneficial are sodium (Na), silcon (Si) and cobalt (Co). Carbon and oxygen are derived from atmospheric carbon dioxide and hydrogen directly from the water molecule.

Macronutrients Nitrogen: Nitrogen, which mostly enters the plant as the soluble nitrate ion (NO3-) is a building block for tissue growth. Nitrogen is an integral part of every amino acid, and therefore plant proteins, and a core component of key molecules including chlorophyll and nucleic acids. Without nitrogen, there is no growth and no yield. Deficiency in

22 African Farming - May/June 2012

Efficient fertiliser application and nutrient uptake requires good weed control

nitrogen first shows as a discolouration of young oil palm fronds, which lose their healthy dark green colour and turn yellow (chlorosis).

As the deficiency takes hold, older leaves turn yellow as well and reduced growth and production become apparent. Deficiency in nitrogen is caused by a number of factors, which include: ● poor drainage and waterlogged soil, ● inherently infertile soils exhausted by previous agricultural activity, ● failure to properly establish leguminous cover crops (e.g Pueraria phaseoloides and Centrosema pubescens) which boost supplies through nitrogen fixation as well as preventing soil erosion and ● excessive competition from aggressive weeds like the grass Imperata cylindrica If correction or alleviation of the above constraints has no effect, application of nitrogen fertiliser as urea or ammonium sulphate is required.

Potassium: Oil palm carries large quantities of potassium particularly in the stalks, fibres and shells and therefore correspondingly large amounts are removed at harvest. Potassium plays a crucial role in oil palm metabolism with a direct effect on the functioning of the chlorophyll molecule in photosynthesis. In addition, potassium ions control stomatal opening and therefore the controlled entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and the controlled loss of water. For this reason, the potassium ion is commonly called the ‘gatekeeper’ and plays a key role in tolerance to drought and the effects of wilt disease caused by fungal pathogens such as Fusarium oxysporum var elaeidis.

Potassium deficits show up quickly as loss of yield but severe shortfalls also cause deficiency in the leaves. These show first as a slight but perceptible loss of green leaf colour turning pale yellow with time or the development of orange coloured spots, which gradually coalesce. Symptoms appear on the lower and intermediate leaves and

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OIL PALM Good nutrition is essential for oil palm at all stages of growth and development

indicate a potassium content which has dipped below the critical level of 0.6 per cent. Cause of potassium deficiency is inadequate soil potassium concentration, a perpetual problem in tropical soils exhausted by continual cropping and leached by heavy rainfall.

Supplementation with potassium fertiliser is the answer, but some soils are vulnerable to compaction at quite shallow depths from the addition of potassium as a single high dose.

Phosphorus: Phosphorus is a key component in many of biochemicals involved in respiration and nutrition (e.g. ATP – Adenosine triphosphate) and deficiencies, and therefore have a quick and fundamental effect on growth and yield. Phosphorus specifically promotes root development and is closely involved in the whole reproductive process including fertilisation, seed set and fruit development. Low soil availability is usually the cause of phosphorus deficiency, which can be corrected by applying a quick-acting fastrelease fertiliser like triple super-phosphate, or one with a slow-release profile depending on the structure and demands of different soils.

Mesonutrients Magnesium: Magnesium forms the framework of the chlorophyll molecule and any deficiency is seen long before yield begins to suffer.

The yellowing of the leaf is most acute and obvious at the margins of the plot where leaves are exposed to most sunshine. In addition to deficiencies caused by primary lack of magnesium in the soil, secondary deficiencies occur after excessive applications of potassium, which affects the availability of magnesium to oil palm.

Chlorine: In most crops chlorine is one of the least important nutrients, but in oil palm it has a particularly important role in proper maturation of the palm fruits. Deficiencies reduce production by

affecting the weight and numbers of fruit available for harvest as well as the weight of the kernel. Chlorine deficiency only becomes a real problem for land away from sea salt (sodium chloride) which is carried in the air. Often there is enough chlorine in potassium fertiliser (potassium chloride) to prevent problems occurring.

Sulphur and calcium: Sulphur is an important component of several essential amino acids (methionine and cysteine) but is rarely deficient except for young plants in exhausted ferrallite soils with high iron contents. Calcium is important for root development and meristem (the growing point) activity but deficiencies have never been documented.

Micronutrients Aluminium, copper and boron: Aluminium is required in trace amounts but can become a problem in acid soils. The low pH increases solubility causing aluminium ions to build up in the roots with phytotoxic and growth arresting results. Alleviate the problem by liming the soil (adding calcium carbonate) to raise the pH.

African Farming - May/June 2012 23

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OIL PALM

Copper is essential for the proper working of enzymes involved in photosynthesis. Though only needed in small amounts, deficiencies rapidly show up as reduced growth and chlorosis of the middle part of the crown. Correct the problem with sprays of blue copper sulphate at the appropriate concentration because copper sulphate is toxic to many plants above a certain level.

Although boron is the least well understood of trace elements, a deficiency will have marked effects including deformed young leaves commonly called ‘fishbone’ leaf or ‘little’ leaf. They become elongated, shaped like bayonets or corrugated, with the petiole, rachis and leaflets grossly shortened. Untreated deficiency will progress into bud rot and tree mortality. Correct with Borax at a dose of 30 g around the base of each young tree.

Iron, zinc and manganese: Iron has a vital role in respiration as a cofactor for enzymes in the Krebs cycle but deficiencies are rarely a problem even though typical tropical soils are not over-endowed with iron. Similarly, manganese is a co-factor for enzymes that drive photosynthesis but field problems have yet to be recorded. Zinc has its role in auxin (a plant hormone) metabolism and if deficiency occurs, it can be corrected with applications of zinc sulphate, which is rapidly absorbed and utilised by young oil palm.

old. Samples should be taken at the beginning of the dry season or during periods of low rainfall, and not for 48 hours after rainfall.

Reliable results require a sampling size of up to four trees per 100, depending on age, and uniformity of the area with regard to soil type and fertility and the varieties of palm that have been planted.

In order to make meaningful comparisons throughout the life of the trees, leaf samples should always be taken from the same trees. Trees of the same variety and age should be selected, and leaves from the same position on each should be taken. Generally speaking, the sample should comprise at least 100 leaflets – four from each of 25 trees, with the same number leaf sampled on all 25 trees.

The exact position of the leaf to be sampled will depend on age of tree with leaf 9, and leaf 17 for, respectively, trees at 2-3 years and 3 years and older. Leaflets are selected from a position one third back from the tip of the frond (leaf). Four leaflets per leaf/tree are picked by taking two lower tier (ranked) leaflets and two upper tier leaflets. The two-tier ranking of leaflets on the palm leaf, in which adjacent leaflets are attached at slightly different levels on the rachis gives the oil palm frond its ragged appearance which is not seen in other palms like coconut. h Dr Terry Mabbett

Foliar analysis Deficiency symptoms are only an indication of nutrient shortfall. Soil testing will tell you the concentration of nutrient in the soil but much of this may not be available to the plant. The only way to determine whether your oil palms have the correct levels of nutrients is to carry out foliar (leaf) analysis.

Foliar analysis is not usually employed until the trees are three years

24 African Farming - May/June 2012

References: Jacquemard, J.C. (1998). Oil Palm.

The Tropical Agriculturalist. Macmillan.

Hartley, C.W.S. (1988). The Oil Palm.

Tropical Agriculture Series. Longman

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RICE

Africa shifts from backbreaking operations to almost labour-free threshing.

The little machine that could

T

HE EXCITEMENT OF rice farmers in Saint-Louis, Senegal, upon seeing an appropriate engine-driven small-scale thresher from Asia in the mid-1990s could not have been far different from that of the first American president, George Washington, in 1796, when he was expecting the first horse-powered threshing machine to arrive from London. He described the new machine as one of “the most valuable institutions in this country; for nothing is more wanting and to be wished for on our farms.”

The Asian rice thresher, which the Senegalese rice farmers appreciated, was sent by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) upon request by the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice). It was expected that this thresher could be locally manufactured and mounted to serve as an alternative to manual threshing.

Based on the IRRI prototype, it can reduce the drudgery associated with hand threshing and improve yield and marketability of rice.

An ASI thresher is being used at the Institut d’Economie Rurale (IER), Niono, Mali.

ASI yields six tons of paddy per day vis-à-vis one ton by manual threshing and four tons by Votex, the alternative small-scale thresher that was available in the Senegal River Valley.

Moreover, with a grain-straw separation rate of 99 per cent, no additional labour is required for sifting and winnowing The making of ASI Thanks to an innovative partnership forged between national compared to Votex, which could not properly separate grains and international research and extension organisations, local from straw after threshing.

In other words, it reduces labour requirements, freeing up artisans, farmers’ organisations, and the private sector, an improved rice thresher for the Senegal River Valley (the principal family members, particularly women, for other useful tasks; zone for irrigated rice in the country) was soon developed. Based speeds up the postharvest process; allows production of a on the IRRI prototype, it can reduce the drudgery associated with higher quality product with lower risk of damage; and increases the marketability of local rice in the face of imports. hand threshing and improve yield and marketability of rice.

Recognising its immense value for the Substantial modifications were made to country as a technical solution that is the original thresher, including doubling acceptable to everyone in the riceits capacity, making it more robust by growing community, including women, using sturdier material, increasing its the Grand Prix du Président de la processing power, and adding two wheels République du Sénégal pour les Sciences to make it a four-wheel version.

(Special Prize of the President of Senegal Named “ASI” after the three main for Scientific Research) was conferred in partners—AfricaRice, the Senegal River 2003 on the ASI thresher team. The team Valley National Development Agency included AfricaRice Deputy Director (SAED), and the Senegalese Institute of General Marco Wopereis, who had Agricultural Research (ISRA)—the thresher served as an agronomist in the Saintwent through several adaptations to Louis Station of AfricaRice in the ’90s and ensure that it met the requirements of was closely involved in all the stages of producers and women rice farmers ASI’s development. engaged in threshing activities.

An impact study conducted by AfricaRice ASI was commercially released in in Senegal 12 years later in 2009 showed Senegal in 1997. Since then, ASI has that ASI continued to be one of the most become the most widely adopted thresher important improved post harvest in Senegal, with major impact on the rice production chain.

With six workers, manual threshing yields only one ton per technologies in the Senegal River Valley, helping irrigated rice farmers to cope with A study showed that, with six workers, day, but, using an ASI thresher, it yields six tons per day.

26 African Farming - May/June 2012

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RICE

periods and the unsuitability of existing systems that were too costly, time-consuming, or labour-intensive during peak labour demand. Consequently, paddy may sit in the field for weeks or even months waiting to be Spreading across the region harvested or threshed; quality then As ASI’s popularity grew among the rice deteriorates because of exposure to the farming community and its impact continued elements and shattering. to ripple outward and change the lives of rural Therefore, in response to the demand from households, the experience in Senegal was rice stakeholders, AfricaRice decided to successfully extended to several West African adapt and introduce ASI in the region by countries (Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, creating a coalition of partners.

Ghana, Mali, Mauritania, etc.), where each The partnership model made the technology country further adapted the machine to suit its relevant. AfricaRice is now using this model to own specific conditions and released it under forge a new partnership and alliance to further different brands. develop rice harvest and postharvest ASI has recently spread to Central African technologies in sub-Saharan Africa. countries Cameroon and Chad. Here, the Now, the Centre is introducing and local artisans, who were trained by AfricaRice Participants at a meeting on “Boosting agricultural mechanisation in rice-based systems in suband partners, were inspired to develop a series Saharan Africa”, under the Global Rice Science adapting a small affordable combine of modified prototypes for various crops. In Partnership (GRiSP), inspect a mini-combine harvester in the Senegal River Valley for timely harvesting and threshing. The adapted 2011, the Chad government gave ASI high prototype designed by a local manufacturer. prototype combine harvester, which is under praise at the country’s 50th anniversary tests, not only harvests small farm plots more quickly, but also celebration, where local ASI models were publicly displayed. provides threshed and bagged grain of high quality, making it more attractive to local traders. Given the examples of ASI and Why ASI clicked Labour is a serious concern in sub-Saharan African agriculture the mini-combine harvester introduced by AfricaRice and its since many labour-intensive tasks in crop production are carried partners, a number of rice stakeholders from sub-Saharan Africa who met in July 2011 to develop a road map for sustainable out manually.

For example, rice threshing and cleaning are manually carried mechanisation of the rice sector emphasised the value of out predominantly by women, who spend hours on these back- smallscale, locally adapted machinery specifically targeting breaking operations. This not only affects their health but also labour-intensive activities.

They also recommended that governments consult research the grain quality and profitability of rice.

Field surveys carried out in the ’90s in the Senegal River Valley when importing machinery to ensure its efficacy and durability revealed that the lack of improved practices and machinery under African farming conditions, and that capacity be built to resulted in postharvest rice crop losses of up to 35 per cent and provide after-sales support for farm machinery. Thus, the ripples created by ASI continue to expand. ✆ poor grain quality due to inefficient manual threshing.

The surveys also revealed other constraints, such as the frequent shortage of labour during rice harvest and postharvest * AfricaRice labour scarcity. For farmers, the ASI thresher is a time- and labour-saving device with a high grain recovery rate.

Regional experts call for emergency fund to deal with animal diseases REGIONAL EXPERTS IN animal diseases have ended a five-day meeting in Accra with wideranging recommendations, including the call for the setting up of an emergency fund at country level for the management of health crises, including trans-boundary animal diseases, as part of efforts to promote the production of quality foods and exports in the ECOWAS region, according to the African Press Organisation (APO).

At their April meeting, the experts also called on Member States to improve funding to veterinary services by allocating national budgets to Trans-boundary Diseases (TADs) and Zoonoses.

Furthermore, the ECOWAS Commission, Member States and civil society were also urged to establish a network of West African veterinary laboratories, and a West African epidemiological surveillance network on a system for collecting and disseminating data.

A consultative framework should also be initiated involving regional training institutions

28 African Farming - May/June 2012

in veterinary medicine for a harmonisation of curricula and capacity building in educational and research institutions.

The meeting recommended that funding be organised for regional epidemiological surveillance networks co-ordinated by ECOWAS as well as capacity building for national networks. The experts equally recommended that the Gambia, Liberia and Sierra Leone should be urgently provided with veterinary doctors to reduce their deficits in public veterinary officers.

In addition, the meeting called for the recognition of two reference laboratories already identified as part of the regional laboratory network – the National Laboratory for Livestock Breeding and Research in Dakar, Senegal and the National Veterinary Research Institute Laboratory in Vom, Nigeria – and also to strengthen their capacity by allocating sufficient resources to them.

In a speech delivered on behalf of the ECOWAS Commission, Dr. Vivian Iwar,

highlighted the importance of the meeting and charged participants to review the study on transhumance (seasonal movement of livestock) with a view to validating it, and also to revisit ECOWAS’ texts on transhumance. This is with a view to charting a way forward on transhumance in the ECOWAS region.

The participants included representatives of the Association for the Promotion of Animal Breeding in the Sahel and Savannah (APESS) and the Confederation of African Animal Breeders (CORET), with experts in animal health and disease surveillance serving as resource persons.

The meeting featured country presentations on animal health situation, health information systems, surveillance, prevention and control of trans-boundary animal diseases, harmonization of laboratory procedures, and regional surveillance strategies for animal diseases.

Wallace Mawire

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IRRIGATION

There’s nothing unnatural about sprinkler irrigation: it is the method of irrigation designed to simulate natural rainfall. Dr Terry Mabbett discusses the different systems.

Sprinkler irrigation systems

T

HE BIG DIFFERENCE between natural rainfall and sprinkler irrigation is the latter being farmer driven.

Water is on tap for application at crucial times of the crop cycle like plant establishment after transplanting seedlings for crops like tobacco and the bulking up stage of root crops such as potato (Irish and sweet potato), when water is clearly needed most.

Water for sprinkler irrigation is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. The water now under pressure is forced through the orifices of the sprinkler nozzles and into the air where it breaks up into small water drops that fall to the ground under the influence of gravity. The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed to deliver a uniform application of water to the crop.

Crops, slopes and soils Not all crops are suitable for use of sprinkler irrigation. The

Sprinklers provide efficient coverage for small to large areas and are suitable for use on nearly all types of soil.

system is suitable for the majority of row, field and tree crops with water being sprayed over or under the crop canopy as required and desired. However, large sprinkler irrigation systems using very high volumes of water are not recommended for the irrigation of delicate crops such as lettuce because the large

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IRRIGATION

Application of water as evenly as possible, to saturate the crop plants’ root zones with water, is the key goal of a sprinkler irrigation system.

Sprinkler irrigation system in a maize experimental plot.

water drops produced by the sprinklers may damage the crop.

Sprinkler irrigation may be adapted to any farmable slope whether it is uniform or undulating in profile. However, the lateral pipes which supply water to the sprinklers should always be laid out and aligned along the land contour wherever possible. Such a pattern of pipes will minimise pressure changes at the sprinklers and therefore help to provide uniform application of irrigation water.

Sprinkler irrigation systems are ideally suited to sandy soils with correspondingly high infiltration rates although they can be successfully used on most types of soil.

Overall mean application rate emitting from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) should be lower than the basic infiltration rate of the soil to avoid surface ponding and water runoff.

Sprinklers are not suitable for use on soils which readily form an impermeable pan or crust. If sprinkler irrigation is the only method available in such soil situations then a light spray of small droplets should always be used. Larger sprinklers generating correspondingly larger diameter water droplets should be avoided at all costs.

Water sources and sprinkler system design A good clean supply of water, free of suspended solid particles is a must to avoid problems caused by the blockage of sprinkler nozzles and spoiling the crop by coating it with sediment.

A typical sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following components: the pump unit; a mainline and sometimes

30 African Farming - May/June 2012

sub-mainlines; laterals and sprinklers. The pump unit is most frequently a centrifugal pump that takes water from the source and generates sufficient pressure for its delivery into the pipe system.

The mainline and sub-mainlines are conduits (pipes) which deliver and distribute water from the pump to the laterals. In many situations they are permanent and laid over the ground or alternatively buried below the surface of the soil. In other situations they are a temporary feature which can therefore be moved from field to field. Materials used to manufacture the main pipe are cement, plastic or aluminium alloy.

The laterals deliver and distribute water from the mainline or sub-mainlines and into the sprinklers. The laterals may be permanent but more often are portable and typically manufactured from lightweight materials like aluminium or plastic to allow for relatively easy movement and transport to new positions.

The most commonly-used type of sprinkler layout consists of a system of lightweight aluminium or plastic pipes moved by hand. The rotary sprinklers are typically spaced 9-24 m apart along the lateral which itself is 5-12 cm in diameter, usually no bigger, to facilitate easy transport and left in situ until the irrigation programme is complete.

When complete, the pump is switched off and the lateral disconnected from the mainline and moved to the next location.

It is re-assembled and connected to the mainline and the irrigation can begin again. Laterals can be moved one to four times a day and are systematically moved

around the field until the whole crop area has been irrigated. This is a description of the simplest system available. Systems may employ more than one lateral to irrigate larger areas.

One inherent drawback of sprinkler irrigation is the large [and costly] labour force required to move the pipes and sprinklers to new positions around the field.

Where labour is either not available and/or too costly mobile systems such as the hose reel rain-gun and the centre pivot have been designed and developed to overcome these operating constraints.

Another alternative system not requiring a large labour force is the drag-hose sprinkler system. Main and laterals take the form of buried PVC pipes with one lateral covering three positions. Sprinklers on risers and carried by skids are attached to the laterals through hoses which are similar in design and function to garden sprinklers. As such only that skid with the sprinkler has to be moved from one position to another which is a relatively easy and low labour intensity task.

Operating the sprinkler irrigation systems Application of water as evenly as possible, to saturate the crop plants’ root zones with water, is the key goal of a sprinkler irrigation system.

The wetting pattern provided by a single rotary sprinkler is inherently uneven. As a general rule the wetted area assumes a circular shape with the most intense and heavy wetting closest to the sprinkler. In order to obtain the desired and required level of uniformity several sprinklers must be operated close together to give overlapping wetting patterns. Ideal uniformity is obtained when the wetting overlap comprises at least 65% of the wetted diameter. This is the factor which governs maximum spacing between each sprinkler.

Uniformity of sprinkler irrigation application is affected by both environmental factors (wind) and operating factors (water pressure). The spray emitted from sprinklers will be blown off course even by a gentle breeze and this can significantly impact on uniformity. This can be overcome by reducing the distance between individual sprinklers.

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Sprinkler irrigation on a vineyard.

Sprinklers will only function properly under the right operating pressure which is that stipulated by the manufacturer.

Pressure rising above or falling below this level will negatively affect spray distribution. Insufficient pressure invariably caused by wear and tear on the pump and or pipework is the most common problem. Increasing wear and tear increases the friction on flowing water and therefore reduces pressure at the sprinkler. Net result is the water jet not breaking, with water tending to fall in one area towards the outside of the wetted circle. Distribution of sprinkler irrigation also suffers if the operating pressure is too high. Net result in this instance is a too finer spray falling close to the sprinkler.

Application rate and drop size Application rate is the amount of water sprayed onto the crop and is measured in mm/hour. Application rate will depend on size of the sprinkler nozzles used, operating pressure and the distances between sprinklers. When selecting a sprinkler system it is important to ensure that the average application rate is less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil. This will ensure that all the water applied to the crop area is readily absorbed by the soil and thus avoiding any runoff.

Water passing through and emitted from a sprinkler nozzle is broken up into small drops of between 0.5 and 4.0 mm in diameter. Smaller drops fall close to the sprinkler while larger drops fall close to the edge of the wetted circle. Large diameter drops may damage delicate crops and soils and if in doubt farmers and growers should reduce nozzle size.

Drop size is also controlled by operating pressure. Low operating pressure leads to larger drops because water jet does not break up easily. Crop and soil damage can be avoided or at least reduced by using smaller diameter nozzles operating at or above the normal recommended operating pressure. ✆

African Farming - May/June 2012 31

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NEWS

Russell IPM celebrates Queen’s award for innovation

Reliable silos for all purposes OVER THE PAST 30 years, Symaga has continuously incorporated the most significant technological advances into its solutions while, at the same time, maintaining its spirit of maximum quality and service. Today they are the worldwide leader providing their costumers with the best solutions. From Asia through Europe, Africa and the Americas, the company is the first qualified supplier for the whole application that involves durable and trustful grain storage solutions.

Symaga silos are integrating

32 African Farming - May/June 2012

the most innovative technologies to ease the tasks either of storing, sustaining and even increasing a silo’s useful life.

The Z450 galvanisation process gives Symaga silos more robustness and a minimum of 35 years’ useful life. The company’s flexible production processes enables them to adapt the product to the individual needs of each client. Symaga is able to supply its products in the form of components or as complete equipment, including turnkey installations; all this, with high quality materials and the corresponding guarantee. The company’s value added, such as European engineering, calculation and flexibility, makes it much more competitive.

Symaga can supply small capacity silos – either Hopper or Flat bottom – or silos with bigger capacities depending on

requirements, from 5 cu m up to 20,500 cu m. With a wide range of diameters, capacities and designs, silos can be supplied either for small farming purposes, for mills or for large storage capacity stations.

Fulfilling all needs and complying with the most exigent world adopted specifications: ANSI-ASAE / DIN 1055 / as well as ATEX compliant spares, etc, the company is proud to be the biggest and reliable silo manufacturer.

RECEIVING THE AWARD this year is a real triumph for Russell IPM. It was only last year that the company was awarded its first Queen’s Award in the category of International Trade.

It is also something of a birthday present – as this year the company celebrates its 25th anniversary.

Although well-known in the professional pest control market, Russell IPM is also one of the leading manufacturers of insect pheromone-based monitoring and control products in the agricultural and horticultural markets.

The award was for the Ferolite trap, designed and developed by Russell IPM for use by the horticultural industry for the control of infestations of the devastating and destructive tomato pest, Tuta absoluta.

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Interview with Sachin Parab, Vice President International Business, Escorts Agri Machinery CAN YOU GIVE me a little bit of history regarding your company?

The Escorts Group is among India's leading engineering conglomerates operating in the high growth sectors of agri-machinery, construction and material handling equipment, railway equipment and auto components. The Agri Machinery Group of Escorts Ltd began manufacturing operations in 1964 and now uses its experience and expertise to power and propel change in farm mechanisation across the globe.

You pride yourself on “seed to seed” solutions in farming... how do you enable this?

Synonymous with reliability, the Farmtrac range of tractors are fuel efficient, have long serviceability and low maintenance costs.

Keeping in tune with modern day requirements, the tractors are compatible with a number of implements such as rotavators, cultivators, balers and seed drills etc. The tractors meet the emission norms of the US and European markets. Our range of tractors have multi-tasking capabilities which makes our tractors the most versatile and comprehensive product in their class.

We market our tractors under three major brands • Escorts (25 – 35 HP, Economy range) • Powertrac (34 – 55 HP, Value range) • Farmtrac (35 – 110 HP, Premium range)

How important is R&D in your company?

R&D is one of the main pillars of our success to date. During the six decades of our existence we have always strived to be ahead of the pack on the technology front. We have more than 450 engineers in our R&D department, who strive every day to make the lives of our farmers more rewarding and enriching through their constant innovations.

How much of your business is export, and where are your main markets?

Today, the Escorts brand is present in over 52 countries including 22 African countries.

Escorts is also present with Farmtrac in Europe, Asia and South East Asia and the America’s.

Can you tell us about recent successes in Africa?

Escorts is proud to partner with SUMA JKT in their project ‘Kilimo Kawanza’. Valued at

US$40mn, we have been chosen to supply 1,430 units of its premium range of powerful Farmtrac tractors to Tanzania which is implementing a national, ’Food Sufficiency Programme’ aimed at making it a food surplus country. We have more than 500 customer testimonials from Tanzania, which indicate improvement in the standard of living and increased earnings by use of our tractors.

We already have around 10,000 tractors in the African continent. Our dominance in the African market is because of the orders that we have received from Tanzania, Ghana, Benin, Madagascar and Burkina Faso. Our products are designed, produced, tried and tested for African conditions. And they continue to nurture the progress of the African farmer.

What are your thoughts on future market developments?

Our tractor users are spread across all continents of the globe. With the growth in technology it is imperative for an ambitious company like Escorts to seek new challenges and ensure innovation that’s useful, reliable and trustworthy. h

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African Farming - May/June 2012 33

S07 AF MayJune 2012 Grain Storage_Layout 1 16/05/2012 12:17 Page 34

GRAIN STORAGE

The main objective of proper grain storage is to maintain the quality and characteristics that the grain possessed immediately after harvesting and drying. The quality of grain cannot be improved during storage. Grain improperly harvested and dried will remain of low quality no matter how well it is stored. by Dick Ziggers

Fighting fungi in grain storage preserves cereal quality

W

HEN STORING GRAINS, the main enemies to conquer are fungi (moulds). Respiration may, in certain cases, contribute to a loss of dry matter during grain storage. However, the losses due to respiration are minor compared to those caused by living organisms. Losses caused by fungi in cereal grains are related to: ● A decrease in germination, ● Discoloration of the seed, ● Heating and mustiness, ● Biochemical changes, ● Possible production of toxins, and ● Loss in dry matter.

All these changes may occur without the moulds becoming visible to the naked eye.

For long-term storage, grain should be dried as soon as possible after it comes from the field.

Storage moulds are prevalent in storage facilities when the grain moisture content is too low for field moulds (less than about 20 per cent). The moisture and temperature requirements of these moulds determine the safe storage period. By controlling moisture content and temperature, mould growth is restricted and grain can be dried without significant spoilage. Mechanical damage to grain and the amount of foreign material also affects allowable storage time. Clean grain and whole seeds are more resistant to mould.

For long-term storage, grain should be dried as soon as possible after it comes from the field. A delay in drying decreases the allowable storage time.

However, the average moisture content throughout the grain bin does not determine how long cereal grains can be stored. Spoilage may occur at isolated locations in the bin where grain moisture is high.

34 African Farming - May/June 2012

The quality of grain cannot be improved during storage.

Grain temperature, moisture migration Improper control of the temperature inside the bin causes moisture to move or migrate from one part of the grain mass to another, where the moisture can accumulate and cause grain spoilage problems.

Although moisture migration problems can occur at any time, grain temperatures vary considerably. The difference in temperature starts air moving down the bin wall and toward the centre of the bin. As the air moves through the grain it becomes warmer and begins to pick up moisture from the grain. When the warm moist air hits the cool upper surface of the grain, condensation occurs. In the spring the problem is reversed. Warming action from the sun on the outside of the bin causes moisture currents to move up and into the bin. Condensation then occurs on the bottom of the bin.

Heated air grain drying Whenever aeration or natural air drying fails to adequately condition grain for storage, a heated air dryer may be

incorporated into the harvesting storage system. Compared to natural air drying, the heated air drying absorbs more moisture from the grain thus drying the grain faster. Over-drying of a cereal grain however, reduces the weight of grain that will be sold as less water is being sold.

Also, it is more expensive in terms of energy costs. These costs must be balanced against how long the wheat has to be safely stored and under what storage conditions. Some factors should be considered for drying cereal grain: - Low temperatures should be used if the grain is to be stored for 6 months or more. - The damper the grain, the longer the drying process. Low temperatures should be used. - Lower temperatures should be used in dryers which do not mix or circulate the grain. Because excessive heat can damage cereal grain and reduce their ability to germinate, maximum safe air temperatures must not be exceeded.

Solar drying Spreading out a thin layer of grain in the sun is a form of solar drying that has been

S07 AF MayJune 2012 Grain Storage_Layout 1 16/05/2012 15:24 Page 35

GRAIN STORAGE

Aeration is not a grain drying system and should not be used as one.

Grain drying or re-wetting is usually insignificant during grain aeration, because the cooling (or warming) front moves through the grain about 50 times faster than a drying or wetting front.

Grain can be tempered (cooled or warmed) by either negative or positive aeration systems. With either system, a tempering zone moves through the grain. The movement of the tempering zone completely through the grain is one cooling or warming cycle.

Once a cycle had been started, operate the fan continuously until the zone moves completely through the grain. The time required to complete each cycle depends almost entirely on the aeration airflow rate. In a positive pressure system, the tempering zone starts at the bottom of the bin and moves up.

Traditional grain storage stores in sub-Saharan Africa.

practised for many years all over the world and is still being carried out in many tropical countries. The main disadvantages of this system are that there is uncertainty of success due to variable weather and a non uniform grain quality. To circumvent these problems associated with traditional sun drying while still directly using the energy emitted by the sun, solar collectors have been applied in conjunction with a fan, a duct system and a bin in which grain is dried and stored Aerate for temperature control Modern grain management uses aeration to control grain temperature and to reduce moisture variations. Aeration forces air through the grain either continuously or intermittently.

Correctly drying, aerating and managing stored grain will minimise the risk of insect infestation and damage.

Aeration air flow rates Airflow rates for aeration are normally 1-2 litres of air per second per cubic metre of grain.

The bin floor should be 15per cent perforated (minimum). Grain put into the bin should be within 1per cent of dry. Screen the grain to reduce foreign material and fines as they increase resistance to air flow and reduce total airflow. Level the top of the grain to promote uniform air flow through the grain mass. Operate the fan long enough to complete a cycle (cooling or warming).

African Farming - May/June 2012 35

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GRAIN STORAGE

Managing fines in storage Broken grain and foreign material, or fines, can create two problems in stored grain, particularly when they accumulate in pockets. First, broken kernels are more susceptible to spoilage than unbroken ones. Secondly, airflow from aeration fans tends to go around pockets of fines so they cool more slowly. The pockets often develop into hot spots that result in spoiled grain.

Serious efforts should be made to reduce the fines produced by harvesting, drying and handling, rather than trying to resolve storage problems later. Three grain storage management techniques that reduce the problem from fines are as follows: â—? Use a grain spreader to minimise the concentration of fines in storage. â—? Clean the grain before binning to improve storability. â—? Remove grain from the centre a few times during filling to remove accumulated fines.

The fungus Aspergillus parasiticus can cause harmful aflatoxin in grain

Fan operation Aerating of the grain depends on the season and during which period it should be stored.

Check the grain periodically and run the fan during cool, fair weather when the outside temperature is lower than the grain temperature. If there are any signs of heating or hot spots, no matter what the season or the weather, run the fan continuously until no heating can be detected.

Consider installing temperature sensing units in large grain storages. Temperature sensors accurately trace the progress of aeration cooling or warming cycles. They help identify hot spots within the grain mass.

36 African Farming - May/June 2012

Insect control Insect infestations in storage can come from grain residues in combines, handling equipment, and from old grain left in storage. Correctly drying, aerating and managing stored grain will minimise the risk of insect infestation and damage. Insect activity goes with moisture accumulation and grain heating.

Look for insect activity on every storage visit. If an insect problem is noted, fumigate with a liquid, solid or gas grain fumigant in storage or as the grain is being turned. Fumigants are toxic and must be applied with proper safety precautions and equipment. Each fumigation job is different; hire a professional applicator. h

S08 AF MayJune 2012 Tractors_Layout 1 16/05/2012 12:19 Page 37

S08 AF MayJune 2012 Tractors_Layout 1 16/05/2012 12:19 Page 38

TRACTORS

Some of the latest features and design developments from the leading tractor companies are already available in Africa and others are on the way, bringing performance and efficiency. Mike Williams reports.

Tractor progress

M

OST OF THE important developments in tractor design have traditionally come from the big European and American companies, and this is still happening in spite of the recent growth of tractor production in China and India. One of the most popular developments is the use of constantly variable transmissions or CVTs, originally introduced

by Fendt on their high horsepower tractors, but now available on at least some models from most major manufacturers.

CVTs deliver engine power through a combination of gears and a hydrostatic drive to provide automatic gear and range changes with stepless adjustment of the travel speed. This makes it easier for the driver to achieve the optimum performance in the field and for transport work, and there has been a big increase in the demand for CVT tractors and in the number of makes and models featuring it.

One of the newest arrivals in the CVT tractor market is the Axion 900 series from Claas of Germany. The four models were announced at the end of last year, equipped with 8.7 litre, sixcylinder engines made by Fiat Powertrain Technologies and equipped with full electronic management. Power outputs are 320, 350, 380 and 410hp and the CVT drive unit is made by ZF and has four ranges with a 50kph top speed for the road.

Leading manufacturers are all offering features that can help to squeeze more work from each litre of diesel.

A front suspension unit is available for the new Claas tractors, the rear linkage can lift 11 tonnes with up to 6.8 tonnes lift capacity on the front linkage. Servicing intervals are generous, with engine oil changes at 600-hour intervals and at 1200 hours for the oil in the transmission, rear axle and hydraulic system.

Fendt was the first company to offer this type of transmission when they introduced their Vario CVT, and they are also the first tractor company to standardise on CVTs for all models. The new addition to the Fendt range last year was the 700 Vario series with three models producing 200 to 240hp from a 6.06 litre Deutz engine with electronic management. A special version of the Vario CVT developed for the new models produces its 50 kph top speed at a fuel saving 1700 rpm engine speed.

Another of last year’s CVT tractor launches came from DeutzFahr, part of the Italian based Same Deutz-Fahr tractor group. The three new additions were all in the Deutz Agrotron TTV range with 114, 124 and 134hp four-cylinder engines driving ZF transmissions with four speed ranges.

A special feature of the new Deutz-Fahr tractors is the improved braking system which includes Power Zero, allowing the driver to slow the tractor to a complete halt by using only the accelerator pedal, even on a steep slope. The brakes also include new servo assistance to reduce the amount of pedal pressure needed when using the foot brake and a third contribution to stopping power is 38 African Farming - May/June 2012

Six-cylinder engines with SCR technology power the new MF 7600 series

a modification that produces more effective braking power when using the transmission to slow the tractor.

Fuel economy a major selling point Fuel economy has become a major selling point for tractors and leading manufacturers are all offering features that can help to squeeze more work from each litre of diesel. The latest T6 series from New Holland is an example, with fuel savings making a major contribution to the claimed 10 per cent reduction in operating costs compared with the previous models.

One of the T6 fuel saving features is a reduction in the engine idling speed from 850 to 650 rpm at the zero throttle setting, and the p-t-o speed options include a 1000 rpm Eco drive setting which is produced at an 1893 rpm engine speed.

The five new T6 tractors, announced at the end of last year, have four and six-cylinder engines with rated outputs from 110 to 131hp, using engines equipped with Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) technology.

SCR uses a product called AdBlue consisting mainly of diluted urea to remove nitrogen oxides and other environmentally damaging combustion products from engine exhaust gases. This is essential in those countries which have strict regulations to reduce the pollution caused by the engine exhaust gases of new vehicles including tractors.

Developing ‘clean’ engines Developing the ‘clean’ engines equipped with SCR, electronic management and other measures to reduce exhaust emissions adds significantly to the cost of modern engines, and there is also the additional cost and the inconvenience of using the special SCR additive, but as well as the environmental benefits the latest tractor engines are also much more fuel efficient than older power units to produce more work from each tank full of fuel.

SCR is featured on the two newest models in the JCB Fastrac tractor range announced last year. The 8280 and 8310 models are

S08 AF MayJune 2012 Tractors_Layout 1 16/05/2012 12:19 Page 39

S08 AF MayJune 2012 Tractors_Layout 1 16/05/2012 12:19 Page 40

TRACTORS

at the top of the JCB range, powered by Sisu Diesel engines with outputs of 279 and 306hp respectively. Using SCR technology is said to allow fuel savings of up to 10 per cent, and there is also a reduction in engine noise levels. All JCB Fastrac tractors are equipped with truck standards of front and rear wheel braking plus front and rear axle suspension to qualify for the special ‘fast’ tractor category. This allows travel speeds up 80 kph for some models in countries where this is permitted by traffic regulations.

As well as New Holland and JCB, other tractor companies with at least some engines using SCR technology include Case IH, Fendt, Landini, Massey Ferguson and Valtra.

Landini is using SCR on the recently introduced 7 series tractors which have outputs ranging from 145 to more than 200hp. The engines have six cylinders and are supplied by Fiat Powertrain Technologies and the 7 series transmission is a powershift with four ranges giving 32 forward speeds plus 24 in reverse. Lift capacities on the rear linkage are up to 10,000kg, depending on the model, and a front suspension is available.

The newest additions to Massey Ferguson’s tractor range with SCR are four MF 7600 models announced earlier this year. They have six-cylinder Sisu Diesel engines in the 140 to 175hp range and transmission choices include a 16-speed Dyna-4 version plus a CVT for the most powerful models.

While most of the new and updated tractors arriving from the leading manufacturers are medium and high horsepower models with outputs of 120hp plus, Massey Ferguson is one of the few companies recently announcing new models below 100hp.

Announced at the end of last year, the three new MF 3600 models have maximum outputs of 84, 94 and 102hp from three-cylinder engines and are suitable for working in specialist fruit and vegetable production as well as livestock units. They feature an electronic pushbutton control that automatically selects a chosen speed - useful after stopping to make a headland turn for example. Customers can choose a 12x4 speed mechanical gearbox or a more advanced twospeed powershift with push-button gear shifting.

Recent developments in the John Deere tractor range include last year’s launch of the 7R series with five new models offering maximum outputs from 230 to 310hp, now an increasingly important power range on European farms. The engines, which meet the most stringent exhaust emission regulations without using SCR, are 6.8 or 9.0 litre PowerTech units from John Deere, and the four transmission choices include a CVT. A special feature available on the 7R range is the award winning ActiveCommand steering system developed by John Deere. Unlike ordinary power steering systems which rely entirely on hydraulic operation as the driver turns the steering wheel, the new John Deere system uses a mixture of electronics and hydraulic operation, and the result is said to be a big reduction in manual effort required during long periods of tractor driving.

Launched last year, 7R series tractors from John Deere offer an improved power steering system.

40 African Farming - May/June 2012

Valtra's experimental four-cylinder tractor is fuelled by a mix of biogas and diesel

Looking ahead Most of the tractor industry’s investment in research and development is designed to develop new models and technology that can be marketed immediately, but there are also some projects that look further ahead. Developing new tractors with engines that are powered by alternative fuels will be important for the future as the remaining oil reserves are used and the cost of diesel and petrol continues to rise.

One of the fuel alternatives that could be powering tractors within four or five years is biogas, which is basically methane gas produced when organic matter such as livestock manure and plant material is digested by micro-organisms in the absence of oxygen.

One of the attractions of the process is that the material left behind after the digestion process has almost the same fertiliser value as the original organic matter. At least two companies have already demonstrated experimental biogas powered tractors which are currently being tested on farms, a development that could have a special significance for African agriculture.

One reason why this development could become important in Africa is that the digestion process works more efficiently and yields more methane in countries with relatively high temperatures, and this means that in countries with winter temperatures falling to freezing point or below, some of the methane may be required to heat the digester. Another factor is that biogas production is already established in some African countries making the digestion technology already familiar.

Valtra has built two tractors for its biogas project, the first was announced in 2010 and is based on the N111 model with a 4.4 litre Sisu Power four-cylinder engine with about 110hp output, while the second was shown last year using a six-cylinder Sisu engine with SCR technology. Both are designed as dual-fuel engines, starting on diesel and running on a mix of about 75 per cent methane and 25 per cent diesel. This, the makers say, would give a 40 per cent reduction in fuel costs compared with diesel only.

The Profi 4135 Natural Power tractor announced last year by the Austrian based Steyr company has a 3-litre Fiat Powertrain Technologies engine. Power output is 135hp and because biogas produces much cleaner exhaust emissions than diesel, the engine offers important environmental benefits, says Steyr. A production version of the Steyr gas-fuelled tractor could be available as early as 2015, the company has predicted, but there are a number of problems to overcome before methane fuelled tractors are widely used.

One of the difficulties is that fuel quality from digestion equipment currently available for farm use is variable, and this could affect the engine’s performance. Another factor is that methane needs a large storage volume, making it difficult to carry enough on the tractor for a full day’s work. The experimental six-cylinder Valtra carries 170 litres of biogas at 200 bar pressure, enough for only 3 to 5 hours work, although having a full diesel tank would enable the tractor to keep working when the gas runs out. h

S09 AF MayJune 2012 Equipment_Layout 1 16/05/2012 12:22 Page 41

African Farming - May/June 2012 41

S09 AF MayJune 2012 Equipment_Layout 1 16/05/2012 12:22 Page 42

DEG finances Kenyan fruit juice producer DEG IS PROVIDING the Kenyan enterprise Kevian Kenya Ltd (Kevian) with a long-term loan of US$7.5mn for expansion investments.

Kevian is a well-established manufacturer of fruit juice brands namely Pick’N’Peel, Afia, and Mt Kenya Water. Thanks to its strong market growth, high product quality and successful distribution strategies, the company has enjoyed strong growth during the last years. "With our financing, we support a local company in becoming an international player and moreover, we help numerous farmers to earn a regular income by acting as suppliers," said Bruno Wenn, Chairman of DEG's Management Board on the occasion of the signing ceremony in Thika; Kenya.

Kevian plans to increase its production capacity of fruit juices and to improve its packaging systems. DEG is the first international development finance institution to support Kevian by providing a long-term loan. The total investment volume is US$5.4mn. As part of the expansion, Kevian will also enter into the production of fruit juice concentrates, which is needed for the production of juices and which so far had to be imported for the most part. The company buys the necessary fruits, mainly mango, tomato, carrot, pineapple and passion fruit, from smallholders. This offers tens of thousands of smallholders the possibility to earn an income for themselves and their families.

“Kevian is a showcase of successful Kenyan-German co-operation for the benefit of companies in both countries and for improving the livelihood of many Kenyians smallholders. And, it demonstrates the role private enterprise can play to foster sustainable, economic development, said Margit Hellwig-Bötte, the German Ambassador to Kenya on the occasion of the signing ceremony.

A substantial part of Kevian's fruit concentrate will be exported to Germany, to the German company Rudolf Wild GmbH.

A D V E R T I S E R S

John Deere introduces 4 new tillage solutions FOR THE 2012 tillage season, John Deere is offering three new 2600 Series disks and one new vertical tillage tool designed to provide everything from more muscle for penetrating, chopping and mixing soil and crop residue in a single pass to creating a uniform seedbed. The beefier new 2600 Series tillage lineup includes the 2625 disk, 2623 disk, 2620 disk and 2623VT (vertical tillage).

The tillage workhorse in the 2600 Series lineup is the 2625 disk.

Designed to be a heavyweight primary tillage tool, the 2625 sizes and buries heavy corn and other crop residue, resulting in 30 per cent or less residue cover on fields.

The 2623 disk is engineered for its dual flexibility as either a primary or secondary tillage tool. It features 24- and 26-inch disk blades set on 23-cm spacing, C-spring standards with weights per blade ranging from 91 to 110 kg, depending on the selected blade size and width model. It provides a working tillage depth of up to 15 cm, making it ideal for use in post-harvest residue chopping or preparing spring seedbeds for planting.

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S09 AF MayJune 2012 Equipment_Layout 1 16/05/2012 12:22 Page 44