The Importance of Land Conversion for Urban Development

Supervisors Prof. Dr. Mohamed Salheen Prof. Dr. Antje Stockmann

Land conversion of urban brownfields is a measure to revitalize urban areas, to enable growth, and to reduce the land consumption. Two case studies, where conversion is imminent, have been the focus of the empirical research. In Kaufbeuren, Germany, the usage of the military airbase is about to terminate and, therefore, an integrated development plan is currently in process to transform the entire site immediately. The analysis of the

conversion process, conducted by professionals, guides the approach of the industrial inner-city brownfield, Athar El Nabi. There, the transformation of land takes place spontaneously and in one area after another. Comprehensive planning, based on the needs of the area leading to regional economic effects, is missing. Therefore, principles of comprehensive land conversion were elaborated, following the procedure in Kaufbeuren and Athar El Nabi which has been analysed by the author to a state from which a proposal for adaptive reuse could be developed. Potentials for policy transfer from Germany to a different context of land conversion in Cairo have been investigated. Even though the countries are very different in many aspects, guiding principles could be adopted from Germany.

Keywords: Urban Development – Land Conversion – Brownfield Redevelopment – Policy Transfer - Cairo

The challenges of urban development differ, but the need for effective land management and the reduction of resource consumption is consistent worldwide. With urbanization, the land consumption and the conversion of open land to urban areas increased rapidly, which requires a more sustainable handling of the resource land. Brownfields exist in any city, mostly from former industrial or military use. The process of conversion redevelops brownfields into functional urban areas to sustain existing socio-economic structures, ensure livability and to revitalize the area. It is a long and individual process, influenced by many different actors, which can create challenges. Each initial situation is unique and the new utilization concept has to be developed, based on the location factors and local characteristics. In Germany, the process of conversion has been optimized over years of practice and reliable data, and literature is available. Conversion of brownfields, especially former military sites as a consequence of disarmament, is a present topic and a main component of inner-city development. Detailed regulations, policies, practical, and financial support is available to enable an integrated reuse of the brownfield through a comprehensive conversion process, in contrast to Cairo.

The objective is to point out the importance of rehabilitating abandoned land through conversion in order to create regional economic benefits and reduce land consumption. Therefore, the principles of comprehensive development of brownfields will be investigated. First, qualitative data is acquired by the author during the assistance of professional institutions developing a new utilization strategy for the former military airbase in Kaufbeuren, Germany in the framework of a conversion project. The practical experience, gained during this process, guides the approach of the selected brownfield Athar El Nabi, Cairo. Part of the theoretical research deals with the city’s challenges and factors defining Cairo’s urban development. Essential for the conduction of brownfield conversion are detailed analyses of the site and its surrounding, as well as information about the socio-economic situation in order to meet the deficiencies in a comprehensive redevelopment of the site. Due to the insufficient information on Athar El Nabi, detailed data will be collected. Furthermore, the possibilities for policy transfer from Germany to Cairo will be examined.

The research facilitates to answer the questions: why is conversion and the reuse of derelict land in the urban environment necessary? How can urban development control the land use and the consumption of space? What can be learned from Kaufbeuren and must be respected in an integrated development concept for the industrial brownfield, Athar El Nabi? What are the location factors of Athar El Nabi that must be respected in the development of a new utilization concept?

During the studies in the German-Arab Master Program, exchange of examples of Germany and Egypt took place. This is sought to be continued. Hence, two distinct cases that share a common focus and goal have been selected, with the aim to learn from the case in Germany, to apply the knowledge in Cairo. Responding to the research objective, the research process is structured in several steps and includes theoretical as well as practical research (Fig.1):

First of all, the secondary data was assessed for the sake of developing a general understanding. This was followed by the case study of Kaufbeuren in Germany, the author studied. The conversion process of the case study, Kaufbeuren, is already advanced. The existing data has been analysed, evaluated and processed by the author who actively contributed to work outputs by the Institute for Urban and Regional Management (ISR), working in cooperation with the project developer Ehret+Klein in the conversion project. The attendance of meetings and presentations during the collaboration helped to comprehend procedures of planning, methods, and compulsory aspects as well as the relation among involved actors. This guided the field work in Athar El Nabi, located in Cairo. To compensate the lack of data, primary data, through mapping and observation in various times of the day and week between the 14th of May and the 14th of June 2016, was collected. Additionally, semi-structured interviews, with randomly selected participants from the site, part of different age groups, genders, and professions, were conducted.

Figure 1: Research Process Source : Author 2016 based on Kumar 2011i

Lessons were drawn from practice in Germany and applied in Egypt. The concept of policy transfer, from a “leader country” to a “follower country”, is gaining significance [1]. Urban policies are not any more local, but “constituted by global interconnections and mobility” and applied at different locations [2]. The local condition and characteristics, such as similarities among countries, have an impact on the success of policy transfer. Based on the theoretical knowledge gained through the literature review, the potential of policy transfer from Germany to Egypt was investigated.

Conversion and land recycling is a very present topic in an interdisciplinary research field. The research of land conversion is becoming more important due to the constant use of land and the scarcity of resource soil, the exceedance of regenerative resource capacities, and the global environmental problems. Therefore, more sustainable urban planning practices are needed, led by sustainable urban development goals and agendas. The proceeding urbanization and the rapid urban development lead to urban sprawl to accommodate the increasing numbers of residents and respond to their needs. The significant expansion of urban areas shapes the landscape and leads to a progressive land sealing, and unsustainable land use practices have an impact on the natural environment [3] [4]. Whereas, urban “sprawl inhibits greater densities, mixed use, pedestrian access to centres, and compactness of new neighbourhoods” [5], planned growth manages the type and dimension of development and can minimize negative impacts. Therefore, urban development should not try to stop growth, but to control it in an intelligent way to achieve a sustainable urban form [5]. Urban space must be managed efficiently, especially in cities with high density and an increasing population growth. Research on economic urban development and sustainability emphasizes the significance of using the existing infrastructure, services, buildings, and business opportunities efficiently [6]. Conversion of urban brownfields, through land recycling, is a successful measure to contribute to the preservation of the natural landscape and the improvement of social and economic aspects. In general, brownfields are perceived as a problem because of the valuable space, defined in the zoning plan with a well-established infrastructure which is not used, while the natural landscape areas are continuously consumed [6]. The conversion of brownfields is a complex process, including several steps, starting from the release of the land, the development of a new utilization concept, land recycling, and the implementation of the subsequent use.

In the context of urban development, land conversion is often used to describe the transformation of agricultural land or open landscape to urban settlement and traffic areas. The reuse of abandoned, often contaminated, land in the urban environment is frequently summarized as land recycling [7]. Conversion explains the transformation or change of use of an extensive site area that has lost its previous function, as well as the reintegration into the urban context through redevelopment of economic activities and natural cycles. A successful conversion can lead to high direct and indirect regional economic effects. New workplaces will attract people to settle and increase the purchase power, resulting in an increase of the local economic power, and will influence the attractiveness of the area [7].

The case study of the military airbase Kaufbeuren explains the development of a new utilization concept based on the local characteristics. This concept considers the necessary values for an integrated development and aims to meet the need of the location in question. After many years of military usage, the airbase will close in the near future and a subsequent utilization is required to prevent the land laying fallow. The objective of the municipality is to find a new utilization concept for the entire site, which minimizes the impacts resulting from the termination of the military usage. The citizens of Kaufbeuren have been informed about decisions and actions from the beginning and are actively engaged in the process. The development process of the subsequent use is transparent and the data is publicly accessible. The municipality of Kaufbeuren is interested in the utilization concept developed by the company Ehret+Klein. This concept is driven by the request of the ADAC (General German Automobile Club) for an automotive-proving ground. The concept is based on comprehensive analyses supporting an integrated and sustainable development for the common good and for the city. All local stakeholders have been integrated in the development of the conceptual design for the future use, but until the date of this research, no decision has been made regarding whether the “Technological Cluster for Intelligent Mobility” will be implemented on the former military airbase or not. The focus of the concept for the subsequent use of the plot is on using the potentials and qualities to compensate deficits and prevent conflicts at the location and its surroundings. The carrying capacity for the concept and options to improve deficits have been analyzed and discussed with the municipality. Due to its relevant theme, the concept may be sustainable. Investors and interested future users are found, but they do not dominate the process. Aspects guiding a conversion process and important values were collected from the conducted preliminary investigations and the work of professionals. The conversion process must be conducted transparently, with the citizens’ participation and must enable cooperation between the public and private sectors [8].

The area of the industrial brownfield, Athar El Nabi, is selected in the Greater Cairo Development Strategy as a ‘ reviving GC central area’. The objective of this pillar is to implement urban programs focusing on revival and restoration projects to “develop unplanned areas and to change the landscape of identified places, while maintaining their historical and social value,” [9]. Until the time in which this research was conducted, no official measures towards a conversion process took place. Therefore, necessary preliminary investigations have been

conducted by the author.

The selected site can be easily identified on the map, due to the extensive plots of land, in contrast to the surrounding

Figure 2: Site Athar El Nabi Source : Author 2016

dense residential neighbourhoods structured by numerous small streets. The study area of the industrial brownfield (visualized as an orange polygon in Fig.2) is located partly in the Sheyakhet Athar El Nabi (purple polygon) and partly in Dar El Salam (blue polygon), but for simplification, the site is named Athar El Nabi. The site is surrounded by unplanned, informal and unsafe areas [9], the neighbourhoods Izbit Khayrallah and Istabl Antar, “urbanized by practices of squatting or, in the local terminology, by wad’ al-yad (seizure),” [10]. Athar El Nabi extends over an area of 177.2 ha (421,797 feddan), having 113 residents living per feddan, while Dar El Salam covers an area of 125.7 ha (299,254 feddan) and 346 residents are living per feddan. The settlements are constructed on governmental and private agricultural land partly planned and partly informal. Programs for poverty reduction and measures to reduce vulnerability have been conducted within the settlements characterized by “poverty, danger, lawless mobs, the absence of the state, and few positive social, urban and moral norms,” [10]. According to CAPMAS (Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics) data from 2006, the total population of Athar El Nabi counts 54,691 residents and is relatively young. 19,774 residents are listed as unemployed (students (3,896), housewives (13,325) and pensioners (1,340) excluded), and 15,643 residents are working, most of them (13,892) work as wageworkers. Residents between ages 6 and 19 count 13,101, of which 10,886 are students registered and attending school, 556 dropped out of school and 1,651 are not registered at schools. The majority of the residents live in apartments, or rooms with access to electricity, kerosene or gas. Furthermore, access to water and connection to the sewage system is mostly present in the apartments or buildings. Only 17 residents live in a cemetery and 14 in tents without proper access to the mentioned services [11]. The building typologies in the neighbourhoods of Athar El Nabi and Dar El Salam vary. The area of Istabl Antar consists mainly of small buildings with about 2-4 levels. In the residential area bordering the site in the south, more high-rise buildings with up to 30 levels, violating regulations, are added to the dense built-up area. Open areas and green land do not exist, and observed economic activities are mainly informal. On the site, extensive plots are derelict with vacant buildings. The site can be described as an industrial brownfield. The area has a triangular shape, like an arrowhead pointing slightly north-west (Fig.2). The orientation of the site is north–south and the defined site covers an area of about 65 hectares. In the west, the site is bordered by a side arm of the Nile River, which flows along the site and Athar El Nabi island. To the East, a physical boundary is the metro line 1 running from El Marg to Helwan, and to the south by dense residential neighbourhoods. Good accessibility to the site is provided by private Figure 3: Landuse and public means of transportation. The Nile Source : Author 2016

Corniche, leading along the waterfront over Athar El Nabi Island, connects it to downtown and Maadi, while Dar El Salam Street and the Ring Road connect it to other districts. The Ring Road is probably the most important highway in the GCR; it surrounds the city and connects it with the new settlements. The site is located among two Metro stations of Line 1 El Zahraa and Dar El Salam. Not to be disregarded is the sidearm of the Nile providing accessibility by water. Cairo International Airport can be reached from the center of the site over the Ring Road in thirty minutes without major traffic congestions. The land use has been mapped according to the activities taking place (Fig.3). These do not contribute to a strong economic power. Employment opportunities are insufficient, as the industrial use has mainly stopped, leaving extensive unused areas. About 214 buildings are located on the site including the sheds of the Fruits and Vegetables Market in the northern part of the site. The relation between solids and voids is more balanced than in the neighbouring residential areas and the average building height is relatively low, with 4-5 levels. The companies identified and mapped belong to the private sector, governmental and public institutions as well as the military. Few industrial activities take place in small factories for wood, furniture and technical factories such as the Metal Technical Factory and Precision Machining Centre Dar El Salam. Commercial activities are mainly the Fruit and Vegetable Market, which is the most vibrant area, and the United Company for Pharmacists (UCP). Automotive Services exist at various locations formally and informally. Further informal activities such as storage and sale of cement bags and production of bricks take place on the river bank. The General Transportation Authority and Nile National Company for River Transportation work in passenger and cargo transport. The current users of the site are mainly workers from different fields. These are sales, commerce, mechanics, engineering, carpentry, warehouse storage, education, and transportation. Highly qualified workplaces are missing. Furthermore, students and people with business relations visit the site. Some residents live directly on the site, others come to the site from the surrounding because of the sports clubs and youth club. Figure 4 shows the relation between used and unused buildings. A step-by-step development takes place for many years and creates a mosaic with different usage types, not supporting each other. Massive constructions remaining from the industrial period have not been used for many years, but are privately owned according to signs on the property. These claim the ownership of a plot formerly owned by Nasr TV Company by Banque Misr and the National Bank of Egypt. Another plot is reserved for their future headquarters, a piece of land is owned by the government and a further derelict land with abandoned buildings is owned by a Saudi company. Massive concrete constructions with 3 to 5 stories, warehouses, a mosque, and residential buildings remain unused for many years. The unused effective area of the buildings has been calculated based on the floor space of the buildings multiplied by the number of floors. As the size of the floor space has been Figure 4: Unused and Used buildings Source : the author 2016

measured from satellite images, the data is not reliable, but gives an idea of the available space. It can be calculated that one employee requires 10m2 and 121,600m2 are available, so the buildings could offer about 12,000 workplaces. The roads leading to the entrance of the property became a space for dumping bulky waste and are used as donkey sheds. The site is found in a state of imminent transformation. After about 10-20 years without major changes, the plots of land owned by the two banks have been sold. Three of the interviewed persons mentioned that a “construction company bought the land of Nasr TV Company from the banks,” [12]. According to the interviewees, about 7,000 people used to work in these buildings, which have been abandoned for about 10-20 years. Demolition of the existing constructions are expected in order to erect residential buildings. The information reached the interviewees by word of mouth circulating in the district. No official declaration or announcement took place. Transparency of actions does not exist. The attitude of the residents towards the transaction is negative as it will not bring any profit. After privatization, most of the companies on the site, like Nasr TV Company, a perfume company and a battery factory, closed down. Nothing happened on the site to ensure economic activities and offer new opportunities for the people depending on them. Some residential buildings have been recently constructed on the site. Athar El Nabi Island neighboring the site is currently undergoing a conversion, and high-rise residential buildings for a higher social class are constructed (1st picture). This development is feared by some interviewees, since the land with direct access to the Nile River and central location among Misr El Qadima and Maadi is assumed to be of high value.

Table 1: Evaluation of Athar El Nabi Source: the author 2016

• Renovation and reuse of existing • Unclear conditions of vacant buildings buildings. Renovation could cause high costs.

• Existing mixed uses can be extended and improved by attracting companies and start-ups. • Available Sport Facilities & Youth Club • Weak economic power, missing workplaces and services

• Longterm informal activities and land use

• Existing educational Institutions. • Transformation without communication, transparency, citizen participation is missing

• Good accessibility of the site by public and private means of transport • Limited capacity of road network and poor conditions of streets

• Central urban location and high land value

• Undeveloped waterfront and access to the Nile river • Transformation might be already planned by investors who purchased the land, regardless to the GC Vision pillar 7

• Various stakeholders are present from the public and private sector with different interests From this state of analysis, a proposal for the future use of the entire defined industrial brownfield could be developed. The current developments on the site do not follow any major development plan such as the Greater Cairo Development Strategy. The reason why the establishment of residential buildings have been approved might be that each investor individually applies at the local governmental institution for the implementation of the new use and, therefore obtains the approval for the proposed development. The decisions are presently made regardless of the consequences, and integrated planning is missing.

Based on the conducted analyses on the site and its surrounding, assumptions about the future development could be made. In the context of the gained knowledge, from the literature review and practical experience acquired in Kaufbeuren, the situation in Athar El Nabi is criticized. The transformation of the site happens gradually at different locations, whenever plots are sold to investors by the various owners. This supports the fact that the already ongoing mosaic developments of the site continue. To counteract this unplanned transformation, a comprehensive development plan for the entire site of Athar El Nabi is needed. An overall master plan would function as a controlling and planning mechanism and prevent unplanned development. An upper hand must manage decisions and have a stake on what is going to be done. This could be the government, which then intervenes and dictates the developments. One big key developer should be responsible for the development concept of the site. Corruption is a factor that has an influence on decision making, and could be alleviated. The owners of the plots must be convinced to follow the master plan. For instance, the appropriate infrastructure for the planned concept, enabling good access and supply lines according to the requirements, will be provided. As a result, the revenues of the outcomes will be higher than selling the land to individual investors. Revitalization of the site can be reached through a sustainable and innovative concept, generating regional economic positive effects. This could upgrade the area and lead to a mixed society and mixed use. Effective land management and clear urban development goals could help in preventing the development of insecure neighborhoods, poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, and informality. By tackling the local problems on the site, general problems in Egypt can be addressed. Communication, transparency, and citizen participation are of great importance and must be part of each project implementation. Currently, these principles are missing in urban planning practices in Egypt. Interdepartmental cooperation, within the governmental institutions on different levels, plays an important role. Furthermore, interactions between the public and private sectors and the civil society are required. It is questionable if the current urban planning practice in Cairo could bring all the stakeholders, present at the site, to one table to discuss the future development of the site, and if the local residents and users would participate in workshops. Nevertheless, transparency of actions for the local society and present stakeholders must be the norm. Due to the fundamental differences between Germany and Egypt, no complete policy transfer is recommended, but the transfer of the knowhow and ideas can be effective, and hence have an impact on fundamental policy orientations.

Land conversion is of great significance in Germany and in Egypt. Current global urban development trends characterize the city’s form and the performance regarding sustainability. In both countries, the redevelopment of brownfields has been taking place for many years, but the conversion process, and especially the planning and implementation process of the new use, differ. This can be seen in the explained case studies located in Kaufbeuren and Athar El Nabi. It is important to minimize the timeframe of an area laying fallow through land conversion of the brownfield. However, it is crucial that the conversion process foregoes investigation and the

new concept takes into account the local characteristics. Land conversion is a complicated process with many actors and challenges that must be managed in order to respond to the needs with a new utilization concept. For this purpose, the potential effects must be calculated. This study emphasizes the importance of principles leading to a comprehensive conversion process in order to sustain existing structures and develop new opportunities. Thereby, the possible advantages must be in the focus, yet disadvantages must be taken into consideration.

While the conversion process in Germany is being continually improved by various institutions providing guidelines and support, decisions regarding conversion in Cairo are conducted quickly and are not discussed in public. The focus on the common good seems to be missing and the redevelopment of brownfields may be driven by investors through the highest bid rather than the suitability of the new use. The local residents of Athar El Nabi are used to being unable to express their needs or influence the developments. This might have led to the acceptance of the poor conditions, defined by walls and waste accumulating behind it and a passive attitude within the local community.

[1] Dolowitz & Marsh 2000: 5 [2] Jonas et al. 2015:94 [3] Theiss 2007: 10 [4] Jering et al. 2013: 66 [5] Freilich et al. 2010:5 [6] Williams & Dair 2007: 184 [7] Deichmöller 2004:12, Job & Koch [8] Ehret+Klein [9] GOPP 2012 [10] Deboulet 2009: 204 [11] CAPMAS 2006 [12] Interviewed kiosk owner, local resident, and parking guard 2016

Boie, H., 2005, Bürgerpartizipation und Stadtentwicklung: Lokale Initiativen in Kairo, Münster. CAPMAS,2006, Final results of the census 2006 part I-II. Governorate Cairo, Egypt. Deboulet, A., 2009, The Dictatorship of the Straight Line and the Myth of Social Disorder: Revisiting Informality in Cairo. In: Singerman, D. 2009, Cairo Contested. Cairo, New York. Deichmöller, S., 2004, Flächenrecycling als Instrument kommunaler Umwelt- und Standortpolitik, Frankfurt am Main. Dolowitz, D. P., & Marsh, D., 2000, Learning from abroad: The role of policy transfer in contemporary policy-making. Governance, 13(1), 5-23. Freilich, R. H., Sitkowski, R.J. & Mennillo, S.D., 2010, From Sprawl to Sustainability. Smart Growth, New Urbanism, Green Development, and Renewable Energy, Second Edition, Chicago. GOPP, 2012, Greater Urban Development Strategy. Part I: Future Vision and Strategic Directions. Ministry of Housing, Utilities, and Urban Communities (MHUC) represented by the General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP). Cairo. Jering, A. et al., 2013, Sustainable use of global land and biomass resources. Umweltbundesamt, Dessau-Roßlau, viewed 12.3.2016, https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/419/publikationen/130617_englisch_lang_w eb.pdf Job, H. & Koch, M., 2001, Gewerbebrachflächenrecycling. Ein Beitrag zur nachhaltingen Stadt-und Regionalentwicklung. Regensburg.

Jonas, A., McCann, E. & Thomas, M., 2015, Urban Geography: A Critical Introduction. West Sussex. Kumar, R., 2011, Research Methodology, London. Theiss, A., 2007, Innerstädtisches Brachflächenrecycling als Ausdruck komplexer gesellschaftlicher und ökonomischer Wandlungsprozesse. Dargestellt an “Aushandlungsprozessen” dreier Frankfurter Revitalisierungsprojekte. Vol. 126 Rhein-Mainische Forschungen, Frankfurt am Main. Williams, K. & Dair, C., 2007, A Framework for assessing the sustainability of brownfield development, p.177-192. In: Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Eds.), 2nd International Conference on Managing Urban Land. Towards more effective sustainable brownfield revitalisation policies, Berlin.

Suporvisors: Prof. Mohmed Salheen* Ain Shams University Prof. Antje Stokman * University of Stuttgart Dr. Maram Tawil * German Jordanian University

The aim of this research is to find ways to improve open spaces in Amman in order to resolve the social tension that is happening as a result of the increase in the number of refugees and immigrants from surrounding countries fleeing to Amman because of the political situation around. A limitation, that is hindering the development of such spaces and threatening Jordan, is the water scarcity. Alternative solutions to creating green spaces in such a water-scarce country are suggested in this research in order to be able to develop ideal open spaces for all people to use and minimize the social tension. The main objective is to find a way to improve existing open spaces by making recommendations for constructing new ones, and make them more attractive for people to visit, in order to resolve social tensions that are caused when people from different backgrounds meet

at unplanned spaces. This will, in a way, enhance the resilience of this city that has become multinational, and is thus going through many stresses because of its regional location. Four sites are studied here, and finally one site is chosen to apply the solution on and create recommendations as a toolbox for developing other sites. Keywords: Resilience, social cohesion, stresses, open spaces, water management, water scarcity, rainwater. Introduction

This research has two main aims that are interconnected and somehow cannot be separated. However, both work together to achieve the main concept of enhancing the resilience of the city. The first one is on a social level, where it tackles why people in Amman misunderstand open spaces in terms of how to use them and how important it is to have them in such a compact, rapid growing city. On the other hand, the other aim is to deal with an environmental challenge, where water scarcity is threatening growth of any green spaces in the city. The main objective is to find a way to improve existing open spaces, suggest recommendations for constructing new ones, and make them more attractive for people to visit, in order to resolve social tensions that are caused when people from different backgrounds meet at unplanned spaces. This will, in a way, enhance the resilience of this city that has become multinational, and is thus going through many stresses because of its regional location. Throughout the research, a link is made between green open spaces, resilience, and social cohesion. One of the limitations that stand as an obstacle, in the face of developing open, healthy green spaces in Amman, is the water scarcity issue. In this research, one of the objectives is to redirect rainwater, of which 90% is usually lost to evaporation, into developing these open spaces.

In this research, triangulation method is used in order to ensure adequate results. 'Triangulation' is a process of verification that increases validity by incorporating several viewpoints and methods (Sabina Yeasmi, 2012). The first method is done through survey – firstly, questionnaires distributed online and physically targeting all groups of people, with different ages, gender, status, etc., and secondly, questionnaires done on site, targeting visitors of selected parks/places. The second is based on personal observations done by the researcher on site. And the third is based on deep interviews with experts, architects and planners.

The definition and sorting of typologies of open spaces in Amman is based on an empirical process done by the researcher in spring 2016 and on theoretical work done by other researchers and cited here. Here, the researcher mentions and analyses the types of open spaces in Amman, their usability and users’ behavioural patterns. She also discusses problems with the spaces that need to be tackled. Moreover, she relates them to changes that have and are still occurring in the city on a social level. Public spaces in Amman, unfortunately, are places where considerable social tension takes place, and there do not seem to be any commonly agreed-upon codes of conduct among their users. What many may consider objectionable behaviour, others find totally acceptable (Mohammad Al-asad, 2011).

After conducting an empirical research, and based on theoretical findings previously mentioned by Sandalack et al., it is found that typologies differ according to the society and culture. Therefore, the researcher is able to define four main types of open spaces in Amman:

All public parks in Amman are owned by the Greater Amman Municipality (later as GAM). There are no privately owned public parks of any kind in Amman. The department of Gardens in GAM is responsible for designing, maintaining and doing all services related to these parks and

any other green areas in the city belonging to GAM. There are 134 registered parks owned by GAM in Amman. However, due to lack of funding, most parks are in bad conditions as there is no proper maintenance being done (Rand Nsoor, department of Gardens at GAM). As seen in the map below, most parks are accumulated in the center and eastern part of Amman. Newly developed areas on the peripheries of Amman still lack public parks where some areas still contain no parks at all.

These spaces have emerged within the city and were created by people’s need for such spaces.

Spaces like traffic roundabouts or highway sides have been transformed into picnic spots by people as they needed such tree-canopied open spaces where they can do barbeques, families can sit, and children can play in open spaces. These spaces have become defined by people as picnic spots and they continue to define new spaces each summer emerging with their growing need of such spaces. These spaces are either at lands owned by GAM or private lands left unbuilt.

A plaza as an open space in a city was realized as a solution, which people have pursued in order to improve their psychological safety and deterioration of the physical environment. A plaza is a place which is surrounded by buildings and roads, and these days it is widely seen as a basic place within an open space in an overpopulated city (YOUNGDUK KIM, 2015). However, this type of open spaces is not very popular in Amman. Only very few plazas or squares exist in the city. The most popular is al Hashemya Plaza in downtown Amman, owned by GAM.

Pedestrian zones have recently emerged in Amman. The pattern started when GAM decided to revive 40 hectares in 2008 in the downtown area by integrating neighborhoods through creating pedestrian zones connecting the Roman amphitheater in downtown with the citadel and enabling residents to experience their national heritage (Ababsa, 2011).

Jordan is considered the fourth driest country in the world (http://www.jva.gov.jo). Water scarcity has increased ever since the demand raised, due to immigrants fleeing to Jordan since 1948 when the war in Palestine took place, and Palestinians were forced to leave their country. The 1990 gulf war, the 2003 Iraq war and the 2011 ongoing war in Syria, all added to the high population growth in Jordan. This has led to the depletion of underground water, along with the climatic change, putting Jordan’s water resources at risk. The very few water surfaces of the Yarmouk and Jordan rivers are both shared with Israel and Syria, leaving a little share to Jordan. Water problems in Jordan are diverse and changing as the gap between supply and demand widens. Water issues are linked to scarcity, unequal distribution, and sharing the water surfaces (Hussein I.A., Abu Sharar T.M., Battikhi A.M., 2005). Jordan lies in the semi-arid region where the average rainfall is around 160mm/yr. Rainfall occurs mainly in the winter season with heavy rainfall during January and February. The rain season normally starts in October and ends in mid-May (Dr. Abdel-Nabi Fardous, 2004). There is a great demand for water to be used for irrigation, a problem that limits the development of greening the city. From here, alternative solutions to irrigation should be found.

Al Najjar

Also, as mentioned previously, 92.4% of rainwater that is lost to evaporation, capturing this water and putting it in use, is very crucial. However, the physical infrastructure of the city is not well-prepared. Rainwater drained from streets ends up in a separate canal that eventually collects water in dams. However, water guts from buildings are connected to the sewage system. This causes a huge loss of rainwater, and also puts a huge pressure on the solid waste treatment facilities, as they receive more quantity of water than they should. The government is planning to activate the law, which fines buildings that connect rainwater drainage to the sewage system instead of the rainwater collection piping. Moreover, during the intense rain events, both systems end up flooding for 2 reasons: 1. The sewage system receives more water from buildings than it regularly should in such a short time (i.e. one hour), which cannot drain quickly, and therefore floods; and because 2. The rainwater collection pits are filled with dirt and waste because of the people’s disposal of their waste on the streets and throwing trash in the pits that should collect water. Thus, when it rains, the pits cannot absorb all the water and end up flooding. Infrastructure is not the only reason to blame, but also the climatic change that has caused sudden fluctuations in rain intensity. Recently, in the past few years, Amman has witnessed heavy rain that was very intense to the extent that the city flooded, as shown in pictures below. During the last rain event in 2016, 45mm were recorded in only one hour, whereas the city is prepared to drain 20mm in 24 hours. The effect of global warming is clearly affecting the rainfall intensity, causing a huge pressure on the infrastructure of the city. The municipality has already started a long-term plan of upgrading the rainwater drainage system for the upcoming years, as it is difficult to anticipate now if the rainfall intensity will increase in the future.

After selecting four sites to study, the researcher narrowed them down to two, then finally one site to study closely. Surveys were done to analyse how people in Amman deal with open spaces, in general, and study their behaviour on the two selected sites, in particular. After conducting the surveys, interviews and observational studies, it has been concluded that:

• Results, from both East and West Amman, summarize in similar people’s needs: o Vendors or shops that sell snacks (food and beverages) o Barbeque areas o Toilets o Trees and grass (i.e. Greenery) o Water features o Sports facilities (i.e. running tracks, football fields, etc.) o Children play areas o Seating (benches and tables) o Safety: Guards, lighting, secured from traffic • GAM plans for creating new parks, assigns certain funds for it, but does not plan for long term maintenance, leaving the parks in a bad state after few years. East Amman lacks open spaces, where people need them more, as they don’t have alternatives such as house gardens, recreational clubs, or access to any expensive entertaining facilities • West Amman has more open spaces. However, people don’t use them as much, as they have other alternatives. • East Ammanis2 come to parks in the west, as they have better facilities and feel safer to them. • Instead of dealing with the vandalism issue in the East, GAM has stopped making parks there, and turned its focus to the West. The two main issues, that keep us from developing public parks in Amman, are vandalism and the water shortage issue (Rand Al Nsoor, 10.03.2016).

Irrigating plants in parks is expensive as it requires trucking water into the site, at least on a weekly basis. Finding an alternative solution could save water and reduce cost by reducing energy, labor force, and the water bill itself. Reducing cost is very important in a resource poor country like Jordan. No studies have been made to show how much water parks and open spaces is required in Amman. Planting is done haphazardly, planting lawns that require huge amounts of water in a water-scarce country. People are in need of green spaces, though not only in huge parks like King Abdullah II Park, but also on the neighborhood scale, where open spaces are crucial to beautify the scenery of Amman and satisfy people’s needs. Water-efficient solutions must be found to be able to improve existing spaces and plan new ones. Each open space or park must be studied separately in order to identify shading information, topography, rainfall intensity, sun exposure and so on. However, a common ground solution could be suggested. First, plants on site must be assisted for their water consumption. Drought tolerant plants should be used. Figure 50 below shows the water consumption for regular plants and drought tolerant ones. While planning a park, the municipality must also set a long-term maintenance plan to avoid the issue of parks being made then neglected. Meanwhile, training should be made for those who will take care of the park. In the case where nearby residents will be looking after the park, training should be given to them at either community centers or at the park itself, where people can form groups and divide tasks. For long term planning, it is preferred to involve already existing NGO’s or community centers to manage this part. Instruction boards and schedules for irrigation could also be installed onsite to avoid confusion. Rainwater harvesting has been done in Jordan since ancient times, where the water is used domestically and for irrigation. Many historical examples are still out there surviving in Jordan such as the canal reservoir at the Nabatean Petra city and other underground cisterns found in desert palaces (Lara Zureikat). Rainwater harvesting is a method to provide renewable sources of water that can be used for landscape irrigation. It is an effective method to provide water solutions to meet the needs of the site (The Center for the Study of the Built Environment, 2004). The water harvesting method could be summarized as collecting rainwater, storing it in tanks, and then later releasing it during the dry seasons to irrigate plants. There are two types of water harvesting – passive and active. Passive water harvesting collects rainwater to use it instantly, and therefore requires no storage containers. However, in Jordan, the water cannot be stored and used later in dry seasons. Unlike the active water harvesting, that collects water and stores it in containers to use it later in dry seasons, storage containers could be above- or underground.

The site chosen to test the method on is the Sukayyna Island. The site contains four fountains and 21 trees. The toilet facility which was constructed around five years ago onsite has only functioned for one month, and was then shut down due to security issues, while the toilets became a spot for drug dealers and other deviant activities. The municipality suffers from people leaving their waste onsite and in fountains, which requires cleaning the fountains on a daily basis by pumping out the water, cleaning the fountains and filling them again with water, which is very costly and requires a lot of people to do the cleaning job. Also, the water pumping motors often get stolen and must be replaced almost twice every summer. Piping and Drainage: The site is not connected to the rainwater drainage system nor to the sewage system. The toilets were once connected to the sewage system, though have been disconnected since they were shut down. Therefore, there are no tanks or water-storage containers on site. There was a water storage tank located above the toilets building but which was, however, stolen (Mr. Mu’een Oweis, Head of Abdali Area, GAM). The water fountains cannot, therefore, be drained out. However, the water is pumped out and thrown on the street. The street contains rainwater drainage pits. This water collected from the street goes through the pipes to downtown and then to Al Zarqa water canal and ends up in dams. Irrigation and Water Transportation: The trees on site require 1m³ of water on a daily basis. This water is transported daily by trucks, which stop at the street every morning to water the trees.

The fountains require 16m³ of non-potable water, on a daily basis, during the summer delivered by two trucks. The water is not recycled. The fountains on site are activated starting March and until the end of September but are sometimes, however, kept activated as long as the weather is warm enough. Redirecting Rainwater: Greenery can be increased and fountains could have a water recycling system. Water caught can be divided between storage tanks and rainwater drains. However, by slowing down the process onsite, the drainage pits can absorb more. To achieve that, calculations are done to know the intensity of rainfall, storage capacity onsite, and the quantity of water needed to irrigate plants onsite. Data needed is: area of site, catchment area, plants used on site, rainfall intensity, storage capacity, and surface material. Seasonal means rainfall is 271mm per year, rainfall records on average 20mm in 24 hours However, in sudden events, the highest recorded is 45 mm in one hour only, where it stopped afterwards. On the site, the whole site could be turned into a catchment area. If the rainwater collected from buildings is redirected into the rainwater drains, an overflow could happen where the network cannot drain huge amounts of water. Therefore, the site itself could be transferred into a storage tank. Catchment area is then on the site itself. To calculate how much rainwater can be harvested:

Quantity of Harvested Rainwater (Cubic Meters) = Rainfall (m) X Catchment Area (m²) X Runoff Coefficient3 The entire site is regarded as a catchment area, and dividing half of it as soil covered planted area (1178m²) with a runoff coefficient of 075 and the other half as a tiled area with a runoff coefficient of 925: During an intense rain hour (45mm/hour) Trees covered area=, 045*1178*, 075=3, 97 + Tiled area=, 045*1178*, 925=49 =53m³ of harvested water During Regular rain (20mm in 24 hours) Trees covered area=, 02*1178*, 075=1, 76 + Tiled area=, 02*1178*, 925=21,979 =23, 55m³ of harvested rainwater During the entire season 271mm/year Trees covered area=, 271*1178*, 075=23, 9 + Tiled Area=, 271*1178*, 925=295, 29 =319, 19m³of harvested rainwater for one year One third of the site is regarded as storage area with a 1m depth tank, and a storage capacity of 798, which is more than the water caught. However, it is good to keep such storage space for future considerations, as rain intensity or rainfall mean could increase. Moreover, water catchment area could be increased to surrounding sidewalks and buildings. Drought tolerant trees and groundcovers require 360 water Liters/6 months in dry season =, 36m³ Drought tolerant shrubs need 540 waters Liters/6 months in dry season=, 54m³ This means that the 319m³ collected during rainy season are enough to irrigate 354 drought tolerant trees and shrubs, which is much more than could be planted on the site. Extra water could be redirected into water fountains and a water recycling system could be embedded there.

Looking back at the results of data collection, throughout the observations made, people preferred to gather around the fountains, on their edges and site the whole time. Children enjoyed splashing the water, and

everyone enjoyed the coolness it brought on warm days. Others chose to site in between trees to shade from the sun during the day. However, people usually left their waste inside the fountains and since there is no water recycling system available, the water is pumped out daily, and new water is filled in the fountains. Through the new design, excess water from irrigation could fill out new fountains around the site, where seating levels could be made to fit more people to sit around them. Also, with more trees and shrubs planted onsite, people have the chance to sit on the ground all over the site, not only on benches or fountain edges. This will provide more space for more people to join in a planned space. The community involvement and awarenessraising campaigns help in keeping the site cleaner. With the water recycling system for fountains, less water is wasted every day. As for the traffic problem, the site is a little hazardous, as cars surround the site from all sides. A small fence that is only open at the pedestrian crossing helps people more to be directed and not jump on to the street at any time. This creates a safer environment for the children. Bushes could be planted alongside the fence. In General, people in Amman lack green spaces that are welcoming for sitting and communicating more with each other. Such spaces help people to open up more and loosen the tension created by the problems mentioned earlier.

At the beginning, throughout the literature review, the importance of having green elements in open spaces was highlighted in order to attract people to such spaces where they can resolve social tension issues created when people from many different backgrounds meet at such spaces. Here, the researcher suggests an alternative solution to deal with water shortage in creating green spaces, and proves how they are possible to create by applying the method on one chosen small site. Moreover, what is not thoroughly discussed is how such a project needs community involvement, where people look after the spaces and maintain them. This helps in achieving two important things: people’s commitment and sense of belonging to the neighbourhood or city they live in, and also minimizing the cost on the municipality by having people, instead of their employees, look after the spaces. Also, through this, people will make sure there is less vandalism onsite as they become the care takers, reducing maintenance costs. On an environmental level, this is a very small-scale project compared to other large parks and open spaces. However, the idea is to show that even by planting half of the site, and embedding a storage tank in one third of it, rainwater caught on the site itself alone is enough to irrigate these plants throughout the year. Installation and start-up costs could be high but could, however, minimize a lot of damage that is being done due to the intense rain that is not absorbed by the rainwater piping system, and add more greenery to sites where people need them, to resolve social tension in a city that is in desperate need of staying resilient in the face of all current events. Through community involvement and awareness raising campaigns, these sites could be maintained and more could be done within neighbourhoods themselves once people see the outcome and how beneficial it is for them and their children. Such a project could be taken as a toolbox for creating the same idea on different sites. Few numbers are to be changed according to location, size and special topographical issues of the sites.

Al Najjar

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