Threats to Avian Diversity

Per the American College of Veterinary Pathologist, any infected animals should be quarantined to prevent infection of other animals. Wildlife biologists, veterinarians, rehabilitators, and anyone else involved in amphibian or reptile fieldwork should employ strict protocols and clean and disinfect all equipment and clothes before and after working at a field site. The northeast PARC chapter have a robust protocol to prevent the spread of pathogens to herpetofauna, and suggest use of a 3% bleach solution to clean and disinfect most sampling gear (NEPARC 2014).

Snake Fungal Disease/Ophidiomycosis Snake Fungal Disease (SFD), also known as ophidiomycosis, is an emerging infectious disease caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola. It was first described in 2006 in New Hampshire in relation to declines in Timber Rattlesnake populations (Clark et al, 2011). Symptoms include localized thickening or crusting of the skin, ulcerated skin, abnormal bumps/nodules under the skin, abnormal molting, white opaque cloudiness of the eyes, and facial disfiguration. Recent studies have shown that SFD has a 40% mortality rate and individuals can test positive without showing any visible signs of infection (Allender et al. 2015). The host range for this fungus is incredibly wide and has been detected in 15+ genera of wild and captive snake populations. Since its initial discovery, SFD has been detected in 38 states including and appears to be continually spreading potentially due to climatic changes, habitat destruction and fragmentation, increasing average temperatures, and cooler, wetter springs (Lorch and et al. 2016).

In Indiana, SFD has been detected in three counties (Brown, Harrison, and Monroe), but can likely be found state-wide with proper sampling. A two-year project in 2017 – 2018 was the first targeted sample of snakes for SFD in Indiana, and detected the disease in 13 individual snakes of four species in the above mentioned counties (Allender et al. 2017). Species that tested positive include northern water snakes (Nerodia sipedon), racers (Coluber constrictor), milk snakes (Lampropeltis triangulum) and queen snakes (Regina septemvittata). Even though detection has only occurred in these species, many snake species are at risk for infection.

As is the case with most emerging wildlife diseases, there are few established management protocols for SFD. From a preventive standpoint, individuals handling wild snakes should observe appropriate procedures and refer to the Northeast PARC protocols, including frequent disinfection of hands, tools and working surfaces, and dedication of gear and work spaces for wild versus captive reptiles. For highly endangered populations where the survival of each individual snake is vital, rehabilitation might represent a feasible option.

Threats to Avian Diversity

Avian diversity is threatened by multiple human-caused sources. Habitat loss and fragmentation resulting from human activity is potentially the top threat to bird populations (USFWS 2016); however, measuring these declines is not as readily quantifiable as those from direct mortality. Research complied by the USFWS (2021) identifies predation by domestic cats, poisonings, and collisions with building windows, cars, and electrical lines as the major human-caused threats to bird populations. In the Preserve, the main threats to bird species result from habitat fragmentation and anthropogenic use.