This publication was created thanks to the grant support of the Cultural and Educational Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Development and Youth of the Slovak Republic as one of the outputs of the project KEGA 009TU Z-4/2023 "Preparing of multilingual electronic study materials as a support of internationalization of education in study programs Fire Protection and Safety.“
Authors:
assoc. prof. Martin ZACHAR
prof. Andrea MAJLINGOVA
Department of Fire Protection
Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology
Technical University in Zvolen
T. G. Masaryka 24, 960 01 Zvolen
Reviewers:
assoc. prof. Richard KMINIAK
prof. Linda MAKOVICKÁ OSVALDOVA
I. 2025, 179 p (AS 11,27)
Document form: electronic (online pdf)
Publishing house: Technical University in Zvolen
Design: prof. Andrea MAJLINGOVÁ
Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia
University of Zilina in Zilina, Slovakia
Approved by the Rector of the Technical University of Zvolen, number EP 47/2025, as a university textbook.
The manuscript has undergone linguistic proofreading.
The author and the reviewers are responsible for the professional and linguistic standards of this publication.
ISBN 978-80-228-3489-6
All rights reserved. No part of the text or illustrations may be used for redistribution in any form without the prior permission of the authors or the publisher.
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN ZVOLEN
Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
Martin ZACHAR
Andrea MAJLINGOVÁ
INTRODUCTION
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. Its primary goal is to prevent occupational accidents, injuries, illnesses, and fatalities by creating and maintaining safe and healthy working conditions. While historically viewed through the lens of physical hazard prevention, OSH today encompasses a much broader scope, integrating physical, psychological, ergonomic, chemical, biological, organisational, and social dimensions of the work environment.
In the modern world of work, characterised by rapid technological change, globalisation, increased complexity of tasks, and growing demands on productivity, the importance of robust OSH systems has become more pronounced than ever. The emergence of new forms of work, including teleworking, automation, and platform-based employment, has introduced new risks and challenged traditional safety paradigms. Meanwhile, long-established risks such as exposure to hazardous substances, poor ergonomic design, and excessive workload continue to threaten the wellbeing of workers in both traditional and modern industries.
The OSH is not only a matter of regulatory compliance or workplace liability. It is fundamentally a human right and an ethical imperative. Ensuring the health and safety of workers contributes to social justice, economic sustainability, and business performance. Healthy and safe working conditions lead to improved job satisfaction, reduced absenteeism, higher productivity, and lower turnover. In this sense, OSH is not a cost, but an investment in people, processes, and long-term success.
The concept of prevention lies at the heart of OSH. Rather than reacting to incidents after they occur, modern OSH approaches focus on risk anticipation, hazard identification, and proactive control measures. This preventive mindset is enshrined in both international standards and European Union directives, and it is the foundation of Slovak national legislation, particularly Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Occupational Safety and Health. These legal frameworks establish rights and duties, define institutional responsibilities, and provide the structural basis for enforcement and improvement.
The OSH field is inherently interdisciplinary. It draws from engineering, medicine, psychology, law, management, and education. Engineers are involved in technical safety design and machine guarding. Occupational physicians monitor health risks and assess fitness for work. Psychologists address mental wellbeing and the human factor in safety behaviour. Lawyers interpret and apply safety legislation. Managers and supervisors implement systems, provide resources, and ensure accountability. And educators, such as those delivering this very curriculum, play a crucial role in instilling awareness, skills, and responsibility among future professionals.
The relevance of OSH extends beyond the individual workplace. Safe work environments support public health, reduce the burden on national healthcare systems, and contribute to social cohesion. On an international level, OSH is promoted by organisations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO). In the European Union, the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA) and directives like 89/391/EEC shape policy and harmonise minimum requirements across member states. Slovakia, as an EU member, implements these directives through national law and practice
Education in the OSH is a cornerstone of effective prevention. Whether for students, workers, or management, proper training ensures that everyone understands their role in maintaining safety
and that hazards are recognised and managed at all levels. For students of technical, vocational, and managerial disciplines, the OSH is an essential subject that builds competencies in legal compliance, workplace design, ethical practice, and leadership. The knowledge gained through this textbook is not limited to passing exams, it empowers learners to make responsible decisions, advocate for safety, and lead positive change in their future professions.
This textbook aims to provide a comprehensive foundation in the OSH principles, practices, and legislation. Each chapter builds progressively, beginning with core concepts and expanding into legal frameworks, risk management, workplace design, health protection, emergency planning, and more. Real-world case studies, review questions, and visual aids support understanding and application. The text follows a European and Slovak context, but its principles are transferable to international settings.
Throughout the chapters, students will become familiar with key legislation such as Act No. 124/2006 Coll., understand the structure of OSH management systems like ISO 45001, explore technical and organisational control measures, and appreciate the human aspects of workplace safety. The final chapters focus on high-level topics such as crisis preparedness, safety culture, and state supervision, highlighting the importance of coordination, communication, and continuous improvement.
In closing, the OSH is not simply about avoiding harm, it is about building environments where people can thrive, contribute, and return home safely each day. It is a shared responsibility between employers, employees, professionals, and policymakers. Studying the OSH, remembering that what you learned you will get the power to protect lives, improve systems, and shape safer, more resilient societies.
5.1.
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to introduce students to the basic principles, purpose, and societal importance of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH). Students will understand why OSH is a key component of every workplace, how it is embedded in legislation and practice, and why it is an essential part of vocational and professional education. By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: (1) Define the concept and goals of OSH; (2) Explain the relevance of OSH in modern working environments; (3) Understand the legal and practical framework of OSH; (4) Recognize the role of OSH education in preparing for professional life.
This foundational understanding will prepare students to apply theoretical knowledge in practical contexts and contribute proactively to safe and healthy working environments.
(Image produced by ChatGPT 40 based on content definition)
1.1. Importance and Objectives of Occupational Safety and Health
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) refers to the comprehensive system of legislative, technical, organizational, medical, and educational measures designed to ensure safe, hygienic, and healthy working conditions for all individuals engaged in professional activity. As one of the fundamental pillars of sustainable work environments, OSH is integral not only to individual well-being but also to the long-term performance and social responsibility of organizations.
Modern workplaces expose employees to a variety of hazards: physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic, and psychosocial. OSH systems exist to identify, assess, and control these risks, with the overarching aim of preventing accidents, injuries, and occupational diseases. Beyond mere compliance with legal standards, OSH represents a proactive approach to human-centred work design and risk prevention.
1.2. Key Dimensions of
OSH Importance
1. Protection of Life and Health
The most fundamental role of OSH is to protect human life and health in the workplace. This includes not only the prevention of fatalities and serious injuries but also the long-term protection of health from cumulative risks such as noise exposure, repetitive strain, or toxic substances.
The protection of human life and health stands as the central and most critical objective of OSH At its core, OSH exists to ensure that every individual returns home from work each day safe and unharmed, both physically and mentally. This fundamental principle transcends industry, job type, or geographic location and applies to all working environments where people may be exposed to hazards.
One of the most visible and immediate goals of OSH is the prevention of work-related accidents that result in death, disability, or severe physical trauma. These events may include falls from height, contact with moving machinery, electrical shocks, collapses or explosions, vehicle accidents in transportation or logistics sectors.
Many such incidents are preventable through rigorous risk assessment, proper safety protocols, regular inspections, and the consistent use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
While acute injuries often attract more attention, a substantial portion of occupational illnesses arise from long-term or cumulative exposure to harmful conditions. These can be less visible, but equally dangerous, leading to chronic and sometimes irreversible health conditions. Examples include:
• Noise-induced hearing loss from prolonged exposure to loud environments,
• Repetitive strain injuries (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome, back injuries) from poor ergonomic design or repetitive tasks,
• Respiratory conditions caused by inhalation of dust, asbestos, silica, or chemical fumes,
• Skin diseases resulting from exposure to corrosive substances; cancers linked to carcinogenic agents such as benzene or formaldehyde,
• Mental health issues related to prolonged stress, excessive workload, or workplace harassment.
Protecting workers' health in these areas requires systematic monitoring, occupational health surveillance, preventive health measures, and compliance with exposure limits established by national and international regulations.
Modern work environments increasingly recognize psychosocial risks as serious threats to employee health. These include: job insecurity, lack of control over tasks, work-related stress, burnout, workplace bullying or violence.
Failure to address these issues can lead to mental health disorders, reduced job satisfaction, absenteeism, and decreased productivity. Effective OSH systems must therefore include mental health promotion, access to support services, and the development of a positive organizational culture that values well-being.
Certain groups of workers may be especially vulnerable to occupational risks, including
• Young workers, who may lack experience or awareness of hazards,
• Older workers, who may have physical limitations or chronic conditions,
• Pregnant employees, requiring adapted conditions to avoid harm to mother and child,
• Workers with disabilities, who may face physical barriers or specialized risks,
• Temporary, migrant, or contract workers, who often receive less training or protection.
OSH policies must include tailored measures to protect these groups, such as modified tasks, accessible equipment, and additional supervision or support.
Protecting life and health in the workplace is not only a legal and economic concern, it is a matter of human rights. The right to work in conditions that are safe, clean, and respectful of human dignity is recognized by the International Labour Organization (ILO) and other global bodies.
An employer’s commitment to safeguarding health and life reflects their ethical responsibility to care for their employees, reduce suffering, and promote fairness and inclusion in the workplace.
Protecting life and health is the cornerstone of Occupational Safety and Health. It encompasses both immediate injury prevention and the long-term safeguarding of physical and mental wellbeing. Achieving this requires a holistic approach, combining technical controls, human factors, education, and supportive policies. Only then can workplaces become environments where people not only survive, but thrive.
2. Legal Obligation
Employers are legally obliged to provide a safe working environment under national laws (e.g., Act No. 124/2006 Coll. in Slovakia) and international regulations (e.g., ILO conventions, EU directives). Failure to meet OSH obligations can result in legal penalties, civil liability, or criminal charges, depending on the severity of noncompliance.
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is not merely a recommended best practice, it is a mandatory legal obligation in every modern legal system. National and international laws require employers to create and maintain safe and healthy workplaces for all employees, regardless of industry or work type. These legal duties are backed by enforcement mechanisms, and failure to comply can result in significant legal, financial, and reputational consequences
In the Slovak Republic, the primary legal basis for OSH is:
• Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Safety and Health Protection at Work, as amended.
This act outlines:
• The general duties of employers and employees,
• Procedures for risk assessment,
• Requirements for training, documentation, and monitoring,
• The role of authorized safety professionals and occupational health services Other related laws include:
• Labour Code (Act No. 311/2001 Coll.), which defines the broader employment relationship and OSH responsibilities,
• Special regulations for technical equipment, chemical safety, construction, fire protection, and others.
At the European Union level, OSH is regulated by:
• The Framework Directive 89/391/EEC, which establishes general principles for prevention, risk management, and employer obligations across EU member states,
• A wide array of sectoral directives (e.g., concerning display screen equipment, noise, manual handling, carcinogens).
EU member states are required to transpose these directives into national law, ensuring a harmonized minimum standard of workplace protection throughout the Union. The employer bears the primary legal responsibility for ensuring health and safety in the workplace. According to legislation, the employer must:
• Identify hazards and assess occupational risks,
• Implement preventive and protective measures based on the results of the risk assessment,
• Ensure proper training and regular re-training of employees,
• Provide and maintain personal protective equipment (PPE),
• Adapt work organization to suit human capabilities (ergonomics, workload),
• Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of OSH measures,
• Keep required documentation, such as risk assessments, accident reports, training records, and safety instructions,
• Appoint qualified personnel (e.g., OSH specialist, fire safety officer),
• Cooperate with occupational health services and ensure periodic medical examinations. In essence, employers must eliminate or reduce workplace risks to the lowest reasonably achievable level and continuously improve safety conditions.
Employees also have legal obligations in the OSH system. They must:
• Follow safety instructions and training provided by the employer,
• Use PPE and safety equipment correctly and consistently,
• Report hazards, incidents, or injuries to supervisors,
• Cooperate with the employer in implementing safety measures,
• Avoid behaviour that endangers themselves or others.
Importantly, the law grants employees the right to refuse dangerous work if they reasonably believe their life or health is at serious risk, without facing retaliation.
Compliance with OSH legislation is enforced through state supervision. In Slovakia, the National Labour Inspectorate (slov. Národný inšpektorát práce) and regional labour inspectorates carry out inspections and monitor adherence to safety laws.
Legal consequences for non-compliance may include:
• Fines or sanctions imposed by labour inspectorates,
• Civil liability for damages or harm caused by negligence,
• Criminal prosecution in cases of gross negligence or fatal incidents,
• Workplace closure orders in cases of imminent danger.
Inspectors have the right to:
• Access any part of the workplace,
• Review OSH documentation and training records,
• Interview employees and management,
• Impose corrective measures or penalties.
In many industries, clients or contractors require proof of OSH compliance as part of business agreements or public procurement contracts. A strong OSH track record is often a prerequisite for project bids, licenses, and certifications.
In addition, workplace accidents may influence insurance premiums and lead to complex legal proceedings if negligence is proven. Proper legal compliance with OSH laws reduces both financial and legal exposure.
OSH is not optional, it is a legal obligation grounded in national and international law. Employers must fulfil a comprehensive set of duties to protect their workers, and employees share responsibility for maintaining safety. Failure to uphold these obligations can result in severe consequences, while compliance ensures not only legal security but also ethical and operational excellence.
3. Economic Efficiency
Workplace accidents and illnesses lead to productivity losses, medical costs, compensation payments, legal costs, and reputational damage. An effective OSH system contributes to lower absenteeism, improved worker morale, and enhanced operational efficiency, ultimately yielding a positive return on investment.
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is often viewed primarily as a legal or ethical requirement, but it is equally important to recognize its strong economic dimension. Investing in safety and health is not merely a cost, it is a strategic investment that yields significant economic returns for organizations, industries, and national economies as a whole.
The economic efficiency of OSH can be seen in both cost savings and value generation Workplaces that prioritize safety typically experience fewer disruptions, lower insurance costs, and higher employee morale, which in turn enhance productivity, quality, and competitiveness.
Work-related injuries, illnesses, and fatalities impose direct and indirect costs on employers and society. These include:
• Direct costs:
o Medical treatment and rehabilitation,
o Compensation and insurance payouts,
o Equipment and property damage,
o Administrative costs related to incident investigation and reporting.
• Indirect costs (often several times higher):
o Lost productivity due to absenteeism or reduced work capacity,
o Overtime payments or temporary replacements,
o Loss of employee morale and team efficiency,
o Training costs for replacement staff,
o Legal expenses and potential penalties,
o Damage to reputation and customer trust.
According to estimates by the International Labour Organization (ILO), over 4% of global GDP is lost annually due to occupational accidents and diseases. In high-risk industries, such as construction or manufacturing, these losses can be even more severe.
Numerous studies confirm that investments in safety measures offer a positive return on investment. For example:
• Every euro invested in OSH can yield up to 2.2 euros in return, according to a study by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA).
• Companies with strong OSH programs report up to 40% fewer accidents, leading to measurable reductions in downtime and insurance costs.
• Safety-conscious organizations often outperform competitors in terms of productivity, quality control, and employee retention.
Investing in OSH also helps avoid “hidden costs” that are not recorded on financial statements but have a major impact, such as decreased employee engagement, burnout, or reputational risk.
Effective OSH systems contribute to business continuity and resilience by minimizing the likelihood of unplanned incidents and ensuring that, when they do occur, the response is fast and organized. This includes:
• Ensuring compliance during audits and inspections,
• Reducing reliance on emergency measures that are more costly than prevention.
Businesses with well-integrated OSH programs are better equipped to handle change, whether it's due to new technology, legal regulations, or shifts in workforce demographics.
Companies with a strong OSH record often benefit from:
• Greater employee retention and lower turnover,
• Easier recruitment of skilled labour (people prefer safe workplaces),
• Improved customer trust and stronger relationships with clients,
• Qualification for government contracts or ISO certifications (e.g., ISO 45001).
Safety and health performance is increasingly viewed as a key indicator of organizational quality and leadership
From a macroeconomic perspective, effective OSH systems help:
• Reduce the burden on public healthcare systems,
• Increase national workforce productivity and economic output,
• Promote sustainable employment and reduce poverty linked to work-related injuries,
• Create fair and dignified working conditions in line with human rights and social progress.
Governments that invest in national OSH strategies and prevention campaigns often see longterm savings and improved social cohesion.
OSH is not just a moral or legal imperative, it is an economic asset. When managed effectively, it helps organizations avoid losses, enhance productivity, and build resilience. On a broader scale, it supports national development by protecting the workforce, the most valuable asset of any economy.
Organizations that view OSH as a cost to minimize are short-sighted. Those that see it as a smart investment gain not only safety, but also profitability, sustainability, and strategic advantage.
4. Social Responsibility and Ethics
OSH reflects the ethical responsibility of employers to value and protect their workforce Organizations that prioritize safety demonstrate corporate social responsibility, gain trust from employees and stakeholders, and contribute to broader societal well-being.
OSH is not only a legal requirement and economic strategy, it is also a deeply ethical and socially responsible commitment. Ensuring a safe and healthy work environment reflects an organization's respect for human dignity, fundamental rights, and the value of life When employers prioritize safety, they affirm the principle that people are not expendable resources, but individuals with physical, emotional, and social needs.
In today’s interconnected and values-driven world, OSH is increasingly recognized as a core component of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and ethical business conduct
At its core, ethics in the workplace revolves around the principle of “do no harm”. Employers have a moral obligation to prevent avoidable suffering and to protect workers from foreseeable risks. This duty transcends profit motives, legal compliance, or industry norms.
Neglecting safety, whether through poor training, unsafe machinery, excessive workloads, or failure to act on known hazards, violates fundamental human rights. It signals that worker health is secondary to output, which erodes trust and damages the moral fabric of the workplace.
Conversely, when organizations go beyond minimum requirements to create safe, inclusive, and health-promoting environments, they demonstrate ethical leadership and care for the common good
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) refers to the voluntary efforts of companies to operate in a socially and environmentally responsible way. OSH is a key pillar of CSR because it directly affects the well-being of one of a company’s most important stakeholders, its employees.
Organizations that integrate OSH into their CSR policies typically:
• Commit to transparency about workplace conditions and incidents,
• Invest in employee health and wellness programs,
• Ensure fair treatment of all workers, including subcontractors and temporary staff,
• Work to eliminate discrimination, harassment, and unsafe working practices,
• Partner with trade unions and regulators to improve standards across the industry. Such companies earn public trust, attract investors, and are more likely to be seen as ethical, stable, and future-oriented
Leadership sets the tone for workplace culture. Ethical leaders:
• Model safe behaviour and personally follow safety protocols,
• Make decisions that prioritize people over profits, especially under pressure,
• Empower employees to report risks without fear of retaliation,
• Treat OSH not as a compliance issue, but as a moral responsibility
This approach fosters a culture of care, where safety is internalized as a shared value, not just an external rule.
An ethical OSH framework also requires fair and inclusive practices. This means recognizing and addressing:
• The different risk profiles of workers based on age, gender, health, and ability,
• The vulnerability of migrant, temporary, and informal workers, who are often excluded from full protections,
• The need for reasonable accommodations for workers with disabilities or chronic health conditions.
Justice in OSH means that no worker is left behind, that all individuals have an equal right to health, safety, and dignity at work.
On a global scale, the ethical dimensions of OSH include:
• Fighting child labour and forced labour in supply chains,
• Promoting decent work conditions in low-income countries,
• Supporting international labour standards set by organizations like the International Labour Organization (ILO)
Multinational companies and governments alike are expected to contribute to global ethical standards for OSH, ensuring that all workers, regardless of nationality or economic status, benefit from basic safety and health protections.
OSH is a mirror of an organization’s moral compass. Beyond laws and profit margins, it reflects how much a company values human life, fairness, and responsibility. Ethical and socially
responsible approaches to OSH not only protect individuals, they strengthen communities, build trust, and contribute to a more just and sustainable world
In the end, ethical OSH is not just good for workers, it’s good for business, society, and the future.
5. Sustainability and Long-Term Workforce Development
A healthy work environment supports long-term employability, aging workforce management, and the development of human capital. OSH helps organizations adapt to demographic changes and evolving work patterns (e.g., automation, remote work, mental health challenges).
OSH plays a pivotal role in ensuring not only immediate workplace safety but also the sustainability of human resources over time. A sustainable workforce is one that is healthy, capable, adaptable, and prepared for the challenges of the future. OSH, therefore, supports both individual career longevity and the strategic development of organizations and national economies.
In the context of rapid technological change, demographic shifts, and evolving work arrangements, OSH is a critical enabler of long-term workforce resilience and well-being.
Sustainable development, defined as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, requires healthy, productive people. Decent and safe working conditions are central to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly:
• SDG 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all,
• SDG 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all.
OSH policies that reduce injuries, protect mental health, and promote work-life balance are not only socially responsible, they are strategically essential for sustainable development.
With many countries facing an aging workforce, OSH must adapt to support longer, healthier, and more productive working lives. Aging workers may be more vulnerable to certain risks (e.g., falls, chronic illness), but they also bring valuable experience and skills.
To ensure sustainable employability, organizations must:
• Adapt tasks to fit changing physical and cognitive abilities,
• Invest in ergonomic design and fatigue management,
• Provide lifelong learning and upskilling opportunities,
• Avoid age discrimination in workplace safety planning.
A proactive approach to OSH helps workers remain active, engaged, and valuable well beyond traditional retirement age.
Rapid changes in technology, business models, and global labour markets mean that workers must be increasingly flexible and adaptive. OSH contributes to this adaptability by:
• Supporting safe digital transformation (e.g., ergonomic home office setups, screen-time management),
• Addressing emerging risks such as psychosocial stress, AI-related job changes, and lone working,
A resilient workforce is one that is not only safe, but also empowered to thrive in uncertain and changing environments.
OSH contributes directly to the development and preservation of human capital, the knowledge, skills, health, and abilities that individuals bring to their work. Workplaces that prioritize safety:
When health and safety are treated as core values, employees are more likely to stay with the company, grow professionally, and contribute to innovation and efficiency.
A sustainable workforce involves collaboration across generations. OSH supports this by creating:
• Mentorship structures, where older workers guide younger employees in safe practices,
• Shared responsibility for safety culture across age groups,
• A respectful, inclusive environment that values each generation’s perspective.
This intergenerational approach strengthens workplace cohesion and ensures that safety knowledge and values are passed on.
Short-term cuts in OSH investment may seem financially beneficial, but they often lead to longterm losses through higher accident rates, lower employee engagement, and damage to organizational reputation. Preventive measures today are the foundation of sustainability tomorrow.
A sustainable OSH strategy involves:
• Continuous risk assessment and monitoring,
• Long-term planning for demographic and technological trends,
• Integrating safety into organizational culture and leadership.
OSH is an essential tool for sustainable workforce development. It supports healthy aging, skills retention, adaptability, and intergenerational cooperation, key pillars for long-term success. Organizations that invest in OSH are not just protecting their employees today, they are building a future-ready, resilient, and competitive workforce.
In the broader sense, OSH contributes to economic stability, social equity, and sustainable development. It is both a responsibility and an opportunity for shaping the future of work.
1.3. Core Objectives of OSH
The objectives of OSH are both preventive and systemic, forming the basis of workplace safety management systems:
1. Prevention of Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses
The prevention of work-related injuries and occupational illnesses is the most direct and practical objective of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH). It forms the foundation of all safety programs, reflecting a proactive commitment to ensuring that workers are protected from both sudden accidents and long-term health hazards.
Workplaces are full of potential risks, some visible, others hidden. An effective OSH strategy identifies these risks in advance and introduces systematic preventive measures to reduce, control, or eliminate them entirely. Prevention not only saves lives and protects health, it also strengthens trust, productivity, and organizational efficiency.
Workplace injuries can range from minor to life-threatening, and may include:
• Acute physical injuries: cuts, burns, fractures, amputations caused by machinery, tools, or manual tasks.
• Falls, slips, and trips: among the most common workplace accidents, especially in construction, maintenance, and healthcare.
• Vehicle and transport-related injuries: incidents involving forklifts, delivery trucks, or mobile work platforms.
• Struck-by or caught-in injuries: collisions with moving objects or entrapment between equipment.
• Electrical injuries: shocks, burns, or fatal electrocutions due to poor insulation or improper handling.
• Explosions and fires: resulting from flammable substances, gas leaks, or faulty wiring.
All of these can be mitigated through appropriate controls, training, and equipment.
Occupational diseases often develop gradually, making them harder to detect and trace to specific work activities. Common examples include:
• Respiratory illnesses: asthma, chronic bronchitis, silicosis, or asbestosis due to dust, fumes, or chemical exposure.
• Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs): back pain, tendonitis, carpal tunnel syndrome due to poor ergonomics or repetitive motion.
• Hearing loss: caused by prolonged exposure to loud industrial noise.
• Skin diseases: such as contact dermatitis from handling chemicals without proper protection.
• Occupational cancers: linked to exposure to carcinogens like benzene, asbestos, or radiation.
• Mental health disorders: including burnout, depression, and anxiety due to high stress, poor work design, or psychosocial hazards.
Preventing these conditions requires long-term vigilance, routine health monitoring, and safe work design.
The modern approach to OSH is based on the hierarchy of controls, which prioritizes elimination of risks before relying on personal behaviour or protective gear.
From most effective to least:
1. Elimination – Remove the hazard entirely (e.g., replacing toxic chemicals with safer alternatives).
2. Substitution – Replace hazardous materials or methods with less risky ones.
3. Engineering controls – Isolate people from hazards (e.g., machine guards, ventilation systems).
4. Administrative controls – Change the way people work (e.g., rotation schedules, training, safety procedures).
5. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – Provide protection (e.g., helmets, gloves, respirators), used only when other measures cannot fully eliminate the risk.
Proactive prevention means acting before an incident happens, not just reacting afterward.
Risk assessment is a structured process used to:
• Identify potential hazards,
• Evaluate their likelihood and severity,
• Implement measures to control or remove them.
This should be regularly updated and include participation from all stakeholders, managers, safety officers, and frontline workers. A comprehensive OSH program integrates risk assessment with:
• Job safety analysis (JSA),
• Standard operating procedures (SOPs),
• Training and education plans,
• Emergency preparedness
Employees must be trained to:
• Recognize hazards relevant to their job,
• Understand how to avoid or minimize risks,
• Use tools and PPE correctly,
• Respond appropriately in emergencies.
Training should be job-specific, interactive, and ongoing, with refreshers provided as needed.
Well-informed employees are the first line of defence against workplace injuries.
A successful prevention strategy depends not only on policies, but also on organizational culture. Key elements include:
• Visible commitment from leadership to safety as a core value,
• Encouraging incident reporting without fear of punishment (no-blame culture),
• Engaging employees in safety discussions and improvements,
• Rewarding safe behaviour and identifying unsafe practices before harm occurs.
When safety is embedded into everyday thinking and behaviour, prevention becomes a shared responsibility and a natural part of work.
The prevention of work-related injuries and illnesses is a central mission of OSH. It protects human life, preserves health, and supports productive workplaces. Prevention requires a combination of risk assessment, training, technology, and strong leadership, but above all, it requires a mindset that values human life above operational shortcuts or cost-cutting
Creating a truly safe work environment is not achieved through compliance alone, it is built through careful planning, continuous learning, and a culture of responsibility
2. Risk Assessment and Control
OSH requires continuous identification and assessment of risks, followed by the implementation of preventive or corrective actions. The hierarchy of controls, from elimination of hazards to PPE, is a standard model for managing workplace risk
Risk assessment and control are the backbone of any effective Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) system. They provide a systematic method for identifying, evaluating, and managing hazards before they result in harm. By understanding the risks associated with specific tasks, equipment, environments, or substances, organizations can design preventive strategies that are both targeted and effective.
The goal of this process is simple: minimize the probability of injuries and illnesses by controlling exposures to known risks in a logical and prioritized manner.
To begin, it is important to distinguish between two key terms:
• Hazard: Any source, condition, or act with the potential to cause harm (e.g., chemical spill, unguarded machinery, excessive noise).
• Risk: The likelihood that a hazard will cause harm, combined with the severity of the possible outcome.
Risk = Likelihood × Severity
This formula is central to prioritizing control efforts
The standard risk assessment process includes five key steps:
1. Identify Hazards
o Observe work activities, equipment, materials, and environment.
o Review accident reports, health records, inspection findings.
o Consult employees who understand the day-to-day risks.
2. Evaluate Risks
o Determine the likelihood of each hazard causing harm.
o Estimate the potential severity of injury or damage.
o Categorize the risk level (e.g., low, medium, high, unacceptable).
3. Decide on Preventive Measures
o Use the hierarchy of controls (explained below).
o Eliminate or reduce risks to as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP).
4. Implement Control Measures
o Integrate actions into procedures, workflows, and responsibilities.
o Provide training, signage, equipment, and documentation
5. Monitor and Review
o Reassess regularly or after incidents, changes, or new tasks.
o Update controls as needed and track their effectiveness.
A key framework used in risk control is the Hierarchy of Controls, which ranks risk-reduction methods by effectiveness:
1. Elimination – Remove the hazard entirely (e.g., eliminate a dangerous process).
2. Substitution – Replace a hazardous substance or method with a safer alternative.
3. Engineering Controls – Isolate people from the hazard (e.g., ventilation systems, guards).
4. Administrative Controls – Change how people work (e.g., training, job rotation, signage).
5. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – Use protective gear as the last line of defence. The higher up the hierarchy, the more effective and reliable the control. Depending on the type of hazard, risk controls may include:
• Emergency procedures: clear evacuation plans, fire drills, spill kits.
Risk control must be tailored to the specific workplace and workforce, considering physical layout, employee demographics, and work organization.
To ensure accountability and compliance, the risk assessment process must be documented A typical risk register includes:
• Identified hazards,
• Associated risks and severity ratings,
• Existing and planned control measures,
• Responsible persons,
• Deadlines and review dates.
These documents should be accessible, up to date, and regularly reviewed. In many jurisdictions, they are a legal requirement and are subject to inspection.
Employee involvement is critical because:
• Workers have firsthand experience with operational risks.
• They can help identify unreported or emerging hazards.
• Their involvement increases ownership and compliance with safety measures.
Effective risk management is collaborative, not top-down.
Risk assessment is not a one-time activity. It must be revisited when:
• New equipment, substances, or processes are introduced,
• Workplace conditions change,
• Incidents or near-misses occur,
• New legislation or best practices emerge.
OSH systems must be adaptive, responding to the evolving nature of work environments.
Risk assessment and control are essential for transforming knowledge into prevention By identifying hazards, evaluating their impact, and implementing appropriate control measures, organizations protect their workers, comply with the law, and reduce the risk of loss.
An effective OSH system doesn’t just react to incidents, it anticipates and prevents them through structured, evidence-based risk management.
3. Health Promotion and Surveillance
Beyond injury prevention, OSH involves monitoring and supporting the general health of workers through medical check-ups, mental health initiatives, stress management, and promotion of healthy lifestyle practices.
While Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is often associated with accident prevention, its scope extends beyond the absence of injury. A modern and effective OSH system also actively promotes the health and well-being of workers through structured health promotion
and surveillance. This dual approach ensures not only that employees are protected from harm but also that they are physically, mentally, and socially supported in their working lives.
Health promotion and surveillance work together to prevent occupational diseases, detect emerging health issues early, and support a healthier, more productive workforce.
Workplace health promotion refers to organizational policies and practices that go beyond legal compliance and aim to improve the overall health and quality of life of workers. It focuses on creating a work culture and environment that supports physical, mental, and emotional well-being.
• Providing stress management and resilience training,
• Supporting work-life balance and flexible working conditions,
• Offering access to counselling or psychological support,
• Promoting mental health awareness and destigmatization
These initiatives are typically voluntary and aligned with the World Health Organization (WHO) model of “Healthy Workplaces.”
A healthy workforce is more engaged, motivated, and productive, and less prone to absenteeism, burnout, and chronic illness.
A well-designed health promotion program yields significant benefits:
• Reduces long-term healthcare costs for both employees and employers,
• Improves morale, job satisfaction, and retention,
• Decreases presenteeism (working while ill, which reduces performance),
• Enhances the organization’s employer brand and public image,
• Contributes to the sustainability of human capital
Health promotion is an investment in people, not an expense.
Health surveillance (also known as medical surveillance) is a systematic and ongoing program of health checks aimed at detecting signs of work-related ill health at an early stage. It is required when workers are exposed to certain risks that could cause harm over time.
Typical examples include:
• Lung function testing for exposure to dust or chemicals,
• Audiometric testing for workers in noisy environments,
• Skin checks for those in contact with irritants or sensitizers,
• Biological monitoring (e.g., blood or urine tests for lead, solvents, etc.),
• Mental health screening where psychosocial risks are high.
Surveillance programs must be:
• Planned and documented,
• Conducted by qualified occupational health professionals,
• Confidential and consent-based,
• Linked to follow-up actions (e.g., adjustments to tasks, referrals, or preventive improvements).
In many countries, including under EU and Slovak law, health surveillance is a legal requirement for workers exposed to specific hazards (e.g., noise, vibration, hazardous substances).
However, surveillance must always be:
• Non-discriminatory,
• Conducted with informed consent,
• Respectful of medical confidentiality.
Employers must use surveillance data only for the purpose of protecting health, not for punitive or discriminatory decisions.
Health surveillance should be directly connected to the risk assessment process. If health monitoring reveals early signs of harm in a group of workers, it may indicate:
• That existing control measures are insufficient,
• That workplace exposures need to be reassessed,
• That additional training, PPE, or job redesign is required.
Thus, surveillance acts as a feedback loop in the OSH system, ensuring that the risks identified on paper are also being controlled in practice.
Mental health has become a major focus within workplace health promotion. OSH programs now address:
• Work-related stress and burnout,
• Workplace bullying or harassment,
• Isolation in remote work settings,
• Emotional fatigue in healthcare or high-pressure jobs. Organizations can promote mental well-being by:
• Creating psychologically safe environments,
• Offering mental health training and awareness sessions,
• Encouraging open dialogue and de-stigmatization,
• Ensuring access to Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) or psychological counselling.
Healthy minds are as vital as healthy bodies in the workplace.
Health promotion and surveillance represent the preventive, proactive face of modern OSH. Together, they protect workers from long-term harm, detect early signs of occupational illness, and support overall well-being.
By investing in worker health, not just preventing injury, organizations foster resilient, capable, and sustainable workforces. In today’s world, caring for health is not just a legal duty or ethical gesture, it is a strategic necessity.
4. Training and Education
Continuous training is critical to raising risk awareness and developing safe working habits All workers, from executives to labourers, must understand their rights, responsibilities, and the specific risks of their work environment.
Training and education are fundamental pillars of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH). No safety measure, no matter how technically advanced, can be fully effective unless workers understand the risks they face, know how to protect themselves and others, and are empowered to act responsibly.
A well-structured OSH training program builds awareness, competence, confidence, and a proactive safety culture, helping to prevent incidents and respond appropriately when risks arise.
Training ensures that employees at all levels are:
• Aware of potential hazards in their workplace,
• Familiar with safe working procedures and emergency protocols,
• Competent in the use of tools, machines, and personal protective equipment (PPE),
• Informed about their legal rights and responsibilities,
• Empowered to recognize and report unsafe conditions or behaviour
OSH training also supports the integration of safety into everyday routines, encouraging preventive thinking rather than reactive action.
Depending on the role, risk level, and workplace context, OSH training may include:
1.
General Safety Induction
• Provided to all new employees before they begin work.
• Covers basic safety rules, site-specific risks, emergency exits, reporting procedures, and PPE use.
2. Job-Specific Training
• Tailored to the tasks a worker will perform.
• Includes safe operation of equipment, handling of substances, or confined space entry.
3. Periodic or Refresher Training
• Conducted at regular intervals or when there are changes in procedures, equipment, or legislation.
• Helps maintain up-to-date knowledge and reinforce good practices.
4. Specialized Training
• For high-risk tasks or positions (e.g., working at heights, electrical safety, hazardous materials).
• May require certification or licensing.
5. Emergency Response Training
• Includes fire safety, first aid, evacuation drills, spill response, and accident management.
6. Management and Supervisor Training
• Focuses on leadership in safety, legal accountability, incident investigation, and communication with staff.
7. Training for OSH Representatives and Committees
• Ensures they understand their role in inspections, audits, policy development, and worker engagement.
OSH training should be interactive, practical, and tailored to the audience. Methods include:
• Classroom instruction,
• On-the-job demonstration and supervision,
• E-learning modules,
• Simulations, role-playing, and drills,
• Visual aids (videos, posters, infographics),
• Toolbox talks (brief, focused sessions on specific safety topics).
Where literacy or language barriers exist, training should be adapted through clear visuals, translation, or hands-on practice
In most jurisdictions, including the EU and Slovakia, OSH training is a legal obligation. According to Act No. 124/2006 Coll. (Slovak Republic), employers must:
• Ensure employees are trained before starting work,
• Provide retraining after job changes or new risk introduction,
• Keep written records of all completed training sessions,
• Verify employee understanding through tests, demonstrations, or sign-offs.
Failure to meet training obligations can lead to fines, liability in case of injury, or even criminal charges.
Training should not be viewed as a checkbox activity. Its effectiveness must be evaluated regularly, using:
If training does not result in measurable improvements in safety behaviour or awareness, it should be revised and improved.
A strong OSH system promotes lifelong learning and continuous improvement. This involves:
• Encouraging open dialogue about safety,
• Treating mistakes as learning opportunities (not just grounds for punishment),
• Supporting peer mentoring,
• Promoting ownership of safety at every level, from workers to executives.
When education becomes part of organizational DNA, safety becomes everyone’s responsibility.
Training and education are vital tools for equipping people with the knowledge, skills, and mindset needed to maintain a safe and healthy workplace. They ensure that safety procedures are not just written rules, but lived, understood, and respected practices
An organization’s commitment to OSH training reflects its commitment to people, quality, and continuous development. When safety training is prioritized and thoughtfully delivered, it saves lives, prevents injuries, and strengthens organizational resilience.
5. Emergency Preparedness
OSH includes planning for emergencies such as fires, chemical spills, or natural disasters Well-established response protocols and regular drills save lives and minimize damage.
Emergency preparedness is a critical component of any Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) system. Even in workplaces with strong prevention programs, unexpected events such as fires, chemical spills, explosions, equipment failures, natural disasters, or medical emergencies can still occur. The ability to respond quickly, effectively, and in an organized manner can make the difference between a contained incident and a catastrophic loss of life, property, or environmental damage.
Preparedness is about being ready before an emergency happens, through planning, training, communication, and resources.
Emergency preparedness refers to the systematic planning and organization of measures to:
• Prevent emergencies where possible,
• Minimize harm and damage when emergencies occur,
• Protect human life and health,
• Ensure continuity of critical operations,
• Restore normal conditions as quickly and safely as possible.
An unprepared workplace is highly vulnerable during crises. Lack of procedures, communication failures, or staff panic can escalate even minor events into deadly scenarios.
Depending on the nature of the workplace, possible emergencies may include:
• Fires or explosions,
• Chemical leaks or toxic gas releases,
• Natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, floods, severe storms),
• Machine malfunctions or structural collapse,
• Electrical or utility failures,
• Medical emergencies (e.g., cardiac arrest, injury),
• Acts of violence or terrorism,
• Confined space incidents (e.g., oxygen deficiency, entrapment).
Each type requires specific response protocols and specialized equipment or personnel.
Effective emergency preparedness includes the following core components:
1. Emergency Response Plan (ERP)
A written, site-specific document that defines:
• Types of foreseeable emergencies,
• Responsibilities of individuals (e.g., fire wardens, first responders),
• Evacuation procedures and escape routes,
• Communication systems and emergency contacts,
• Assembly points and roll call procedures,
• First aid and medical assistance protocols,
• Shutdown procedures for critical equipment.
The plan should be regularly reviewed and updated as workplace conditions, technologies, or personnel change.
2. Training and Drills
Employees must be trained in emergency response procedures appropriate to their role:
• Evacuation protocols,
• Fire extinguisher use,
• Spill containment techniques,
• Communication roles (e.g., calling emergency services),
• First aid and CPR.
Regular emergency drills (e.g., fire drills, chemical spill simulations) help test readiness, identify weaknesses in planning, and ensure calm, coordinated responses during real incidents.
3. Emergency Equipment and Facilities
Organizations must provide and maintain:
• Clearly marked and unobstructed emergency exits,
• Fire extinguishers, sprinklers, or suppression systems,
• First aid kits, defibrillators (AEDs), eye wash stations,
• Spill kits for chemical handling,
• Protective clothing and respiratory protection,
• Backup power systems (e.g., generators).
All emergency equipment must be inspected regularly and accessible at all times.
4. Communication and Coordination
Clear communication during emergencies is essential. This includes:
Multilingual or symbol-based signs may be necessary in diverse workforces.
5. Incident Reporting and Post-Emergency Evaluation
After any emergency, organizations should:
• Conduct a post-incident investigation,
• Analyse response effectiveness,
• Identify causes and contributing factors,
• Update emergency plans accordingly,
• Provide psychological support (e.g., trauma counselling if needed),
• Report the incident to regulatory bodies (where required).
This cycle of continuous improvement ensures that each emergency enhances future preparedness.
6. Legal Requirements
In Slovakia and across the EU, employers are legally obligated to:
• Assess risks related to possible emergencies (under OSH and fire safety laws),
• Develop and maintain written emergency procedures,
• Train employees in emergency roles and evacuation,
• Cooperate with state inspection bodies (e.g., fire safety authorities, labour inspectorates),
• Provide necessary protective and response equipment.
Failure to comply may lead to fines, operational suspension, or legal liability if injuries or fatalities occur during an unmanaged event.
7. Psychological Preparedness and Human Behaviour
Emergencies can trigger fear, confusion, or irrational actions. Preparing employees psychologically is just as important as providing physical tools. This includes:
• Encouraging calm decision-making through role clarity and practice,
• Building trust in leadership and systems,
• Addressing mental health after incidents,
• Including emotional resilience in training programs.
Emergency preparedness is a non-negotiable component of workplace safety. It ensures that when the unexpected occurs, employees know what to do, who to follow, and how to protect themselves and others. Through planning, drills, equipment, and education, organizations reduce chaos, save lives, and recover faster.
In a safe workplace, emergencies are not ignored or feared, they are anticipated, planned for, and managed with competence.
6. Fostering a Culture of Safety
A long-term goal of OSH is to build a strong safety culture, where every employee, regardless of role, takes responsibility for safety and actively contributes to improving workplace conditions.
A truly safe workplace is not built on rules and equipment alone, it is built on people’s attitudes, behaviours, and shared values. Fostering a culture of safety means creating an environment where safety is not just enforced, it is embraced. It becomes an integral part of how work is done, how decisions are made, and how individuals relate to one another.
A strong safety culture transforms OSH from a compliance obligation into a core organizational value
It empowers everyone, from executives to front-line workers, to take active ownership of safety.
Safety culture refers to the collective mindset, habits, and expectations about safety in an organization. It includes:
• What people believe about safety and risk,
• How they behave when no one is watching,
• How leaders prioritize safety in decisions and communication,
• How the organization reacts to unsafe behaviour or incidents.
A positive safety culture promotes continuous vigilance, mutual accountability, and a shared commitment to preventing harm.
Organizations with strong safety cultures typically exhibit the following features:
• Visible leadership commitment: Managers and supervisors lead by example, consistently reinforcing safe behaviour
• Open communication: Employees feel safe reporting hazards, near misses, and mistakes without fear of punishment.
• Employee involvement: Workers are actively engaged in safety planning, inspections, and improvements.
• Accountability for all: Safety is everyone’s responsibility, not just the job of the safety officer.
• Continuous learning: Mistakes are treated as learning opportunities. Training is ongoing and reflective.
• Recognition and reinforcement: Safe behaviour is acknowledged and encouraged through feedback or rewards.
Leadership is the driving force behind cultural change. To foster a safety culture, leaders must:
• Consistently demonstrate safety as a top priority, even when it conflicts with productivity or deadlines,
• Include safety in strategic decision-making and goal-setting,
• Allocate sufficient resources for safety training, equipment, and improvements,
• Listen to and act on employee safety concerns,
• Ensure transparent and fair handling of incidents
When leadership treats safety as non-negotiable, employees are more likely to follow suit.
Culture cannot be built top-down alone. Employees must be:
• Encouraged to speak up about risks or unsafe behaviour,
• Involved in developing procedures and solutions,
• Trusted to make safe decisions on the spot,
• Given the authority to stop work if safety is compromised. This empowerment increases ownership and commitment, and reduces the “us vs. them” dynamic that can hinder safety efforts.
An open and honest communication environment supports a strong safety culture:
• Use toolbox talks, team meetings, and safety briefings to reinforce key messages,
• Share incident reports and lessons learned transparently (without blame),
• Encourage two-way communication, management must also listen,
• Use visual reminders like signs, dashboards, and posters to keep safety visible.
Regular feedback loops help organizations adjust and improve continuously.
One of the hallmarks of a healthy safety culture is a “no-blame” or “just culture”, where the focus is on learning and improvement, not punishment.
• Workers are more likely to report hazards or near misses when they trust they won't be penalized.
• This leads to early detection of risks, data-driven prevention, and organizational learning.
• However, wilful negligence or repeated violations should still be addressed through fair and consistent disciplinary action.
Safety culture is measurable and improvable. Organizations can assess it through:
• Employee surveys and focus groups,
• Behavioural observations,
• Monitoring incident and near-miss trends,
• Evaluating participation in safety activities.
Continuous improvement involves setting clear cultural goals, tracking progress, and celebrating milestones
A culture of safety is the invisible foundation of every successful OSH system. It cannot be installed, it must be cultivated over time through leadership, communication, involvement, and shared values. In such a culture, safety becomes not a rule, but a habit; not a burden, but a belief
Organizations that prioritize culture build trust, resilience, and sustainable safety performance. In these environments, employees don’t just follow safety procedures, they believe in them
Occupational Safety and Health is far more than regulatory compliance. It is a multidisciplinary, forward-looking framework that supports human dignity, productivity, and organizational resilience. In today’s dynamic and complex work environments, investing in OSH is not only a legal and moral duty, it is a strategic necessity.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 1
1.1 Importance and Objectives of OSH
1. What is Occupational Safety and Health (OSH), and why is it essential in the modern workplace?
2. Identify and explain the main objectives of OSH systems.
3. How does OSH contribute to the protection of life and long-term health in the workplace?
4. In what ways is OSH a matter of social responsibility and ethical leadership?
5. How can OSH contribute to economic performance and workforce sustainability?
1.2 Core Functions of OSH
1. What is the purpose of risk assessment and control in occupational health and safety?
2. How does health promotion and medical surveillance support employee well-being?
3. Why is training and education essential for effective OSH practices?
4. What role does emergency preparedness play in organisational safety?
5. Describe how a strong safety culture contributes to the success of OSH initiatives.
1.3 OSH in Legislation and Practice
1. Why is OSH regulated by national and international legislation?
2. How do legal frameworks ensure accountability in the implementation of OSH measures?
3. What is the role of government authorities in monitoring and enforcing OSH standards?
4. Give examples of how OSH legislation is reflected in daily workplace practice.
5. How does compliance with OSH law benefit both employers and employees?
1.4 OSH in Vocational and Professional Education
1. Why is it important for students and professionals to study occupational health and safety?
2. How does OSH knowledge prepare individuals for responsible conduct in the workplace?
3. In what ways does OSH education support ethical decision-making in a professional setting?
4. What are the benefits of incorporating OSH topics into vocational and university programmes?
5. How can future professionals influence the safety culture of their organisations?
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to provide students with a foundational understanding of the concept, purpose, and structure of occupational safety and health (OSH). It introduces the basic terminology, outlines the principles of prevention and protection, and explains the roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders in ensuring workplace safety.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) define OSH and use correct technical terminology, (2) explain the core principles and goals of occupational health and safety, (3) understand the shared responsibility for OSH between employers, employees, and safety professionals, and (4) recognize the importance of prevention, risk awareness, and safe work culture as part of professional conduct.
This chapter lays the essential groundwork for understanding later topics, including legal regulations, risk assessment, and practical safety measures.
(Image produced by ChatGPT 40 based on content definition)
2.1. Definition and Key Terms
The occupational Safety and Health (OSH) refers to a comprehensive system of legal, technical, organisational, medical, and educational measures aimed at ensuring the protection of life, health, and working capacity of all persons in the workplace. It focuses on the systematic management of risks in the working environment, with the main goal of preventing work-related accidents, occupational diseases, and other forms of harm associated with work.
OSH is not only a component of labour law, but also a cornerstone of corporate ethics, employee welfare, and sustainable organisational development
The foundation of OSH lies in a preventive approach, taking action to eliminate or reduce risks before they cause injury or illness. This approach applies to every stage of work, from workplace design and equipment selection to daily task organisation and human resources management.
The aim of OSH is not only to prevent immediate harm, but also to ensure:
• The long-term protection of employee health,
• The promotion of workplace well-being,
• The preservation of work ability and productivity throughout an employee’s career.
Understanding the following terms is essential for anyone working in or managing occupational health and safety (Table 2.1.).
Table 2.1. Key OSH terminology
Term
Hazard
Risk
Work environment
Work-Related Accident
Occupational Disease
Prevention
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Safety Culture
Ergonomics
Definition
A source, condition, or activity in the workplace with the potential to cause injury, illness, or harm. Examples include slippery floors, toxic substances, exposed machinery, or excessive noise.
The likelihood that a hazard will cause harm, combined with the severity of the potential outcome.
Risk = Likelihood × Consequence
Risk assessment helps determine which hazards need urgent action and which can be managed with standard controls.
The totality of physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic, and psychosocial conditions under which work is performed. The work environment has a direct impact on employee health, safety, and well-being.
A sudden, unexpected event that occurs in the course of or in connection with work, leading to physical injury or harm. Accidents may range from minor cuts to severe or even fatal injuries. All must be recorded and investigated.
A disease or disorder that develops asa result of prolonged exposure to harmful factors in the work environment, officially recognised by national legislation. Examples include silicosis, asbestosis, or repetitive strain injuries
A set of proactive measures and strategies aimed at eliminating hazards or reducing risk to acceptable
Items and devices used to protect the worker against specific risks that cannot be adequately controlled through technical or organisational means. Examples include helmets, gloves, safety boots, and respirators.
The collective values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours that shape how people perceive, prioritise, and practise safety in the workplace. A strong safety culture encourages responsible behaviour and continuous improvement.
The science of adapting the work environment to human capabilities. Ergonomics focuses on designing workstations,
Psychosocial Risks
tools, and workflows that reduce strain, fatigue, and the risk of injury.
Risks arising from the way work is organised, social relationships, and mental pressure. These may lead to conditions such as stress, anxiety, burnout, or depression.
A thorough understanding of OSH terminology provides a common language for all stakeholders, employers, employees, health professionals, and regulators, and forms the foundation for all further study and practical application in this field.
It is also essential for:
• Conducting proper risk assessments,
• Complying with legal obligations,
• Promoting a culture of prevention and responsibility at all levels of the organisation.
2.2. Principles of Health and Safety Protection
Modern occupational safety and health (OSH) is built upon a set of core principles that reflect a preventive, systematic, and human-centred approach to protecting workers. These principles guide employers, employees, and safety professionals in designing safer workplaces, minimising risks, and promoting well-being at all levels of an organisation.
By understanding and applying these principles, organisations can ensure not only legal compliance but also long-term efficiency, workforce sustainability, and ethical responsibility.
There are the OSH principles:
1. Prevention First – Proactive Rather Than Reactive
The most fundamental principle of OSH is prevention. It is always more effective and economical to prevent risks before harm occurs than to respond to accidents or occupational diseases after the fact.
This means:
• Identifying potential hazards early,
• Designing processes and systems with safety in mind,
• Continuously improving working conditions to prevent incidents.
Prevention is not just a duty, it is a mindset.
2. Risk Assessment and Management
Risk assessment is the cornerstone of every OSH strategy. It involves:
• Identifying hazards,
• Evaluating the level of risk (likelihood and severity),
• Implementing control measures to eliminate or reduce those risks.
Risk management must be systematic, documented, and continuously updated, especially when new equipment, materials, or processes are introduced.
3. Integration of OSH into All Work Activities
Health and safety considerations should be integrated into every aspect of work, including:
• Planning,
• Procurement,
• Training,
• Work organisation,
• Quality management.
Safety must not be viewed as a separate or secondary function it should be embedded into all managerial and operational decisions
4. Clear Roles, Responsibilities, and Cooperation
Creating a safe working environment requires the active cooperation of all stakeholders:
• Employers must provide safe conditions, equipment, training, and oversight.
• Employees must follow safety procedures, report hazards, and use PPE correctly.
• Supervisors and safety representatives play a key role in communication, monitoring, and enforcement.
A shared sense of responsibility fosters a stronger safety culture and reduces risk-taking behaviour.
5. Education, Training, and Awareness
No safety system can function effectively without well-informed and properly trained personnel. Ongoing education ensures that workers:
• Understand the risks they may face,
• Know how to work safely,
• Are confident in using protective equipment and emergency procedures. Training must be:
• Relevant to the specific job and risks,
• Regularly updated,
• Delivered in a clear and understandable format.
6. Adaptation of Work to the Individual (Ergonomics)
Workplaces should be designed to fit the physical and psychological needs of workers, not the other way around. This principle includes:
• Ergonomic workstation design,
• Suitable workloads and schedules,
• Adjustments for vulnerable workers (e.g. elderly, pregnant, disabled).
This approach improves both safety and productivity, while reducing fatigue, discomfort, and long-term health risks.
7. Right to Safe and Healthy Working Conditions
Every worker has the fundamental right to safe and healthy working conditions, as enshrined in national legislation and international labour standards (e.g. ILO Conventions, EU directives).
This includes the right to:
• Be informed about risks,
• Receive proper training,
• Use adequate protective equipment,
• Refuse work that presents a serious and imminent danger to health or life, without facing retaliation.
8. Continuous Improvement
Workplace safety is not a one-time achievement but an ongoing process. Organisations must strive for continuous improvement by:
• Monitoring performance,
• Learning from incidents and near misses,
• Adapting to changes in technology, workforce, or regulations,
• Engaging in audits and reviews.
A dynamic approach ensures that OSH systems remain effective and relevant over time.
The principles of health and safety protection serve as the foundation for a resilient, ethical, and high-performing organisation. They not only help prevent accidents and ill-health, but also:
• Encourage a culture of responsibility and respect,
• Protect an organisation’s most valuable asset, its people,
• Support long-term sustainability and competitiveness.
Applying these principles consistently is the key to achieving genuine workplace safety and wellbeing.
2.3. Responsibilities for Occupational Safety and Health
Creating a safe and healthy workplace is a shared responsibility that requires the active participation of all stakeholders, employers, employees, safety professionals, external contractors, and regulatory authorities. While the primary legal duty rests with the employer, safety is most effective when everyone understands and fulfils their role in maintaining safe practices and a healthy working environment.
Clearly defined responsibilities are essential to ensure compliance, promote a strong safety culture, and prevent incidents before they occur.
Effective occupational safety and health (OSH) management depends on the clear allocation of responsibilities among all participants in the working environment. Understanding who is responsible for what is essential to ensure compliance, reduce risks, and promote a strong safety culture. Responsibilities allocation should be as follows:
1. Employer Responsibilities
The employer has the primary legal and moral responsibility for ensuring the health and safety of employees and others affected by work activities. These duties are prescribed by national legislation (e.g. the Act No. 124/2006 Coll. in Slovakia) and include:
• Providing a safe working environment, including suitable premises, tools, machines, and infrastructure.
• Identifying hazards and assessing risks regularly and systematically.
• Implementing control measures to eliminate or reduce those risks.
• Providing appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) and ensuring its correct use.
• Training and instructing employees on safe working methods, procedures, and emergency protocols.
• Monitoring health where employees are exposed to risks requiring medical surveillance.
• Recording and reporting accidents, injuries, and near misses as required by law.
• Involving employees or their representatives in safety consultations and planning.
• Appointing competent persons (e.g. safety officers, fire wardens, first aiders) to fulfil specific safety tasks.
Ultimately, the employer is accountable for ensuring that safety systems are in place, up to date, and properly followed.
2. Employee Responsibilities
While employers have a duty to create safe conditions, employees also play a critical role in maintaining safety at work. Every employee is expected to:
• Follow safety instructions and procedures provided by the employer,
• Use machinery and tools correctly and responsibly,
• Wear and care for personal protective equipment (PPE) provided to them,
• Report hazards, unsafe conditions, or accidents immediately to a supervisor,
• Avoid actions or behaviours that could endanger themselves or others,
• Participate in safety training and drills, and apply what they have learned.
In many legal systems, employees also have the right to refuse work if they reasonably believe it presents a serious and imminent danger to their life or health without fear of punishment.
Safety at work is a two-way process: employers must ensure safety is possible; employees must ensure it is practised.
3. Health and Safety Specialists / Competent Persons
Organisations are often required by law to appoint or engage competent professionals responsible for assisting with OSH tasks. These include:
• Health and safety officers / advisers,
• Occupational health practitioners,
• Fire safety officers,
• Ergonomists or environmental health specialists. Their tasks may include:
• Conducting risk assessments and audits,
• Advising on legal compliance and safety strategies,
• Investigating incidents and recommending preventive measures,
• Delivering training and awareness programmes,
• Assisting with emergency planning and workplace design.
These professionals must be qualified, experienced, and independent enough to identify real issues and push for improvements.
4. Safety Representatives and Committees
In larger workplaces, especially those with trade union presence, employee safety representatives are often elected or appointed. Their role includes:
• Representing workers in discussions on health and safety matters,
• Participating in inspections and consultations,
• Helping to identify risks and suggest improvements,
• Acting as a communication link between the workforce and management.
In some workplaces, Joint Health and Safety Committees may be formed to formalise this cooperation and ensure collaborative problem-solving.
5. Governmental and Regulatory Bodies
In all countries, public authorities are responsible for overseeing compliance with OSH laws. These bodies (e.g. the National Labour Inspectorate in Slovakia, or labour inspectorates in other EU countries) are tasked with:
• Inspecting workplaces to ensure compliance with legal standards,
• Investigating serious incidents or complaints,
• Enforcing regulations through warnings, fines, or legal action,
• Providing guidance, resources, and statistics on occupational health trends.
Employers must fully cooperate with these authorities and implement any corrective actions they require.
Responsibility for occupational safety and health is shared but not equal. The employer bears the greatest responsibility, but every worker, specialist, and authority has a crucial role to play.
Safety becomes effective when:
• Everyone knows their role,
• Everyone takes it seriously, and
• Everyone works together towards the common goal of a safe and healthy working environment
Establishing and maintaining a safe and healthy workplace is a collective responsibility. While the employer holds the primary legal duty to provide safe working conditions, all parties involved in the work environment, employees, safety professionals, contractors, and regulatory authorities, play essential and complementary roles.
An effective OSH system depends on clear allocation of responsibilities, Active engagement from workers, Competent support from safety specialists, and Oversight from governmental bodies. When each individual understands their role and takes it seriously, the result is a workplace where safety becomes a shared value, not just a legal obligation. This cooperative approach not only reduces accidents and illnesses but also enhances productivity, morale, and organisational resilience.
In essence, responsibility for OSH is not just about compliance, it is about commitment to human dignity, wellbeing, and sustainable work.
2.4. OHS management system
Occupational health and safety (OHS) can be managed through a range of process-based systems. Although individual models differ in structure and emphasis, their underlying purpose is the same: to provide a systematic, auditable framework for preventing injuries, ill-health and fatalities at work. The most widely recognised framework today is ISO 45001:2018 Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems, adopted in Slovakia as STN ISO 45001:2019
1. ISO 45001:2018 – Core Features
ISO 45001 is designed to help organisations of any size or sector:
• Identify and control OHS risks and opportunities across all activities and levels.
• Provide a safe and healthy workplace by eliminating hazards and minimising OHS risks.
• Proactively improve OHS performance, rather than reacting after incidents occur.
• Integrate OHS management into the organisation’s overall business processes and strategic direction.
ISO 45001 sets out requirements for:
1. Context and leadership – understanding internal and external factors, defining scope, and demonstrating top-management commitment.
2. Planning – risk and opportunity assessment, legal compliance, and objective setting.
3. Support – resources, competence, awareness, communication, and documented information.
6. Improvement – incident investigation, corrective action, and continual improvement.
Intended
outcomes
In line with an organisation’s OHS policy, ISO 45001 expects:
• Continual improvement of OHS performance;
• Compliance with legal and other applicable requirements;
• Achievement of stated OHS objectives.
2. Alternative Frameworks – The “Safe Enterprise” Programme
In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the “Safe Enterprise” initiative encourages employers to implement effective, documented OHS management systems that meet national bestpractice criteria. Certification under this programme demonstrates a company’s voluntary commitment to higher safety standards and can enhance reputation with regulators, clients, and employees.
3. Historical Context and Evolution
The development of OHS management systems mirrors progress in quality and environmental management, see Table 2.2.
Although OHS adoption lagged behind quality and environmental standards by nearly two decades, ISO 45001 now aligns structurally with ISO 9001 and ISO 14001, enabling integrated management systems and facilitating consistent, organisation-wide governance
4. Benefits of a Formal OHS Management System
• Reduced incidents and related costs through systematic hazard control.
• Stronger legal compliance and readiness for inspections.
• Enhanced stakeholder confidence: customers, insurers, investors and employees.
• Improved organisational learning via audits, reviews and continual improvement cycles.
• Easier integration with quality and environmental systems, fostering a unified risk-based approach.
A robust OHS management system therefore acts as the operational backbone of workplace safety, translating legislative duties and organisational policies into measurable actions and continual improvement.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 2
2.1 Definition and Key Terms
1. How is Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) defined, and what are its primary goals?
2. What distinguishes a hazard from a risk in workplace safety?
3. Define the term occupational disease and explain how it differs from a work-related injury.
4. What is the role of prevention in OSH, and how is it implemented in practice?
5. What does psychosocial risk refer to, and why is it a growing concern in modern workplaces?
2.2 Principles of Health and Safety Protection
1. What are the key principles that form the foundation of occupational health and safety?
2. Why is integrating OSH into all aspects of work important for organisational effectiveness?
3. Explain the concept of risk assessment and its purpose in OSH management.
4. How does employee training contribute to the prevention of workplace incidents?
5. What does it mean to adopt a human-centred approach in designing safe working conditions?
2.3 Responsibilities for Occupational Safety and Health
1. What are the employer’s core legal obligations in ensuring workplace health and safety?
2. What responsibilities do employees have in supporting a safe working environment?
3. Describe the role of health and safety officers (or competent persons) in the workplace.
4. What is the function of safety representatives or joint safety committees?
5. How do public authorities and labour inspectorates contribute to the enforcement of OSH legislation?
2.4
Occupational
Health and Safety Management Systems
1. What is the purpose of ISO 45001:2018, and how does it support workplace safety?
2. Identify and briefly explain the main components of an ISO 45001-compliant OHS management system.
3. How does the principle of continual improvement apply to OHS management?
4. What is the “Safe Enterprise” programme, and what does it promote?
5. How do OHS management systems compare to those used in quality and environmental management?
3. FUNDAMENTALS OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH –
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the legal foundations of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) across the European Union (EU) and at the national level. It explores the regulatory mechanisms, principles, directives, and institutional responsibilities that shape workplace safety and health standards.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) identify and interpret the main EU and national legal instruments related to OSH, (2) understand how OSH law defines and distributes duties and responsibilities among employers, employees, and other stakeholders, (3) recognise the importance of risk assessment, prevention principles, and training as legal obligations;, (4) analyse the implementation and enforcement structures at both EU and national levels, (5) evaluate how OSH legal frameworks contribute to the promotion of safety culture and sustainable work environments, (6) apply key OSH legal concepts to real-world situations and workplace scenarios.
This chapter equips learners with the legal knowledge necessary to work responsibly, ethically, and within regulatory frameworks in any professional environment.
3.1. European Union Safety and Health legislation
The European Union (EU) plays a pivotal role in shaping Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) policy and legislation across Member States. Recognising that safe and healthy working conditions are essential for human dignity, productivity, and economic resilience, the EU has made OSH a cornerstone of its broader social, economic, and public health agenda.
The role of the EU in OSH has evolved over several decades and is underpinned by a strong legal and institutional framework, developed through the principles of subsidiarity and harmonisation. These principles ensure that while Member States are responsible for implementing OSH at the national level, the EU sets common standards to promote a consistent level of protection across all countries.
This legal foundation mandates the EU to:
• Develop directives and regulations to improve OSH;
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• Promote best practices and knowledge-sharing among Member States;
• Provide financial and technical assistance to support OSH improvements;
• Monitor compliance and progress through agencies and committees.
Over time, the EU has become a global leader in OSH policy, with its legislation serving as a model for other regions. It has fostered a culture of risk prevention, worker participation, and continuous improvement. Moreover, by promoting OSH, the EU contributes to the achievement of multiple United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially Goal 3 (Good Health and Wellbeing) and Goal 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth).
The EU also ensures that OSH policy remains relevant in response to emerging challenges such as:
• Changes in work organisation (e.g., telework, platform economy);
• Demographic trends (e.g., ageing workforce);
• Public health emergencies (e.g., pandemics).
By coordinating efforts and setting legal standards, the EU plays a strategic and integrative role in safeguarding workers' health and safety, reducing inequalities in protection, and supporting sustainable economic development throughout the single market.
2. The Framework Directive 89/391/EEC
The Framework Directive (Council Directive 89/391/EEC) is the foundation of EU OSH law. It:
• Introduces the risk assessment process as a legal duty;
• Mandates that employers must ensure worker health and safety "in every aspect related to the work";
• Requires training, information dissemination, consultation, and prevention;
• Defines a hierarchy of prevention measures (e.g., eliminate risk, minimise risk, use PPE);
• Applies to all sectors and forms of employment, with few exceptions (e.g., armed forces). This directive has influenced national legislation across all Member States.
3. Individual or “Daughter” Directives
Based on Article 16(1) of the Framework Directive, 19 individual directives specify safety and health requirements for particular:
• Directive 92/85/EEC: Protection of pregnant and breastfeeding workers;
• Directive 2003/10/EC: Noise exposure;
• Directive 2004/37/EC: Carcinogens, mutagens, and reprotoxic substances.
4. Institutions Supporting EU OSH Legislation
• EU-OSHA (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work): Research, resources, and awareness;
• ACSH (Advisory Committee on Safety and Health at Work): Tripartite advisory role;
• SLIC (Senior Labour Inspectors Committee): Exchange of enforcement practices. These institutions help coordinate and improve enforcement and understanding of OSH across the EU.
5. Legal Transposition and Enforcement
Each EU directive must be transposed into national law. Countries may introduce more stringent measures but not less protective than the directive. Labour inspectorates enforce compliance at national level, with oversight and coordination from EU institutions.
6. Broader Legal Instruments with OSH Implications
OSH is also affected by EU legislation concerning:
The legal system governing Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) in the Slovak Republic is comprehensive and structured in alignment with European Union (EU) legislation. It ensures the right to safe and healthy working conditions through a combination of constitutional guarantees, national legislation, government regulations, and ministerial decrees. Slovakia has incorporated the key principles of prevention, responsibility, risk management, and continuous improvement into its national OSH legislation, which is applicable to both public and private sectors across all industries.
3.2.1 Constitutional and Legislative Foundations
The legal foundation for occupational safety and health (OSH) in Slovakia is rooted in the country's Constitution and supported by a comprehensive legislative framework that incorporates both national statutes and European Union directives. These legal provisions establish the rights,
responsibilities, and institutional mechanisms necessary to ensure safe and healthy working conditions for all workers.
A. Constitutional Basis
The Constitution of the Slovak Republic (Act No. 460/1992 Coll.) provides the supreme legal authority in Slovakia. It explicitly enshrines the right to safe and healthy working conditions as a fundamental social right. Article 36 of the Constitution states:
"Employees shall have the right to fair and satisfactory working conditions. The law shall provide particularly for the right to protection against unjustified dismissal and to safety and health protection at work."
This constitutional mandate forms the ethical and legal cornerstone of OSH policy and legislation in Slovakia, obliging the government to adopt laws and measures to uphold these rights.
B. Key Legislative Acts
The OSH legal framework in Slovakia is built on several major statutes that implement both constitutional principles and European directives. The three core legislative acts governing OSH are:
1. Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Safety and Health at Work
o This is the central legal act regulating OSH in Slovakia.
o It transposes the EU Framework Directive 89/391/EEC and other relevant EU directives into national law.
o It establishes the rights and obligations of employers and employees, defines the principles of prevention, and introduces risk assessment and health surveillance requirements.
2. Act No. 355/2007 Coll. on the Protection, Support and Development of Public Health
o This act regulates health-related aspects of OSH, including medical surveillance, monitoring of hazardous factors in the working environment, and occupational disease reporting.
o It is implemented by the Public Health Authority and its regional branches.
3. Act No. 311/2001 Coll. – Labour Code
o The Labour Code provides the general legal framework for labour relations, including provisions on working hours, rest periods, working conditions, and protection of specific groups (e.g. young workers, pregnant women).
o Part of the code is dedicated to general OSH responsibilities and coordination with specialised OSH legislation.
C. Structure of OSH Legislation
Slovakia’s OSH legislative system is characterised by a multi-layered structure that consists of:
• Primary legislation (Acts): Core OSH principles and obligations.
• Secondary legislation (Government regulations and ministerial decrees): Technical details and specific requirements (e.g., exposure limits, PPE use).
• EU law: Directives and regulations that are transposed into Slovak law or directly applicable.
• International treaties and conventions: ILO conventions and UN standards inform national policy.
D. Harmonisation with EU Law
Since Slovakia joined the European Union in 2004, its OSH laws have been extensively harmonised with EU directives. The most influential piece of EU legislation is Directive 89/391/EEC, which introduced a modern, preventive approach to OSH management based on risk assessment, worker participation, and continuous improvement.
Slovakia has implemented over 20 so-called "individual directives" (daughter directives) under this Framework Directive through its national legislation. These cover:
• Work equipment
• Chemical agents
• Biological hazards
• Manual handling
• Display screen equipment
• Pregnant and young workers
Additionally, EU product safety legislation (e.g., the Machinery Directive, REACH, CLP) impacts OSH standards in Slovakia by setting design and labelling requirements for equipment and hazardous substances used at work.
E. Institutional Foundations
The legislative system mandates the establishment of enforcement and advisory bodies such as:
• The National Labour Inspectorate (NIP) for regulatory enforcement;
• The Public Health Authority (UVZ SR) for health surveillance;
• Authorised preventive and protective services for employers who lack internal OSH expertise.
These institutions are tasked with ensuring that OSH laws are implemented effectively across all sectors of the economy.
F. Importance of the Legal Framework
A strong and well-articulated OSH legal framework ensures:
• Protection of fundamental rights of workers to health and safety;
• Legal clarity for employers and employees regarding their duties;
• Enforcement mechanisms to address violations and prevent workplace harm;
• Alignment with international and EU best practices.
The Slovakia’s constitutional and legislative foundation provides a robust basis for promoting workplace safety and health. It reflects both national priorities and commitments to European integration and international labour standards.
3.2.2 Obligations of Employers
Employers in Slovakia have primary legal responsibility for ensuring occupational safety and health (OSH) in the workplace. These duties are defined by national legislation, particularly Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Safety and Health at Work, Act No. 355/2007 Coll. on Public Health, and the Labour Code (Act No. 311/2001 Coll.). This legal framework is harmonised with EU directives, especially Directive 89/391/EEC, which establishes a prevention-oriented approach to managing workplace risks.
A. General Duties of Employers
Employers must provide and maintain a working environment that is safe and without risks to health. Their general obligations include:
• Ensuring the safety, health, and welfare of all employees in connection with their work;
• Conducting regular risk assessments and implementing appropriate preventive measures;
• Ensuring that workplace equipment, tools, and procedures meet safety standards;
• Providing adequate training, instructions, and information to employees;
• Consulting with workers or their representatives on matters related to OSH;
• Organising preventive and protective services, either internally or via authorised external providers.
B. Specific Legal Responsibilities
1. Risk Assessment and Prevention
o Employers are legally obliged to assess all potential hazards and risks in the workplace and take preventive actions to mitigate them.
o They must apply the general principles of prevention, such as avoiding risks, combating risks at source, and adapting the work to the individual.
2. Provision of Safe Workplaces and Equipment
o All workplaces must be designed and maintained in a safe and hygienic condition.
o Work equipment must be regularly inspected and compliant with technical safety requirements.
o Emergency procedures, including evacuation plans and first aid, must be established.
3. Information and Training
o Employers must ensure that employees receive appropriate and understandable information regarding the risks they may face and the measures taken to address them.
o Employees must be trained on safe work procedures, use of equipment, handling of hazardous substances, and emergency protocols.
4. Health Surveillance
o Employers are required to ensure that employees undergo health checks appropriate to the risks they face in the workplace, in accordance with Act No. 355/2007 Coll.
o Medical records and risk exposure documentation must be maintained.
5. Engagement with OSH Authorities
o Employers must cooperate with labour inspectors and public health authorities during inspections and investigations.
o They must implement recommendations issued by these authorities and report any serious accidents or occupational diseases.
6. Record-Keeping and Documentation
o Employers are obliged to keep documentation on risk assessments, implemented preventive measures, training records, and reports on occupational injuries and illnesses.
o These records must be readily available for inspection by authorised bodies.
C. Delegation of OSH Duties
While the ultimate responsibility for OSH remains with the employer, certain tasks may be delegated to:
• Internal staff with adequate training and qualifications (e.g. safety officers);
• External service providers authorised to conduct preventive and protective services;
• Occupational health services.
Delegation does not absolve the employer of legal accountability. The employer remains liable for ensuring that delegated tasks are performed effectively and lawfully.
D. Liability for Non-Compliance
Failure to meet legal obligations can result in:
• Administrative penalties (e.g. fines issued by labour inspectorates);
• Civil liability for damages caused to employees;
• Criminal liability in the event of gross negligence or repeated violations resulting in injury or death.
Employers are therefore strongly incentivised to proactively manage OSH risks and maintain full compliance with the applicable legal standards.
E. Positive Outcomes of Employer Compliance
Employers who fulfil their OSH obligations benefit from:
• Reduced injury and illness rates;
• Higher employee satisfaction and retention;
• Increased productivity and lower absenteeism;
• Fewer legal disputes and financial penalties.
Creating a safe and healthy workplace is not only a legal obligation but also a key component of effective and ethical business management.
3.2.3 Rights and Responsibilities of Employees
While the primary duty for occupational safety and health (OSH) lies with employers, employees also play a critical role in ensuring a safe and healthy working environment. Slovak legislation, particularly Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Safety and Health at Work and the Labour Code (Act No. 311/2001 Coll.) – outlines clear rights and responsibilities for employees to support workplace safety efforts.
A. Rights of Employees
Employees are entitled to a wide range of OSH-related rights aimed at protecting their physical and mental well-being during the course of employment:
1. Right to Safe Working Conditions
o Every employee has the right to work in an environment where risks to their safety and health are either eliminated or minimised.
2. Right to Information and Training
o Employees have the right to receive clear, understandable information about the risks associated with their job and the measures taken to prevent or mitigate those risks.
o They must be informed about proper procedures, emergency responses, and the use of personal protective equipment (PPE).
3. Right to Health Surveillance
o Workers exposed to hazardous substances or working under risky conditions are entitled to periodic medical examinations appropriate to the level of exposure.
4. Right to Participate in OSH Matters
o Employees have the right to be consulted on OSH issues through designated worker representatives.
o They may also make proposals to improve workplace safety and report hazards without fear of retaliation.
5. Right to Refuse Dangerous Work
o Employees may withdraw from work in the face of immediate and serious danger to their life or health without facing adverse consequences.
6. Right to Compensation
o In case of work-related injury or occupational illness, employees are entitled to compensation, medical treatment, and rehabilitation under Slovak social security laws.
B. Responsibilities of Employees
To complement employer obligations, employees must also act responsibly to protect their own health and the health of others in the workplace. Their legal responsibilities include:
1. Compliance with OSH Instructions
o Employees must follow instructions, internal regulations, and employer-issued rules concerning safety and health at work.
2. Proper Use of Equipment and PPE
o Workers must use machinery, tools, materials, and personal protective equipment properly and as instructed.
o Deliberate misuse or removal of safety devices is strictly prohibited.
3. Reporting of Hazards and Incidents
o Employees are obliged to report any defects, malfunctions, accidents, or potential hazards to their supervisor or designated safety representative without delay.
4. Participation in Training and Health Checks
o Workers must attend OSH training sessions and submit to mandatory health surveillance in accordance with the nature of their job.
5. Cooperation with OSH Authorities and Colleagues
o Employees must collaborate with inspectors, authorised services, and internal OSH staff when necessary.
o They should also support collective efforts to create a safe work environment.
C. Employee Representation and Consultation
The Slovak OSH system encourages employee participation in safety management:
• Workplaces with a certain number of employees are required to elect or designate a safety representative
• These representatives have the right to consult with management on OSH issues, participate in risk assessments, and access OSH documentation
• The employer must involve these representatives in decision-making processes regarding preventive measures.
D. Disciplinary and Legal Consequences
Non-compliance with safety responsibilities may result in:
• Internal disciplinary measures, including warnings or termination;
• Administrative fines (as regulated by labour inspection laws);
• Civil liability for negligent actions that harm others;
• Criminal charges in cases of deliberate misconduct or gross negligence.
E. Empowerment and Culture of Safety
Encouraging workers to take an active role in OSH enhances safety outcomes. A strong safety culture is supported by:
• Regular communication between workers and employers;
• Open channels for feedback and reporting;
• Recognition of proactive employee involvement in safety improvements.
Ensuring employees are aware of their rights and responsibilities is essential to the effectiveness of any OSH programme. Their engagement creates a collaborative, prevention-oriented workplace where everyone contributes to the shared goal of safety and wellbeing.
3.2.4 Institutional Framework and Enforcement
The institutional framework for OSH in Slovakia is shaped by national legislation, EU directives, and international standards. It relies on a well-defined network of authorities and organisations with clearly delineated responsibilities. These institutions are tasked with implementing, monitoring, and enforcing OSH regulations, ensuring that both employers and employees adhere to the applicable legal requirements.
A. Core Regulatory Bodies
1. National Labour Inspectorate (NIP)
o The NIP is the central authority for enforcing OSH legislation in Slovakia. It supervises regional inspectorates and coordinates their activities.
o Its functions include planning inspections, issuing guidance to employers, investigating serious accidents, and imposing sanctions.
o It operates under the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family (MPSVR SR).
2. Regional Labour Inspectorates
o These are local branches of the NIP responsible for conducting workplace inspections, investigating complaints, and providing consultations.
o Inspectors monitor compliance with OSH regulations, labour laws, and protective measures.
o They have the authority to issue binding orders, initiate administrative proceedings, and cooperate with criminal justice authorities in serious cases.
3. Public Health Authority of the Slovak Republic (UVZ SR)
o This authority and its regional offices oversee the protection of workers' health, especially in relation to chemical, biological, and physical hazards.
o It enforces public health laws relevant to OSH, particularly those arising from Act No. 355/2007 Coll. on public health.
o It is responsible for health surveillance, exposure monitoring, and issuing expert opinions on hazardous work environments.
4. Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic
o This ministry is the overarching body responsible for OSH policy, legislation drafting, and supervision of labour inspection.
o It coordinates national strategies and represents Slovakia in international OSH forums.
5. Ministry of Health of the Slovak Republic
o Oversees policies related to occupational medicine, workplace health monitoring, and public health aspects of OSH
o It collaborates with the UVZ SR to ensure integration of medical standards into workplace safety protocols.
6. Other Key Players
o Social partners such as trade unions and employer associations actively participate in OSH policymaking and consultation bodies.
o Technical universities and research institutes contribute expertise in occupational safety engineering and toxicology.
o Authorised safety and health services offer expert consultancy, training, and external audits to employers.
B. Mechanisms of Enforcement Enforcement of OSH legislation is primarily carried out through inspections, audits, and legal proceedings. The main tools include:
• Scheduled and unscheduled inspections: Conducted by labour inspectors, often targeting high-risk industries or based on complaints.
• Accident investigations: Triggered by reports of serious incidents, aimed at identifying causes and enforcing corrective action.
• Binding decisions and recommendations: Inspectors may issue formal decisions requiring employers to rectify non-compliance within a set timeframe.
• Administrative penalties: Fines, suspension of work, and legal referrals can be applied for violations.
• Judicial enforcement: Courts may become involved in disputes, appeals, or criminal prosecutions related to OSH breaches.
C. Coordination and Oversight
• The Coordination Committee for Safety and Health at Work ensures inter-agency collaboration and alignment with EU strategies.
• Periodic national reports on OSH are submitted to the EU and ILO to monitor progress, implementation gaps, and strategic goals.
• Information systems such as the Slovak National OSH Information System (SNBOZP) collect and disseminate workplace safety data.
D. Challenges and Opportunities
Despite a solid legal framework, enforcement in Slovakia faces challenges such as:
• Limited resources for inspections in smaller enterprises and rural areas;
• Gaps in preventive culture among some employers;
• Fragmented coordination between technical and health authorities.
Efforts to modernise the institutional framework include:
• Increasing the use of digital platforms for inspection and reporting;
• Expanding training for inspectors and OSH professionals;
• Strengthening public awareness and support programmes for SMEs.
E. Conclusion
Slovakia’s institutional OSH framework is robust, anchored by competent authorities with clear mandates. However, effective enforcement depends on inter-agency coordination, adequate resources, and a culture of prevention at all levels of the workforce. Continuous improvement of inspection practices and legislative harmonisation with EU directives remains essential for maintaining and elevating OSH standards in the Slovak Republic.
3.2.5 Preventive and Protective Services
Every employer in Slovakia is required to establish or contract Preventive and Protective Services (PPS). These services comprise professionals with specialised training
Preventive and Protective Services are a cornerstone of Slovakia’s approach to ensuring OSH These services are mandated by national legislation and play a key role in the systematic identification, assessment, and control of workplace risks. The establishment and functioning of PPS are essential for employers to fulfil their legal obligations under the Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Safety and Health at Work.
These services are designed to provide technical, organisational, and medical expertise, and can be performed internally by the employer (if qualified personnel are available), or externally through authorised service providers.
A. Structure and Types of Services
There are two main categories of preventive and protective services:
1. Safety Technical Services (STS): These are responsible for addressing the technical aspects of workplace safety. Their duties include:
o Risk assessments and hazard identification;
o Inspection and maintenance of machinery and equipment;
o Implementation of engineering control measures;
o Advising on the design of safe workplaces and processes;
o Ensuring compliance with safety standards and legislation.
2. Occupational Health Services (OHS): These services focus on the health-related dimensions of OSH, including:
o Health surveillance and monitoring;
o Ergonomic assessments;
o Evaluation of workplace exposure to chemical, biological, or physical agents;
o Promotion of health and wellbeing at work;
o Cooperation with public health authorities in reporting and follow-up of occupational diseases.
B. Employer's Obligations
Every employer is legally required to ensure that Preventive and Protective Services are established and functional. Depending on the size and risk profile of the organisation, PPS may be:
• Internal: Carried out by designated employees with the required qualification and certification;
• External: Contracted from authorised third-party providers.
Employers must:
• Appoint qualified persons or engage licensed PPS providers;
• Define and document the scope of their responsibilities;
• Ensure regular coordination between technical and medical services;
• Make PPS accessible to all employees;
• Regularly evaluate the performance of PPS.
Employers in high-risk industries, or those with more than 50 employees, are usually required to maintain comprehensive PPS with both STS and OHS components.
C. Qualifications and Accreditation
Professionals who provide PPS must meet stringent qualifications. They must:
• Complete accredited education and training in safety engineering or occupational medicine;
• Hold certifications recognised by the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family or the Ministry of Health;
• Engage in continuous professional development to maintain their credentials.
External service providers must be registered and authorised by relevant ministries, and they are subject to inspections and audits to ensure the quality and legality of their services.
D. Key Functions and Coordination
Preventive and Protective Services are tasked with the following essential functions:
• Risk Prevention Planning: Creating and updating OSH risk assessments and prevention plans;
• Incident Analysis: Investigating work-related accidents and proposing corrective measures;
• Training and Education: Developing and delivering OSH-related training programmes;
• Policy Development: Assisting in drafting internal OSH policies, protocols, and procedures;
• Monitoring and Reporting: Tracking compliance, compiling statistics, and reporting outcomes to regulatory bodies.
Effective coordination between STS and OHS is critical for a holistic approach to workplace health and safety. Both services must share information and work together to:
• Detect emerging risks;
• Implement interdisciplinary solutions;
• Address complex OSH issues involving technical and health dimensions simultaneously.
E. Integration with Organisational Management
PPS are not standalone entities; they should be integrated into the broader management systems of an organisation. This ensures that health and safety considerations are part of decision-making at all levels, from procurement and design to operational strategy and emergency preparedness.
In line with the principles of ISO 45001, employers are encouraged to embed PPS into:
• Corporate risk management structures;
• Human resources policies;
• Sustainability and corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategies.
F. Challenges and Future Outlook
While PPS are widely implemented, challenges remain, especially among small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which often lack the resources or expertise to maintain robust internal services. To address this, government support programmes and simplified risk assessment tools have been introduced.
The future development of PPS in Slovakia is expected to focus on:
• Digitalisation of safety monitoring and reporting systems;
• Better integration with mental health and wellbeing initiatives;
• Strengthened interdisciplinary collaboration among safety engineers, doctors, and psychologists;
• Enhanced state support and incentives for SMEs to implement professional PPS.
Preventive and Protective Services are a critical element in Slovakia’s legal and practical framework for occupational safety and health. When properly implemented, they help reduce accidents, prevent occupational diseases, and promote a culture of prevention and responsibility throughout the workplace.
3.2.6 Key Legal Concepts
The Slovak legal framework for Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) is underpinned by a set of core legal principles and regulatory mechanisms. These concepts form the basis for interpreting, applying, and enforcing OSH law in both the public and private sectors. Understanding these principles is essential for effective legal compliance, policy-making, and implementation of workplace safety measures.
1. Principle of Prevention At the heart of OSH legislation lies the principle of prevention This principle obliges employers to act proactively rather than reactively. The legal mandate is clear: employers must anticipate potential hazards and implement appropriate control measures before risks materialise into harm. Prevention must be embedded in every phase of work planning and execution from design and procurement to operational procedures and training.
2. Precautionary Principle The precautionary principle allows for preventive measures to be taken even when there is scientific uncertainty regarding a risk. If there is reasonable suspicion that a workplace process, chemical, or piece of equipment might endanger workers' health or safety, employers are expected to err on the side of caution. This principle aligns Slovak law with EU jurisprudence, which supports early intervention to avoid irreversible harm.
3. Hierarchy of Controls Slovak OSH legislation mandates a systematic approach to hazard mitigation through a hierarchy of controls. This model prioritises intervention strategies as follows:
• Elimination: Remove the hazard entirely (e.g. substitute hazardous material with a safer one);
• Substitution: Replace the process, tool, or substance with a less dangerous alternative;
• Engineering controls: Isolate people from the hazard through design or modification (e.g. ventilation systems);
• Organisational controls: Alter the way work is performed, such as modifying schedules or procedures to minimise exposure;
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Equip workers with safety gear only as a last resort, when higher-level controls are not sufficient.
The employer must always begin with the most effective controls and may only resort to PPE when other methods are insufficient or impractical.
4. Continuous Improvement The OSH system in Slovakia follows the "Plan-Do-CheckAct" (PDCA) model of continuous improvement. Risk assessments must be updated periodically or whenever there is a significant change in the work environment. This legal obligation fosters an adaptive safety culture, encouraging organisations to review, reassess, and revise their prevention strategies regularly.
5. Employer Liability and Accountability While responsibilities can be delegated, the employer retains ultimate legal accountability for ensuring workplace safety. This is a cornerstone of both national and EU legislation. Liability includes both civil and criminal dimensions. For example, employers may be fined or prosecuted if they fail to meet their OSH obligations, particularly in the case of accidents resulting from negligence or poor risk management.
6. Documentation and Record-Keeping Employers are required by law to document risk assessments, safety instructions, training activities, incident reports, and occupational health outcomes. These records must be maintained for regulatory inspections and legal audits. Proper documentation also ensures traceability, accountability, and informed decision-making within the organisation.
7. Worker Participation and Consultation Legal frameworks emphasise the right of employees to participate in safety planning and to be consulted on matters affecting their health and safety. This includes access to information, the right to propose safety improvements, and the legal entitlement to representation by safety officers or elected OSH representatives. Such participation strengthens democratic governance within the workplace and enhances compliance.
8. Integration with General Management OSH must not be treated as a separate or secondary function. Slovak and EU legislation require its integration into general corporate governance and strategic planning. This includes alignment with quality assurance, human resources, and environmental management systems.
9. Transparency and Reporting Employers are legally obligated to report serious workplace accidents, occupational diseases, and dangerous occurrences to competent authorities. Transparency is a regulatory priority, aiming to improve data accuracy, public awareness, and targeted policy responses.
10. Legal Harmonisation with EU Directives Slovak OSH law is harmonised with EU directives. This ensures that Slovak workers enjoy the same minimum level of protection as other EU citizens. It also facilitates legal certainty, cross-border cooperation, and uniform implementation of health and safety standards across Europe.
Together, these legal concepts not only define the employer’s duties and employee rights but also create a structured, principled, and enforceable framework aimed at making workplaces safer, healthier, and more resilient to emerging risks.
3.2.7
Sanctions and Liability
Non-compliance with OSH obligations may result in administrative fines, criminal prosecution, or civil liability.
Employers may be held criminally liable under the Penal Code for gross negligence leading to serious injury or death. Labour inspectors have discretionary authority to impose immediate remedies, suspend unsafe operations, and escalate cases to the judiciary.
Sanctions and legal liability serve as powerful tools to ensure compliance with the law and accountability for those who breach safety obligations. Legal enforcement mechanisms are defined primarily in Act No. 124/2006 Coll., as well as in the Labour Code and related public health legislation.
A. Purpose of Sanctions
The principal aim of sanctions is to:
• Enforce legal compliance among employers and employees;
• Deter unsafe practices and negligence;
• Encourage a culture of prevention and responsibility;
• Ensure that violations are addressed promptly and effectively;
• Protect the health and safety of workers and the wider public.
Sanctions can take the form of administrative fines, civil liability for damages, and in severe cases, criminal prosecution. The severity of the sanction depends on the nature, scale, and consequences of the breach.
B. Types of Liability
1. Administrative Liability
o Imposed by regulatory authorities such as the National Labour Inspectorate (NIP) and the Public Health Authority (UVZ SR);
o Typical sanctions include fines, prohibition of work activities, suspension of operations, or mandatory remedial actions;
o Administrative proceedings are usually initiated following inspections or reported incidents;
o Employers may appeal against decisions but must comply during the process.
2. Civil Liability
o This arises when a breach of OSH obligations results in material or immaterial damage to workers (e.g., injury, illness, loss of income);
o Employees or their families may seek compensation through civil litigation;
o Civil liability may also include claims for damages by third parties or insurers.
3. Criminal Liability
o Triggered when breaches of OSH obligations involve gross negligence, wilful misconduct, or result in serious harm or fatality;
o Criminal charges may be brought against responsible individuals (e.g., managers, technical staff, safety officers);
o Sanctions include imprisonment, criminal fines, bans from holding management positions, or closure of operations;
o Prosecuted under the Slovak Criminal Code in conjunction with OSH laws.
C. Sanctionable Offences
Under Slovak legislation, sanctionable acts may include:
• Failure to carry out a risk assessment or update it regularly;
• Lack of adequate OSH training for employees;
• Absence or failure of preventive and protective services;
• Inadequate use or provision of personal protective equipment (PPE);
• Negligence in addressing known workplace hazards;
• Failure to report serious occupational accidents or diseases;
• Obstruction of inspections or non-compliance with inspection outcomes;
• Breach of specific provisions under implementing regulations.
D. Determining Factors for Sanctions
When determining the severity of sanctions, the following are considered:
• Degree of fault (intentional or negligent);
• Scope and duration of the offence;
• Consequences for affected individuals or the public;
• History of previous violations (recidivism);
• Cooperation with inspection authorities;
• Measures taken to mitigate the effects or prevent recurrence.
Authorities apply proportionality and fairness in determining penalties, but intentional or repeated breaches attract the strictest responses.
E. Role of Labour Inspectorate and Health Authorities
The National Labour Inspectorate (NIP) and regional labour inspectorates carry out unannounced inspections, investigations following workplace accidents, and enforcement of OSH regulations. They may:
• Issue binding orders;
• Impose administrative fines (ranging from hundreds to tens of thousands of euros);
• Require documentation of corrective measures;
• Refer cases for criminal prosecution if applicable.
Similarly, the Public Health Authority (UVZ SR) monitors health-specific OSH obligations, particularly concerning chemical and biological hazards, ergonomic conditions, and health surveillance.
F. Appeals and Legal Remedies
Parties subject to administrative sanctions have the right to:
• Be informed of the grounds and evidence for the sanction;
• Present objections and evidence in their defence;
• Appeal to higher administrative bodies or courts;
• Request postponement or modification of enforcement in justified cases.
Due process is safeguarded under Slovak administrative law, ensuring transparency and fairness in all sanctioning procedures.
G. Preventive Effect and Best Practices
Well-enforced sanctions serve not only as punitive tools but also as preventive mechanisms. Companies are encouraged to adopt best practices such as:
• Establishing internal audits and OSH compliance systems;
• Regular training and awareness campaigns for managers and employees;
• Transparent incident reporting systems;
• Engaging accredited OSH advisors to ensure legal conformity.
A culture of safety compliance, supported by enforcement and legal accountability, is essential for reducing workplace risks and fostering a proactive OSH environment in Slovakia.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 3
Chapter 3.1 – European Union Safety and Health Legislation
1. What is the purpose of the European Framework Directive 89/391/EEC, and how does it shape workplace safety?
2. In what ways have EU OSH directives contributed to reducing occupational accidents and diseases?
3. What are “daughter directives” and how do they relate to specific workplace hazards or populations?
4. How does the EU support small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in complying with OSH regulations?
5. What are the legal and economic benefits of a strong EU-level occupational safety and health framework?
Chapter 3.2 – National OSH Legislation in Slovakia
1. How is the constitutional right to safe working conditions implemented through Slovak legislation?
2. What are the primary responsibilities of Slovak employers under national OSH law?
3. What rights and duties do employees have in ensuring their own safety and that of their colleagues?
4. Which institutions are responsible for enforcing OSH legislation in Slovakia, and how do they operate?
5. What types of sanctions or liabilities can arise from breaches of occupational safety and health laws?
4. ACT NO. 124/2006 COLL. ON OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to equip students with a detailed understanding of the Slovak Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Occupational Safety and Health, including its structure, principles, and regulatory requirements. Students will learn how this national legislation aligns with European Union directives, particularly Directive 89/391/EEC, and how it operationalises occupational safety and health (OSH) in Slovak workplaces through risk management, institutional enforcement, and professional competence systems.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) understand the legislative purpose, scope, and structure of Act No. 124/2006 Coll.; (2) interpret the general principles of prevention and their application in OSH management; (3) identify the legal duties of employers and the rights and responsibilities of employees; (4) explain the role and function of Preventive and Protective Services (PPS), authorised bodies, and labour inspection authorities; (5) recognise the enforcement mechanisms, including administrative sanctions, criminal liability, and state supervision powers; (6) apply legal provisions to practical workplace scenarios, including documentation, training, equipment safety, and worker consultation; (7) appreciate the interrelation between Slovak national law, EU directives, and international OSH standards.
This chapter provides a foundational legal framework for future safety professionals, enabling them to implement compliant, effective, and ethical OSH practices in accordance with Slovak and EU law.
4.1. Purpose and Legislative Context
The Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Occupational Safety and Health was adopted to codify and implement Slovakia’s constitutional and European commitments to a safe and healthy working environment. It serves as a foundational statute for occupational safety and health (OSH) in the Slovak Republic and is fully harmonised with the European Union’s Framework Directive 89/391/EEC. The legislative context also includes alignment with international labour standards and national strategies on OSH.
(Image produced by ChatGPT 40 based on content definition)
The primary purpose of the Act is to legally define and enforce a system of occupational risk prevention that ensures the highest possible level of safety and health protection at work. It provides a legal structure for:
• Preventing accidents at work and occupational diseases;
• Reducing exposure to harmful factors in the working environment;
• Promoting the health and well-being of workers through proactive risk management;
• Establishing employer duties and employee rights;
• Regulating technical safety and the use of hazardous equipment;
• Defining professional qualifications and obligations of service providers;
• Empowering supervisory authorities with legal mechanisms to enforce compliance and penalise violations.
The Act draws legal authority from the Constitution of the Slovak Republic, particularly Article 36(d), which guarantees employees the right to satisfactory working conditions, including occupational safety and health. It is complemented by several related acts such as the Labour Code (Act No. 311/2001 Coll.) and the Public Health Protection Act (Act No. 355/2007 Coll.).
From a legislative perspective, the Act embodies the general principles of prevention, defines clear legal responsibilities for duty holders, and sets up a tripartite institutional framework (involving government, employers, and workers) for supervision and dialogue.
The Act further:
• Integrates core OSH requirements into Slovak law and practice, reinforcing the European model of preventive occupational health;
• Recognises both physical and psychosocial risks in the modern workplace;
• Emphasises the role of education, consultation, and transparent documentation;
• Establishes proportional administrative, civil, and criminal liability for noncompliance;
• Sets minimum and sector-specific OSH standards, adaptable by regulation for high-risk industries;
• Encourages continual improvement and innovation in safety systems by requiring up-todate training, competent personnel, and technological progress integration.
The Act functions not only as a statutory instrument but as a cornerstone of Slovakia’s national OSH policy. It lays the foundation for a culture of prevention, where legal, technical, organisational, and educational tools converge to protect life, health, and productivity in the workplace.
4.2. Structure of the Act
Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Occupational Safety and Health is the principal legal framework regulating the field of workplace safety in Slovakia. It has been developed to reflect both
international legal commitments and national policy priorities, ensuring harmonisation with European Union directives and alignment with modern OSH management principles.
The structure of the Act is deliberately systematic and modular, reflecting its aim to serve as both a prescriptive legal tool and a practical guideline for all stakeholders employers, employees, labour inspectors, authorised bodies, and safety professionals. Its comprehensive design allows for application across various sectors, from manufacturing and construction to office-based and public sector employment.
Legislative Format and Composition
The Act is divided into eight thematic parts, encompassing a total of 38 sections (§), each addressing a distinct component of occupational safety and health regulation. The thematic structuring ensures that the Act is not only legally enforceable but also functionally accessible for practical OSH implementation.
1. Part One – General Provisions:
Introduces the scope, purpose, and essential terminology. This part defines fundamental concepts such as a safe working environment, the principle of prevention, and the roles of legal and natural persons in OSH
2. Part Two – Basic Obligations and Principles:
Covers the core legal duties of employers, the rights and responsibilities of employees, and the general principles of OSH management. This includes the requirement for risk assessment, safety training, documentation, use of protective equipment, and the provision of safe machinery and technical installations.
3. Part Three – Preventive and Protective Services:
Outlines the qualifications required for individuals performing safety-related roles and defines the structure, responsibilities, and functioning of internal and external Preventive and Protective Services (PPS), which are key for technical and organisational risk prevention.
4. Part Four – Special Measures and Risk Groups:
Sets out additional protections for vulnerable groups such as young workers, pregnant employees, and workers exposed to heightened risks such as carcinogens or physical strain.
5. Part Five – Reporting, Records, and Analysis:
Regulates the procedures for reporting occupational accidents, injuries, and incidents. It includes rules for maintaining OSH documentation, injury logs, and analytical responsibilities for incident prevention
6. Part Six – Verification and Authorised Bodies:
Addresses the accreditation and activities of expert bodies that are authorised to verify the safety of technical installations and workplace conditions.
7. Part Seven – State Supervision and Enforcement:
Entrusts the Labour Inspectorate and other supervisory bodies with enforcement powers. It includes procedures for control, penalties for non-compliance, and conditions under which sanctions, bans, or criminal prosecution may be applied.
8.
Part Eight – Transitional and Final Provisions:
Clarifies legal continuity, repeal of previous legislation, transitional periods, and the effective date of the Act.
Referential and Supporting Instruments
The Act often refers to Slovak Technical Standards (STN) and EU regulations and directives for technical detail and harmonisation. While STNs are not legally binding unless cited directly, their use is often expected for demonstrating good practice and fulfilling the general duty of care.
Moreover, the Act is complemented by numerous implementing regulations, particularly government decrees and ministerial orders, which provide binding rules on specific technical or procedural aspects (e.g. noise limits, chemical safety, risk assessment protocols).
Practical Use of the Structure
This hierarchical and modular structure enables practical navigation and targeted compliance. For example:
• An HR officer may focus on §§16–20 for recruitment, medical fitness, and training.
• A safety technician would rely heavily on §§21–22, concerning the composition and duties of PPS.
• Inspectors or legal professionals will consult §§30–38 for enforcement, control mechanisms, and sanctions.
By organising content in a logical and thematic manner, the Act ensures that both OSH experts and laypersons can find the relevant obligations and responsibilities without ambiguity.
4.3. Key Definitions
A clear understanding of the terminology used in Act No. 124/2006 Coll. is essential for interpreting its provisions and applying them consistently in workplace practice. Section §3 of the Act provides legally binding definitions of key occupational safety and health (OSH) terms. These definitions ensure coherence in legal interpretation and establish a common language among stakeholders: employers, employees, state authorities, and professional services.
Worker
A worker is defined as any natural person who performs dependent work for an employer, under a contractual employment relationship or a similar legal arrangement, regardless of whether the person works full-time, part-time, temporarily, or under a contract for services. This includes apprentices and trainees. The definition excludes self-employed individuals who are not bound by employment contracts.
Employer
An employer is any natural or legal person who employs at least one worker. This includes private enterprises, public institutions, state bodies, non-profit organisations, and other legal entities
operating in Slovakia. The employer bears the primary legal responsibility for ensuring safety and health at work.
Occupational Risk
An occupational risk refers to the likelihood that a hazardous factor in the workplace may cause injury or harm to health. Risk is assessed based on the nature and intensity of the hazard, the duration of exposure, and the vulnerability of the worker. Risk assessment is a fundamental obligation of the employer.
Workplace
A workplace is any physical space where work activities are carried out, whether permanently or temporarily, indoors or outdoors. This includes offices, factories, vehicles, construction sites, and any other locations where work is performed under the control or management of the employer.
Safe Working Conditions
Safe working conditions are defined as such organisational, technical, and environmental circumstances at a workplace that minimise the risk of accidents or ill health. This concept includes appropriate work equipment, ergonomic design, protective measures, and adherence to legal and technical standards.
Preventive and Protective Services (PPS)
PPS refers to professionally qualified persons or organisational units designated to assist employers in implementing OSH measures, assessing risks, monitoring safety conditions, and advising on legal compliance. PPS can be internal (within the company) or external (contracted specialists).
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
PPE includes any clothing, devices, or equipment intended to be worn or held by workers to protect them against one or more health and safety hazards. Examples include helmets, gloves, goggles, and respiratory protection.
Serious Work Accident
A serious work accident is an incident occurring during the performance of work or in direct connection with it that results in:
• Fatality;
• Permanent damage to health;
• Severe physical or psychological trauma;
• Extensive property damage or fire;
• Events requiring emergency intervention or evacuation. Such incidents must be reported immediately and investigated by the employer and supervisory authorities.
Dangerous Factor
A dangerous factor is any physical, chemical, biological, or psychosocial condition present in the working environment that may negatively affect the health or safety of workers. Examples include noise, toxic chemicals, extreme temperatures, biological agents, and mental stressors.
Professional Competence
Professional competence refers to the verified qualification, training, knowledge, and physical and mental ability of a person to perform a specific work activity safely and effectively. For highrisk tasks, competence must be proven through authorised certification procedures.
These definitions not only provide clarity but also serve as the legal foundation for assigning responsibilities, managing risks, and implementing protective measures. Accurate understanding and consistent application of these terms are critical for effective OSH compliance and enforcement.
4.4. Scope of Application
Section §2 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. clearly defines the extent to which the Act applies, both in terms of persons and workplaces. The scope reflects a comprehensive effort to regulate occupational safety and health across various employment relationships and working conditions in Slovakia. Understanding this scope is essential for identifying legal obligations and entitlements under the Act.
Universal Application to Employment Settings
The Act applies to all employers and employees within the Slovak Republic, regardless of:
• The legal form or ownership structure of the employer (e.g. public institutions, private enterprises, state bodies);
• The duration or nature of the employment relationship (e.g. permanent, fixed-term, parttime, temporary, or apprenticeship);
• The workplace setting, including stationary, mobile, temporary, or remote work environments.
This universality ensures that fundamental occupational safety and health standards are upheld across the entire labour market.
Covered Subjects
The law explicitly applies to:
• Employers, defined as legal or natural persons employing at least one worker;
• Employees, under both standard and non-standard employment contracts;
• Other persons present in the workplace, such as visitors, contractors, interns, volunteers, and service personnel, to the extent necessary to protect their safety and health;
• Self-employed individuals and entrepreneurs, who are subject to relevant duties when their activity could endanger others in the workplace.
Sectoral Coverage
The Act encompasses a wide range of sectors and industries, including but not limited to:
• Industrial production and manufacturing;
• Construction and civil engineering;
• Agriculture and forestry;
• Education, health, and social services;
• Public administration and defence;
• Transport, telecommunications, and logistics;
• Service and retail sectors.
There are no blanket exemptions based on industry type, although certain provisions may be adapted based on specific occupational risks or sectoral needs.
Territorial Application
The Act applies to:
• All workplaces located within the territory of the Slovak Republic;
• Slovak employers operating abroad, with respect to employees posted to foreign assignments (in accordance with international agreements and EU law);
• Foreign employers operating temporarily in Slovakia, especially regarding the coordination of cross-border work and posted worker arrangements.
Limited Exemptions and Special Provisions
While the scope is broadly inclusive, §2 provides limited exemptions or modified obligations for specific entities or employment relationships. For instance:
• Certain provisions may not apply to members of the armed forces, police, fire brigades, or other rescue services where special legal regulations take precedence;
• In cases of emergency or crisis situations (e.g. natural disasters, wartime mobilisation), temporary exemptions may be granted for rapid response, provided they are proportional and legally justified;
• Students engaged in practical training or work experience are protected under the Act, but the nature of their employment may modify specific obligations.
By establishing such a broad and inclusive scope, §2 ensures that the Act serves as a unifying framework for occupational safety and health, applying consistent legal standards across all sectors, job types, and working conditions in Slovakia. This inclusivity is essential for ensuring that every person engaged in economic activity benefits from equal and adequate protection.
4.5. General Principles of Prevention
Section §5 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. articulates the fundamental principles of occupational risk prevention that underpin the entire legal and managerial framework for safety and health at work in Slovakia. These principles are not merely theoretical; they serve as binding guidelines
for employers and OSH professionals when designing, implementing, and evaluating workplace safety systems.
Core Preventive Philosophy
The legal doctrine of prevention is proactive rather than reactive. Its primary goal is to eliminate risks at their source, rather than compensating for them after harm has occurred. This approach reflects a shift in regulatory thinking: from compliance-based safety to systemic, continuous risk management.
The general principles of prevention listed in §5 mirror the European Union’s Framework Directive (89/391/EEC), ensuring consistency between Slovak and EU-level legislation. They serve as a hierarchy of action and decision-making for managing workplace hazards.
Enumerated Principles of Prevention
Under §5, employers are obliged to apply the following principles in the management of safety and health at work:
1. Avoiding risks entirely – The best form of protection is complete elimination of hazards whenever technically and organisationally feasible.
2. Evaluating the risks that cannot be avoided – Employers must assess the likelihood and severity of risks, forming the foundation of all preventive measures.
3. Combating risks at their source – Measures should be targeted where the danger originates (e.g. replacing dangerous substances or redesigning hazardous processes).
4. Adapting work to the individual – This includes ergonomic workplace design, rotating repetitive tasks, and adapting work rhythms to individual needs and physical capacities.
5. Adapting to technical progress – Employers are required to keep abreast of innovations in equipment, processes, and safety practices and integrate them when they enhance safety.
6. Replacing the dangerous with the non-dangerous or less dangerous – Substitution of materials, procedures, or tools with safer alternatives is encouraged and often mandatory.
7. Developing a coherent prevention policy – This involves integrating technology, work organisation, working conditions, social relationships, and the working environment into a unified system of safety management.
8. Giving collective protective measures priority over individual protective measures –Engineering and organisational controls (e.g. ventilation, barriers) take precedence over reliance on personal protective equipment (PPE).
9. Giving appropriate instructions to workers – Employees must be informed, trained, and instructed in a manner suitable to their tasks and level of understanding.
Application in Practice
These principles guide the development of:
• Risk assessments and safety audits;
• Design of workspaces and machinery;
• Training programmes and internal safety rules;
• Purchasing decisions for tools, chemicals, and equipment;
• Organisational structures, such as the creation of internal OSH departments and safety committees.
Employers must embed these principles into every OSH-related activity, from policy-making to daily operations. Legal compliance requires not only documentation but also demonstrable integration into workplace practices.
These preventive principles are the ethical and practical pillars of Slovak occupational safety and health law. They establish a duty of care that extends beyond minimal compliance and promotes a culture of anticipation, accountability, and continuous improvement in workplace safety.
4.6. Employer Obligations
Sections §6 and §7 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. lay out the fundamental obligations of employers with respect to ensuring occupational safety and health (OSH). These duties are broad, binding, and essential to the establishment of a systematic and compliant OSH management framework in every workplace. The law imposes an active responsibility on employers not only to avoid harm but also to continuously evaluate and improve safety conditions.
General Duty of Care
Under §6, every employer is legally required to ensure the safety and health protection of employees in all aspects related to work. This obligation applies regardless of the size, nature, or sector of the business. The general duty includes:
• Preventing risks to health and safety through the elimination or mitigation of workplace hazards.
• Adopting preventive measures based on the general principles of prevention (§5), prioritising risk avoidance and minimisation.
• Ensuring safe work conditions, including the design of workspaces, the selection and maintenance of work equipment, and the organisation of work processes.
• Regularly updating safety measures in light of new knowledge, technologies, or changes in working conditions.
• Providing effective OSH management, including training, instruction, and the involvement of competent persons and services.
This duty is non-delegable while tasks may be assigned to others, the ultimate legal responsibility remains with the employer.
Specific Employer Duties
Section §7 elaborates on the specific obligations that must be fulfilled by employers to ensure legal compliance and effective risk management. These include:
1. Risk Assessment and Documentation:
o Identifying and evaluating workplace risks;
o Creating written risk assessments that include protective measures;
o Reviewing and updating assessments regularly or after any significant change.
2. Provision of Safe Work Procedures:
o Establishing internal regulations and standard operating procedures (SOPs);
o Defining safety rules for the use of equipment, materials, and technologies;
o Ensuring accessibility and clarity of these procedures to all employees.
3. Provision of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
o Determining PPE requirements based on risk assessments;
o Supplying appropriate and certified PPE free of charge;
o Ensuring employees are trained in proper use and maintenance of PPE.
4. Training and Instruction:
o Delivering initial and recurrent OSH training adapted to job roles;
o Ensuring managers and supervisors receive enhanced instruction;
o Documenting all training activities.
5. Monitoring and Health Surveillance:
o Organising regular checks of the working environment and work practices;
o Providing occupational health surveillance when legally required;
o Acting on recommendations from health professionals.
6. Emergency Preparedness:
o Preparing and maintaining emergency plans for fire, evacuation, chemical leaks, etc.;
o Assigning and training staff for emergency roles (e.g. first aiders, fire wardens);
o Ensuring all employees are familiar with emergency procedures.
7. Cooperation with State Authorities:
o Allowing labour inspectors and regulatory officers access to documentation, premises, and staff;
o Implementing corrective measures following inspections or decisions;
o Reporting accidents, incidents, and dangerous occurrences as required by law.
8. Information and Participation:
o Consulting employees or their representatives on matters affecting health and safety;
o Providing accessible information about risks, protective measures, and rights.
9. Appointment of Competent Persons:
o Ensuring that tasks related to OSH are carried out by trained and qualified individuals;
o Engaging Preventive and Protective Services (internal or external) where required by law.
10. Special Consideration for Vulnerable Workers:
• Taking additional measures for young workers, pregnant employees, or those with reduced work capacity;
• Adjusting workloads, hours, or tasks to reduce risk to health.
The sections §6–7 establish a legal framework that requires employers to act diligently, systematically, and transparently in managing workplace safety and health. These obligations are not optional, they are enforceable legal standards supported by inspection, sanctions, and liability provisions discussed later in this chapter. Their full implementation is critical not only for legal compliance but for the sustainable protection of workers and the organisation as a whole.
4.7. Employee Rights and Duties
Sections §12 and §13 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. outline the legal rights and obligations of employees in the context of occupational safety and health (OSH). These provisions establish that OSH is not solely the responsibility of employers but also requires active participation and conscientious behaviour from workers. While employers bear the primary duty of care, employees are essential partners in implementing safety measures and maintaining a secure work environment.
Rights of Employees
The law guarantees several key OSH-related rights for employees, which support their ability to work in a safe and dignified manner. These include the right to:
• Work in Safe Conditions: Employees are entitled to a working environment that does not pose a risk to their life, health, or physical integrity. This right encompasses all aspects of the workplace from ergonomics and lighting to noise and hazardous substances.
• Be Informed About Workplace Risks: Employees must be clearly and adequately informed about the risks related to their work activities, the safety procedures in place, and how they are expected to protect themselves and others.
• Receive OSH Training: Workers are entitled to proper initial and ongoing training to understand their duties, use equipment safely, and respond appropriately to emergencies. Training must be comprehensible and adapted to their level of experience and language skills.
• Participate in OSH Activities: Employees have the right to take part in consultations and discussions on safety and health matters, either directly or through elected safety representatives
• Refuse Dangerous Work: If there is a serious and immediate threat to life or health, employees may refuse to perform the work until the risk is addressed. They must notify
their supervisor or employer without delay. This right is a crucial protective mechanism and cannot be penalised.
• Health Protection and Medical Examinations: Employees have the right to undergo occupational health checks appropriate to their risk exposure and be informed of the results and recommendations.
• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Workers are entitled to receive PPE appropriate to the risks they face, free of charge, and to be trained in its correct use and maintenance.
These rights empower employees to be proactive participants in OSH and to hold employers accountable for maintaining lawful conditions.
Duties of Employees
Alongside their rights, employees also have specific legal obligations designed to uphold safety standards and prevent harm. These duties include:
• Compliance with OSH Procedures: Employees must follow all instructions, regulations, and training related to occupational safety and health. This includes internal rules and procedures provided by the employer.
• Proper Use of Equipment and PPE: Workers are required to use tools, machines, devices, substances, and protective equipment correctly and as instructed. This includes not bypassing safety systems or using unauthorised methods.
• Reporting Hazards and Incidents: Employees must promptly report any observed risks, accidents, injuries, near misses, or other dangerous conditions to their supervisor or the designated safety officer.
• Cooperating with Inspections and Preventive Services: Workers are expected to cooperate with internal and external inspections, audits, and other OSH-related reviews.
• Avoiding Endangerment: Employees must act in ways that do not endanger themselves or others in the workplace. Careless or reckless behaviour, including substance abuse, is a violation of the Act.
• Participation in Training: Workers are required to attend training sessions and instructional briefings organised by the employer and to apply the knowledge gained in their daily work.
• Respecting Safety Signs and Signals: Compliance with safety signage, labels, and alarm signals is mandatory for all staff.
Failure to fulfil these obligations can lead to disciplinary or administrative consequences and, in cases of gross negligence or wilful misconduct, even legal liability.
In conclusion, Sections §12 and §13 of the Act underscore that occupational safety is a shared responsibility. By protecting the rights of employees and outlining their duties, the legislation fosters a safety culture rooted in mutual accountability. Ensuring that all workers are informed, engaged, and compliant is essential to maintaining a safe and legally sound working environment.
4.8. Preventive and Protective Services (PPS)
Structure and function of STS and OHS; internal vs. external services; cooperation requirements.
Preventive and Protective Services (PPS) are an essential mechanism for supporting employers in the systematic management of occupational safety and health (OSH) responsibilities. Under Sections §21 and §22 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll., PPS encompass all professional tasks aimed at the prevention of risks, safeguarding of workers' health, and fulfilment of legal OSH obligations.
Definition and Scope
PPS include the planning, implementation, and coordination of all occupational health and safety activities. These services may be established internally by the employer or contracted externally through authorised service providers. Their primary tasks include:
• Identifying hazards and assessing OSH risks;
• Proposing effective prevention and protection measures;
• Assisting in the development of risk assessments, safe work procedures, and emergency plans;
• Monitoring the working environment and compliance with OSH regulations;
• Advising on the use of personal protective equipment and collective protective measures;
• Cooperating with state authorities and facilitating employee training.
Employers must ensure that PPS operate independently, with adequate authority and access to relevant workplaces and documentation
Organisation of Services
Employers are responsible for organising PPS according to the size of the organisation and the level of risk associated with its activities:
• In low-risk environments or small companies, the employer may personally fulfil PPS duties, provided they have the necessary qualifications;
• In medium and high-risk workplaces, or where internal capacity is lacking, employers must establish PPS units or contract authorised external providers;
• PPS personnel must possess professional qualifications and practical experience in occupational safety and health.
Employers must appoint a responsible person to coordinate PPS and ensure the service is proportionate to the nature of the organisation’s activities.
Cooperation with Occupational Health Services
PPS are expected to closely cooperate with occupational health service providers. Together, they:
• Conduct joint workplace assessments;
• Recommend adjustments to working conditions based on medical findings;
• Participate in health promotion and preventive campaigns.
Authorisation and Oversight
External PPS providers must be authorised under Slovak law. The Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family grants this status and maintains a register of authorised providers. These providers must:
• Submit periodic reports and updates to regulatory bodies;
• Operate according to professional standards and guidelines;
• Undergo monitoring and audits by labour inspection authorities.
Preventive and Protective Services represent a cornerstone of proactive OSH management. Their multidisciplinary approach supports the legal, technical, and medical aspects of workplace safety, contributing significantly to the creation of a safer and healthier working environment.
4.9. Professional Competence and Training
Professional competence and continuous training represent the foundation of safe work practices and compliance with OSH regulations. Sections §16 to §20 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. focus on ensuring that only appropriately qualified, trained, and medically fit individuals perform work activities, particularly those with elevated risk.
Professional Competence
To carry out certain work tasks, particularly those involving risks to life, health, or property, employees must be professionally competent. This includes:
• Possession of the necessary education, certification, or vocational qualification for the specific type of work;
• Completion of relevant theoretical and practical training;
• Familiarity with legal and technical regulations related to occupational safety and health in their job role.
For activities deemed hazardous or specialised, such as operating pressure systems, electrical equipment, or hazardous substances, competence must be verified through state-recognised examinations and certifications. Employers are responsible for verifying and documenting employee qualifications before assigning such tasks.
Initial and Recurrent Training
OSH training is mandatory for all employees, including temporary and part-time staff. It must be:
• Conducted before an employee starts their job (initial training);
• Repeated at regular intervals (recurrent or refresher training);
• Updated after any change in legislation, equipment, or work procedures;
• Tailored to the nature and risk level of the work.
Employers must ensure that training covers:
• Basic principles of occupational safety and health;
• Specific risks associated with the workplace or job function;
• Emergency procedures, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), and safe handling of tools and materials.
The training must be documented, and records must include the date, scope, trainer identity, and signature of the trainee.
Instruction of Employees and Managers
Section §19 outlines specific duties regarding the instruction of:
• Employees: They must be regularly informed about their OSH duties and rights, specific workplace risks, and the protective measures in place.
• Managers and supervisors: They require deeper understanding of OSH legislation, organisational responsibilities, risk assessment principles, and procedures for monitoring compliance within their teams.
Instructional content must be understandable, adapted to the workplace conditions, and accessible to employees with different levels of literacy or language proficiency.
Health and Medical Fitness for Work
An employee’s medical fitness is essential for the safe performance of work. Employers are obligated to:
• Ensure that all employees undergo medical assessments as required by law;
• Follow recommendations issued by occupational health services regarding the suitability of individuals for specific work tasks;
• Prevent individuals from performing work that may pose a risk to themselves or others due to health limitations.
Medical fitness is particularly critical for jobs involving physical strain, night work, exposure to hazardous substances, or elevated risk. It must be confirmed both at the time of employment and periodically thereafter, in accordance with legislation and health authority guidelines.
Competence and training are cornerstones of effective OSH management. By ensuring that all employees are suitably trained, instructed, and medically fit, employers fulfil a vital legal obligation and significantly reduce the likelihood of accidents and occupational illnesses.
4.10. Safety of Technical Equipment
Ensuring the operational safety and regular maintenance of technical equipment is a central concern of occupational safety and health (OSH) management. Sections §13 and §14 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. outline comprehensive requirements for employers regarding the use, inspection, and record-keeping associated with machinery, tools, and technical devices.
Employer Obligations
Employers are required to:
• Use only safe technical equipment that meets safety and health requirements set by Slovak and EU regulations;
• Ensure that equipment is installed, operated, maintained, and inspected in compliance with relevant legislation, technical standards, and manufacturer instructions;
• Perform regular inspections and functional tests by authorised personnel, especially for equipment that poses a heightened risk (e.g. pressure vessels, lifting devices, electrical systems);
• Ensure that any identified defects or hazards are remedied immediately and that faulty equipment is removed from service until repaired.
Special attention must be paid to equipment that is subject to increased risk, referred to as "designated technical equipment" (vyhradené technické zariadenia), which is governed by stricter rules under government decrees and technical norms.
Designated Technical Equipment
Section §14 introduces the legal concept of "designated technical equipment", a category of machinery and systems considered to pose an elevated level of operational or safety risk. These include:
• Pressure equipment (boilers, pressure vessels);
• Lifting equipment (cranes, lifts, hoists);
• Electrical installations;
• Gas equipment and pipelines.
For such equipment, employers must:
• Register the equipment as required by law;
• Ensure initial and periodic inspections are conducted by authorised persons or institutions with formal certification;
• Comply with all safety standards established under applicable Slovak technical standards (STN) and EU harmonised standards;
• Keep technical documentation and inspection records accessible for review by supervisory authorities.
Role of Authorised Entities
Inspection, testing, and certification of designated technical equipment must be carried out by authorised persons or authorised legal entities. These bodies are approved and monitored by state authorities and must:
• Possess specific technical qualifications and certification;
• Adhere to prescribed methodologies and testing intervals;
• Issue inspection protocols and safety reports.
Documentation
and Records
All inspections, maintenance, and repairs must be documented. Records must include:
• Details of the equipment, location, and responsible person;
• Type and date of inspection or service;
• Findings, including any safety issues and corrective actions taken;
• Signature of the authorised person who performed the service.
Documentation must be retained for the duration of the equipment’s use and made available to state labour inspectors upon request.
Proper management of technical equipment is both a preventive and legal necessity. By meeting these obligations, employers contribute to risk reduction, compliance with OSH law, and the protection of life and property in the workplace.
4.11. Special Protective Measures
Special protective measures are essential components of the occupational safety and health (OSH) system that target specific categories of workers who are particularly vulnerable due to the nature of their work, health status, or personal circumstances. These measures are embedded in Act No. 124/2006 Coll. and related Slovak legislation to ensure that the principles of prevention and equity in OSH are fully respected.
Protection of Young Workers
Young workers, especially those under the age of 18, are afforded enhanced protection due to their physical and psychological immaturity and limited workplace experience. Employers must:
• Conduct a special risk assessment before employing minors;
• Prohibit young workers from performing tasks that expose them to excessive physical, mental, or emotional strain;
• Restrict their access to hazardous substances, high-risk machinery, or work environments with extreme temperatures, noise, or vibration;
• Provide tailored training and close supervision.
These rules are aligned with Directive 94/33/EC on the protection of young people at work and implemented via national provisions under the Labour Code and supplementary regulations.
Pregnant and Breastfeeding Employees
Women who are pregnant, have recently given birth, or are breastfeeding are entitled to specific safeguards to protect their health and that of their child. Employers are required to:
• Reassess workplace risks upon notification of pregnancy or breastfeeding;
• Modify work tasks or conditions, or transfer the employee to a safer position, if risks are identified;
• Grant maternity and parental leave entitlements as defined by social and labour law.
Exposure to chemical agents, biological hazards, excessive physical demands, night work, or stress must be minimised or eliminated for such workers. Directive 92/85/EEC forms the legislative foundation of these rights in EU and Slovak law.
Workers with Disabilities
Employees with disabilities must be provided with reasonable accommodation and inclusive working conditions that respect their physical or mental limitations. Employers should:
• Adapt equipment, tasks, or workstations to individual capabilities;
• Avoid assigning duties that could aggravate a health condition;
• Foster dignity and equal treatment in line with anti-discrimination law.
These obligations follow not only OSH law but also the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and national legislation on equal opportunities.
Employees with Chronic Illnesses or Increased Health Sensitivity
Workers with chronic illnesses or long-term sensitivity to certain exposures (e.g. allergies, respiratory diseases) require tailored approaches, such as:
• Targeted health surveillance and monitoring;
• Individual risk assessments and task modifications;
• Flexibility in working time or conditions when medically justified.
Employers should consult occupational health professionals to determine the safest conditions for continued employment.
Temporary, Seasonal and Agency Workers
These groups often face higher OSH risks due to limited training, unfamiliarity with the workplace, and weaker legal protections. Employers must:
• Provide full OSH training before the start of work;
• Inform workers clearly about workplace hazards and emergency procedures;
• Ensure equal access to protective equipment, supervision, and health surveillance.
The legal responsibility for OSH typically lies with both the agency and the host employer, requiring coordinated oversight and clear contractual arrangements.
Foreign and Migrant Workers
Language barriers, cultural differences, and lack of familiarity with national OSH rights may place migrant workers at additional risk. Employers are therefore required to:
• Communicate OSH instructions in a language workers understand;
• Use interpreters or multilingual signage where necessary;
• Ensure that training is adapted to the cultural and educational background of the workers.
Promoting inclusion and equal treatment of migrant workers helps reduce workplace accidents and fosters a stronger safety culture.
Special protective measures reflect the commitment of the Slovak OSH legal system to the principle of non-discrimination and the targeted prevention of harm. By addressing the needs of high-risk
groups, the legal framework supports both justice and effectiveness in occupational safety and health policy.
4.12. Information, Consultation and Participation
Ensuring a safe and healthy working environment is not solely the responsibility of employers; it also requires active communication, consultation, and collaboration with employees. Sections §7, §10, and §11 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. lay the legal groundwork for transparency, participation, and joint decision-making in occupational safety and health (OSH) management.
Information Duties
Employers are legally obligated to provide employees with timely, clear, and comprehensible information about:
• The risks and hazards associated with their work and workplace;
• The preventive and protective measures taken to eliminate or minimise these risks;
• Procedures to follow in case of emergencies or health-threatening situations;
• The use and maintenance of personal protective equipment (PPE);
• The results of risk assessments, health surveillance, and relevant inspections.
Information must be accessible to all employees, including those with limited literacy or language barriers. It should be tailored to specific roles and updated regularly to reflect any changes in conditions or legal requirements.
Consultation and Participation
Employers must consult employees or their representatives on all matters related to OSH. This includes:
• The planning and implementation of preventive measures;
• The selection of working equipment and technologies with OSH implications;
• The organisation of work and workflow processes;
• The introduction of new training programmes;
• Investigations into workplace accidents and incidents.
Consultation must occur in advance of decisions and must enable genuine participation. Employees or their representatives have the right to:
• Express opinions and raise safety concerns;
• Propose corrective or preventive measures;
• Receive justified responses to their suggestions.
Employee Participation and Representation
Employee involvement is further strengthened by the legal right to representation in OSH matters. According to §11:
• Employers must establish a system of safety representatives or OSH committees if required by law, or based on the size and risk profile of the organisation;
• Safety representatives must be properly trained and protected from discrimination or retaliation;
• The number and structure of safety representatives are determined by agreements between employers and employees or their trade unions.
These representatives are entitled to:
• Access necessary OSH documentation and training;
• Accompany labour inspectors during inspections;
• Participate in the preparation of workplace safety policies.
Significance of Participation
Meaningful employee participation enhances the effectiveness of OSH measures. Workers are often best positioned to identify practical risks and inefficiencies. Their engagement helps build a culture of safety, accountability, and mutual respect.
By embedding these provisions in the legal framework, Act No. 124/2006 Coll. promotes a collaborative and preventive OSH model that values shared responsibility between employers and employees.
Worker participation, safety representatives, and consultation mechanisms.
4.13. Control, Monitoring and Record-Keeping
Effective occupational safety and health (OSH) management depends not only on the implementation of preventive measures but also on the establishment of transparent systems for control, monitoring, and record-keeping. Sections §8, §9, and §17 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. provide a legal framework to ensure that employers are able to systematically monitor OSH conditions and maintain the documentation necessary for accountability, audits, and inspections
Monitoring and Internal Control
Employers are obliged to establish an internal system for the regular monitoring of risks, the effectiveness of preventive measures, and the overall safety performance of their organisation. This involves:
• Periodic reviews of working conditions and operational procedures;
• Evaluation of the adequacy and functionality of technical safeguards, equipment, and protective measures;
• Monitoring the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) and compliance with safety instructions;
• Keeping up-to-date safety assessments and promptly addressing any newly identified risks. The monitoring process must be carried out by competent personnel or external service providers authorised to perform OSH tasks. Any detected deficiencies must be documented and rectified without delay.
Safety Documentation and Record-Keeping
To support effective control and demonstrate compliance, employers must maintain comprehensive OSH documentation. The law requires that records be:
• Accurate, up-to-date, and accessible to supervisory authorities;
• Retained for a legally prescribed period depending on the nature of the document (e.g. 5 to 10 years);
• Regularly reviewed and updated to reflect organisational changes, risk reassessments, or inspection findings.
Required records include:
• Written risk assessments and updates;
• Preventive and protective measures and procedures;
• Training logs and attendance records;
• Records of work-related injuries, accidents, and occupational diseases;
• Health surveillance reports where applicable.
Employees have the right to be informed about the documentation relevant to their workplace safety, and the employer must ensure data protection compliance, especially in the handling of medical or personal data.
Control of PPS Activities
Employers who engage external preventive and protective services (PPS) must supervise the quality and scope of their performance. According to §17, the employer must:
• Ensure that external service providers meet all legal and professional requirements;
• Define and document the specific tasks delegated to the PPS provider;
• Regularly evaluate their performance and coordination with internal OSH structures.
The PPS are also required to maintain their own records of activities, findings, and recommendations, which must be shared with the employer and, where necessary, with the relevant supervisory authority.
Overall, Sections §8–9 and §17 emphasise the importance of integrating record-keeping and monitoring as a core element of preventive OSH culture. Proper documentation not only supports legal compliance but also enables a data-driven approach to hazard identification, risk mitigation, and continuous improvement.
Monitoring, alcohol/drug testing, solitary workers, accident reporting, and documentation.
4.14. State Supervision
The enforcement of occupational safety and health (OSH) regulations in Slovakia is entrusted to a well-structured system of state supervision, governed by Sections §30 to §38 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. This framework is essential for ensuring that legal obligations related to workplace
safety are not merely aspirational but actively upheld through inspection, enforcement, and corrective actions.
Institutional Structure
• National Labour Inspectorate (NIP), located in Košice, leads the inspection framework.
• Eight regional inspectorates carry out local supervision.
• These inspectorates function under the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family, yet operate independently in decision-making and enforcement.
Core Inspection Powers
Labour inspectors possess broad and intrusive powers to ensure compliance:
• Entry to any workplace at any time without notice;
• Examination of risk assessments, training records, and safety documentation;
• Confidential interviews with employees;
• Collection of evidence such as photographs, videos, or samples;
• Issuance of binding orders and deadlines for corrective measures;
• Authority to halt operations or use of equipment in hazardous conditions;
• Imposition of administrative fines up to €200,000.
Employer and Employee Responsibilities
Employers must:
• Fully cooperate with inspectors;
• Provide complete and truthful documentation;
• Implement corrective measures and maintain required OSH records.
Employees have the right to:
• Report safety concerns without fear of retaliation;
• Participate in confidential interviews;
• Be informed of the inspection outcomes.
Focus
Areas of Inspection
While inspections cover all workplace safety aspects, priority is given to:
• High-risk sectors (e.g., construction, chemical industries);
• Risk management and documentation;
• Implementation of preventive and protective services;
• Use of personal protective equipment (PPE);
• Emergency procedures and employee training.
Preventive and Educational Roles
Beyond enforcement, labour inspectorates play a proactive role:
• Offering advisory visits, particularly for SMEs;
• Publishing model checklists, guides, and best practices;
• Conducting OSH training and awareness campaigns;
• Supporting voluntary programmes like "Safe Enterprise".
Coordination with Other Authorities
Inspectorates regularly collaborate with:
• Public Health Authority for occupational health issues;
• Fire and Rescue Services for fire safety;
• Social Insurance Agency for workplace injuries;
• Police and prosecutors for criminal cases;
• EU and international bodies such as SLIC for cross-border OSH coordination
Appeals and Legal Recourse
• Employers can appeal binding decisions to the supervisory body;
• Appeals typically do not suspend enforcement unless otherwise specified;
• Costs of inspections, including expert analyses, may be charged to the employer in justified cases.
The Slovak labour inspection system thus represents a dual-purpose model: regulatory enforcement backed by education and cooperation. Its goal is not only to penalise non-compliance but also to foster long-term safety culture, continuous improvement, and proactive risk management.
4.15. Sanctions and Liability
The enforcement of occupational safety and health (OSH) obligations under Act No. 124/2006 Coll., as amended, relies on a robust legal framework for sanctions and liability, designed to ensure that all duty holders comply with their responsibilities. Section §37 of the Act, together with relevant provisions from other national laws (e.g. the Labour Code, Criminal Code, and Civil Code), outlines a three-tiered liability structure:
The labour inspectorates are empowered under §37 to impose administrative fines on employers and other responsible parties for violations of OSH obligations. These sanctions are meant to ensure compliance and act as a deterrent against negligence or wilful misconduct. Key points include:
• Maximum penalties: Administrative fines can reach up to €200,000, depending on the severity, recurrence, and potential consequences of the violation.
• Aggravating factors: Higher fines may be levied in cases of:
o Failure to eliminate a serious risk,
o Repetition of previous offences,
o Harm to vulnerable workers (e.g. minors or pregnant women),
o Obstruction of inspection or non-cooperation.
• Mitigating factors: The inspectorate may consider good faith efforts, self-reporting, voluntary rectification, and cooperation during proceedings.
• Corrective orders: In addition to fines, labour inspectors can issue binding orders requiring immediate remedial action or even suspend operations or equipment until compliance is achieved.
Employers may be held civilly liable for damages or harm resulting from a breach of OSH obligations. This includes:
• Compensation for injury or illness: Employers must compensate workers for temporary incapacity, permanent damage, or death related to unsafe work conditions.
• Pain and suffering (non-pecuniary damage): Workers or their families may claim damages for mental anguish, trauma, or loss of quality of life.
• Full compensation principle: The Act operates under the presumption of employer liability unless the employer can prove:
o The harm resulted from the sole fault of the employee,
o An external cause unrelated to work,
o Force majeure (exceptional and unforeseeable events beyond control).
In practice, courts often interpret these exceptions narrowly, placing the burden of proof on the employer.
Under Slovak law, particularly the Criminal Code (Act No. 300/2005 Coll.), serious violations of OSH duties that result in severe injury or death may give rise to criminal prosecution
Criminal offences may include:
• Negligent endangerment of employees,
• Causing bodily harm through gross negligence,
• Failure to implement mandatory safety measures,
• Falsification or destruction of safety records. Legal consequences may include:
• Fines or imprisonment for responsible individuals (e.g. managers, safety officers),
• Disqualification from holding leadership roles,
• Seizure of assets in extreme or repeat cases.
The Labour Inspectorate may initiate criminal proceedings or refer matters to the police or public prosecutor in the event of gross breaches.
In many cases, administrative, civil, and criminal sanctions can occur simultaneously, especially where negligence leads to severe consequences. Additionally, non-compliant organisations may face:
• Blacklisting from public contracts,
• Insurance complications or premium increases,
• Reputational damage, including public disclosure of inspection outcomes,
• Negative impact on employee morale and retention
The sanctioning system is not solely punitive. It plays a critical role in fostering:
• Preventive culture within organisations,
• Continuous improvement in OSH management,
• Shared accountability across hierarchical levels.
Employers are therefore encouraged to implement self-audit mechanisms, appoint trained OSH coordinators, and maintain robust legal compliance frameworks to mitigate risks of liability.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 4
1. What is the primary purpose of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Safety and Health Protection at Work?
2. Describe the general structure and organisation of the Act. How are the sections grouped thematically?
3. What are the key legal definitions introduced in §3 of the Act?
4. What types of workplaces and employment relationships fall within the scope of this legislation under §2?
5. Summarise the general principles of prevention as outlined in §5.
6. What are the core legal obligations imposed on employers under §6 and §7?
7. What rights does the law grant to employees to refuse work under hazardous conditions?
8. What duties are imposed on employees in relation to workplace safety, according to §13?
9. How does the Act define and regulate the use of technical equipment and machinery in the workplace?
10. What are the legal requirements for professional competence under §16–17?
11. How frequently must OSH training be delivered, and what must it include?
12. Who is responsible for ensuring the instruction of employees and managers in OSH topics?
13. What is the role of medical assessments in determining an employee’s fitness for work?
14. How are Preventive and Protective Services (PPS) established and what are their main responsibilities?
15. Under what circumstances can an employer organise PPS internally versus externally?
16. What special protective measures are mandated for vulnerable groups such as young workers or those exposed to carcinogens?
17. What obligations does the Act impose regarding worker consultation and participation in OSH matters?
18. What documentation and monitoring requirements are imposed by the Act to ensure OSH compliance?
19. Which institutions are authorised to conduct state supervision of OSH, and what powers do they possess?
20. What types of sanctions and liability mechanisms can be imposed for violations of the OSH Act?
5.
IMPLEMENTATION
OF ACTIVITIES IN THE FIELD OF OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to provide students with a clear understanding of the roles, competencies, and responsibilities involved in implementing occupational safety and health (OSH) measures at the organisational level. It focuses on professionally competent persons, the coordination and organisation of OSH processes, and the essential documentation and record-keeping requirements that ensure legal compliance and effective prevention.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) identify the role and legal qualification of OSH professionals and authorised personnel; (2) explain the importance of coordinating OSH across departments and hierarchies; (3) understand how OSH documentation supports prevention, control, and legal defensibility; (4) apply principles of structured OSH record-keeping and reporting.
This chapter equips learners with the practical and legal foundations required to implement OSH systems effectively and responsibly within any working environment.
5.1. Professionally Competent Persons
Professionally competent persons play a central role in ensuring compliance with OSH legislation and in safeguarding the wellbeing of workers across all sectors. Under Act No. 124/2006 Coll., these individuals are formally recognised as experts authorised to carry out specific tasks related to workplace risk prevention and safety assurance.
To qualify as a professionally competent person, an individual must:
• Complete accredited OSH training;
• Pass a certified examination administered by an authorised body;
• Receive an official certificate of professional competence from the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic (MPSVR SR), National Labour Inspectorate
This certification is subject to periodic renewal, ensuring that professionals maintain up-to-date knowledge of evolving legal and technical requirements. The Ministry maintains a national register
(Image produced by ChatGPT 40 based on content definition)
of certified competent persons and authorises training institutions to deliver the required programmes.
Within an organisation, professionally competent persons have broad responsibilities that span both strategic and operational OSH domains. Their core functions include:
• Performing and documenting risk assessments in accordance with legal provisions;
• Advising employers on preventive and protective measures;
• Assisting in the development of internal OSH management systems, including policies and procedures;
• Participating in accident and incident investigations;
• Supporting the organisation in meeting reporting, training, and record-keeping obligations;
• Contributing to internal audits and inspections.
These professionals often collaborate closely with occupational health service providers, safety technicians, human resource managers, and line supervisors. In high-risk or technically complex environments, their work is essential for both prevention and compliance.
Depending on the size and risk profile of the workplace, employers may choose to:
• Employ internal OSH professionals with the appropriate certification;
• Contract external providers authorised to deliver professional safety services;
• Personally perform the role, provided they meet the required qualifications (applicable in low-risk workplaces only).
It is vital that competent persons operate independently, with unrestricted access to all relevant information and work areas. They must be able to act without undue influence and report directly to management on safety-related matters.
Failure to ensure that OSH tasks are performed by a professionally competent person constitutes a breach of duty and may result in administrative or legal consequences for the employer. Likewise, the competent person themselves is accountable to labour inspectorates and may face disciplinary actions or revocation of certification if they fail to meet the obligations set forth by law.
In conclusion, professionally competent persons serve as both advisors and enforcers of workplace safety protocols. Their expertise bridges the gap between legislation and practice, helping to establish a proactive safety culture, prevent accidents, and secure a legally compliant working environment.
5.2. Coordination and Organisation of OSH
Effective coordination and organisation are essential pillars of occupational safety and health (OSH) management within any organisation. OSH cannot function in isolation, it must be woven into every layer of organisational structure, from top-level leadership to operational execution on the shop floor. This integration ensures that responsibilities are clearly defined, communication is seamless, and safety becomes a shared value among all employees.
Organisational coordination of OSH refers to the systematic planning, delegation, and supervision of safety-related tasks across departments and job roles. It includes defining who does what, when,
and how in terms of identifying risks, implementing controls, conducting training, and responding to emergencies.
At the centre of coordination stands the employer, who bears ultimate responsibility for the establishment and maintenance of a functional OSH system. However, coordination often requires delegation to managers, line supervisors, safety technicians, and professionally competent persons, all of whom must collaborate to ensure a consistent and comprehensive approach to safety.
The coordination process involves several critical activities:
• Assignment of OSH responsibilities: Clear allocation of roles across departments and units, ensuring that each employee understands their specific safety duties.
• Establishment of communication channels: Regular meetings, briefings, and reports ensure that OSH concerns are raised, discussed, and resolved in a timely manner.
• Development of internal policies and procedures: These provide a structured framework for addressing hazards, reporting incidents, and managing risks consistently across the organisation.
• Integration with other management systems: OSH should not be a standalone function. It must be coordinated with quality, environmental, HR, and operational processes.
• Multilevel participation: In larger organisations, OSH committees may be established to coordinate safety measures between departments or geographic sites. These committees often include employee representatives.
Coordination also takes on special importance in organisations with complex structures or multiple employers working on the same site, such as construction projects or industrial zones. In these cases, the primary employer or project owner must ensure cross-organisational coordination. This may involve:
• Appointing a coordinator for OSH;
• Sharing safety plans and risk assessments;
• Establishing common safety protocols and emergency procedures;
• Ensuring mutual awareness of each party’s responsibilities and actions.
In accordance with Act No. 124/2006 Coll., employers must ensure that safety measures are consistently implemented and updated in response to changes in operations, equipment, personnel, or legislation. Failure to coordinate OSH efforts may result in regulatory breaches, increased risk of accidents, and loss of organisational control over safety.
Importantly, successful OSH coordination relies not only on formal processes, but also on fostering a safety culture, a shared commitment among leadership and workers to proactively prevent harm, communicate openly about hazards, and continuously improve safety systems.
In summary, coordinated organisation of OSH is not a one-time task but a continuous, dynamic process. It requires strategic planning, strong leadership, and engagement at all levels. When managed effectively, it becomes a cornerstone of both legal compliance and operational excellence.
5.3. Documentation and Record-Keeping
Systematic documentation and accurate record-keeping are vital components of an effective Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) management system. They not only support daily operations and continuous improvement but also serve as evidence of compliance with legal requirements under Act No. 124/2006 Coll. and other relevant legislation.
Proper OSH documentation ensures that all safety-related activities, from training and risk assessments to inspections and incident investigations, are planned, carried out, and traceable. This traceability is essential in the event of an inspection by authorities, a workplace incident, or a legal dispute.
Key Types of OSH Documentation
Organisations are required to maintain several types of OSH records, including but not limited to:
• Risk assessments and their periodic updates, including identification of hazards, evaluation of risks, and proposed control measures.
• Training records detailing dates, topics, attendance, trainers, and outcomes of both initial and recurrent OSH instruction.
• Records of work injuries, near-misses, occupational diseases, and other incidents, including investigation findings and remedial actions taken.
• Reports from internal audits, inspections, and preventive activities performed by Preventive and Protective Services (PPS).
• Certificates of medical fitness confirming employee eligibility for specific tasks based on health status and occupational exposure.
• Registers of technical equipment, particularly for those classified as hazardous or requiring scheduled inspections and testing.
• Minutes of OSH meetings, consultations with workers, and any correspondence related to workplace safety.
In addition to the above, employers must also keep documentation related to the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), emergency preparedness, and any cooperation with external OSH providers or health services.
Legal and Practical Requirements
Slovak law mandates that these records must be:
• Current and accurate – Regularly updated following changes in legislation, workplace procedures, equipment, or incidents;
• Accessible – Available to inspectors, employee representatives, and relevant stakeholders upon request;
• Secure and confidential – Particularly in cases involving personal or medical data;
• Retained for legally prescribed periods, which vary depending on the nature of the document (e.g., injury logs may require longer retention than training confirmations).
Digital systems are increasingly used for storing and managing OSH documentation. However, whether paper-based or electronic, the employer remains responsible for ensuring integrity, reliability, and retrievability of the data.
Role in Prevention and Compliance
Effective documentation is more than a legal obligation it is a tool for prevention. Through proper records, employers can:
• Detect recurring safety issues;
• Measure the effectiveness of interventions;
• Identify training gaps;
• Prepare better risk assessments;
• Monitor trends in workplace health and safety.
In case of a serious incident, documentation often plays a critical defensive role in demonstrating that the employer took reasonable and lawful steps to prevent harm.
The OSH documentation and record-keeping are not mere formalities. They are essential instruments of transparency, accountability, and continuous improvement. Well-organised safety records not only protect employees but also strengthen the resilience and legal standing of the organisation.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 5
5.1 Professionally Competent Persons
1. What are the legal qualifications required for a person to be recognised as professionally competent in OSH under Slovak law?
2. Describe the key responsibilities of professionally competent persons in the workplace.
3. Why is professional independence important for OSH professionals?
4. How do professionally competent persons contribute to workplace risk assessment and emergency planning?
5. In what ways do competent persons collaborate with labour inspectors and external institutions?
5.2 Coordination and Organisation of OSH
1. Explain why OSH cannot be managed effectively as the responsibility of a single person within an organisation.
2. What internal structures and procedures support coordinated OSH implementation in organisations?
3. How should OSH be integrated into corporate governance and strategic decision-making?
4. Discuss the challenges of coordinating OSH in multi-employer worksites.
5. What role do employee representatives play in the coordination of OSH?
5.3
Documentation
and Record-Keeping
1. Why is documentation considered both a legal requirement and a preventive tool in OSH management?
2. List at least five types of OSH records that employers are required to maintain.
3. What are the legal requirements regarding the accessibility and retention of OSH documentation?
4. How can proper record-keeping contribute to the defence of an employer in case of a workplace incident?
5. Explain the role of digital systems in modern OSH record-keeping. What are the potential benefits and risks?
6. HUMAN BEING IN THE WORK ENVIRONMENT
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to explore the complex interaction between the worker and the working environment, focusing on how occupational conditions influence physical health, mental wellbeing, and overall human performance. It addresses the evaluation of working conditions, the application of ergonomic principles, and the psychosocial impact of work. Emphasis is placed on creating environments that are not only safe but also human-centred and sustainable.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) understand the physiological and psychological impacts of work on the individual; (2) evaluate working conditions using recognised criteria and methodologies; (3) apply basic ergonomic principles in the design of workplaces and tasks; (4) identify risks to physical and mental health stemming from poorly adapted work environments; (5) promote human-centred work design to enhance health, safety, and productivity.
This chapter equips learners with the foundational knowledge necessary to recognise, assess, and improve the working conditions and environments in which people operate.
6.1. The Impact of Work on Health and Mental Wellbeing
Work plays a central role in human life, not only as a source of income but also as a contributor to identity, purpose, and social interaction. However, while work can offer many benefits, it also has the potential to negatively affect both physical health and mental wellbeing. Understanding these effects is essential for designing healthy and sustainable work environments.
Physical Health Impacts
The physical demands of work vary significantly across occupations, but many jobs involve exposure to hazards that can lead to acute or chronic health problems. These include:
• Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs): Often caused by repetitive motions, awkward postures, heavy lifting, or prolonged standing or sitting, MSDs are among the most common occupational health issues.
• Respiratory Conditions: Exposure to dust, fumes, vapours, and biological agents can result in occupational asthma, bronchitis, or more severe diseases such as pneumoconiosis.
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• Noise-Induced Hearing Loss: Prolonged exposure to excessive noise in sectors like construction, manufacturing, or transport can result in permanent hearing impairment.
• Skin Disorders and Allergies: Frequent contact with irritants or allergens, common in healthcare, cleaning, or food industries can lead to dermatitis and other dermatological conditions.
• Cardiovascular Strain: High-stress jobs, shift work, and sedentary lifestyles associated with modern work can increase the risk of heart disease and hypertension.
Psychosocial and Mental Health Impacts
The psychosocial dimension of work is equally important. Job stress, role ambiguity, lack of control, and interpersonal conflict can all affect psychological wellbeing. The following are commonly observed effects:
• Work-Related Stress: When job demands exceed the individual’s coping resources, prolonged stress can lead to emotional exhaustion, anxiety, depression, or burnout.
• Occupational Burnout: Particularly prevalent in service and caregiving professions, burnout results from chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors at work, leading to detachment, fatigue, and reduced professional efficacy.
• Sleep Disturbances: Shift work and irregular schedules can disrupt circadian rhythms, leading to sleep disorders and fatigue that affect both health and performance.
• Isolation and Alienation: Digitalisation and remote work, while offering flexibility, may also increase social isolation, reduce workplace cohesion, and contribute to mental distress.
• Job Insecurity: In a changing labour market, the fear of losing employment or underemployment is a major source of psychological strain.
Positive Aspects of Work
Not all effects are negative. Well-designed work can be a source of personal fulfilment, resilience, and wellbeing. Employment can:
• Provide structure, purpose, and a sense of achievement;
• Promote social inclusion and cooperation;
• Support self-esteem and personal development;
• Offer opportunities for skill-building and lifelong learning.
Vulnerable Groups
Some workers are more vulnerable to health effects due to age, gender, disability, or socioeconomic status. Young workers may lack experience, older workers may have pre-existing conditions, and women may face additional stressors related to dual roles or exposure to workplace harassment. Identifying and supporting these groups is an essential component of equitable workplace design.
Integrated Approach to Health and Work
A holistic view of occupational health must integrate both physical and mental health. This includes:
• Proactive health surveillance and risk assessment;
• Organisational interventions that promote work-life balance;
• Encouraging supportive leadership and team dynamics;
• Offering access to counselling and psychological services.
By understanding how work affects the human body and mind, organisations can move beyond basic compliance and develop comprehensive strategies to safeguard employee wellbeing. Investing in both physical and psychological health not only enhances quality of life but also improves productivity, retention, and workplace culture.
6.2. Working Conditions and Their Evaluation
Working conditions encompass the broad array of physical, organisational, and psychosocial factors that define the environment in which people perform their jobs. Evaluating these conditions is essential not only for ensuring compliance with occupational safety and health (OSH) legislation but also for fostering human dignity, wellbeing, and productivity at work.
Defining Working Conditions
Working conditions include all elements of the work environment that affect the employee's performance, health, and satisfaction. These typically cover:
• Physical Conditions: Workspace layout, temperature, lighting, ventilation, noise, vibration, exposure to hazardous substances, and ergonomic factors.
• Organisational Conditions: Work schedules, workload, job autonomy, clarity of tasks, supervision quality, and communication structures.
• Psychosocial Conditions: Interpersonal relationships, job security, level of control, recognition, and workplace culture.
Comprehensive evaluation requires consideration of both objective conditions (measurable environmental or procedural parameters) and subjective perceptions (employee experiences and satisfaction).
Legal Basis and Evaluation Obligations
Under Act No. 124/2006 Coll., employers are legally required to regularly assess and improve working conditions. This includes identifying harmful or hazardous factors and implementing preventive and corrective measures. The legislation mandates that employers:
• Evaluate risk factors affecting physical and mental health;
• Monitor environmental parameters, such as noise levels and air quality;
• Ensure compliance with hygiene, safety, and ergonomic standards;
• Adapt working conditions to suit the individual characteristics of employees, especially vulnerable groups (e.g., pregnant women, older workers).
Assessment must be documented and periodically reviewed, especially when changes occur in work technology, processes, or workforce composition.
Methodologies and Tools for Evaluation
Evaluation of working conditions involves both qualitative and quantitative methods. Commonly used tools and approaches include:
• Workplace Risk Assessment: A systematic review of potential hazards and risk levels, forming the basis for mitigation measures.
• Job Analysis: Describes the tasks, responsibilities, and physical/mental demands of a job.
• Checklists and Audit Protocols: Used to inspect compliance with legal and industryspecific standards.
• Environmental Monitoring: Instruments to measure temperature, humidity, lighting, noise, air quality, or vibration.
• Employee Surveys and Questionnaires: Capture worker perceptions of workload, job satisfaction, stress, and psychosocial risk
• Medical Surveillance and Health Monitoring: Help detect early signs of occupational diseases or strain.
Indicators of Poor Working Conditions
Some indicators signal the need for urgent intervention. These may include:
• High incidence of work-related injuries or absenteeism;
• Frequent complaints of fatigue, headaches, or musculoskeletal discomfort;
• Reports of bullying, harassment, or burnout;
• High staff turnover or low employee engagement;
• Non-compliance citations from inspections or audits.
In such cases, a deeper diagnostic analysis is often required to uncover root causes and formulate appropriate interventions.
Classification of Working Conditions
In practice, working conditions are often classified into categories that reflect the degree of health and safety risks. For instance:
• Acceptable Conditions: Meet legal and best-practice standards, presenting no significant risk
• Conditionally Acceptable: Present some risk, but acceptable with specified controls or protective measures.
National labour authorities may define these classifications based on occupational exposure limits, work schedules, or physical workloads.
Improving Working Conditions
Once problems are identified, employers should take proactive steps to improve conditions, such as:
• Adjusting job design and work/rest schedules;
• Upgrading equipment to reduce noise or vibration;
• Enhancing lighting and ventilation systems;
• Introducing health promotion programmes;
• Providing better personal protective equipment (PPE);
• Ensuring psychological support and stress management resources.
Interventions must be prioritised according to risk severity and legal requirements, and their effectiveness evaluated over time.
The evaluation of working conditions is a foundational activity in OSH management. It ensures that hazards are identified, risks are minimised, and employees are provided with a work environment that supports their physical and mental wellbeing. Systematic assessment not only promotes compliance and prevention but also contributes to higher job satisfaction, organisational performance, and employee retention.
6.3.
Ergonomic Principles
Ergonomics, also known as human factors, is the science of designing the work environment and tasks to fit the capabilities and limitations of workers. It plays a vital role in occupational safety and health (OSH) by reducing physical and mental strain, improving performance, and preventing injuries.
In the workplace, poorly designed tasks or environments can contribute to musculoskeletal disorders, fatigue, and mental stress. Conversely, applying ergonomic principles enhances productivity, employee satisfaction, and long-term health
Definition and Domains
Ergonomics covers multiple domains that intersect in the workplace:
• Cognitive ergonomics: Focuses on mental workload, decision-making, and information processing.
• Organisational ergonomics: Involves work schedules, communication flow, team coordination, and management structures.
Each of these domains contributes to a holistic approach that aims to align work systems with human needs and capabilities.
Importance of Ergonomics in OSH
Ergonomic design is central to accident prevention and performance optimisation. A failure to consider ergonomic factors can lead to:
• Lower back pain from poor seating or heavy lifting,
• Repetitive strain injuries from continuous keyboard use,
• Vision issues due to inadequate lighting or screen placement,
• Increased stress from poorly structured tasks or environments.
In contrast, ergonomically adapted workplaces:
• Support neutral postures and natural movement,
• Reduce unnecessary exertion and repetitive tasks,
• Enhance focus and reduce cognitive fatigue,
• Contribute to employee satisfaction and retention.
Core Principles of Ergonomic Design
Ergonomic interventions should follow core principles that align with OSH objectives:
• Design the task around the worker, rather than forcing the worker to adapt to the task.
• Minimise sustained static postures and encourage variability in movement.
• Position tools and materials within reach to reduce awkward movements and overextension.
• Support natural postures, especially for the back, neck, and wrists, to reduce the risk of musculoskeletal disorders.
• Ensure clarity and simplicity in controls, signage, and task instructions.
• Provide appropriate lighting and ventilation for comfort and safety.
These principles should be incorporated during workplace design or modification, as well as during job task development.
Practical Applications
The implementation of ergonomics varies by work setting:
In office environments, attention is given to adjustable chairs, screen height, desk layout, and prevention of sedentary strain. In industrial settings, lifting equipment, conveyor systems, and tool handles are designed to minimise physical stress. In healthcare and control room settings, cognitive ergonomics ensures that information displays are intuitive and response protocols are clear.
In each setting, employee input and feedback are crucial for effective ergonomic improvements.
Ergonomic Assessment Tools and Approaches
Evaluating ergonomic risks requires a combination of observation, measurement, and worker consultation. Common assessment tools include:
• RULA (Rapid Upper Limb Assessment),
• REBA (Rapid Entire Body Assessment),
• NIOSH Lifting Equation,
• Checklists and surveys assessing discomfort, posture, and workload.
These tools help identify areas for improvement, prioritise actions, and track progress.
Training and Worker Involvement
Ergonomics is most effective when employees are trained to recognise risk factors and suggest improvements. Training topics may include posture awareness, proper lifting techniques, and workstation adjustments.
Engaging workers in ergonomic assessments and solution development fosters ownership, encourages reporting of problems, and increases compliance with ergonomic guidelines.
Ergonomics is a key pillar of preventive workplace safety. By applying its principles, organisations not only fulfil legal and health obligations but also build work systems that support human dignity, efficiency, and well-being. Integrating ergonomics into everyday work processes leads to healthier employees, lower costs, and a stronger culture of safety.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 6
6.1 Impact of Work on Health and Mental Wellbeing
1. What are the main ways in which work can affect an individual's physical and mental health?
2. Describe common occupational diseases and their primary causes.
3. How can chronic stress at work lead to long-term psychological disorders?
4. What are some early warning signs of burnout or work-related mental strain?
5. How can organisations promote mental wellbeing in high-pressure environments?
6.2 Working Conditions and Their Evaluation
1. Define what is meant by “working conditions” and explain their components.
2. What methods and tools are commonly used to evaluate working conditions?
3. How does the assessment of physical conditions differ from the assessment of psychosocial factors?
4. What legal or regulatory standards must be considered when evaluating work environments?
5. Why is regular re-evaluation of working conditions important for occupational safety?
6.3 Ergonomic Principles
1. What is ergonomics and why is it essential in the context of occupational health and safety?
2. Differentiate between physical, cognitive, and organisational ergonomics.
3. List at least three ergonomic design principles and give examples of their application.
4. How do ergonomic adjustments in the workplace contribute to injury prevention?
5. What role do employees play in the successful implementation of ergonomic measures?
7. PRINCIPLES OF PREVENTION AND CONDITIONS FOR ENSURING OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to provide a thorough understanding of the fundamental principles of prevention and the essential organisational, technical, and procedural conditions required to ensure occupational safety and health. It introduces the concept of preventive culture, outlines the hierarchy of control measures, and explains how to integrate risk management into daily operations and long-term planning. This chapter emphasises the proactive nature of safety and explores how legal, ethical, and practical tools combine to prevent harm and promote wellbeing in the workplace.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) understand the general principles of prevention as outlined in EU and national OSH legislation; (2) apply the hierarchy of prevention measures to real-world work situations; (3) recognise the conditions that must be met for effective OSH management (including planning, resources, monitoring, and participation); (4) integrate prevention into organisational policy, risk assessment, and training procedures; (5) promote a culture of prevention and shared responsibility across all levels of a company.
This chapter equips learners with the strategic and operational tools needed to foster a preventive approach to workplace safety and health that goes beyond compliance and aims at continuous improvement.
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7.1. The General Principles of Prevention
The concept of prevention is the cornerstone of modern occupational safety and health (OSH) practice. It goes beyond reactive measures and instead promotes a proactive approach to identifying, evaluating, and controlling risks before they lead to harm. The General Principles of Prevention, as defined in Article 6(2) of Directive 89/391/EEC (and adopted into Slovak law under Act No. 124/2006 Coll., §5), serve as a systematic framework for employers and safety professionals to manage workplace hazards effectively and ethically.
These principles are not merely theoretical guideline, they are legally binding obligations for employers and form the foundation of all OSH strategies and management systems across the European Union. Their hierarchical application ensures that more effective, collective and longterm solutions are prioritised over less effective, temporary, or individual-level actions.
The
Nine General Principles of Prevention
1. Avoiding Risks
The first and most effective principle is to completely eliminate risks wherever possible. This means designing out hazards in the planning phase for example, replacing dangerous machinery with inherently safe alternatives or avoiding hazardous processes altogether.
2. Evaluating the Risks That Cannot Be Avoided
Where elimination is not feasible, the employer must assess all remaining risks. This includes analysing how and why harm could occur and evaluating the likelihood and severity of potential incidents.
3. Combating Risks at Source
Risks should be addressed where they arise. For example, if a machine produces excessive noise, the solution should not be limited to providing ear protection but should also consider engineering controls like soundproofing or maintenance.
4. Adapting the Work to the Individual
This principle calls for consideration of workers' capabilities and limitations, especially regarding workplace design, working methods, and equipment. It also includes efforts to reduce repetitive or monotonous tasks and adjust workloads to avoid overstrain.
5. Adapting to Technical Progress
Employers must stay informed about new technologies and methods that can improve OSH Incorporating modern safety innovations such as automation, sensor technologies, or ergonomic designs can significantly reduce risks.
6. Replacing the Dangerous by the Non-Dangerous or the Less Dangerous
Whenever possible, employers should substitute hazardous substances or procedures with safer alternatives. This applies to chemicals, materials, tools, and methods that can reduce exposure and long-term health risks.
7. Developing a Coherent Overall Prevention Policy
OSH measures must not be isolated actions. Instead, they should be part of a structured, companywide policy that integrates technology, organisation of work, working conditions, social relationships, and human factors into a unified prevention strategy.
8. Giving Collective Protective Measures Priority over Individual Protective Measures
Group-level solutions (e.g. machine guarding, ventilation systems) are more effective and reliable than relying solely on personal protective equipment (PPE), which depends on individual compliance.
9. Giving Appropriate Instructions to the Workers
Workers must be adequately informed and trained to understand risks and follow safe practices. Instructions should be clear, accessible, and tailored to the specific tasks, roles, and environments involved.
Practical Application of the Principles
These principles are meant to be applied in a dynamic and cyclical manner throughout all phases of work, from design and planning to execution and review. In practice, this means:
• Integrating prevention into risk assessments, workplace design, and operational planning;
• Developing safe systems of work, safety policies, and procedural controls;
• Engaging workers and their representatives in safety planning and decision-making;
• Continually updating practices in light of new risks, incidents, or technological progress
Employers who apply these principles consistently not only meet legal obligations but also benefit from improved productivity, reduced injury rates, and enhanced organisational culture.
7.2. The Hierarchy of Preventive Measures
A preventive culture in occupational safety and health (OSH) is more than a set of procedures or legal obligations, it is a shared mindset and approach embedded throughout the organisation. It reflects how people think about safety, how they behave, and how leadership sets priorities in daily operations. At its core, preventive culture is about proactively avoiding harm before it occurs, rather than merely reacting to accidents and incidents.
Creating such a culture starts with leadership. Leaders, whether senior executives or frontline supervisors, set the tone for safety. Their actions, decisions, and commitment directly influence how OSH is perceived and practiced within the organisation. When leaders treat safety as a core value, not just a compliance issue, it encourages every worker to adopt the same mindset.
Key leadership responsibilities in building a preventive culture include:
• Demonstrating commitment through visible actions, participating in safety training, attending briefings, and complying with safety procedures;
• Allocating adequate resources to OSH, including staffing, training, and equipment;
• Establishing clear safety policies and integrating them into overall management systems;
• Encouraging open communication so that employees feel safe reporting hazards or concerns without fear of punishment;
• Leading by example, which sends a powerful message that safety is a shared priority and everyone is accountable.
Leadership must also ensure that safety responsibilities are clearly defined and distributed across all levels of the organisation. This includes empowering safety professionals, line managers, and employee representatives to take active roles in prevention planning and risk management.
A successful preventive culture relies on employee involvement, which means engaging workers not only as rule-followers but as contributors to solutions.
Characteristics of a strong preventive culture include:
• Awareness: Everyone in the organisation understands the risks and their role in controlling them.
• Responsibility: Individuals take personal ownership of safety, beyond minimal legal compliance.
• Learning: Incidents and near-misses are seen as opportunities to improve, not assign blame.
• Transparency: Mistakes or concerns are openly discussed and addressed.
• Continuous improvement: Safety systems are reviewed regularly and refined based on experience and feedback.
Preventive culture is particularly important in high-risk sectors such as construction, manufacturing, mining, and healthcare. However, it is just as relevant in offices, schools, and public institutions. No workplace is free from risk, and all benefit from a culture that actively works to reduce it.
Over time, a mature preventive culture leads to measurable outcomes: fewer accidents, stronger compliance, higher employee satisfaction, and improved productivity. It becomes self-reinforcing, as safe practices become habitual and part of the organisational identity.
In summary, leadership drives preventive culture by modelling behaviour, enabling participation, and embedding safety into the strategic and operational core of the organisation. Without leadership commitment, preventive efforts often fail to gain traction. With it, safety becomes a lived value, present in every decision, every action, every day.
The Hierarchy of Preventive Measures is a structured approach to controlling workplace hazards and reducing occupational risks. It is embedded in European and Slovak OSH legislation, notably Directive 89/391/EEC and Act No. 124/2006 Coll., and directly supports the implementation of the General Principles of Prevention
Rather than relying on any single control strategy, this hierarchy provides a prioritised sequence of actions that employers must follow when identifying and mitigating risks. The goal is to apply the most effective methods first, those that eliminate hazards altogether or control them at their source, before resorting to measures that rely on individual behaviour.
Levels of the Hierarchy
1. Elimination
The most effective strategy is to completely remove the hazard. This could mean discontinuing a dangerous process, phasing out the use of hazardous chemicals, or redesigning work to exclude risk entirely. Elimination prevents exposure altogether and therefore offers the highest level of protection.
2. Substitution
If elimination is not feasible, the next priority is to replace the hazard with something less dangerous. For example:
o Replacing a solvent-based paint with a water-based alternative;
o Using a safer machine with built-in safety features;
o Substituting manual handling with mechanical lifting aids.
3. Engineering Controls
These involve designing physical changes to the workplace or equipment that isolate workers from hazards. Examples include:
o Machine guarding;
o Local exhaust ventilation systems for dust or fumes;
o Noise enclosures or acoustic insulation;
o Automated systems to remove workers from direct exposure.
4. Administrative Controls
These are procedural changes that reduce the duration, frequency, or intensity of exposure to hazards. While less effective than engineering solutions, they still play an essential role. Examples include:
o Rotating workers to limit exposure time;
o Developing safe operating procedures;
o Establishing permit-to-work systems;
o Organising tasks to avoid high-risk conditions (e.g. avoiding hot work during high temperatures).
5. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
PPE is considered the last line of defence. It includes helmets, gloves, eye protection, respiratory devices, and hearing protection. PPE should only be used when higher-level controls are not practical or as a supplementary measure. Its effectiveness depends heavily on:
o Proper selection based on task-specific risk;
o Correct fitting, use, and maintenance;
o Worker training and compliance.
Application in the Workplace
Employers are legally obligated to follow this hierarchy when addressing workplace hazards. The process typically unfolds through:
• A comprehensive risk assessment to identify all hazards;
• Evaluation of whether the hazard can be eliminated or substituted;
• Designing and implementing engineering or administrative controls;
• Providing PPE only where necessary, never as the first or only solution. For example, in a workshop where grinding produces harmful dust:
• The employer should first consider eliminating the task (e.g., outsourcing to a safer facility);
• If not, substituting a less harmful material or method;
• Then, install ventilation or extraction systems (engineering controls);
• Set time limits on worker exposure and ensure regular cleaning (administrative controls);
• Finally, issue respiratory protection equipment, if needed.
Legal and Ethical Considerations
Applying the hierarchy is not only a legal obligation but also an ethical commitment to prioritise worker safety. Employers who bypass higher-level controls and rely solely on PPE may be considered non-compliant or negligent, especially in the event of an accident
Moreover, labour inspectors and courts frequently assess whether this hierarchy was properly observed when determining employer liability in workplace incidents.
7.3. Creating Conditions for Effective Prevention
Turning the general principles of prevention into real-world practices is the cornerstone of an effective occupational safety and health (OSH) system. While laws and policies provide the framework, it is in everyday workplace actions and routines that prevention truly manifests. Preventive measures should be proactive, systematic, and tailored to the specific risks and operations of each organisation.
The implementation of preventive measures begins with a thorough risk assessment. Based on identified hazards and their associated risks, employers and safety professionals determine what actions are necessary to eliminate or reduce those risks to an acceptable level. These actions must be prioritised in line with the hierarchy of controls, a well-established system that ranks safety interventions from most to least effective:
1. Elimination – Physically removing the hazard is always the most effective measure.
2. Substitution – Replacing a dangerous process or substance with a safer one.
3. Engineering Controls – Isolating people from the hazard using physical means, such as guards or ventilation systems.
4. Administrative Controls – Changing the way people work, such as through policies, schedules, or procedures.
5. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – Using equipment like gloves, helmets, or hearing protection as the last line of defence. While elimination and substitution are the most desirable, they are not always feasible. In such cases, a combination of engineering, administrative, and PPE controls may be required. The key is
to ensure that chosen measures are appropriate to the risk, legally compliant, and practical for implementation.
Examples of Preventive Measures in Different Work Environments
• In an office: regular ergonomic assessments, proper screen brightness, adjustable chairs, and scheduled screen breaks.
• In construction: clearly marked walkways, fall protection systems, scaffolding inspections, and safety briefings before shifts.
• In manufacturing: machine guarding, lockout/tagout procedures, noise level monitoring, and training on chemical handling.
• In healthcare: safe needle disposal systems, infection control protocols, and regular hygiene audits.
Preventive measures must also be documented and reviewed periodically. Employers should develop safety plans and standard operating procedures (SOPs) that reflect current hazards and mitigation strategies. These should be integrated into the company’s internal policies and accessible to all employees.
Effective Implementation Requires
• Clear assignment of responsibilities: Everyone, from top management to line workers, should know their roles in prevention
• Adequate resources: Time, personnel, and budget allocations must be aligned with OSH priorities.
• Training and competence: Employees need the knowledge and skills to implement measures effectively.
• Monitoring and follow-up: Preventive measures must be reviewed for effectiveness and improved as necessary.
Prevention in practice also benefits from worker engagement. Employees who are involved in identifying problems and suggesting solutions are more likely to adopt and adhere to preventive measures. This participatory approach not only improves safety outcomes but also contributes to a culture of mutual trust and responsibility
In essence, preventive measures are the tangible expressions of OSH strategy. When systematically planned, appropriately selected, and effectively implemented, they minimise risk, prevent harm, and reinforce a safety-first mindset across all levels of an organisation.
Systematic Prevention as a Management Priority
Modern OSH management systems, such as those defined by ISO 45001:2018 and embedded in Slovak legislation (e.g. Act No. 124/2006 Coll.), require that preventive strategies be integrated into planning, decision-making, and operations. This involves:
• Setting clear prevention-oriented objectives aligned with the organisation’s overall mission;
• Embedding risk identification and control into all stages of activity, from procurement to task execution;
• Ensuring regular monitoring and auditing of the effectiveness of implemented measures;
• Using prevention as a basis for continuous improvement
Rather than acting only after incidents occur, organisations must build systems that anticipate risks and prevent harm before it happens.
Key Components of Integration
1. Leadership and Commitment
Top management must visibly prioritise prevention. This means dedicating resources, participating in OSH planning, and promoting a safety culture that values prevention over reaction.
2. Policy and Planning
An OSH policy should define prevention as a central principle. Risk-based planning must ensure that:
o Hazards are systematically identified and assessed;
o The Hierarchy of Preventive Measures is applied;
o Preventive actions are prioritised and allocated clear responsibilities.
3. Participation of Workers
Employees must be actively involved in identifying risks, proposing preventive measures, and evaluating effectiveness. Their insight is vital for practical, context-aware solutions.
4. Training and Competence Development
Prevention requires knowledge. Employees and supervisors should be trained not only in procedures but also in the why and how of preventive strategies.
5. Operational Controls
Day-to-day operations must incorporate preventive measures through:
o Safe work procedures;
o Maintenance schedules;
o Safety instructions and signage;
o Permits-to-work and authorisation systems.
6. Monitoring, Evaluation, and Improvement
Performance indicators, audits, and feedback loops ensure that preventive actions are working. Failures, near misses, or recurring issues must trigger corrective and preventive actions (CAPA).
Benefits of Integration
By embedding prevention into the OSH management system, organisations gain multiple benefits:
• Reduced incidence of accidents and illnesses, leading to fewer disruptions and costs;
• Improved employee morale and sense of security;
• Enhanced legal compliance and reduced risk of penalties;
• A foundation for sustainable performance and organisational resilience
Challenges and Considerations
Despite the clear advantages, integration is not without challenges. These may include:
• Resistance to change from employees or middle management;
• Insufficient allocation of resources or training;
• Lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities;
• Inconsistent communication across departments.
These barriers can be addressed through strong leadership, well-defined procedures, and open communication that reinforces prevention as a shared organisational value
7.4. Integrating Prevention into Organisational Practice
Translating the general principles of prevention into day-to-day safety practices is essential for creating safe, healthy, and efficient workplaces. These principles, although broad in their formulation, must be operationalised through concrete actions that are tailored to specific occupational risks, technologies, and organisational structures.
Implementing preventive strategies begins with a systematic assessment of the working environment. Employers must identify hazards, assess risks, and develop targeted actions to eliminate or reduce them. This is typically done through structured tools like checklists, job hazard analyses, and standardised risk assessment methodologies. Once the risks are evaluated, measures are selected based on the hierarchy of control a model that prioritises elimination of the hazard, followed by substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls, and finally, the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) as the last resort.
A successful preventive approach relies not only on technical solutions but also on clearly assigning responsibilities, effective communication, and ongoing consultation with employees. Competent persons and safety coordinators play a key role in implementing and monitoring these strategies. Every preventive action must be documented, regularly reviewed, and adjusted when new risks arise or existing measures prove insufficient.
Practical Examples of Preventive Measures
Preventive measures must reflect the nature of the risk involved. For example:
• For physical hazards like noise or vibration, technical interventions may include installing insulation, using dampening materials, or limiting exposure time through task rotation.
• In environments with chemical risks, substituting hazardous substances with safer alternatives, ensuring proper ventilation, and providing chemical-specific PPE are standard preventive steps.
• In managing biological risks, hygiene protocols, vaccination programmes, and isolation procedures help prevent the spread of infections.
• Ergonomic risks can be reduced through well-designed workstations, mechanical aids for lifting, and the rotation of tasks to prevent repetitive strain injuries
• Psychosocial risks require a different set of interventions, such as promoting a supportive organisational culture, offering stress management support, and implementing antiharassment policies.
Preventive strategies also differ by sector. In construction, measures such as collective fall protection systems, daily safety briefings, and coordination between subcontractors are essential. In manufacturing, practices like machine guarding, lockout/tagout procedures, and automation of hazardous tasks are common. The healthcare sector focuses on safe handling of sharps, infection control, and ergonomic patient handling. Even in office environments, preventive action may include improving ergonomics, ensuring adequate lighting, and offering mental health resources.
Despite best intentions, organisations often face implementation challenges such as limited budgets, inadequate training, lack of leadership engagement, or resistance to change. These can be mitigated through strong management commitment, inclusive safety culture, and the active involvement of employees in risk identification and problem-solving.
The prevention in OSH is not a one-time effort but a continuous process. It must be integrated into every stage of the work cycle, from planning and design to execution and evaluation. Effective preventive strategies not only protect lives but also contribute to productivity, trust, and organisational sustainability.
7.5. Culture of Prevention
While policies, procedures, and risk assessments form the structural backbone of occupational safety and health (OSH), true prevention becomes effective only when it is embedded in the organisational culture. A strong safety culture ensures that preventive thinking is not limited to compliance but becomes a shared value, influencing attitudes, behaviours, and everyday decisions.
Building a prevention-oriented culture begins at the top. Leadership commitment is essential managers must not only communicate the importance of OSH but also demonstrate it through consistent actions, resource allocation, and visible support for safety initiatives. When safety is prioritised by leadership, it sets a precedent for the rest of the organisation.
To integrate prevention into the fabric of an organisation, several dimensions must be addressed:
• Awareness and Education: Employees must understand not only the "what" but also the "why" of safety procedures. Regular training, induction sessions, toolbox talks, and informal peer learning foster continuous awareness.
• Employee Participation: Prevention is most effective when workers are actively involved in shaping safety practices. This includes participation in risk assessments, safety committees, and incident investigations. Empowering workers to report near-misses or unsafe conditions without fear of reprisal is essential.
• Communication and Feedback: An open and transparent communication system allows safety information to flow in all directions, top-down, bottom-up, and laterally. Safety bulletins, digital dashboards, suggestion boxes, and open-door policies help ensure that feedback leads to action.
• Recognition and Reinforcement: Acknowledging and rewarding safe behaviour reinforces desired practices. Whether through formal programmes or informal praise, recognition helps embed prevention into organisational identity.
• Learning Orientation: A prevention culture is inherently proactive. Organisations should view incidents, even near-misses, as learning opportunities rather than assigning blame. Lessons learned must translate into improved procedures and awareness.
Key Practices That Support Cultural Integration
• Aligning OSH goals with the company’s broader mission and performance indicators;
• Appointing safety champions or ambassadors across departments;
• Using storytelling and case studies to personalise safety messages;
• Including OSH in regular performance reviews and strategic planning;
• Incorporating safety observations into daily routines and meetings;
• Promoting psychological safety so employees feel confident to speak up.
A mature prevention culture is marked by mutual trust, shared responsibility, and a focus on continuous improvement. It moves beyond basic compliance and engages all employees in a collective commitment to workplace health and safety.
Integrating prevention into organisational culture is not a checklist, it is a dynamic, ongoing process. It requires leadership, participation, and a willingness to learn and evolve. When prevention becomes part of “how we do things around here,” it results in fewer incidents, greater employee satisfaction, and stronger organisational resilience.
7.6. Integration of OSH into Organisational Strategy
The integration of Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) into an organisation’s overall strategy is essential for establishing a systematic, sustainable approach to workplace risk management. Rather than treating OSH as a standalone or compliance-driven function, forward-thinking organisations embed it into their strategic and operational frameworks. This alignment enhances both safety outcomes and business performance.
A strategic approach to OSH means considering health and safety from the earliest stages of planning and decision-making. When organisations treat OSH as a core value, on par with productivity, quality, or financial results they create conditions where prevention becomes proactive, not reactive.
Why Strategic Integration Matters
• It aligns safety with organisational goals, ensuring that safety performance is measured and managed alongside other key indicators.
• It reinforces leadership commitment, visibly linking safety objectives with corporate mission and values.
• It supports long-term planning, including workforce development, investment in safe technologies, and risk mitigation.
• It enables better resource allocation, ensuring OSH is adequately funded and prioritised.
• It improves resilience, especially in times of crisis or organisational change.
Practical Examples of Integration
Strategic integration may take many forms, including:
• Embedding OSH performance metrics into corporate scorecards and management reviews.
• Requiring risk assessments and safety planning during the design phase of new projects, buildings, or processes.
• Including OSH as a criterion in procurement policies, choosing suppliers based on their safety performance.
• Designing incentive structures that reward not just output, but safe work practices.
• Training managers to consider the health and wellbeing of workers in all decisions, especially when introducing new technologies or work arrangements.
Organisational Levels of Integration
OSH should be integrated at all levels of the organisation:
• Strategic level: OSH is part of the corporate mission and long-term vision; safety goals are defined at board or executive level.
• Tactical level: Departments and business units align their plans with OSH policies and assign safety responsibilities.
• Operational level: Daily practices, workflows, and task instructions reflect risk controls and prevention principles.
This multi-level integration ensures that safety is not the sole responsibility of one department, but a shared commitment across all functions from finance and HR to maintenance and logistics.
OSH and Corporate Social Responsibility
OSH integration also supports broader initiatives like Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and sustainability reporting. Demonstrating a commitment to worker health and safety enhances the organisation’s reputation, reduces absenteeism and turnover, and builds trust with stakeholders.
Increasingly, international standards and frameworks, such as ISO 45001, ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance) criteria, and UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), highlight the strategic importance of OSH. Organisations that align with these frameworks strengthen their competitiveness and compliance in global markets.
In conclusion, integrating OSH into the organisational strategy is not just a regulatory necessity, it is a driver of excellence. By embedding safety and health into every facet of organisational life, employers create safer, more productive, and more sustainable workplaces.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 7
General Principles of Prevention
1. What is the legal foundation for the nine General Principles of Prevention in the EU?
2. How does the hierarchy of controls reflect the general prevention principles?
3. Explain the principle of "combating risks at source" with a practical example.
4. Why is adapting the workplace to the individual considered a preventive approach?
5. How can technical progress contribute to improving occupational safety?
Preventive Strategies and Management Systems
1. What is the purpose of an OSH management system, and how does it support prevention?
2. How does the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle relate to continuous improvement in OSH?
3. What are some examples of proactive (vs. reactive) prevention strategies in the workplace?
4. What role does worker participation play in the success of prevention measures?
5. How do organisational structures influence the implementation of OSH measures?
Resources and Economic Considerations
1. Why is it important to allocate adequate financial and human resources to OSH?
2. How can investing in prevention reduce long-term costs for employers?
3. What economic benefits arise from creating a strong safety culture?
4. How do cost-benefit analyses support decisions about OSH interventions?
5. What are examples of indirect costs resulting from poor workplace safety?
Human and Cultural Factors
1. What is meant by a "culture of prevention" in occupational safety and health?
2. How can leadership influence the development of a positive safety culture?
3. In what ways do education and training contribute to preventive behaviour?
4. How can psychological and behavioural factors enhance or hinder OSH efforts?
5. What indicators suggest that a workplace has successfully integrated prevention into its operations?
8. WORKPLACE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to examine the physical, chemical, biological, and psychosocial factors present in the working environment that may influence workers’ health, safety, and productivity. By understanding these factors and their interactions, students will learn how to evaluate workplace conditions, identify potential hazards, and implement appropriate control measures in accordance with occupational safety and health (OSH) legislation and best practices.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) identify the main types of environmental hazardous factors in the workplace; (2) understand the mechanisms through which these factors affect human health and safety; (3) apply appropriate methods for assessing environmental hazards; (4) propose suitable prevention and control strategies;
This chapter enables learners to appreciate the complex nature of occupational environments and to contribute to creating safer, healthier, and more sustainable workplaces.
(Image produced by ChatGPT 40 based on content definition)
8.1. Hazardous work
Hazardous work is work in which there is an increased risk of occupational disease, occupational poisoning or other work-related damage to health
Details on work and working environment factors in relation to the categorisation of work in terms of health risks and the details of the proposal for the categorisation of work are regulated by Decree of the Ministry of Health of the Slovak Republic No. 448/2007 Coll.
The Decree, inter alia, also provides details of individual factors of work and the working environment according to the categorisation of work.
The first category includes work where there is no risk of damage to the employee's health due to the work and the working environment.
The second category shall cover work in which there is no risk of damage to health, in particular:
• work in which the factors of work and the working environment do not exceed the limits laid down by special regulations,
• work where the occupational risk factor is ionising radiation, provided that the construction, technical and organisational measures ensure that the exposure of workers does not exceed the exposure limits laid down in a special regulation, even in the case of prolonged exposure.
The following shall be classified in the third category:
• work where the exposure of the worker to occupational and work environment factors is not reduced by technical measures to the level of the limit laid down and organisational measures and other specific protective measures, including the use of personal protective equipment, are necessary to reduce the risk,
• work where the worker's exposure to factors of work and the working environment is reduced by technical measures to the level of the prescribed limit, but where the combination and interaction of factors of work and the working environment may be detrimental to health,
• work for which no limits are laid down but exposure to factors of work and the working environment may cause damage to the health of the worker,
• work carried out in a controlled zone where, due to the level and variability of radiation parameters, the use of personal protective equipment and additional technical, organisational or other specific protective measures are necessary to limit the exposure of workers to the level of the exposure limits.
Only exceptionally for a limited period of time, not exceeding one year, the following shall be included in the fourth category:
• work in which it is not possible to reduce the employee's exposure to work and work environment factors to the level of the established limits by technical or organisational measures, exposure to work and work environment factors exceeds the limits, health changes of the employees are detected in relation to the acting factors and it is necessary to implement technical measures and other specific protective measures, including the use of personal protective equipment,
• work which, according to the degree of exposure to individual work and work environment factors, falls into the third category, but the combination of work and work environment factors increases the risk of damage to health,
• work carried out in activities leading to exposure to radiation where the exposure of workers exceeds the exposure limits and such exposure has been positively assessed by the Public Health Authority.
The proposal for classification of work in the third and fourth categories shall include the following information:
• employer and the workplace:
o business name, legal form, registered office and identification number (ID number) if it is a legal person,
o name, surname, residence and registration number if it is a natural person-entrepreneur,
o legal form, classification according to the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities,
o name of the workplace,
o number of employees of the employer, including the number of women,
o number of employees at the workplace, including the number of women,
o name of occupation according to the occupational classification, occupation code,
o job description,
• factors of work and working environment:
o risk assessment indicating the exposure of employees to each factor of work and the working environment in relation to limit values and criteria,
o category of work,
o workplace that carried out the objectification of the work factors and the working environment,
• measures (technical, organisational and other) to reduce health risks:
o implemented,
o planned, including a timetable,
• provision of health surveillance at the workplace:
o occupational health service (name, registered office, registration number).
The monitoring of hazardous work is important, especially for the prevention of occupational diseases.
Technical, organisational and other protective measures, including the use of personal protective equipment, should be taken to reduce the risk
The employer's obligations under the Act of the National Assembly of the Slovak Republic No. 355/2007 Coll. [51] on the protection, promotion and development of public health and on the amendment and supplementation of certain acts, Section 31(7) are:
• to notify the Regional Public Health Office (RUVZ) of any change in the conditions of work that could affect its classification in the relevant category,
• keep and maintain a record of every employee who performs hazardous work,
• draw up and submit annually, by 31 December, to the Public Health Inspectorate, information on the results of the health risk assessment and the measures taken to reduce or eliminate health risks in workplaces where employees carry out hazardous work.
The following is a more detailed categorisation of the work according to the different factors.
Physical factors are significant risk factors in the working environment. Their riskiness depends on the type of energy applied, its intensity, duration and frequency. Most of these factors significantly affect the human senses, however, they significantly stimulate the nervous system, especially the higher nervous functions. Among the most frequent are: noise, ultrasound and vibration; microclimatic conditions (temperature, humidity, air velocity, thermal-humidity microclimate, barometric pressure, air ionization); solid aerosols, lighting; radiation (ionizing, nonionizing).
8.2. Solid aerosols (dust) factor
• Category II
The following work is included in this category:
1. work where the exposure of employees is greater than 0,3 times the maximum permissible exposure limit for the type of solid aerosol concerned, but does not exceed the maximum permissible exposure limit,
2. work for which the conclusions of the risk assessment do not foresee an increased level of health risk from specific exposure to the solid aerosol.
• Category III
This category includes:
1. work where the exposure of workers is predicted to be greater than the maximum permissible exposure limit, but does not exceed 2 times the maximum permissible exposure limit,
2. work where the body's response indicates possible specific exposure to a solid aerosol,
3. work for which the conclusions of the risk assessment suggest an increased level of health risk from specific exposure to a particulate aerosol.
• Category IV
This category includes:
1. work where the exposure of employees is greater than 2 times the maximum permissible exposure limit,
2. work where the exposure of employees meets the criteria of Category III and where changes in health status are detected in employees in relation to exposure to particulate aerosol.
8.3. Noise factor
• Category II
This category includes:
1. Work where the upper noise exposure action values are not exceeded but the standardised noise exposure level is greater than 75 dB or the peak sound pressure level is greater than 130 dB,
2. jobs with irregular working hours or where the noise exposure varies during the week and where the weekly average of the daily values of the normalised noise exposure level over a 40-hour week exceeds 75 dB, but does not exceed the upper exposure action value.
• Category III
This category includes:
1. Work where the upper noise exposure action values are exceeded but the exceedance of the normalised noise exposure level is less than 10 dB or the exceedance of the peak sound pressure level is less than 3 dB,
2. jobs where the working time is irregular or where the noise exposure varies during the week and the weekly average of the daily values of the normalised noise exposure level over a 40-hour week exceeds the upper exposure action value.
• Category IV Includes:
1. Work where the upper noise exposure action values are exceeded and the exceedance of the standardised noise exposure level is 10 dB or more or the exceedance of the peak sound pressure level is 3 dB or more,
2. work where the normalised noise exposure level or the peak sound pressure level meets the criteria of category III and where workers are also found to have hearing changes in relation to noise exposure.
8.4. Vibration factor
• Category II
This category includes work where the vibration exposure action values are not exceeded but the normalised vibration acceleration values exceed 0,5 times the vibration exposure action values.
• Category III
Contains:
1. Work where the vibration exposure action values are exceeded but the normalised vibration acceleration values do not exceed 1,5 times the vibration exposure action values,
2. work where the value of the standardised vibration acceleration meets the criteria of category 2, but where other work or work environment factors (in particular prolonged, excessive and one-sided loading, cold, humidity) are also present,
3. work where the body's response indicates a specific vibration action.
• Category IV
Includes:
1. Work where the values of the standardised vibration acceleration exceed 1,5 times the vibration exposure action values.
2. Work where the value of the standardised vibration acceleration meets the criteria of category 3, but where other work or work environment factors (in particular prolonged, excessive and unilateral loading, cold, humidity) are present at the same time.
3. Work where the standardised vibration acceleration value meets the criteria of category 3 and, at the same time, changes in the health status of the workers are detected in relation to the exposure to vibration.
8.5. Chemical factors
Chemical elements or compounds that may be part of the mixture, occur in the natural state or are produced, used or released in any way, including from waste, whether intentionally produced or placed on the market. The risk of these factors in the working environment is high as the number and variety of new chemical substances and preparations increases. Hazardous chemical agents include in particular the following substances and preparations: explosive, oxidizing; extremely flammable, highly flammable, flammable; very toxic, poisonous, harmful, corrosive, irritant, sensitizing, carcinogenic, mutagenic; substances and preparations impairing reproduction; substances and preparations hazardous to the environment.
• Category II
Includes:
1. Work where the exposure of employees is greater than 0,3 times the average maximum permissible exposure limit for the chemical factor but does not exceed the average maximum permissible exposure limit.
2. work involving simultaneous exposure to multiple chemical agents whose mutual effects can be summed if the sum of the ratios of the measured average values of the individual chemical agents and their average maximum permissible exposure limits is less than or equal to 1.
3. Work for which the conclusions of the risk assessment do not predict an increased level of health risk from specific exposure to chemical agents.
• Category III
Includes:
1. Work where employee exposure is predicted to be greater than the average maximum permissible exposure limit, but does not exceed 2 times the average maximum permissible exposure limit.
2. Work involving the simultaneous exposure to multiple chemical agents, the effects of which can be added together, if the sum of the ratios of the measured average values of the individual chemical agents and their average maximum permissible exposure limits is expected to be greater than 1 and less than or equal to 3.
3. Work for which the conclusions of the risk assessment assume an increased level of health risk from specific exposure to chemical agents.
4. Work where the body's response indicates specific exposure to chemical agents.
• Category IV
Includes:
1. Work where the exposure of employees is predicted to be greater than 2 times the average maximum permissible exposure limit (accidents, emergencies).
2. Work involving simultaneous exposure to multiple chemical agents whose mutual effects can be summed if the sum of the ratios of the measured average values of the individual chemical agents and their average maximum permissible exposure limits is expected to be greater than 3.
3. Work where the exposure of employees meets the criteria of category III and where changes in the health status of the employees in relation to exposure to the chemical agents are also detected.
8.6. Carcinogens and mutagens
• Category II
Contains:
1. Work in which employees are exposed to carcinogenic or mutagenic factors and the technical guideline value, if established, is not exceeded.
2. Work for which the conclusions of the risk assessment do not foresee an increased level of health risk from specific exposure to carcinogenic and mutagenic factors.
• Category III
This category covers work in which employees are exposed to carcinogenic or mutagenic factors and where the exposure is not expected to exceed 1,5 times the technical guideline value. work for which the conclusions of the risk assessment assume an increased level of health risk from specific exposure to carcinogenic and mutagenic factors.
• Category IV Contains:
3. Work where employees are exposed to carcinogenic or mutagenic factors and where exposure is predicted to exceed 1.5 times the technical guideline value.
4. Work where employees are exposed to carcinogenic or mutagenic agents and the exposure meets the criteria of category 3, but the body's response indicates specific exposure to carcinogenic and mutagenic agents.
8.7. Factors causing occupational skin diseases
• Category II
Includes work involving skin sensitising factors.
• Category III
This category includes work where strong skin sensitising factors, irritants or acnegenic factors are present and direct contact with the employee's skin cannot be ruled out for the type of work in question.
• Category IV
Consists of work in which the factors listed in category 3 are present but other factors are present which increase their effects (in particular heat stress, ultraviolet radiation) and employees are found to have skin diseases in relation to the factors present.
8.8. Electromagnetic radiation
• Category II
Includes work in which the exposure of employees is greater than 0,3 times the action value for exposure to electromagnetic radiation but does not exceed the action value for exposure to electromagnetic radiation.
• Category III
Contains work where the exposure of employees is greater than the action value for exposure to electromagnetic radiation.
• Category IV
Not specified.
8.9. Optical radiation – Ultraviolet radiation
• Category II
Includes work where the exposure of workers is greater than 0,3 times the exposure limit value for ultraviolet radiation but does not exceed the exposure limit value for ultraviolet radiation.
• Category III
Contains work where the exposure of employees is greater than the limit value for exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
• Category IV
Not specified.
8.10. Optical radiation – Infrared radiation
• Category II
Contains work where the exposure of workers is greater than 0,3 times the limit value for exposure to infrared radiation but does not exceed the limit value for exposure to infrared radiation.
• Category III
Contains work where the exposure of employees is greater than the limit value for exposure to infrared radiation.
• Category IV
Not specified.
8.11. Optical radiation – Lasers
• Category II
Contains:
o Work with Class 2, 2M and 3R lasers,
o work with lasers of Class 3B and 4 where the technical arrangements and the method of use preclude direct or reflected beam interference with personnel.
• Category III
Includes work with lasers in Classes 3B and 4 where the technical arrangements and method of use do not preclude direct or reflected beam exposure of personnel.
• Category IV Not specified.
8.12. Biological agents
Biological agents are microorganisms, including genetically modified ones, cell cultures and human endoparasites that can cause infection, allergic or toxic effects (bacteria and similar organisms, viruses, parasites, fungi and moulds). Biological agents are also prions that can cause communicable disease. Biological agents may also include animals and plants. They are living organisms or their components and products that can adversely affect health. Biological agents may be part of the environment or may be specific to the work environment or certain types of occupation.
Healthcare workers are most commonly exposed, especially when working in tropical and subtropical areas, in agriculture, the food industry and veterinary workplaces.
The classification of biological factors is given in Government Regulation No 83/2013 Coll. on the protection of the health of employees against risks related to exposure to biological factors at work.
Based on the degree of risk of infection in humans, biological factors are classified into:
1. Category I biological factors, which are not likely to cause human disease,
2. Category II biological agents which may cause human disease and could pose a hazard to workers, but are unlikely to spread in the population, and effective prophylaxis or treatment is usually available,
3. Category III biological agents, which may cause serious disease in humans and a serious hazard to workers; they may pose a risk of spread in the population and effective prophylaxis or treatment is usually available,
4. Category IV biological agents which cause serious disease in humans and are a serious hazard to workers; they may pose a high risk of spread in the population and effective prophylaxis or treatment is not usually available.
• Category II
Includes work in which employees are exposed to Group 2 or Group 3 biological agents where the infections caused by them are not normally airborne and for which effective prophylaxis and treatment are available.
• Category III
Consists of work where employees are exposed to Group 3 biological agents, where the infections caused by these agents are normally airborne, and where effective prophylaxis and treatment are available; the conditions and manner of work present an increased risk to employees.
• Category IV
Consists of work in which workers are exposed to Group 4 biological agents and Group 3 agents where the infections caused by them are normally airborne and for which effective prophylaxis and treatment are not available.
8.13. Factors causing occupational allergic respiratory or conjunctival diseases
• Category II
Includes work involving strong sensitising factors which may cause allergic respiratory or conjunctival disease.
• Category III
Includes work involving strong sensitising factors which cause allergic respiratory or conjunctival disease and where changes in the health status of susceptible employees are detected in relation to the factors involved.
• Category IV Not specified.
8.14. Increased air pressure
• Category II
This category covers work carried out in elevated air pressure up to 100 kPa, corresponding to a depth of up to 10 metres when working below the surface.
• Category III
Includes work carried out in elevated air pressure above 100 kPa, corresponding to a depth of more than 10 metres when working below the surface.
• Category IV
Not specified.
8.15. Physical loads
• Category II
Includes:
o work predominantly dynamic, performed by large muscle groups, in which:
➢ shift energy expenditure (net) does not exceed the average and permissible values for the age groups of men and women,
➢ minute energy expenditure (net) does not exceed the permissible values for the male and female age groups,
➢ heart rate does not exceed the values of the average change in heart rate for the male and female age groups,
o work performed by small muscle groups in which:
➢ permissible shift average values for predominantly dynamic work and for work with static work components for men and women are not exceeded,
➢ number of movements per shift or per minute, depending on the duration of the stretch and the amount of force exerted, expressed as a percentage of the muscle group concerned, is not exceeded,
➢ short-term loading of the muscles by predominantly dynamic work does not exceed the permissible values even in the short term,
➢ number of movements of the small muscle groups of the hand and fingers does not exceed the permissible values for a full-shift effort,
o predominantly static work, performed by small muscle groups, where the average shift effort does not exceed the permissible values,
o work involving the moving of loads, where the weight of the loads moved by hand does not exceed the guideline weight values laid down by special regulation,
o work carried out predominantly in the basic working position (sitting, standing or alternating positions), where the criteria for assessing the working positions are met.
• Category III
Includes:
o Work in which any of the criteria in Category II are exceeded.
o Work involving the moving of loads where the weight of the manually moved loads does not exceed the guideline weight values laid down in a specific regulation, but where other indicators of physical strain (energy expenditure and heart rate) exceed the criteria in Category II.
o Work performed predominantly in a basic working position in a standing position with restricted movement of the lower limbs and changes in trunk and limb position, with a forced pace of work,
o Work involving physical and positional strain which is demonstrably associated with a change in health status (in particular damage to the musculoskeletal system and peripheral nerves due to prolonged, excessive and unilateral strain).
• Category IV
Includes work where the criteria for classification in category 3 are met and where, in addition, other factors (in particular cold, vibration, humidity) have a demonstrable contribution to the change in the state of health (in particular damage to the musculoskeletal system and peripheral nerves due to prolonged, excessive and unilateral loading).
8.16. Mental workload
• Category II
Includes:
o Jobs where the psychological workload resulting from the following characteristics of the work and the working environment reaches the third degree according to the method used: Abrupt work or work under time pressure; imposed work pace; monotony; noise or other influences that interfere with concentration in Group I and II work; high likelihood of social interactions; material and organisational responsibility; risk to own or others' life and health; shift, night or overtime work; substandard working environment; physical discomfort or increased sensory load, or work classified as category III or IV, particularly for factors such as noise, carcinogenic and mutagenic substances, ionising radiation and biological factors, or other characteristics of the work and the working environment which may increase psychological distress,
o work where the subjective response of employees to the psychological workload of more than half of the employees performing the work being assessed reaches the maximum level
or negative intensity according to one method or a combination of several methods used, or according to specific methods according to the current state of the art.
Category III
Includes:
o jobs in which the psychological workload resulting from the characteristics of the work and the work environment listed in Category II reaches a fourth degree according to the method used,
o jobs in which the psychological workload resulting from the characteristics of the work and the working environment referred to in Category II reaches the third degree according to the method used and, at the same time, the subjective response of the employees to the psychological workload of more than half of the employees performing the jobs assessed reaches the maximum degree or negative intensity according to one method or a combination of several methods used or according to specific methods according to the current state of the art.
• Category IV Not specified.
8.17. Heat and cold stress
• Category II
Contains:
o Work where the guideline values for long-term and short-term tolerable heat loads are not exceeded,
o work in premises where, for technological reasons, working conditions are maintained at parameters lower than those which would correspond to the energy expenditure of the employee, but where the operative temperature does not fall below 4 °C.
• Category III
Contains:
o Work in which the guideline values for the long-term tolerable heat load or the short-term tolerable heat load are exceeded,
o work carried out for more than 4 hours per working shift in areas where, for technological reasons, the operative temperature is maintained at 4 °C or below,
o work involving the alternation of large temperature differences (in particular in cold stores or freezers) at a frequency of more than 15 alternations per working shift or at alternation intervals of less than 30 minutes.
o Work where the permissible surface temperature criteria of solid materials and liquids with which the employee's skin comes into contact are exceeded.
• Category IV
Not specified.
For employees who are exposed to more than one occupational and work environment factor, the category shall be determined separately for each factor.
8.18. Methods of Assessing the Working Environment from an Ergonomic Point of View
Health is a key factor in the development of society. Maintaining and improving health is the best investment for a strong economy and a happy society. State health policy in the Slovak Republic understands health as a fundamental human right. It aims to direct the interests and efforts of all sectors of society towards health as a key factor in the development of society and to create an environment in which citizens are guaranteed the conditions to promote, protect and restore health, of age or social group. The basic strategy for the development of health is to promote and strengthen the health of healthy citizens, to protect citizens threatened by biological, chemical or physical environmental factors, and to restore the health of citizens with compromised or impaired health.
Ergonomics is a scientific discipline that studies the match between human needs and the adaptation of the work environment to those needs. It is not at all easy to get it right position the equipment in the working environment to ensure optimal conditions for all.
The majority of the population today spends well over 1/3 of their day in the work environment, so it is very important that feel comfortable there and are able to fit in and blend in easily. A properly adjusted work environment brings several benefits: reduction of sick leave and occupational diseases, improvement of the psychological state of workers, prevention of work fatigue, increase of work performance, minimization of mental and physical fatigue, increase of safety and comfort, improvement of self-fulfilment and development of the company.
Employers often make the mistake of not thinking first and foremost about the health of their employees, but take into account economic factors rather than ergonomic ones. In today's professions, it is very common to work on a computer, where we can spend long hours in an unchanged position. Perhaps for this reason in particular, illnesses resulting from back pain, muscle fatigue or visual problems have become the most common cause of incapacity for work.
The ergonomic assessment of the workspace is based on the steps:
Step
1: Threat analysis and risk estimation
The limits of the machine from an ergonomic point of view shall be determined. The hazard posed by the machinery in any operation and at any stage of the machinery's life shall be determined.
Ergonomic considerations for a machine can only be assessed, evaluated and verified if all the intended interchangeable equipment of the machine is known. Ergonomic requirements are necessary where operators or persons at risk are considered.
Step 2: Examining the applicability of standards
The type C standard, if any, shall be specified. It shall be checked whether the relevant Type C standard addresses the hazard from neglect of ergonomic principles and the risk arising from the hazard. It shall be checked whether a Type B standard may be used in place of a Type C standard as an addendum.
If a suitable Type C standard has been found, it must be in the first instance. Where possible, Type C standards shall include references to Type A and Type B standards on the reduction of risks that may arise from the machinery. Where a Type C standard not available or a Type C standard does not adequately cover the ergonomic requirements with regard to the risks, Annex A of the corresponding Type B standards should be consulted.
Step 3: Risk assessment using relevant ergonomic standards
Residual risks related ergonomics shall be assessed. It shall be checked whether these risks are significant. Ergonomic standards that address significant hazards shall be used. It shall be checked that these standards have been used in the design of the machine. Appropriate Type B standards must be taken into account to assess general or specific ergonomic risk.
If man and machine form part of a general work system (man-machine relationship), ergonomic risks are considered serious. This relationship represents the different roles of the links in the safety chain, e.g. the relationship with the tool, the equipment, the energy source.
Step 4: Reducing risk through different standards
One of the following options shall be used: solutions according to the Type C standard, which includes references Type B standards on ergonomics,
• if there is no Type C standard, the relevant Type B ergonomic standard shall be used,
• additional ergonomic references shall be used.
All serious and significant risks must be mitigated. However, there may be several reasons why some risks cannot be , for example if no information is available or if the standard is limited to certain specific items.
Where the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) must be taken into account in the design of machinery, an additional risk assessment must be carried out to determine whether all relevant health and safety requirements, including ergonomic requirements, have been satisfied.
Step 5: Verification
It shall be checked that all serious and significant ergonomic hazards have been eliminated or reduced by means of applicable standards.
It shall be checked whether there is a significant risk that is not covered by any standard or technical specification.
Limits of use
Anticipated user groups (the population that will use the machine), e.g. by gender, skills, experience, abilities or temporary changes in physical and mental abilities, e.g.:
• Young persons, elderly persons, persons with disabilities, hand dominance, limiting abilities (such as visual/hearing impairments, size, strength, stamina),
• professional users, trainers and trainees, general public,
• working hours or the influence of other people, e.g. nearby workers, visitors, clients.
Spatial boundaries
The following aspects are to be taken into account:
• the space required for installation, operation (including changes of working position), maintenance, cleaning and repair,
• the space required for dismantling the machine and supplying power, the space required for access to the machine and all its parts,
• the space inside the machine for working body positions (e.g. driver positions), the range of movement of the operator and working tools.
Time limits
The following aspects are to be taken into account:
• the expected duration and frequency of technical operation of the machine,
• duration and :frequency of daily operation and supervision of the operator,
• recommended service intervals.
In addition to the environmental factors mentioned in the checklist, the following aspects are to be taken into account:
• Touch effects ( e.g. response, sensory response from actuators),
• kinematic effects (e.g. acceleration, position balance), visual interference (e.g. vapour depreciation, glare, reflections, colour vision in inadequate lighting),
• olfactory effects (e.g. odour). The work tasks can be described as follows:
• production task,
• monitoring and supervisory role, transport task,
• general or precision work, working in a fixed or mobile ,
• tasks performed in different postures, e.g. tasks performed sitting/standing/sitting and standing/walking, e.g. tasks performed in awkward situations should be avoided,
• tasks performed with low head/neck/eye load,
• tasks performed with heavy loads on the foot/leg/shoulder/arm/hand/,
• tasks creating a heavy mental load (stress) or insufficient mental stimulation.
Expected use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
whether the PPE cannot be circumvented under the expected conditions of use, whether the PPE is related to the design of the machine, at work that increases mental exertion.
Predictable misuse from an ergonomic point of view by a different user group than anticipated, use in the wrong working position ( e.g. static position instead of changing and dynamic positions),
• use for inappropriate purposes (other than those specified in the manual), use in unsafe, unhealthy or unsanitary conditions, use without proper training.
In general, occupational safety processes aim to prevent the impact of the imminent negative physical, chemical, biological and social factors in the company's operations that pose an immediate threat to the health and life of employees.
Occupational medicine processes focus on the prevention of the cumulative pathogenic effects of these factors, early detection and treatment of the consequences of accidents, occupational diseases and also work-related illnesses so that those affected can return to work after successful treatment and rehabilitation. In developed countries, there is even an effort to enable the worker to return to his/her original workplace once the causes of his/her illness have been eliminated.
These processes require integration and therefore form the basis for the application of ergonomics and ergonomic programs aimed at the efficiency of human work, essential in all processes in the
enterprise in which man is involved, which as the weakest link limits their effectiveness. This creates room for the integrative efforts of ergonomics, which is interested in applying all the knowledge, regardless of the scientific discipline, that on the one hand helps to protect human health in the work process and on the other hand brings economic benefits.
Ergativity
Ergatics or ergativity is an important part of ergonomics. It is a complex, generally defined system on three pillars, namely the human being, the machine he works with and the environment that surrounds him at all times. This system is also the subject of research in many other scientific disciplines, such as technical aesthetics, occupational hygiene and ecology, etc.
For an overall optimal solution to these three aspects related to ergonomics, it is necessary to appropriately name one methodological approach that still maintains complexity, but in the interaction of several scientific disciplines. Most of the factors can be addressed by hygiene, ecology or occupational safety. That is why the term ergativity is used for this system. This system meets all the necessary theoretical and practical requirements in the design and solution of the interaction between man and machine and the given environment. This term is used to give a comprehensive name or concept to this system.
Ergonomics is a part of ergonomics, which creates an effective system of man - machineenvironment and has the purpose to ensure the overall well-being in the workplace, to prevent damage or danger to human health in the work process. The closer the value of ergaticity in a system is to zero, the more significantly this system endangers a person. When the given state is close to number one, the system is very well provided for in terms of hygiene, occupational safety, etc. In this case, the riskiness or harmfulness of the system can be defined as the opposite of ergativity.
The opposite of the ergativity of a system (machine) is the riskiness (harmfulness) of the system, determines the degree of threat to the health and psychophysiological well-being of a person during work activity.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 8
1. What are the primary objectives of technical measures in occupational risk prevention?
2. How do engineering controls contribute to eliminating or reducing workplace hazards?
3. Explain the role of automation and robotics in improving worker safety.
4. Describe the purpose and function of fail-safe design mechanisms and emergency shut-offs.
5. Why is it essential to integrate technical measures during the design phase of workplace infrastructure?
6. Define organisational measures in the context of occupational safety and health management.
7. What elements should a comprehensive OSH policy include, and why must it be endorsed by senior management?
8. How does defining roles and responsibilities within an organisational structure support safety performance?
9. Explain the function and importance of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) in workplace safety.
10. In what ways can structured training programmes enhance the implementation of organisational safety measures?
11. How does internal communication contribute to a positive safety culture in an organisation?
12. Identify two key safety performance indicators used to evaluate the effectiveness of OSH programmes.
13. What are the core components of emergency preparedness plans in the workplace?
14. Describe the purpose of regular emergency drills and what aspects should be evaluated postdrill.
15. What role do predictive technologies such as thermography and vibration analysis play in equipment safety?
16. Differentiate between preventive and corrective maintenance. Why is preventive maintenance preferred?
17. What types of records should be maintained to ensure legal compliance in OSH?
18. How do maintenance and inspection procedures contribute to minimising unplanned operational downtime?
19. Explain how technical and organisational measures are interdependent in achieving workplace safety
20. Reflect on a real or hypothetical workplace: How would you design an integrated OSH plan combining technical, organisational, and emergency strategies?
9. SYSTEM OF TECHNICAL AND ORGANISATIONAL MEASURES IN OSH
Study aims:
The aim of this chapter is to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the technical and organisational approaches used to ensure OSH in the workplace. It focuses on the design, implementation, and continual improvement of preventive systems that reduce or eliminate risks at source. This includes the integration of engineering controls, safe work systems, personal protective equipment, maintenance protocols, and structured procedures that align with both legislation and practical risk management strategies.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) describe the hierarchy of preventive measures used in occupational risk management; (2) differentiate between technical, technological, and organisational control strategies; (3) explain how workplace design and equipment selection influence risk mitigation; (4) understand the importance of maintenance, inspections, and technical condition monitoring; (5) design effective OSH plans that include training, procedures, coordination, and emergency readiness.
This chapter equips learners to apply both engineering and administrative principles to create comprehensive, proactive, and sustainable OSH systems that protect people, property, and processes.
9.1. Technical Measures
Technical measures represent the foundational layer of occupational risk control, aiming to eliminate or reduce hazards directly at their source. These measures are embedded within the physical design, construction, and operation of workplaces and equipment. They serve as the first line of defence against accidents and health risks, offering robust, often passive protection that does not rely on human intervention. Proper implementation of technical measures demonstrates a proactive approach to safety and aligns with the general principles of prevention outlined in both EU directives and national legislation, particularly Act No. 124/2006 Coll.
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Engineering and Design-Based Controls
A key category of technical measures includes engineering controls, which physically separate workers from hazards or eliminate the hazard through design modifications. These may include:
• Machine guarding systems that prevent contact with moving parts;
• Ventilation and extraction systems that remove airborne contaminants such as dust, fumes, or vapours;
• Noise insulation panels and vibration dampeners that reduce harmful exposure to physical agents;
• Encapsulation of hazardous processes, ensuring that workers do not come into direct contact with dangerous substances or energy sources.
These systems are typically incorporated into workplace infrastructure and must comply with technical standards such as STN (Slovak Technical Standards), ISO (International Organization for Standardization), and relevant EU regulations like the Machinery Directive or the Personal Protective Equipment Regulation.
Automation and Risk Reduction by Technology
Where direct elimination of hazards is not feasible, automation and remote control technologies provide alternatives that significantly reduce human exposure. For instance:
• Robotics can replace manual handling in high-risk environments (e.g. welding, chemical mixing, heavy lifting);
• Sensor-driven shut-off systems respond instantly to abnormal conditions, such as excessive temperature, pressure, or gas presence;
• Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are used in manufacturing to maintain consistent safety interlocks and emergency stops.
By removing or distancing humans from danger zones, these technologies shift the risk from personnel to systems that can be monitored and maintained more safely.
Technical Safeguards and Contingency Systems
Beyond hazard elimination and substitution, technical safety measures also include:
• Fail-safe and fail-secure mechanisms, which ensure that in the event of a failure, the system defaults to a safe state (e.g. de-energising equipment or closing gas valves);
• Redundancy in safety systems, ensuring backup functions in case of primary system failure;
• Technical signalling devices, including visual alarms (flashing lights), auditory signals (sirens), and digital alerts integrated into control panels;
• Environmental monitoring systems, such as continuous gas detection, temperature control, and humidity regulation in sensitive work environments.
These are essential in high-risk industries such as construction, chemical manufacturing, metallurgy, and energy production.
Integration with Preventive Strategy
It is critical to view technical measures not as isolated interventions but as part of a broader integrated OSH management system. They should be designed in tandem with organisational and behavioural measures. For example, installing a ventilation system is ineffective without maintenance protocols and training for workers on its use and limitations. Similarly, a fire alarm system must be backed by evacuation procedures and employee drills.
Lifecycle Perspective
From a risk prevention standpoint, the effectiveness of technical measures must be sustained over time. This involves:
• Lifecycle management, including procurement, installation, operation, monitoring, maintenance, and decommissioning;
• Technical documentation and compliance audits;
• Performance monitoring using key indicators such as incident rates, downtime due to technical failure, and frequency of corrective interventions.
This approach ensures that technical controls evolve alongside changes in workplace processes, legal requirements, and technological innovation.
9.2. Organisational Measures
Organisational measures represent a cornerstone of an effective OSH system by establishing the administrative, procedural, and structural framework for safety management. These measures are designed to ensure that technical controls are supported and reinforced by policies, planning, and daily practices, making OSH an integral part of the organisation’s operations.
A key organisational measure is the development and implementation of a comprehensive OSH policy. This policy, endorsed by senior management, should outline the company's commitment to safety, the responsibilities of all parties, and the framework for achieving continuous improvement. It must be clearly communicated to all levels of staff and regularly reviewed.
Effective OSH implementation depends on clearly defined roles and responsibilities. Employers are required to designate competent persons for OSH tasks and ensure that supervisors, line managers, and employees understand their roles in maintaining workplace safety. An organisational chart outlining the safety responsibilities of each department enhances clarity and accountability.
A central part of organisational control is the creation and enforcement of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). These are detailed documents that define the safest way to perform tasks and respond to risks. SOPs must be updated based on findings from risk assessments, incident investigations, or legislative changes.
Training plays a vital role in operationalising organisational measures. Employees must be equipped with the knowledge and skills necessary to identify hazards, follow procedures, and respond appropriately to emergencies. Training programmes should be structured, include practical components, and be evaluated for effectiveness.
Another critical area is internal and external communication. Organisational measures must promote open communication through safety briefings, internal alerts, and feedback mechanisms. Workers must be informed not only of general OSH policies but also of specific risks and control
measures relevant to their work. Regular safety meetings and involvement in risk assessments foster a culture of participation and shared responsibility
Organisations should also establish procedures for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of OSH measures. This includes internal audits, safety inspections, and incident tracking. Performance indicators, such as incident frequency rates, near misses, and compliance with SOPs, are used to assess safety outcomes and guide corrective actions.
Moreover, robust emergency planning and preparedness procedures must be embedded in the organisational structure. These plans outline roles and actions in case of fire, explosion, chemical spill, or other emergencies. They are complemented by regular drills, training, and evaluations.
Organisational measures also include documentation systems to track inspections, maintenance, training, incident reports, and legal compliance. These records support transparency, legal defensibility, and continuous improvement.
In summary, organisational measures in OSH are not just administrative requirements but essential systems that link human behaviour, planning, leadership, and communication. When effectively implemented, they reinforce technical measures and ensure that safety is embedded in every aspect of workplace operations.
9.3. Maintenance, Inspections, and Technical Condition Monitoring
Ensuring the safe functioning of technical equipment and infrastructure is a critical component of occupational safety and health (OSH). Neglected or inadequately maintained machinery and systems not only increase the risk of accidents and failures but can also violate legal requirements and disrupt operations. This section explores the strategies, responsibilities, and standards that govern maintenance, inspections, and the technical condition monitoring of workplace assets.
Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance refers to planned, systematic servicing of machines and technical systems intended to prevent breakdowns before they occur. The process involves:
• Scheduled interventions based on manufacturer recommendations, operational hours, or environmental conditions.
• Replacement of worn components, lubrication of moving parts, recalibration of instruments, and performance testing.
• Maintenance logs to document completed tasks, personnel involved, parts used, and next scheduled activities.
Preventive maintenance extends the lifecycle of equipment, improves energy efficiency, and ensures reliability. In the context of OSH, it is crucial for avoiding safety-critical failures of systems like ventilation, lifting equipment, or pressure vessels.
Legal and Regulatory Inspections
Some categories of work equipment and installations are subject to mandatory inspections and testing under national laws and technical norms. In Slovakia, Act No. 124/2006 Coll. and its implementing regulations impose obligations for periodic inspections of:
• Pressure equipment
• Electrical installations
• Lifting and transport devices
• Thermal and gas appliances
Authorised persons or certified inspection bodies must conduct these evaluations and issue inspection reports. Failing to comply with inspection schedules can lead to administrative penalties and increased liability in case of incidents.
Predictive Maintenance and Condition Monitoring
Advancements in industrial monitoring technologies have enabled predictive maintenance, a data-driven approach aimed at forecasting failures based on the actual condition of the equipment.
Key tools include:
• Vibration analysis to detect imbalance or misalignment in rotating equipment.
• Thermal imaging (thermography) for identifying overheating in electrical panels or bearings.
• Ultrasound to detect leaks or internal defects in pressure systems.
• Digital sensors connected to maintenance management software that track wear levels, fluid contamination, and component fatigue.
These methods allow organisations to transition from calendar-based maintenance to conditionbased interventions, optimising costs and reducing unscheduled downtime.
Fault Reporting and Corrective Action
An effective technical condition strategy includes mechanisms for immediate fault detection and response. This includes:
• Employee reporting systems for hazards or unusual equipment behaviour.
• Formal failure logging, describing the nature, cause, and consequences of the breakdown.
• Root cause analysis (RCA) for serious or repeated faults, using tools like the 5 Whys or Fishbone Diagrams.
• Feedback loops to revise procedures, design, or training based on maintenance findings.
Clear documentation of these steps ensures legal traceability and facilitates continuous improvement.
Compliance with Technical Standards and Manufacturer Guidelines
Maintenance procedures must align with applicable national and international standards, including:
• STN (Slovak Technical Standards)
• ISO/IEC standards for machinery safety, inspection intervals, and electrical systems
• CE conformity requirements, particularly for machinery governed by Directive 2006/42/EC or its successors
Manufacturers’ user manuals and maintenance instructions form a legally binding part of the conformity declaration and must be followed unless superseded by stricter internal protocols.
Human and Organisational Factors
The success of maintenance and inspection activities relies on:
• Trained personnel, including technicians certified for specific tasks (e.g. high-voltage systems, gas handling).
• Dedicated supervision to oversee planning, execution, and quality assurance of technical services.
• Coordination across departments, especially between technical operations, OSH managers, and procurement teams.
Well-functioning maintenance planning software (CMMS – Computerised Maintenance Management Systems) can assist in resource allocation, scheduling, and traceability.
The maintenance, inspections, and condition monitoring form a vital pillar of risk prevention and OSH assurance. These activities are not only technical tasks but strategic functions that underpin operational safety, reliability, and legal compliance. Embedding these systems within the broader safety management framework ensures that technical infrastructure supports, not undermines, human health and wellbeing in the workplace.
9.4. Emergency Systems and Procedures
Emergency systems and procedures constitute a vital pillar of any occupational safety and health (OSH) management framework. While preventive and technical controls aim to reduce the likelihood of incidents, a comprehensive OSH strategy must also prepare for the unexpected. Whether caused by human error, equipment failure, natural disasters, or external threats, emergencies can escalate quickly and pose severe risks to human life, infrastructure, and operations. Preparedness, therefore, is not just a legal obligation, it is a crucial responsibility of every employer.
Emergency Planning and Risk Assessment
The foundation of emergency preparedness lies in site-specific emergency plans, which must be based on a detailed risk assessment that identifies potential hazards such as fire, explosion, chemical leaks, structural failure, power outages, or health emergencies. The plan should define:
• Potential scenarios and their likelihood
• Mitigation and response strategies
• Emergency exit routes and assembly points
• Resources and personnel required during emergencies
Emergency plans must be tailored to the specific layout, operations, and risks of each workplace and should be regularly reviewed and updated to reflect changes in working conditions, legislation, or organisational structure.
Organisational Roles and Responsibilities
Clear assignment of roles is essential to effective emergency response. Every employee must know their responsibilities, especially those designated as:
• Emergency coordinators (responsible for activating procedures and communicating with first responders)
• Evacuation leaders and marshals (guiding safe exit from the premises)
• First-aid officers (providing immediate care and stabilisation)
• Fire prevention personnel (trained in the use of extinguishers and alarms)
The emergency organisation must function as a rapid-response team capable of taking decisive action within the first minutes of an incident often the most critical window for protecting life.
Technical Systems and Infrastructure
Modern emergency systems are increasingly integrated with digital monitoring and control tools. Essential components include:
• Alarm and detection systems (e.g. smoke detectors, gas sensors, visual/auditory signals)
• Evacuation support (clearly marked emergency exits, illuminated signage, PA systems)
• Communication infrastructure (radios, internal alert apps, hotline numbers)
• Firefighting systems (manual extinguishers, sprinkler networks, fire hoses)
• Emergency lighting and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) in case of blackout
All systems must be regularly tested and certified in compliance with applicable standards (e.g. STN, ISO, EN, manufacturer guidelines). Emergency exits must remain unobstructed and operational at all times.
First Aid and Medical Readiness
First aid is the immediate and often life-saving response to accidents before professional medical help arrives. Employers must:
• Provide fully stocked and regularly checked first aid kits at accessible locations
• Train and designate first aid officers in accordance with national regulations
• Coordinate with local emergency medical services (EMS) for swift access
Depending on the risk profile, workplaces may also require automated external defibrillators (AEDs), emergency showers, or eyewash stations.
Evacuation and Emergency Drills
Theory must be translated into practice through regular emergency drills, which test:
• Staff familiarity with procedures
• Functionality of evacuation systems
• Communication under pressure
• Time taken to clear premises and gather at safe zones
These drills must be documented, evaluated, and followed by feedback sessions to improve future readiness. Lessons learned from real incidents or simulations should be used to revise emergency protocols.
Post-Incident Procedures
Emergencies do not end once the immediate danger has passed. A structured post-incident review process should include:
• Root cause analysis (RCA) using tools like the 5 Whys or Fishbone Diagram
• Debriefing with staff to identify gaps in preparedness and response
• Documentation of findings and corrective actions
• Psychological support, especially after traumatic incidents
• Liaison with authorities, insurers, and other stakeholders as required
These steps ensure that emergency events contribute to learning and continuous improvement rather than recurring risks.
Legal and Regulatory Compliance
According to Act No. 124/2006 Coll., employers are legally obligated to establish emergency procedures and ensure employees are familiar with them. Fire protection, chemical safety, and firstaid measures are all subject to specific Slovak laws, regulations, and technical norms. Noncompliance may result in administrative sanctions, operational shutdowns, or increased liability in the event of injury or death.
In conclusion, emergency systems and procedures are not static documents but dynamic components of a safety culture that must be continuously tested, refined, and integrated into everyday workplace operations. Their successful implementation requires coordination between people, technology, and policy, ensuring that when the unexpected happens, the workplace is ready to protect what matters most.
The integration of technical and organisational measures represents a comprehensive and systemic approach to occupational risk prevention. These measures are not standalone elements but interconnected components that must be managed through continuous improvement cycles. The synergy between engineering controls, safe procedures, employee involvement, and readiness planning forms the bedrock of an effective OSH management system. Students and professionals must understand, implement, and advocate for these measures as a core part of ensuring health, safety, and resilience in every workplace.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 9
Technical Measures
1. What is the primary objective of technical measures in occupational safety and health?
2. How do engineering controls help eliminate or reduce hazards in the workplace?
3. In what ways can automation and robotics contribute to improving worker safety?
4. Explain how spatial separation and physical barriers are used to control exposure to risks.
5. Why is fail-safe design essential in safety-critical work systems?
Organisational Measures
1. What are the key components of an effective organisational OSH policy?
2. How do clearly defined roles and responsibilities enhance OSH implementation?
3. What purpose do Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) serve in organisational safety?
4. Why is training considered a central organisational measure in risk prevention?
5. How does internal communication influence the safety culture of an organisation?
Maintenance, Inspections, and Technical Condition Monitoring
1. What is the difference between preventive maintenance and predictive maintenance?
2. Which legal requirements exist for inspections of workplace machinery and equipment?
3. How does technical condition monitoring support hazard identification and control?
4. What types of documentation should be maintained regarding equipment maintenance and inspections?
5. Why is it important to comply with both manufacturer specifications and legislative standards?
Emergency Systems and Procedures
1. What elements should be included in an effective emergency preparedness plan?
2. How do alarm and alert systems function as part of emergency readiness?
3. Describe the role of first aid infrastructure in workplace emergency response.
4. Why are regular simulation drills important for emergency preparedness?
5. What steps should be taken after an emergency to support learning and prevention?
10. HEALTH IMPAIRMENT
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to explore the nature, causes, consequences, and legal classification of health impairment related to work. It examines the physical and psychological injuries that may result from occupational exposure, accidents, or chronic stressors in the working environment. Emphasis is placed on the distinction between work-related injuries and occupational diseases, the legal and procedural frameworks for recognition and reporting, and the employer's obligations for compensation and prevention.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) define work-related health impairment, including occupational injuries and diseases; (2) understand the immediate and long-term impacts of health impairment on workers; (3) identify risk factors that contribute to physical and mental harm in the workplace; (4) explain procedures for reporting, investigating, and recognising occupational injuries or illnesses; (5) recognise the employer’s responsibilities for prevention, compensation, and rehabilitation.
This chapter provides learners with the knowledge required to respond effectively to incidents of health impairment and to build systems that minimise harm and promote recovery.
10.1. Accident at work
An accident at work is characterised as an injury to health caused to an employee in the performance of or in direct connection with his/her work tasks, independently of his/her will, by a short-term, sudden and violent action of external influences.
To constitute an accident at work, the damage to health or death must have occurred to the employee in the course of his employment (Art. 195 of the Labour Code) and must have been caused independently of the employee's will by a short-term, sudden and violent action of external influences at:
• the performance of work duties (Art. 220(1) of the Labour Code) arising out of the employment relationship,
• other activity carried out at the employer's behest,
• an activity which is the subject of a business trip,
• acts necessary for the performance of work (Article 220(2) of the Labour Code),
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• acts necessary before the commencement of the work, customary during the work or necessary after the end of the work,
• examinations in a medical establishment carried out on the employer's instructions or firstaid treatment and travel to and from the workplace (Article 220(2) of the Labour Code); or
• the performance of work tasks (Article 220(3) of the Labour Code).
A work accident is also a service accident of civil servants, soldiers, police officers, firefighters, customs officers, members of the Slovak Information Service, the Prison and Judicial Guard Corps and the Mountain Rescue Service in a civil servant or service relationship under special laws.
It is the employer's duty to prevent accidents at work. However, if an employee suffers an accident at work, the employer has a number of obligations in the field of occupational safety and health
10.2. Obligations of the employee and the employer in the event of accidents at work and other accidents
The Act of the National Assembly of the Slovak Republic No. 124/2006 Coll. on Occupational Safety and Health at Work, as amended, already stipulates the employee's obligation to report workrelated accidents.
The employee is obliged to immediately notify the employer of the occurrence of:
• an accident at work which he/she has sustained, if his state of health so permits,
• an accident other than an accident at work, or a death not resulting from an accident at work if it occurred at the workplace or on the employer's premises,
• a dangerous occurrence (an occurrence in which the safety or health of the employee was endangered but his health was not harmed),
• a serious industrial accident (explained in a note).
Similarly, these reporting obligations also apply to the person who witnessed these events, i.e. another employee. The employer is obliged to determine in his internal regulations to whom and how the occurrence of an accident at work, other injury, death, dangerous occurrence or serious industrial accident is to be notified. Following such notification, the employer shall immediately take the necessary measures to prevent further risks to life and health
If a criminal offence is likely to have been committed in connection with the accident at work, or if death or serious bodily injury has occurred, the employer must not change the condition of the workplace until the investigating authorities arrive. However, if it is necessary to change the condition of the workplace to prevent further danger to life and health or major economic damage, the employer must produce documentation of the condition of the workplace necessary to investigate the causes of the incident (for example, photographic documentation of the workplace).
10.3. Employer's obligations in the event of an accident at work with more than 3 days' incapacity for work
An employer must register an accident at work which causes incapacity for work of an employee for more than three days or the death of an employee as a result of an accident at work (a ' registered accident at work') by:
• ascertaining the cause and all the circumstances of its occurrence, in the presence of the employee who has suffered the registered work accident, if this is possible in view of his/her state of health, and in the presence of the competent safety representative of the employees; in the event of death or serious injury to health (so-called serious work accident), the employer must also invite an authorised safety engineer to ascertain the cause,
• no later than four days after notification of the occurrence of a registered occupational accident , draw up a record of the registered occupational accident,
• take and implement the measures necessary to prevent the recurrence of a similar work accident.
A model record of a registered work accident is annexed to the Decree of the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic No. 500/2006 Coll., which establishes a model record of a registered work accident.
10.4. Reporting of work accidents and their recording in a special register
The employer is obliged to notify the occurrence of a registered work accident without undue delay after receiving the notification of the registered work accident:
• to the employees' representatives (trade union organisation), including the relevant safety representative,
• the relevant police department if the facts established indicate that a criminal offence has been committed in connection with the work-related accident,
• the competent labour inspectorate or the competent supervisory authority if the accident is serious.
If a serious industrial accident occurs, the competent labour inspectorate or the competent supervisory authority shall be notified.
The employer shall, within eight days of becoming aware of the registered work accident , send the record of the registered work accident to the competent labour inspectorate and deliver it to the employee who has suffered the registered work accident or to the survivors if the employee has died as a result of the work accident. Within 30 days from the date on which the employer became aware of the occurrence of the serious occupational accident , the employer shall also send to the competent labour inspectorate a report on the investigation of the causes and circumstances of the occurrence of the accident and on the measures taken and implemented to prevent the recurrence of a similar occupational accident.
The employer is also obliged to keep a number of records concerning accidents at work:
• a record of accidents at work – it contains the data necessary to draw up a record of a registered accident at work, if the consequences of the accident at work manifest themselves later,
• records of accidents other than accidents at work and dangerous occurrences – containing data on the cause of the occurrence and on the measures taken and implemented to prevent such accidents and occurrences,
• a record of recognised occupational diseases and occupational disease hazards – containing data on the cause of the occurrence and on the measures taken and implemented to prevent the same or similar occupational disease.
10.5. Occupational disease
An occupational disease is a disease recognised by the competent medical establishment, included in the list of occupational diseases, if it has been contracted by an employee in the performance of his/her work tasks or official duties or in direct connection with the performance of his/her work tasks or official duties and under the conditions specified in the list.
In terms of legislation, the following are key to the reporting, registration and recording of occupational diseases and occupational hazards:
• Act of the National Assembly of the Slovak Republic No. 461/2003 Coll., on social insurance,
• Act of the National Assembly of the Slovak Republic No. 355/2007 Coll., on protection, promotion and development of public health and on amendment and supplementation of certain acts.
For labour law purposes, pursuant to the provisions of Article 195(4) of Act No 311/2001 Coll., the Labour Code as amended (hereinafter referred to as the 'Labour Code'), occupational diseases are considered to be 'diseases listed in the social security legislation (list of occupational diseases) if they have arisen under the conditions set out there in'.
Following on from the above, according to the provisions of Article 8(2)(a) of Act No 461/2003 Coll. on Social Insurance, as amended, 'An occupational disease under this Act is a disease recognised by a competent medical institution, included in the list of occupational diseases set out in Annex 1 to this Act, if it has arisen under the conditions set out in this Annex in the performance of work tasks or official duties or in direct connection with the performance of work tasks or official duties by an employee of the employer'.
It follows from the above statutory definition of occupational disease that, in order for a disease to be declared an occupational disease, the following conditions must be cumulatively fulfilled:
• it must be a disease included in the list of occupational diseases (see Annex No. 1 to Act No. 461/2003 Coll. on Social Insurance),
• the disease must have been contracted under the conditions laid down in the list of occupational diseases by the employee in the performance of his/her work tasks or in connection with the performance of his/her work tasks,
• the disease must have been recognised as an occupational disease by the competent medical establishment.
However, the specific procedure to be followed by the specialised workplace in declaring an occupational disease or occupational disease risk is currently nowhere explicitly regulated by legislation. However, the following legislation contains partial regulation:
• Act of the National Assembly of the Slovak Republic No. 124/2006 Coll. on Occupational Safety and Health Protection and on Amendments and Additions to Certain Acts, as amended,
• Act No 355/2007 Coll. of the National Assembly of the Slovak Republic on the protection, promotion and development of public health and on amendment and supplementation of certain acts, as amended.
However, the competent specialised workplace issues a decision on the recognition or nonrecognition of an occupational disease on the basis of a detailed medical examination of the health condition of the person concerned and on the basis of an assessment of the patient's occupational history. In order to assess the employee's occupational history, the relevant specialised workplace shall request the competent Regional Public Health Office to carry out a 'hygiene survey' of the workplace at which the person concerned has worked.
In the actual case of an occupational disease, the decision is always taken by a specific occupational physician, who, if he or she has doubts as to whether or not a particular case is an occupational disease, may submit the entire case to the Regional Occupational Disease Assessment Board for consideration. These regional commissions are based at the individual occupational medicine clinics (Bratislava, Martin, Košice) and their members are experts in the field of occupational medicine and clinical toxicology from the respective region.
If there is insufficient professional consensus among the members of this regional commission, the regional commission may recommend that a specific case be discussed by the All-Slovak Commission for the Assessment of Occupational Diseases. Similarly, the patient under investigation and his employer may, by written request to the specialised department concerned, request that their case of suspected occupational disease be referred to this nationwide commission.
The All-Slovak Commission for the Assessment of Occupational Diseases is established by the Ministry of Health of the Slovak Republic at the Clinic of Occupational Medicine and Clinical Toxicology in Bratislava and its members are leading experts in the field of occupational medicine and clinical toxicology from all over the Slovak Republic (heads of individual Clinics of Occupational Medicine and Clinical Toxicology, doctors of the Office of Public Health of the Slovak Republic and others).
The conclusions of the All-Slovak Commission for the Assessment of Occupational Diseases have the character of a top recommendation for occupational physicians and toxicologists. However, the final decision on the occupational disease shall in any case be made by the competent referring occupational physician and clinical toxicologist.
Should the patient concerned, despite the recommendation of the National Commission for the Assessment of Occupational Diseases, be dissatisfied with the decision of the occupational physician and clinical toxicologist regarding his suspected occupational disease, he still has the option of bringing an action before the courts for a civil review and decision.
Pursuant to the provisions of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on occupational safety and health, the employer is obliged, in order to ensure occupational safety and health, to assign employees to perform work with regard to their state of health, in particular to the result of the assessment of their medical fitness for work, their abilities, their age, their qualifications and their professional competence in accordance with the legislation and other regulations to ensure occupational safety and health, and not to allow, to carry out work which does not correspond to their state of health, in particular the result of an assessment of their fitness for work, their abilities for which they do not have the age, qualifications and evidence of professional competence in accordance with the legislation and other regulations for ensuring occupational safety and health.
Pursuant to this provision, an employer is obliged to reassign an employee who is diagnosed with an occupational disease or threatened with such a disease to another job.
If the employer does not have another suitable job for the employee, the employer may give the employee notice of termination of employment under Article 63(1)(c) of the Labour Code: 'if the employee, because of his or her state of health, has, according to a medical opinion, lost the ability to perform his or her previous work in the long term, or if he or she is prevented from doing so because of an occupational disease or the risk of such a disease, or if he or she has reached the maximum permissible exposure at the workplace as determined by a decision of the competent public health authority'. For the same reasons, the employer and the employee may agree to terminate the employment relationship.
An employee with whom the employer terminates the employment relationship by notice or by agreement on the grounds that the employee is prevented from working because of an occupational disease or the risk of such a disease is entitled to a severance payment of at least ten times the employee's average monthly earnings at the termination of the employment relationship (provision of Article 76(4) of the Labour Code).
Also in this case, the employee may make use of the provision of Section 69(1)(a) of the Labour Code and immediately terminate his employment with the employer: "the employee may immediately terminate his employment if, according to a medical opinion, he can no longer perform his work without serious threat to his health and the employer has not reassigned him within 15 days from the date of submission of this opinion to another job suitable for him." An employee may terminate his employment immediately only within one month of the date on which he became aware of the reason for immediate termination. In the event of immediate termination of employment by the employee, the employee shall be entitled to a wage replacement in the amount of his average monthly earnings for the notice period of two months.
In connection with an occupational disease, an employee may also suffer damages in certain circumstances. In general, the employer with whom the employee performed the work that caused the occupational disease is liable for such damages. In this connection, we attach below an overview of the most important provisions of the current legislation relating to compensation for damages.
The employer's general liability for damages is laid down in Article 192(1) of the Labour Code, according to which 'the employer shall be liable to the employee for damage caused to the employee by a breach of legal obligations or a deliberate act contrary to good morals in the performance of his/her work tasks or in direct connection therewith'.
Pursuant to Article 177(1) of the Labour Code, 'the employer is obliged to provide his employees with such working conditions that they can properly perform their work tasks without endangering life, health and property. If he finds deficiencies, he shall take measures to remedy them."
Thus, in accordance with the aforementioned provision of Section 6(1)(o) of the OSH Act, the employer is obliged to assign the employee to a workplace that is medically suitable for him/her, not only on the basis of a medical opinion, but also without it.
Furthermore, the Labour Code regulates the employer's liability for damages in the event of an occupational accident and occupational disease: if an employee suffers damage to his health or death by accident (occupational accident) in the course of or in direct connection with the performance of his work tasks, the employer with whom the employee was employed at the time of the occupational accident shall be liable for the damages resulting therefrom.
According to the Labour Code, the employer with whom the employee last worked before the discovery of the occupational disease is liable for the damage caused to the employee by the
occupational disease under the conditions giving rise to the occupational disease from which the employee was affected.
Under the Labour Code, the employer is also obliged to compensate the employee for the actual damage, in money, if it does not remedy the damage by restoring the employee to his previous state. If the damage to health is other than due to an occupational accident or occupational disease, the provisions on occupational accidents shall apply to the manner and extent of compensation, with the restriction that the survivors are not entitled to a lump-sum compensation.
Finally, we would point out that an employee may also be entitled to compensation for pain and suffering and for impairment of social life as a result of an occupational disease under the conditions laid down in the social security regulations.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 10
Nature and Types of Occupational Health Impairment
1. What is the difference between an occupational injury and an occupational disease?
2. True or False: An illness must always be caused by a physical accident to be considered workrelated.
3. How can mental health be affected by workplace conditions?
4. Describe three types of occupational diseases common in Slovak workplaces.
5. Match each health impairment (e.g. hearing loss, anxiety, dermatitis) to its most likely workplace cause.
Causes and Risk Factors
1. What are the main causes of long-term occupational diseases in physical work environments?
2. How can poor ergonomics lead to both acute and chronic health issues?
3. Provide an example of a psychosocial risk factor and explain its effect on employee wellbeing.
4. True or False: Noise and vibration are considered psychosocial risk factors.
5. How does the law define the employer’s duty to assess and eliminate health risks?
Legal Framework and Recognition
1. What are the steps for recognising an occupational disease under Slovak law?
2. Why is accurate and timely documentation important in the recognition of occupational diseases?
3. True or False: The burden of proof always lies on the employee when claiming occupational illness.
4. Which institutions are responsible for confirming occupational diseases in Slovakia?
5. What legal protections are in place for workers diagnosed with occupational health impairments?
Employer Obligations and Employee Rights
1. What are the employer’s obligations regarding prevention, compensation, and rehabilitation?
2. What kind of documentation must employers maintain following an occupational injury?
3. How can an employer support an injured worker’s return to work?
4. True or False: Employers must provide access to occupational health services.
5. Why is a preventive culture critical for reducing long-term health impairments?
11. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to provide students with an in-depth understanding of the legal, technical, and practical requirements governing personal protective equipment within the European Union and the Slovak Republic. It explains the legislative framework, from EU directives to national regulations, detailing how PPE is categorised, certified, and supplied to workers. The chapter further clarifies technical standards, categorisation of PPE commonly used in Slovak workplaces, and the employer’s responsibilities for selection, provision, maintenance, and record-keeping. Emphasis is placed on ensuring effective protection against specific hazards, promoting correct use through training, and integrating PPE into broader occupational safety and health (OSH) management systems.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) explain the EU and Slovak legal framework that regulates the manufacture, certification, and use of PPE; (2) distinguish among the three PPE risk categories and identify the corresponding conformity-assessment procedures; (3) interpret key technical standards (STN EN ISO) applicable to the design and performance of different PPE types; (4) select and specify appropriate PPE for common workplace hazards, physical, chemical, biological, and ergonomic, while ensuring compatibility when multiple items are worn simultaneously; (5) outline employer obligations for provision, training, inspection, storage, and documentation of PPE, including record-keeping and lifecycle management.
This chapter equips learners to make informed, legally compliant decisions about PPE selection and management, thereby safeguarding worker health and fostering a culture of prevention in every work environment.
(Image produced by ChatGPT 40 based on content definition)
11.1. Legal framework for the use of personal protective equipment
The movement of personal protective equipment (PPE) in the European Union is governed by the Framework Directive 89/686/EEC on personal protective equipment, which obliges employers to identify and consider the risks of injury in the workplace, to seek to eliminate them, to ensure that employees are informed and provided with appropriate PPE.
Directive 89/686/EEC of 21.12.1989 (OJ L 399, 30.12.1989) on personal protective equipment was amended by Directive 93/95/EEC of 29.10.1993 (OJ L 276, 09.11.1993) and Directive 93/68/EEC of 22.7.1993 (OJ L 220, 30.8.1993) on CE marking.
On 9.7.2011, a 'Commission communication in the framework of the implementation of the Council Directive of 21 December 1989 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to personal protective equipment (89/686/EEC)' was published in the Official Journal of the European Union under No 2011/C 205/01.
In 1999, the CEC (Commission of the European Communities) in Brussels, in cooperation with the European Commission's Directorate General, Member States' government experts, representatives of European industry, European standardisation organisations and Notified Bodies, who developed mutually agreed interpretations of the Directive in 2003, published the "Guide for the categorisation of personal protective equipment", which serves to verify the procedures for the categorisation of personal protective equipment.
This means that before being placed on the market, a particular product must be tested and its characteristics must be shown to comply with the essential technical requirements, in particular with the requirements of the Act of the National Assembly of the Slovak Republic No. 264/1999 Coll. on technical requirements for products and conformity assessment and on amendment and supplementation of certain acts, as amended (the Conformity Act), the EU Directive No. 89/686/EEC Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), Government Regulation No. 35/2007 Coll. laying down details of technical requirements and conformity assessment procedures for personal protective equipment, as amended, and relevant technical regulations. Only after this procedure, the manufacturer can issue the EC declaration of conformity, affix the CE marking to the product and place such product on the market.
Depending on the requirements placed on PPE, it can be divided into three risk categories:
• Category 1 (low risk): PPE of simple design, - the user is able to assess for himself the level of protection against risks that can be detected early and safely, it must only bear the CE conformity marking, no type tests are necessary, the declaration of conformity is sufficient. This category includes, for example, PPE protecting against surface mechanical impact, against temperatures up to 50°C, against climatic influences that are not extreme, against minor impacts or against sunlight (sunglasses).
• Category 2 (medium risk): other PPE which, by their nature, do not meet the definition of category 1 or 3 are classified in category 2. Category 2. Type tests are required. This category includes e.g. gloves EN 388, protection against the risk of mechanical injury.
• Category 3 (high risk): PPE which is intended to protect life or to protect against hazards which may cause serious and permanent damage to health, the user cannot recognise the imminent danger in time, in addition to the design sample test, quality control according to ISO is also required. This includes all PPE whose failure would cause serious damage to the wearer's health (lethal hazards), e.g. protective gloves for firefighters or for working with chemicals respiratory PPE, PPE for protection against temperatures above 100°C or below -50°C and all PPE for protection against falls from height and against electrical hazards.
The basic legislation on the provision of personal protective equipment in the Slovak Republic is Slovak Government Regulation No 395/2006 Coll. on minimum requirements for the provision and use of personal protective equipment.
According to this Regulation, personal protective equipment is provided by the employer to the employee if the danger cannot be excluded or limited by technical means, means of collective protection or methods and forms of work organisation.
Annex 3 to this Regulation lists the work for which personal protective equipment shall be provided.
The work for which personal protective equipment is provided may also be work other than that listed in Annex 3 to the Regulation if the danger cannot be eliminated or reduced by other means.
here several hazards require an employee to use more than one piece of personal protective equipment at the same time, the employer shall provide the employee with personal protective equipment which can be combined with each other and which will provide effective protection against those hazards.
The employer must provide the employee with personal protective equipment that meets the requirements under the special regulations.
Work clothing or work footwear shall be provided by the employer to an employee who works in an environment in which the clothing or footwear is subject to abnormal wear and tear or abnormal pollution if it becomes unusable in less than six months.
11.2. Technical standards for personal protective equipment
There are currently about 160 different technical standards - STN EN ISO - in force for personal protective equipment (PPE), which regulate the manufacture, design, processing and inspection of these products. The standards are valid but not binding. Pictograms have been introduced to facilitate the selection and use of PPE for the user of the standards or for the user of a particular type and kind of PPE.
11.3. Categorisation and systematization of the most frequently used personal protective equipment in the Slovak Republic
In company practice in Slovakia, the most commonly used PPE is imported or manufactured by specialised companies. All PPE placed on the market must be certified. Only personal protective equipment which has been shown to comply with the technical requirements guaranteeing reliable protective effect, safety and health safety may be certified. Conformity assessment shall be carried out by the manufacturer, the importer or a notified body, depending on the category of PPE.
For the user, the confirmation of certification is the affixing of the CE mark, which is a graphic form of the declaration of conformity, on the protective equipment or on its packaging. The CE marking on PPE classified in category 3 must be accompanied by the three-digit identification number of the notified body which carries out the prescribed annual surveillance of the product or its manufacture. Other information, such as the name of the manufacturer, the name of the product, a pictogram with the degree of protection and the number of the relevant standard, the date of manufacture and the guarantee period, must also be compulsorily marked on each piece of personal protective equipment.
The general marking shall be:
• in the official national language,
• on the product itself or on labels,
• affixed in such a way as to be visible and legible,
• resistant to maintenance,
• sufficiently large - recognisable.
Specific labelling:
• Name, trademark,
• indication of the type of product,
• size designation,
• EN marking,
• marking with pictograms,
• degree of protection,
• method of maintenance,
• number of maintenance cycles, or 'Do not reuse' marking.
Information on the PPE manufacturer:
• All specific information,
• name and full address of the manufacturer (representative),
• name and full address of the NO if he/she type approves or performs quality control of the PPE,
• product EN number and year of issue,
• explanation of pictograms and protection levels,
• characteristics of all basic materials and layers of the PPE,
• instructions for use as defined in the product EN,
• details of accessories and instructions for their use,
• restrictions on use,
• instructions for storage, maintenance and maximum time between PPE inspections,
• detailed instructions for cleaning or decontamination of the PPE,
• potential treatment problems,
• information on materials that may cause allergies or are toxic or
• mutagenic,
• ergonomic limitations,
• repair instructions,
• instructions on how the user can detect ageing or loss of protective effects,
• pictures or drawings and part numbers of the different parts of the PPE for clarity and completeness,
• references to accessories and spare parts,
• type of packaging suitable for transporting the PPE,
• instructions for recycling, disposal and disposal of unusable PPE (e.g.
• mechanical deterioration, incineration of PPE, etc.).
11.4. PPE used in workplaces
Those can be divided into the following groups:
• full body protection - protective clothing, fall prevention equipment,
• lower limb protection,
• upper limb protection,
• torso and abdominal protection,
• head and face protection - eye protection, hearing protection, face protection, respiratory protection,
• skin protection,
• protective accessories of certified PPE.
11.4.1. Whole body protection
Whole body PPE is primarily protective clothing or protective blankets and fall hazard prevention equipment. Their common feature is that they protect the body as a whole, not just individual parts.
Protective clothing
Protective clothing (two-piece suits, coveralls, coats or gowns) is designed to prevent the body from coming into direct contact with a hazard. According to the part of the body to be protected, they are classified by design into: blouses, trousers, overalls, suits, coats, waistcoats and aprons. They are made mainly of natural and artificial textile materials (untreated or specially treated, e.g. by application of plastics and impregnation, so as to be non-flammable, repellent to acids, water, oil, etc.) and of leather.
Protective clothing against heat and fire must have resistance to heat transfer, molten metal, limit flame spread, radiant heat and heat transfer.
Protective clothing against liquid and gaseous chemicals shall be designed against specific exposure to the substances.
Anti-chemical clothing is of two types: textile material (chemical penetration can occur, so it is used for dilute chemicals) and laminated fabrics or plastic (chemicals penetrate at the molecular level and are designed for ultimate protection of the body). Special protection is provided by so-called gas-tight chemical protective clothing which, together with the use of breathing apparatus, prevents the effects of toxic gases on humans.
Anti-chemical clothing is also mechanically resistant. High visibility warning clothing is intended for persons moving and working in road transport, railways, etc. The textile materials used must have well-defined optical properties in order to fulfil their protective function. This also applies to the use of the various warning strips sewn onto clothing.
Protective clothing with anti-static properties is used where there may be a risk of electrostatic discharge caused by electrifiable materials. A suitable garment is considered to be one whose specific surface resistance must be less than 5.1010 Ω and which is of suitable construction.
Protective accessories
Protective accessories mean underwear, socks and other protective clothing accessories. They are used for hygienic reasons under protective work clothing as protection against excessive perspiration or cold. In workplaces where there is a risk of explosion due to static electricity, accessories made exclusively of natural materials (e.g. cotton) shall be used.
Thermal underwear provides protection of the body surface against adverse climatic influences in harsh field conditions. The appropriate combination of layering ensures the comfort of continuous, minimum 72-hour use associated with high physical exertion in all seasons. It ensures thermal stability of the body, protection against moisture and wicking of water vapour from the body surface.
Protective equipment to prevent the risk of falling from a height
PPE designed to prevent falls is used when working at heights and above free depth, or when working in a suspended position. The means of fall protection is:
• Full fall prevention equipment including all necessary accessories,
• a kinetic energy absorbing braking device (complete equipment including all necessary accessories),
• means of restraint (e.g. safety harnesses, safety belts, additional ropes).
11.4.2 Head protection
Personal protective equipment (PPE) for head protection provides protection of the surface (top) of the head against the adverse effects of physical, chemical and biological factors in the working environment. Head protective equipment is divided into protective helmets and protective headgear. The choice of the appropriate protective equipment is determined by the occupational hazard and the resistance of the protective equipment to it. Head protection can be further subdivided into head protection alone, eye and face protection, hearing protection and respiratory protection.
Protective helmets
The highest degree of protection of the head and its surface against injuries can be provided by protective helmets. Their protective function is determined by their material and design.
A protective helmet consists of a set of elements which protect the cranial part of the head from exposure to hazards in the work process, particularly mechanical (impact and penetration) hazards. The manufacturer may specify other specific means of protection against the risk of electric shock, exposure to high temperature, radiation, etc.
From a safety point of view, the helmet shell and the headset used are the most important. The protective function of the shell is mainly determined by its shape and suitable, mechanically resistant material. The function of the liner is to absorb the impact and limit the transfer of kinetic energy of the impact to the wearer. A protective helmet usually consists of the following parts: padding, back cover, head restraints, head pads, head sleeves, protective liners, chin strap, ventilation holes, insulating liner. The protective helmet shall be taken out of service if it has been subjected to an impact or blow of an energy equal to or greater than the prescribed energy or if the functional components (shell or headgear) are obviously damaged.
Safety helmets have 3 functions:
• to protect the skull against puncture
• absorb shock thanks to the shield and the fixed harness,
• disperse (deflect) shocks thanks to suitable ergonomic aids that allow objects falling steeply on the head to be deflected.
Protective headgear
Depending on their construction, protective headgear is divided into caps (with or without a shield, unreinforced or reinforced against impact), berets, scarves, hairnets, hoods, balaclavas, hats with a neck protection section, etc., and hats with a neck protection section. They are made of textile or netting and may be impregnated. Felted metallurgical hats are used to protect the head against burns from flying particles of molten metals. Caps, scarves, etc. are intended mainly
to protect the surface of the head or hair against being caught by a moving device (part thereof) and subsequently scalped. They protect the wearer from light impacts and scratches. They are also used when working in environments where there is a risk of infection and to protect the head against exposure to dust and cold or direct sunlight. In addition to their protective function, caps, scarves or nets also have a hygienic function. They prevent hair from falling into manufactured food and cosmetic products, medicines, etc.
Eye and face protection
The eye is an important sensory organ of man. For this reason, everything possible must be done to protect the eyes and preserve their visual acuity. If workers are confronted at work with influences that adversely affect or even endanger their visual acuity, the employer is obliged to take precautionary measures. Various protective goggles, shields and hoods are most commonly used to protect the eyes and face. They are designed to protect against:
• mechanical or thermo-mechanical damage from particles of different speed, temperature and size, e.g. dust, flying chips, splinters, liquid splashes, sparks and molten metal particles, which endanger the eyes and face, especially in wood and metal working, injection moulding and drilling tools, metallurgical operations, mining and rock processing, blasting, etc.,
• irritation by chemical substances (gases, aerosols, dust, smoke),
• adverse effects of natural radiation and radiation from technical sources (infrared, ultraviolet, ionising, laser, X-ray or visible light),
• cold.
Other parts of the face are also most protected when wearing visors or hoods, which have a similar protective function to goggles. Hazards that require eye and face protection are, for example, electrical arcs arising from short circuits, droplets and splashes of liquids, impacts of varying strength, optical radiation (from 100 nm to 1 mm), gases, dust, molten metals and hot solid particles, or a combination of these possibilities. For protection against heat, they shall be made of a material which is non-flammable and resistant to elevated temperatures. The PPE may be resistant to chemical hazards arising in particular from exposure of the eyes to toxic and irritating gases, liquids and solids. Furthermore, they can protect against mechanical hazards such as dust, but also large parts moving at high speed.
Depending on the hazard, we choose safety glasses without side covers, with side covers, closed glasses with direct ventilation, without direct ventilation, glasses with folding frame of the vision part. The choice of face shield depends on the design (possibility of attachment by a strap or belt on the head, on the helmet) and on the use, as part of a combined head protection device (respiratory protection hoods). The protective shields are suitable for simultaneous use with dioptric spectacles. Hoods and masks (for arc welding) can be held by hand or fastened to the head or helmet.
Hearing protection
Long-term hearing damage will only become apparent after a period of 10 to 20 years. The danger of a slowly progressive decline in hearing sensitivity is usually noticed late and is dramatic. Hearing loss is irreversible and will follow the sufferer for the rest of his or her life with no hope of improvement. Consistent use of hearing aids prevents noise damage to hearing. Hearing protectors should be used for the duration of the noise load. Even a slightly reduced time of hearing
aid use results in a significant reduction in the effect of hearing protection. If the exposure of employees to excessive noise per working shift exceeds the upper action value of the standardised noise exposure level of 85 dB, the employees (occupations) shall be classified in the third or fourth category of work, which are hazardous work. To reduce the potential risk of damage to the health of employees due to excessive noise, employers are required to provide hearing protectors and to monitor their use. Hearing protectors (ear defenders) are personal protective equipment which, by their attenuation properties, reduce the harmful effect of excessive noise on hearing and thus prevent hearing damage.
There are a relatively large number of protectors on the market. The choice should consider noise attenuation requirements, user comfort, method of fitting and acceptability of minimum effect, working environment, health problems, compatibility with other head protective PPE. For earmuffs, these are requirements for size, design (arch on top of head, under chin, on back of head, universal), adjustability, gripping force, resistance to fall damage and minimum attenuation. For plug protectors, these are the requirements for cleaning, ignition and minimum attenuation.
Respiratory protection
Respiratory protective PPE provides protection for the worker against the negative effects of oxygen deficiency in the inhaled air or against exposure to hazardous gases and vapours or particles of solid and liquid substances that pollute the air (dust, smoke, aerosol). From a functional point of view, respiratory protective devices are divided into two basic groups, namely filtering devices and insulating devices.
Respiratory protective PPE is used for work in tanks, confined spaces, shafts, sewers and other underground areas related to sewage and also in industrial installations and areas with unbreathable air due to high dust levels (e.g. in the vicinity of blast furnaces, mineral extraction and processing, machine grinding of wood or work in archives) or due to the presence of harmful substances in the air (when working in freezers with a risk of refrigerant leakage, when applying paints, when carrying out medical examinations and treatments, etc.).
When choosing respiratory protection, it is necessary to choose an appropriate strategy for the use of PPE, e.g.: to first take all technical measures that will reduce the exposure to risks affecting health
If these measures cannot be implemented, PPE should be used. The use of respiratory PPE can only be proceeded with after a precise analysis that includes all adverse circumstances that pose a risk to health. These include, in particular, the concentration of oxygen in the air, the type of pollutant in the air, the concentrated pollutants in the air, the characteristics of the pollutant, the type or type of suitable PPE, the type and strenuousness of the work to be performed and other factors influencing the use of the equipment (e.g. air temperature, air movement, the length of time the equipment is being used, the state of health and the body proportions of the wearer).
The final decision on the choice of respirator should take into account its effectiveness (capacity), the tightness of the facepiece, the maximum permissible exposure value (MPEL) of the workplace pollutants and their concentration at the workplace, and the duration of time spent in the polluted environment.
Filter breathing apparatus removes air pollutants by means of a filter before entering the lungs. The pollutants may be gaseous or in the form of particles, or they may be a mixture of gases and particles, e.g. when working in a body shop, when painting surfaces.
They consist of a facepiece (mask, half-mask, quarter-mask or mouthpiece) and an attached filter section (particulate or gas filters, or both).
Face mask - the facepiece covers the mouth, nose, eyes and chin.
Half mask - the cheek piece covers the nose, mouth and chin. Not recommended for use when wearing a beard (or other facial hair) which may cause leakage.
The quarter mask covers only the nose and mouth.
Mouthpiece - the cheek piece is held in place by the teeth and is pressed tightly against the lips by inhaled and exhaled air, while the nose is closed with a nose clip (clamp). The nose clip must be gently bent to the shape of the nose.
Hoods and helmets with an air supply may only be used with forced-air devices. The design of the hoods and helmets provides comfort in use.
Particulate filters are divided according to filtration efficiency into three classes: P1, P2 and P3 with the highest efficiency.
Particulate filters are designed to remove only specified gases and vapours in the air; combination filters remove particles and specified gases and vapours from the air.
Available filters are:
• anti-gas: against organic vapours, hydrogen cyanide, mercury, chlorine, ammonia, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and acid gases, against special gases,
• against particles (solid and liquid aerosols).
The period of use depends primarily on the concentration of the pollutant in the air and on the air consumption during breathing. If the filter cannot be used in view of the defined conditions, isolation devices shall be used.
Isolation breathing apparatus shall operate independently of the composition of the ambient air. The apparatus is divided into three groups according to the method of air supply and exhaust: hose breathing apparatus, open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus and closed-circuit selfcontained breathing apparatus.
The use of filtering apparatus designed to protect the respiratory system is strictly limited to environments where the oxygen concentration must be greater than 17 % by volume, the type of pollutant known, the concentration of the pollutant known, a means available which is functional against the pollutant present. Unless these conditions are met, the filter apparatus cannot be used.
11.4.3 Lower limb protection - work boots
Lower limb protective PPE provides protection of the legs from the foot to the hip joint against exposure to harmful and hazardous factors of the work and the working environment and slip protection. Various types of protective footwear and their accessories are used (removable insoles and soles), gaiters to protect against burns and wetness, protectors for individual parts of the leg (thigh, shin, shinbone) against bruising, abrasion, cuts, etc., and removable spikes for ice, snow or other slippery surfaces.
Protective footwear
Footwear for professional use is made of different materials (mainly leather, plastic, rubber and textiles) in different designs (sandals, low ankle, semi-high and high boots) and with varying degrees of protective effect. Depending on the material used, the shape and design of the upper and sole, protective footwear is used to protect against hazards:
• mechanical - where there is a risk of injury due to stepping on pointed and sharp objects (footwear with a reinforced sole), objects falling on the foot (footwear with a reinforced toe), the foot being pinched or slipping and subsequently falling (slip-resistant footwear), particularly on construction sites, road and forestry work, maintenance and repair of machinery, blast furnaces, steelworks, rolling mills and metalworking, quarrying and mining, the manufacture and processing of plate glass, transport and storage, etc.,
• electrical - in case of hazardous voltage (dielectric shoes) and static electricity (antistatic shoes), e.g. in computer centres, operating theatres, explosion hazard areas, etc.,
• thermal - when working with very hot or very cold materials, when working in cold, heat or in environments where molten metal may splash (shoes that can be removed quickly),
• vibration - when working where vibration is likely to be transmitted to the lower limbs (anti-vibration footwear),
• wetting, drenching - in work where the employee comes into contact with liquids (rubber boots),
• chemical - when exposed to harmful or hazardous liquids and dust (protective footwear with soles against liquids and chemicals, e.g. corrosives, solvents, oils),
• excessive strain from excessive standing or walking (orthopaedic footwear).
11.4.4. Hand protection (upper limbs)
PPE designed for hand protection provides (depending on the type of protective equipment chosen) protection for the hands from the fingers up to the shoulder joint. Protective gloves and other types of protective equipment are used, which are mainly designed to protect against abrasion, cuts or punctures, e.g. protective fingers when grinding and pressing small objects, protective sleeves when handling sharp-edged metal sheets, forearm protection made of ring mesh used when boning and cutting meat and when reinforcing iron, shoulder pads to protect the shoulders when carrying heavy loads, and palm pads to protect the palms when handling rough material.
Protective gloves
Protective gloves provide protection against single hazards or multiple hazards simultaneously. They are made of different materials (mainly textiles, leather, rubber or impermeable materials dipped in plastics), either with or without a cuff, designed as five-fingered, three-fingered or thumbed. They are designed for single or repeated use.
11.5. Torso and abdominal protection
Clothing for hand chainsaws is designed to protect against particularly hazardous activities. The clothing is supplemented with gloves and footwear that are also resistant to this hazard. Effective protection is ensured by applying chain blocking material to possible cutting surfaces, e.g. protective apron, protective trousers.
11.6. Skin protection
Occupational skin problems are caused by contact with certain substances during work. Such substances usually act on the hands or forearms (most commonly when touched), but can also spread to other parts of the human body. In the initial stage, dry skin, redness and itching of the skin appear. The skin may be swollen, cracked, scaly, thickened and blisters may also form. The rate at which a skin reaction occurs depends on the intensity of the substance and how long and how often it comes into contact with the skin. Such skin changes often occur when employees are away from work, for example at weekends and on holidays. It is not uncommon for employees to be exposed to multiple liquids or to come into contact with water, which can result in a breakdown of the skin's natural defences. Exposure to excessively high temperatures and sunlight also pose a danger to the skin. Protective pastes, ointments and oils are used to protect the skin. They are mainly used to protect the skin of the hands from exposure to factors whose harmful effects are not very high, e.g. water, organic solvents, ultraviolet radiation, insects, etc. The protective agent is spread on the skin, thus forming a protective film preventing the action of the harmful agent.
It is recommended to protect the skin in 3 stages:
• skin protection before work,
• cleaning the skin after work,
• skin care after work.
The range of these products is very wide nowadays. It is possible to choose the type suitable for the type of work. Ointments and creams often also contain disinfecting, healing and healing ingredients that not only protect the skin, but also disinfect and heal minor injuries. In company practice, creams are the most commonly used - easily dispensed from a tube or from various dispensers located at individual workplaces. They are most commonly used in healthcare, where it is necessary to ensure decontamination of hands and other parts of the body before and after medical procedures.
11.7. Work clothing and footwear, means of ensuring physical hygiene
These are the means used at work to prevent the deterioration of the employee's civilian clothing and footwear through damage, soiling and excessive wear and tear.
Where an employee works in an environment in which the clothing or footwear is subject to extreme wear and tear or extreme soiling so that it becomes unusable in less than six months, the employer shall provide the employee with work clothing and footwear free of charge for use in the performance of his work.
Unlike protective clothing and footwear, which protect the employee against damage to health, work clothing and footwear are not personal protective equipment
Physical hygiene products are washing, cleaning, disinfecting and other products (ointment for skin regeneration, towel, etc.) which are designed to remove dirt or prevent infections and the spread of diseases. Although they are not classified as personal protective equipment, employers are obliged to provide them free of charge to employees in order to prevent hygiene problems and the health consequences of pollution.
The quantity and type of washing, cleaning and disinfecting equipment to be provided shall be determined by the employer (depending on the type of work and the nature of the pollution) in an internal regulation or agreed with the employees' representatives in a collective agreement.
The employer is to check that the employees actually use the means allocated to them, so that they are not provided for their own sake.
Current methods and procedures for assessing the level of protective effect of PPE in the current system for assessing the conformity of products with the requirements of the regulations
At present, several private companies are involved in testing and assessing the level of protective effect of PPE and certification in Slovakia. They are mainly:
• Electrotechnical Research and Design Institute (EVPÚ), a.s., No. 1293 Nová Dubnica,
• VÚTCH-CHEMITEX, spol. s.r.o., Žilina , NO 1296,
• Welding Research Institute - Industrial Institute of the Slovak Republic, Bratislava NO 1297,
• Continental Matador Rubber, s.r.o., Púchov No. 1295, Laboratory of footwear, haberdashery and leather,
• AO SKTC-144 CEROT - Notified Body No. 1298 - Testing Laboratory Bratislava,
• Fire Research Institute of the Ministry of the Interior of the Slovak Republic.
These are private companies accredited by SNAS (Slovak National Accreditation Service) as certification, authorised and notified persons, and they carry out testing and certification of PPE according to prescribed procedures and standards harmonised with EU standards. When testing PPE, they use state-of-the-art apparatus and equipment to ensure a quality assessment of the products. Thus, only certified products should be placed on the product market. It is therefore up to the employer to decide what certified equipment to provide to his employees. These organisations test and verify PPE according to the applicable technical standards. They use various chemical analyses, physical and chemical and mathematical methods and procedures, mechanical procedures and similar tests for testing, verification and certification. They are tested for resistance to abrasion, to mechanical hazards, to chemical agents, to infections and diseases, and so on.
The various PPE tests are important in terms of:
• knowledge of the quality of the raw materials,
• providing a guarantee that quality is a permanent feature of the products supplied to the market,
• the need to prove that the quality parameters of the products comply with regulations and market requirements,
• obtaining positive arguments in the advertising of the products offered,
• dealing with complaints.
11.8. Recommendations for the employer when assessing PPE
The employer is responsible for the purchase, initial inspection, use and allocation of PPE in their workplaces. For this reason, and for the sake of efficient and economical use of funds, it should focus in particular on:
Initial quality control of PPE when purchased - in addition to checking the quantity supplied of each PPE, it should focus on:
• assessing whether the PPE meets the requirements of the applicable legislation,
• checking the supplied range according to the written documents of the binding requirement and the confirmed order, which should specify the necessary specific requirements of the ordering organisation,
• sampling for physical initial quality control in accordance with STN01 0254 or STN 01 0255 statistical screening or at their own discretion,
• checking the warranty periods, in particular for PPE for which the principle of regular periodic checks by an authorised natural or legal person applies, taking into account the date of manufacture and the expected length of storage of the PPE in the organisation prior to assignment,
• basic visual inspection,
• tactile and hand inspection,
• inspection by smell.
Simple technical check consisting of:
• dimensional measurement - checking the size range or measuring the size of important parts of the PPE (e.g. width of straps, width of bands on PPE with good visibility, height of shoe tread, length of ropes, etc.) according to the requirements in the relevant STNs,
• in the assessment of the liquid-repellency of the surface - e.g. by the drop method according to the STN, or by the so-called spray test according to STN EN 24920 (80 0827),
• in the assessment of the liquid-tightness of sartorial footwear by inflation according to EN 344 (83 2504), or of the liquid-tightness of rubber and plastic gloves by inflation according to EN 374-2 (83 2340),
• in the assessment of fire retardancy, which can only be assessed tentatively by means of a match test on small strips of textile according to the original EN 80 0824 or by another improvised test. In the case of bulk deliveries, technical quality control can be ensured by an accredited organisation.
The issue of PPE to employees shall be based on an analysis of the hazards and risks and, on the basis of their evaluation, shall take into account the important elements of reliability, success in preventing occupational accidents and diseases and cost-effectiveness in the use of PPE.
Records of the issue of PPE shall include:
• the unit to which the PPE is allocated,
• the workplace where the PPE will be used,
• the name and classification of the worker,
• the name of the work operation,
• the type of work activity hazard against which the PPE will be used,
• the type of PPE, indicating the basic protective effect,
• the date and number of pieces allocated,
• a record of the PPE permanently allocated (specify types),
• a record of PPE assigned only temporarily to certain work (specify type of work),
• a record of PPE reissued after cleaning, washing and repair,
• a record of the life expectancy of the PPE,
• actual lifetime (record of discarding PPE and replacing it with new PPE),
• the result of the quality control of the PPE by the worker,
• instruction to the worker on the method of use,
• the signature of the worker, the receipt.
An assessment of the reliability of the PPE prior to the work activity by the worker who has:
• Verify the warranty of the PPE under consideration from the manufacturer or supplier,
• verify that the effectiveness of the PPE concerned is not adversely affected by the length of use (above the company standard - as recorded in the relevant card),
• verify that the PPE concerned has not been subjected to extreme loading which could cause material fatigue or, for example, saturation of respiratory protection filters,
• make an indicative assessment of the quality of the protective effect of the washed and cleaned PPE,
• determine whether soiling reduces the protective effect (e.g. flame retardancy or visibility),
• determine whether the PPE is damaged (incompleteness, visible damage),
• determine whether the level of hygienic properties is reduced (un-dried clothing, gloves, footwear, very dirty PPE).
The worker is obliged to replace the PPE with a second one (in case more than one piece has been allocated) or to request a new one when the level of protection has fallen below the specified threshold.
Checking the way PPE is used - the supervisor (foreman, workgroup leader) is obliged to check:
• the appropriateness of the PPE assigned according to the company directive,
• the use of the assigned type of PPE by the worker (with particular emphasis on category 3 protective equipment),
• records of the use of PPE by the worker (with particular emphasis on Category 3 PPE),
• records of the use of PPE (especially category 3 protection), whether the PPE has been subjected to extreme stress or whether its properties are at the limit of its protective effect, wear and damage (sensory evaluation, non-destructive).
When checking, it is advisable to cooperate with the occupational safety officer.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) generally acts as a barrier inserted between the hazard and the employee's body or its individual parts, which eliminates the effects of hazardous and harmful factors of the work process, work and working environment to a safe and nondamaging level.
PPE is not only a technical means of protection, but also a protective ointment, oil or emulsion. It is the employer's role to determine what PPE employees will wear and use to protect against non-removable hazards, but also to issue instructions governing how PPE is to be handled.
The issue of PPE is quite complicated and should be dealt with in company practice by persons who are trained to deal with it. A wide range of occupational health products exists and is commercially available in Slovakia. It is up to the employer to choose which ones he chooses for his employees. Also, the quality assessment of PPE, its certification and conformity assessment form a complicated integrated system of activities, which are currently carried out by selected testing laboratories and certified notified bodies. The employer is obliged to take care of PPE issues in his/her undertaking.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 11
Definition and Classification of Designated Technical Equipment (DTE)
1. What is meant by the term "designated technical equipment" under Slovak OSH legislation?
2. True or False: Ladders and hand tools are considered designated technical equipment.
3. Name the four main categories of DTE commonly regulated in Slovakia.
4. Match each DTE type (e.g. pressure vessels, lifting devices) with its typical workplace application.
5. Why is categorisation of DTE essential for legal compliance and risk management?
Legal Framework and Responsibilities
1. Which Slovak laws and technical standards govern the use of designated technical equipment?
2. Who is legally responsible for the safe operation of DTE in the workplace?
3. True or False: Only state inspection authorities are responsible for enforcing DTE regulations.
4. Describe the key obligations of employers in relation to the installation and use of DTE.
5. What role do authorised persons and inspection bodies play in the safety of technical equipment?
Certification, Inspections, and Record-Keeping
1. What is the purpose of initial certification and periodic inspection for DTE?
2. Outline the key steps involved in a technical inspection of DTE.
3. What documentation must be maintained for each piece of designated equipment?
4. True or False: Maintenance records are only required for equipment that has failed inspection.
5. What consequences may result from failure to comply with inspection and record-keeping obligations?
Risk Management and Preventive Measures
1. How does proper equipment selection contribute to risk prevention?
2. What types of protective measures must be in place when operating high-risk DTE?
3. Identify the link between technical equipment failure and workplace injury rates.
4. Describe how training and certification of operators contribute to safe use of DTE.
5. True or False: Once certified, DTE does not need further preventive maintenance.
12. REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS FOR ENSURING OCCUPATIONAL
SAFETY AND HEALTH
– DESIGNATED TECHNICAL EQUIPMENT
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to familiarise students with the regulatory framework governing the use, inspection, and maintenance of designated technical equipment (DTE) under Slovak law. It emphasises the specific obligations for ensuring their safe operation, the role of technical inspections, and the responsibilities of employers, authorised persons, and relevant state bodies. The chapter also addresses how these regulations interact with general OSH principles and contribute to accident prevention
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) understand the legal definition and categorisation of designated technical equipment; (2) identify the key safety requirements related to installation, use, maintenance, and supervision of DTE; (3) describe the responsibilities of employers, authorised organisations, and technical professionals in managing DTE safety; (4) interpret the procedures for certification, inspections, testing, and documentation; (5) apply relevant Slovak legal provisions and technical standards to practical scenarios involving DTE.
This chapter provides learners with essential knowledge for maintaining compliance and managing technical safety in high-risk environments involving pressure, electrical, lifting, and gas systems.
12.1. Definition and Categories of Designated Technical Equipment
Designated technical equipment (DTE) refers to specific categories of machinery and devices that present a higher level of technical and operational risk, requiring special regulatory control. According to Act No. 124/2006 Coll., DTE includes:
• Gas equipment (e.g. gas distribution and consumption devices);
• Electrical equipment (e.g. installations under certain voltage thresholds).
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These categories are determined based on the potential for serious injury, explosion, fire, or fatal failure during use. Each category is subject to specific technical and legal conditions defined in implementing regulations.
12.2. Legal Framework and Technical Regulations
The regulation of DTE is primarily governed by:
• Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Occupational Safety and Health;
• Decree of the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic No. 508/2009 Coll., which lays down detailed technical requirements for ensuring the safety of DTE and procedures for professional competence and authorisation.
This framework specifies:
• Technical conditions for safe installation, operation, and disassembly;
• Frequency and scope of initial and recurrent inspections;
• Conditions under which DTE can be put into operation;
• Obligations related to maintenance and documentation.
Compliance is also aligned with technical standards (STN, EN, ISO) applicable to each equipment type.
12.3. Responsibilities of Employers and Users
Employers are legally responsible for:
• Ensuring that DTE is used in accordance with safety regulations and technical specifications;
• Contracting only authorised persons for inspections, testing, repairs, and maintenance;
• Maintaining technical documentation, including logbooks, certificates, and inspection records;
• Ensuring operators are professionally competent and trained;
• Suspending use of DTE if it fails to meet prescribed safety conditions.
Users (typically employees) must:
• Operate DTE only if they are properly trained and authorised;
• Immediately report any defects, irregularities, or accidents;
• Follow safety procedures, including emergency protocols and equipment-specific SOPs.
12.4. Authorised Persons and Inspection Bodies
Designated technical equipment must be inspected, tested, and certified by an authorised person or organisation, which is licensed by the National Labour Inspectorate or relevant Ministry.
These entities are responsible for:
• Performing initial and periodic inspections;
• Issuing certificates of fitness for operation;
• Performing technical tests under operating conditions;
• Withdrawing approval or suspending operation if safety conditions are not met.
Authorisation is based on strict criteria including technical equipment, qualified personnel, and impartiality.
12.5. Inspections, Testing, and Certification
DTE must undergo:
• Initial inspections – before first use or after significant modifications;
• Periodic inspections – based on usage intensity, age, and risk profile;
• Extraordinary inspections – after accidents, breakdowns, or unusual conditions.
Inspection intervals and methods are defined in detail by Decree No. 508/2009 Coll. and associated technical guidelines. Certification is only granted if the DTE complies with all operational and safety requirements.
Failure to meet inspection obligations may lead to administrative sanctions and criminal liability in case of injury or damage.
12.6. Documentation and Record-Keeping
Employers must maintain a complete technical logbook for each piece of DTE, including:
• Installation and commissioning records;
• Certificates and reports from inspections and tests;
• Maintenance schedules and intervention records;
• Incident reports and corrective actions.
This documentation must be kept up-to-date, accessible, and available for inspection by labour inspectors or safety professionals.
12.7.
Enforcement and Sanctions
Supervision over the use of DTE is exercised by the National Labour Inspectorate and Labour Inspectorates under §30–38 of Act No. 124/2006 Coll.
Violations may result in:
• Administrative fines (up to tens of thousands of EUR);
• Suspension of operation of non-compliant equipment;
• Criminal liability in cases of negligence leading to injury or death;
• Withdrawal of authorisation for inspection bodies found to violate standards.
Enforcement aims not only to punish non-compliance but also to promote systematic prevention and technical discipline.
Designated technical equipment represents one of the most regulated and risk-intensive areas of occupational safety. Understanding its legal classification, inspection protocols, and responsibilities is essential for all safety professionals. Compliance with technical and administrative requirements is critical not only to meet legal standards but to prevent catastrophic failures and ensure long-term safety in high-risk operational environments.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 12
Institutional Framework
1. Which national authority is responsible for supervising occupational safety and health in Slovakia?
2. What is the role of the National Labour Inspectorate (NIP) within the OSH supervision system?
3. True or False: Only private sector workplaces are subject to state supervision
4. How does the Labour Inspectorate coordinate with other public authorities (e.g. health or fire services)?
5. Match each institution (NIP, Public Health Authority, Labour Inspectorate) with its primary OSH responsibility
Legal Authority and Inspector Powers
1. What are the legal powers granted to OSH inspectors under Slovak law?
2. True or False: Labour inspectors may impose fines during inspections without prior court approval.
3. Describe the steps a labour inspector can take upon identifying serious OSH violations.
4. In which situations may inspectors conduct unannounced inspections?
5. How does the presence of inspectorate authority promote compliance within organisations?
Inspection Procedures and Reporting
1. What are the typical phases of an OSH workplace inspection?
2. What kinds of documents must be provided to an inspector during an OSH audit?
3. True or False: Inspection reports are confidential and not shared with employers.
4. Why is accurate record-keeping essential during inspection procedures?
5. How can inspection findings influence future preventive measures in an organisation?
Enforcement and Sanctions
1. What enforcement measures can be applied when an employer fails to comply with OSH law?
2. List the types of administrative sanctions available to OSH inspectors.
3. What is the difference between preventive recommendations and enforceable corrective orders?
4. True or False: Criminal liability can be imposed in extreme cases of OSH negligence.
5. How do penalties and sanctions contribute to the promotion of a preventive safety culture?
13. STATE SUPERVISION IN THE FIELD OF
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the state supervision mechanisms in the field of occupational safety and health (OSH) in Slovakia. It examines the institutional framework, legal authority, supervisory functions, and procedures through which compliance with OSH legislation is monitored and enforced. Emphasis is placed on the role of labour inspectorates, the scope of inspections, legal instruments used in enforcement, and the rights and obligations of both inspectors and inspected entities.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) describe the institutional structure of state supervision in OSH; (2) identify the legal powers and duties of labour inspectors; (3)understand the types and objectives of labour inspections; (4) explain the procedures for conducting OSH inspections and reporting violations; (5) interpret the consequences of non-compliance and the enforcement tools available to the state.
This chapter equips learners with the legal and procedural knowledge to interact effectively with supervisory authorities and ensure workplace compliance with national and European OSH regulations.
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13.1. Institutional Framework of OSH Supervision
State supervision in the field of OSH in Slovakia is primarily carried out by the Labour Inspectorates and coordinated by the National Labour Inspectorate (NIP). These institutions fall under the authority of the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family of the Slovak Republic.
• The National Labour Inspectorate (slov. Národný inšpektorát práce) oversees uniformity and quality of inspection practices, provides methodological guidance, and coordinates cross-regional activities.
• Labour Inspectorates (slov. inšpektoráty práce) are regionally distributed bodies responsible for direct inspections, enforcement of legal provisions, and cooperation with other public authorities.
Their activities are governed mainly by Act No. 124/2006 Coll., Act No. 125/2006 Coll. on Labour Inspection, and related EU regulations.
13.2. Powers and Duties of Labour Inspectors
Labour inspectors are public officials with legally defined powers and responsibilities. Their core tasks include:
• Conducting inspections of workplaces to verify compliance with OSH legislation;
• Reviewing documentation, procedures, and safety management systems;
• Interviewing employees and management;
• Accessing all premises, equipment, and records related to safety and health;
• Suspending dangerous work or equipment if an imminent threat is identified.
Inspectors must act independently, impartially, and within the limits of their legal authority. They are obliged to maintain confidentiality and may not reveal business secrets.
13.3. Inspection Procedures
OSH inspections may be:
• Routine (planned according to annual programmes),
• Targeted (focused on high-risk sectors or themes),
• Follow-up (verifying correction of previous violations),
• Ad hoc (triggered by complaints, accidents, or suspicions of non-compliance).
The inspection process usually includes:
1. Preparation – gathering background information and defining the scope;
4. Interviews – with employees, supervisors, and safety officers;
5. Report and Measures – inspectors issue written findings and may require immediate or time-bound corrective action.
Inspectors may cooperate with technical experts, health professionals, or other state authorities when necessary.
13.4. Legal Instruments and Enforcement Measures
When non-compliance is detected, labour inspectors can:
• Issue binding orders requiring rectification within a specified deadline;
• Suspend use of equipment or work activity posing immediate danger;
• Impose administrative fines, the amount depending on severity and recurrence;
• Refer serious violations to prosecutorial authorities for potential criminal proceedings;
• Recommend withdrawal of licences or authorisations in cooperation with other regulatory bodies.
The employer has the right to appeal against decisions but must comply with immediate measures for hazard elimination.
13.5. Rights and Obligations of Inspected Entities
Employers and other inspected persons have specific rights and duties, including:
• Duty to cooperate fully with the inspector;
• Obligation to provide accurate documentation, access to sites, and requested explanations;
• Right to be informed of inspection findings and proposed measures;
• Right to appeal decisions and challenge fines or suspensions;
• Obligation to rectify deficiencies within specified deadlines;
• Duty to protect employees from reprisals if they cooperate with inspections.
Employees also have the right to file complaints anonymously and to be protected from retaliation.
13.6. Coordination with European and International Bodies
Slovakia’s labour inspection system is aligned with European Union standards and cooperates with:
• The Senior Labour Inspectors’ Committee (SLIC);
• The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA);
• The International Labour Organization (ILO).
These bodies support knowledge sharing, training, joint inspections, and development of harmonised methodologies.
State supervision plays a critical role in safeguarding the health and safety of workers through independent oversight, enforcement, and promotion of preventive measures. Understanding the powers and responsibilities of labour inspectorates allows organisations to anticipate, prepare for, and respond constructively to inspections. It also reinforces the principle that compliance with OSH legislation is not only a legal requirement but a cornerstone of ethical and sustainable work environments.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 13
Types of Crisis Situations in the Workplace
1. What are the most common types of emergencies that workplaces must prepare for under OSH regulations?
2. True or False: Only physical emergencies like fire and explosions are covered by OSH crisis planning.
3. How can pandemics or epidemics affect occupational safety and productivity?
4. Match each crisis (e.g. fire, chemical spill, epidemic) with the corresponding response strategy.
5. How does Act No. 124/2006 define a “serious threat” in the context of workplace safety?
Legal and Organisational Responsibilities
1. What are employers’ legal obligations for managing safety during extraordinary situations?
2. What role does the occupational safety and health (OSH) plan play during a crisis?
3. True or False: Employees must follow instructions during emergencies, even if they are outside normal procedures.
4. Describe how OSH responsibilities are shared among departments during crisis situations
5. Which parts of the Slovak OSH Act directly address safety procedures during emergencies?
Emergency Planning and Preparedness
1. What are the essential components of an emergency response plan?
2. Why is worker participation important in the development of emergency procedures?
3. True or False: Emergency drills are required only for high-risk industries.
4. How should communication be managed during a workplace emergency?
5. What are the requirements for evacuation plans and training according to Slovak OSH legislation?
Crisis Response and Post-Incident Measures
1. What procedures should be followed immediately after a workplace emergency?
2. How should employers evaluate the effectiveness of their crisis response efforts?
3. What role does documentation play in post-incident analysis and compliance?
4. True or False: Psychological support is not a required component of post-incident care.
5. How can lessons learned from a crisis improve future OSH management systems?
14. WORKPLACE SAFETY IN CRISIS SITUATIONS
Study aim:
The aim of this chapter is to prepare students to understand and manage occupational safety and health (OSH) during emergency and crisis situations, including emergencies such as fires, chemical spills, natural disasters, epidemics, industrial accidents, and security threats. It outlines the legal obligations, risk mitigation strategies, and emergency planning procedures in accordance with Slovak law, particularly Act No. 124/2006 Coll., and integrates crisis response into broader safety management systems.
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to (1) recognise the types of workplace crises and their implications for OSH; (2) understand legal obligations regarding crisis prevention, preparedness, and response; (3) apply principles of emergency planning, evacuation, and worker protection; (4) develop organisational procedures and communication systems for crisis events; (5) evaluate the effectiveness of emergency drills, training, and incident response systems.
This chapter equips learners with the knowledge to design and implement safety strategies that are resilient under crisis conditions, ensuring protection for workers and continuity for operations.
14.1. Definition and Types of Crisis Situations in the Workplace
Crisis situations are defined as events or conditions that pose an immediate or developing threat to the health and safety of workers, the environment, or property. These events typically require urgent and coordinated responses beyond standard operating procedures.
Common workplace crisis situations include:
• Fires, explosions, and gas leaks
• Chemical or biological exposures
• Natural disasters (floods, earthquakes, storms)
• Structural failures or technical system breakdowns
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The nature and frequency of these events vary by sector and working conditions, but preparedness must be universal.
14.2. Legal Framework and Employer Responsibilities
Under Act No. 124/2006 Coll., the employer has a legal obligation to ensure safety in all conditions, including crisis situations. Specifically:
• §6 requires employers to take technical and organisational measures to prevent accidents and reduce the impact of emergencies;
• §9 mandates the development and implementation of emergency plans and procedures;
• §30–38 establish state supervision and enforcement, including the powers of labour inspectorates in crisis events.
Employers are obliged to:
• Assess specific risks related to potential emergencies;
• Develop and maintain emergency response and evacuation plans;
• Provide crisis-specific training and ensure worker preparedness;
• Equip workplaces with necessary warning systems, first aid, fire-fighting devices, and escape routes;
• Coordinate with local emergency services (fire brigade, civil protection, medical services).
13.3. Emergency Preparedness and Planning
Preparedness is key to managing crisis situations. Employers must:
• Identify potential emergencies through risk assessment;
• Appoint responsible persons for emergency management;
• Designate and mark evacuation routes and safe zones;
• Ensure accessibility of fire extinguishers, spill kits, alarms, and emergency exits;
• Develop written emergency plans which must be part of the OSH documentation;
• Coordinate with municipal or regional crisis authorities (civil protection, police, etc.).
Emergency plans should contain:
• Contact details of key personnel and emergency responders;
• Roles and responsibilities during emergencies;
• Communication methods (alarms, public address, mobile apps);
• Steps for evacuation, containment, rescue, and first aid;
• Procedures for vulnerable groups (disabled, pregnant workers, contractors).
13.4. Training, Drills, and Worker Involvement
All workers must be:
• Informed about crisis risks and appropriate procedures;
• Trained in emergency behaviour and evacuation routes;
• Regularly involved in simulation exercises or drills;
• Encouraged to report near-misses or unsafe situations.
Training must be adapted to the risks identified in the specific workplace and should include:
• Fire safety and evacuation techniques;
• Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) during crises;
• Basic first aid skills and incident reporting;
• Special procedures for work at height, confined spaces, or explosive atmospheres.
13.5. Crisis Management Coordination and Communication
Effective crisis response requires internal coordination and external communication:
• Assign crisis management teams with clear authority and backup roles;
• Ensure redundant communication systems (radios, PA, mobile alerts);
• Establish protocols for notifying authorities, stakeholders, and families;
• Keep documentation updated and accessible (emergency plan, floor plans, training records).
In complex or large-scale emergencies, organisations should align with national or EU civil protection systems.
13.6. Post-Crisis Evaluation and Recovery
After a crisis, employers must:
• Investigate the event, identify root causes, and document findings;
• Evaluate the effectiveness of emergency measures and update protocols;
• Provide medical and psychological support to affected workers;
• Ensure restoration of safe working conditions before resuming operations;
• Report the incident to authorities as required by law (e.g., serious work accidents under §17).
Lessons learned must be translated into improved planning, training, and risk reduction strategies. Crisis situations can significantly endanger lives, health, and property. Legal preparedness, effective planning, and active participation of all stakeholders are essential in managing emergencies. This chapter underlines that OSH does not end with compliance but requires proactive crisis resilience. Students must be prepared to build and implement safety systems that function reliably, even under pressure.
REVIEW QUESTIONS – CHAPTER 14
The Role of Education in Occupational Safety and Health
1. Why is education considered a cornerstone of effective occupational safety and health (OSH) systems?
2. True or False: OSH education is only relevant for high-risk occupations.
3. How does OSH training support the development of a safety culture within organisations?
4. What are the expected learning outcomes of a foundational OSH training programme?
5. Match levels of OSH education (e.g. general induction, role-specific, managerial) with their intended audiences.
Legal Framework and Obligations
1. What Slovak legal requirements mandate OSH training for workers?
2. Which article of Act No. 124/2006 Coll. deals with employer obligations in OSH education?
3. True or False: Employers are legally required to document all OSH training.
4. Describe how the periodicity of OSH training may differ based on job roles and risks.
5. Who is responsible for ensuring that training materials meet legal and technical standards?
Training Delivery and Methodology
1. What are the key components of an effective OSH training session?
2. What advantages do blended learning methods offer in OSH education?
3. True or False: Practical demonstrations and simulations are optional in OSH training.
4. How can adult learning principles improve knowledge retention in OSH training?
5. What assessment tools are commonly used to evaluate the effectiveness of OSH training?
Documentation, Evaluation and Continuous Improvement
1. What types of records must be kept regarding OSH education and training?
2. How does training documentation support legal defensibility during an inspection?
3. True or False: Once an employee completes training, no further education is required.
4. How can feedback from trainees be used to improve future OSH training sessions?
5. Identify at least three indicators that suggest a training programme is achieving its safety objectives.
LIST OD ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviation Full Term
ADR European Agreement concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road
CE Conformité Européenne (European Conformity)
Coll. Collection of Laws
DNV Det Norske Veritas (certification body)
DTE Designated Technical Equipment
EC European Commission
EEC European Economic Community
EN European Standard (Norme Européenne)
EU European Union
EU-OSHA European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
HAZMAT Hazardous Materials
HSE Health, Safety and Environment
ILO International Labour Organization
IP Labour Inspectorate
ISO International Organization for Standardization
NIP National Labour Inspectorate
OHS Occupational Health and Safety
OHSAS Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series
OSH Occupational Safety and Health
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
PPS Preventive and Protective Services
REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (EU Regulation)
RMP Risk Management Plan
SDS Safety Data Sheet
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
STN Slovak Technical Standard
STN EN Slovak version of a European Standard
ÚVZ SR Public Health Authority of the Slovak Republic
UN United Nations
Abbreviation Full Term
WHO World Health Organization
REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (EU Regulation)
RMP Risk Management Plan
SDS Safety Data Sheet
SOP Standard Operating Procedure
STN Slovak Technical Standard
STN EN Slovak version of a European Standard
UVZ SR Public Health Authority of the Slovak Republic
[1]. Act No. 124/2006 Coll. on Occupational Safety and Health, as amended.
[2]. Act No. 125/2006 Coll. on Labour Inspection, as amended.
[3]. Act No. 311/2001 Coll. – Labour Code of the Slovak Republic, as amended.
[4]. Act No. 355/2007 Coll. on the Protection, Promotion and Development of Public Health, as amended
[5]. Act No. 460/1992 Coll. – Constitution of the Slovak Republic, as amended
[6]. Decree of the Ministry of Health of the Slovak Republic No. 448/2007 Coll. on chemical exposure limits and workplace health protection.
[7]. European Council Directive 89/391/EEC of 12 June 1989 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health of workers at work. Official Journal of the European Communities, L183, 29.6.1989.
[8]. European Council Directive 89/654/EEC of 30 November 1989 concerning the minimum safety and health requirements for the workplace. Official Journal of the European Communities, L393, 30.12.1989.
[9]. European Council Directive 92/85/EEC of 19 October 1992 on the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health at work of pregnant workers. Official Journal of the European Communities, L348, 28.11.1992.
[10]. European Council Directive 93/68/EEC of 22 July 1993 on CE marking. Official Journal of the European Communities, L220, 30.8.1993.
[11]. European Council Directive 93/95/EEC of 29 October 1993 amending Directive 89/686/EEC on personal protective equipment. Official Journal of the European Communities, L276, 09.11.1993.
[12]. European Council Directive 2003/10/EC of 6 February 2003 on the minimum health and safety requirements regarding the exposure of workers to the risks arising from noise. Official Journal of the European Union, L42, 15.2.2003.
[13]. European Council Directive 2003/88/EC of 4 November 2003 concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time. Official Journal of the European Union, L299, 18.11.2003.
[14]. European Council Directive 2004/37/EC of 29 April 2004 on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to carcinogens, mutagens, or reprotoxic substances. Official Journal of the European Union, L229, 29.6.2004.
[15]. ISO 9001:2015. Quality management systems – Requirements. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.
[16]. ISO 14001:2015. Environmental management systems – Requirements with guidance for use. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.
[17]. ISO 45001:2018. Occupational health and safety management systems – Requirements with guidance for use. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization.
[18]. ILO Conventions and Recommendations on Occupational Safety and Health. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
[19]. Machinery Regulation (EU) 2023/1230 of 14 June 2023 on machinery products. Official Journal of the European Union, L165, 29.6.2023.
[20]. Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 on classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures (CLP).
[21]. Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH).
[22]. Slovak Government Regulation No. 395/2006 Coll. on the minimum requirements for the provision and use of personal protective equipment.
[23]. United Nations. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development – Sustainable Development Goals. New York: United Nations.
