Smart Farming Handbook

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Intellectual Output 2 – Smart Farming Handbook The European Commission's support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents, which reflect the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.

Photo: @Shutterstock

This document has been prepared by the project partners’ team of project “Smart Farming in the Fourth Industrial Revolution” SMART FARMING 4.0 ALL 2019-1-BG01-KA202-062376 funded by the Erasmus + Programme www.smartfarmingproject.eu

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Page Chapter 1. Brief summary based on the Smart farming questionnaires in the project partner countries 2 Chapter 2. Benefits related to the economy and the environment for professionals (Hakan Kanso - TR) Chapter 3. Establishment of Smart farming and legislative information (Dekaplus Ltd - CY and Via Pontica Foundation - BG) Chapter 4. CEA Controlled Environment Agriculture (OECON Group & The Chamber of Chalkidiki) Chapter 5. Best Practices in Urban Farming (SATEAN Foundation - RO) References

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Smart Farming 4.0 All Introduction Urbanization rates are gradually rising and it is estimated that by 2050 around 80% of the world’s population will live in cities, while the total population of the earth is expected to increase by 3 billion. This upward trend can lead to food shortage, as arable land already cultivated to cover these feeding requirements amounts to 80% of available farmland.

Through smart farming and cotrolled-environment agriculture larger food production is possible because the production can take place during the whole year without interruptions, while weather conditions in many cases have no impact on it. Vertical farming offers the possibility to increase crop yield per unit area of land requirement. Another issue that is solved through smart farming is the increase of pollution due to the use of fossil fuels for the transportation. It is estimated that the produced goods travel thousands of kilometers on average before they reach our table. Smart urban farming will automatically nullify the distance from the production site to the table, providing a green solution to the above problem. Cultivation methods vary from crops in soil, terraces, gardens and balconies in our personal space to crops in community public spaces and gardens in suburban areas.

In the current publication we will focus on aquaponics as a smart farming method for cultivation of fish and plants together in a constructed, recirculating ecosystem utilizing natural bacterial cycles to convert fish waste to plant nutrients. It is an environmentally friendly, natural foodgrowing method that harnesses the best attributes of aquaculture and hydroponics without the need to discard any water or filtrate or add chemical fertilizers. It enables growing food for oneself, the community, or for the market without the use of harmful pesticides and herbicides, while using the least resources, thereby leaving the smallest carbon footprint. In addition, aquaponics is suitable for environments with limited land and water, which makes it an urban-friendly technology as well as a sustainable farming technique. This modern idea of smart farming, whether it is performed in greenhouses or through indoor techniques, can be optimized by utilizing the controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) technology, where all environmental factors i.e. temperature, humidity, carbon dioxide, pH, etc. can be controlled and automated based on the Industry 4.0 trends.

Most importantly, smart farming systems do not require much prior expert knowledge in order to start your own cultivation; it requires resources like a backyard or a rooftop, and a hands-on approach combined with the right skills. Nevertheless, in most countries 3

throughout Europe, they are still in an infantile stage, even though it is rapidly developing during the last few years. Especially concerning the project’s participating countries (Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Turkey and Cyprus) where farming and fishing are two very important – yet not as modernized – industries, new smart farming methods cannot be located in many curricula of VET organizations or HEIs, nor are there many large-scale establishments, either for profit or non-profit. This is why the partners have come together to establish the “Smart Farming 4.0 All” consortium, in order to conduct extensive desk and field research addressed to a wide variety of relevant stakeholders and professionals, to create a Smart Farming Handbook and disseminate it freely to everybody interested, and to develop specific training curricula that will be utilized to train experts from the participating organizations as “carriers” of innovation, in order to be able to spread and mainstream this novel method back to their regions. Therefore, the project will have a wide consequent impact to different sectors and countries that, nonetheless, face similar challenges. Also, taking under account the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the project’s implementation provides a common set of tools that will be addressed and disseminated to everybody interested to – literally – get their hands dirty: young and adult students, entrepreneurs and fellow professionals, academics, trainers and even policymakers will be presented with the project’s results and the possibility to use them, each one for their respective purposes, but always with sustainable development as a final goal.

Cyprus Research has shown that Cyprus is ranked very low when it comes to the use of ‘Smart Farming’ (including Aquaponics and Hydroponics) in Agriculture (Stylianou and Adamides 2011). Agricultural practices in Cyprus are more ‘traditional’ without the implementation of ‘Smart’ technologies – with the exception of the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Research Stations which are focused on experimental work and the small number of individual cases where Aquaponics and Hydroponics systems have been created.

However, the potential to introduce a basic form of Smart Farming in the context of Hydroponics and Aquaponics exists in Cyprus. Farmers, stakeholders and policymakers can benefit from appropriate training curricula, which will further boost the awareness regarding such Smart Farming applications.

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Bulgaria Agriculture is an important economic sector in Bulgaria. By 2017, it employed nearly 7% of the working population. The useful agricultural surface is almost half the national territory, and by 2018, crop production represented a share of 69% of the total value of agricultural production.

Access to the EU (European Union) has made a positive impact on the development of Bulgarian agriculture. There is growth in the gross value added generated in the sector. There has also been growth in the labor production and investments, and there has been a boost of trade with agricultural goods. As a result, Smart Farming applications have become more widespread and have contributed to the increased competitiveness of the Bulgaria in this sector.

Monitoring the conditions for the development of production in real time, precise pest control, tracking "farm to fork", balancing consumption and other new technologies, easing the administrative burden, accurate prediction of stages in crop development - all this is possible with the application of the latest computer, robotic and artificial intelligence technologies. Progress and availability of new sensors connected via the Internet of Things (Internet of things-IoT), precise and Internet-related and geolocation mechanization, Blockchain distributed computer platforms (Blockchain), artificial intelligence systems processing large data sets (Big Data) in real time, robots, satellite systems, drones, ubiquitous access to information - these are the new tools of progress in agricultural business. The country has adopted a Strategy for digitalization of agriculture and agricultural regions of Republic of Bulgaria in 2019.

The level of existing smartfarming applications is low, but the country takes steps to accelerate the digitalization in agriculture in the period 2021-2027.

Greece The largest percentage in Greece does not know the concepts of hydroponics and aquaponics, there are no infrastructures, as well as the percentage who know the existence, the advantages and those who use these techniques are less than 10%. Research has shown that In Greece, there is a strong need by the farming population to attend training seminars in order to gain access and adopt practices in the field of hydroponics and aquaponics. In Greece, Smart Farming technologies are not widespread and as a result of perceived ‘lack of demand’ there is no training available.

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Romania Research has shown that farmers in Romania have many skills related to Smart Farming and are willing to experiment and work agricultural land using Smart Farming. The agricultural sector It's coming in in the digital era because of the rising demand for agricultural products.

The introduction of the new technologies helps farmers to manage their farms in a sustainable way. Innovative technologies can range from IT solutions to cropping systems. The introduction of new information and communications technologies in the agricultural sector could significantly contribute to its future sustainability, as well as the quality of life for farmers and consumers. Innovations will improve the quality of crop production, the quality of livestock health, but also, crucially, the quality of life for farmers.Despite that, a lack of funding creates many challenges in the sector. In addition to funding for purchasing machinery and other equipment, Romanian farmers require training in Smart Farming techniques in order to maximise their capacity to produce goods more efficiently.

Turkey Smart farming practices is a new concept in Turkey. Therefore, there are very small initiatives for smart farming practices. Since classical methods are generally preferred in agriculture, aquaponic and hydroponic systems are not recognized. Turkish Farmers and other relevant stakeholders need guidance, investments and education on practices in the field of smart farming so that they are able to expand it. This can be achieved with the introduction of innovative training curricula which will educate them on the concept of Smart Farming.

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Benefits related to the economy and the environment for professionals.

Aquaponics as a smart farming agricultural practice has many benefits that are related to both economy and environment.

Chemical Pesticide-free In an aquaponic system there is no option to use pesticides since they may cause death to the fish present in the system. This means that farmers get completely organic and healthy crops, and it is also a competitive advantage; people will naturally prefer to consume these organic, healthy crops, which are pesticide and artificial fertilizers free.

Pesticide uses in farming may cause several problems for humans. Pesticides can reach roots and crops of plants. Health problems related to pesticides are: ● Acute Poisoning: a toxic effect caused by chemicals. Chemicals taken in frequent periods, sometimes once sometimes repeatedly, may cause acute poisoning. Pesticide use in farming is one of these reasons. Today’s communication technologies allow people to reach every kind of knowledge. Consumers are becoming more conscious about products and more sensitive about their consumption habits. ● Chronic Poisoning: It is the poisoning caused by the accumulation of the drug in the body as a result of repeated intake. Effects and symptoms occur in the long term. ● Allergic Effect: It is most commonly seen in sensitive people and generally in workers who apply the chemicals or work in the environment where the chemicals is present.

Bleeding in the eyes, redness of the skin or itching may occur. ● Carcinogenic Effect: It occurs mostly with the carcinogenic properties of the chemical structure of the drug.

The other potential harms of pesticides are: ● They can cause death of fish and bees. ● The cause pollution by mixing in water resources, lakes and rivers ● They can pass under the ground with rain or irrigation water and contaminate groundwater resources.

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● They can be transmitted to humans through the food chain through the intake of nontarget environmental creatures.

Low Water Requirement In Aquaponics you need less water than traditional farming. Same amount of production but less water need is a big advantage. Aquaponics need only 2% of the water required in traditional farming. As it is a closed system, water loss is only due to evaporation. In this way, a serious saving can be achieved for water costs, time and effort spent for irrigation.

Using water in an efficient way is also important for water resources. 1/3 of water use in Europe belongs to agriculture sector.

As a result of the use of water in the agricultural field, serious problems arise especially in the efficiency of water resources.

It is seen in the results of various studies that the insufficiency of water resources may be encountered as a result of the changes in climates and precipitation regimes with the effect of global warming.

Therefore, it is essential that water use be carried out effectively for both drinking water and agriculture and animal husbandry activities.

At this point, aquaponic systems stand in a very important place. Thanks to these systems, it is possible to obtain the same amount of product, although the need for agricultural water decreases. Since the amount of water required for agricultural activities will be reduced considerably, the effects of drought will be minimized.

In the warning made by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), it was announced that 122 million people could be pushed into extreme poverty by 2030 due to climate change. Because climate changes, which negatively affect food security, greatly damage agricultural activities.

Damage to agricultural land and crops is one of the main factors facing hunger for millions of people today. This number is approximately equal to the number of refugees in the world.

The situation in question, which we can refer to as the other agenda of the world, does not find much response in the international public opinion. This is because such disasters are quietly escalating.

Based on this information, the benefits of aquaponic systems can be seen more clearly. These issues, which can be considered as perhaps the most important to be countered by the benefits of Aquaponic systems.

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Application on lands that is not suitable for agriculture In order for agricultural production to be carried out, the land must meet the relevant conditions. Suitability of conditions such as sufficient water resources and soil fertility is important. Therefore, agricultural production is not possible, especially in arid and barren lands. These conditions, which are necessary for the success of traditional agricultural practices, are not necessary in aquaponic systems. The African continent is an important example of agricultural production not being possible due to insufficient water resources.

Thanks to aquaponic systems, it is possible to obtain agricultural products in such regions. In addition, if approached from a different viewpoint, it is seen that production is possible in urban areas. Aquaponic systems can be applied on the roofs, as well as vertical applications inside buildings. In this way, it becomes possible for people far from agricultural areas to access fresh food products.

On the other hand, it becomes possible to establish settlements on lands that are not suitable for settlement. Therefore, thanks to the reduction of the need for water for agricultural needs, only the supply of drinking and utility water opens the way for horizontal architecture.

Thus, people's living standards can be raised to a higher level. This is the main reason why countries around the world try to encourage the development of cities with a horizontal architectural understanding. Thus, congested living in cities will be relieved.

https://www.forbes.com/sites/meghanmccormick/2020/02/28/aquafarms-africa-is-using-aquaponics-to-grow-foodand-entrepreneurs/?sh=7fc2aa412aea Mahama and Thomas pose with a crate of their fresh produce.

WIATTA THOMAS

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The effect of chemicals in the air is eliminated Thanks to aquaponic systems, the production that can be carried out in closed areas prevents the products from being affected by various spray gases in the air. In traditional methods, outdoor agricultural production is exposed to the effect of spray gases in the air. Pollution in the air reaches the fields and gardens by rainfall or winds. Harmful chemicals can enter the body through food consumption and cause various diseases. Aquaponic systems help alleviate this problem, because they are applied in closed environments.

The economic benefits of products that are free from chemical effects are quite great. Today, as a result of technological developments, it is a fact that people, namely consumers, are more conscious.

Consumers can access a large number of information about the products they purchase.

Therefore, purchasing tendencies are developing in this direction. The number of people trying to choose healthier products is increasing day by day.

Studies show that health awareness, the benefits of consuming healthy products, social identities, information search and various beliefs are effective in shopping preferences. In this context, the generally preferred definition is accepted as organic foods.

Although organic food is a definition that must be registered by the relevant official institutions, people realize this classification with a simpler level of production techniques.

High volume production Another advantage of aquaponic systems to traditional methods is in the amount of production. The superiority of aquaponic systems is striking when comparing an agricultural land of the same size with the aquaponic system in terms of product capacity.

The fact that multi-layered production is possible in aquaponic systems forms the basis of this advantage.

Low amount of waste The amount of waste generated in aquaponic systems is very low. Because of not using pesticides and chemicals in the production processes, there is no risk in the wastes generated.

The system is environmentally friendly due to the fact that the chemical wastes are at 0 level and the small amounts of wastes are natural.

Production is carried out naturally, and renewable resources such as sun and wind can be used for the electrical energy needs of the system. In this way, the system becomes 10

completely self-renewing and repeatable. Local administrations also approach systems positively because the wastes are natural.

High level of control The controllability of aquaponics systems is high. System-related measurements and controls (such as temperature and humidity) can be made remotely, especially thanks to the development and widespread use of smart agricultural practices. In addition, thanks to the installation of the system in closed environments, its independence from external factors especially the climate - is at a high level. While these elements increase the control capability on the system, they also maximize the efficiency independent of external influences. In traditional agricultural practices, farmers are dependent on external factors after they put forward their labor. Yield decreases when factors such as rainfall, temperature and humidity do not occur in accordance with the plants’ needs. Therefore, the income to be obtained from the products is also decreasing. From this point of view, traditional agricultural practices carry serious risks. In aquaponic systems, farmers work in closed environments. Since the system is a closed system that recirculates, it is not open to external influences. The controllability of aquaponics systems also provides an advantage for aquaponic farmers in terms of crop diversity, harvest timing and harvesting cycles.

Low Labor Requirement The labor required for daily tasks in the system is low. In addition, it does not take much time compared to traditional agriculture. Moreover, most of the agricultural machinery used in current methods is not needed.

Small quantities of production are possible The system is also suitable for low-volume production. The ability to produce enough to meet the food needs of a family makes the system even more attractive. Nowadays, as a result of people's desire to consume healthier products for a healthier life, many families want to grow products for their own consumption in their own homes. Aquaponic systems can be applied in smaller areas without requiring soil and climate conditions. These systems, which can be installed even in the garage, enable agricultural production at a level that can meet the needs of a family. In addition, all family members can be involved in the system and take care of it.

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Establishment of Smart farming and legislative information Establishing Aquaponic Systems Different types of aquaponic systems 1. Domestic/small-scale aquaponics Small-scale aquaponic systems are appropriate for domestic applications and small production. Small-scale aquaponics are popular because they provide good quality produce (FAO 2014). They are also part of various educational curricula in primary schools, secondary schools as well as higher education institutions as a hands-on learning medium of introducing populations to sustainable agricultural practices such as ‘’rainwater harvesting, nutrient recycling and organic food production’’.

2. Large-scale (semi-commercial and commercial) aquaponics Semi-commercial and commercial aquaponics usually make use of monoculture practices.

Larger-scale aquaponic systems involve a greater risk in terms of return of investment, hence their small number (on international level) compared to smaller-scale systems (FAO 2014).

More specifically, such systems are characterized by the following: ● High initial investment requirements; ● Monoculture practices (i.e. lettuce cultivation); ● Currently mainly used for academic purposes and research instead of wide-scale food production.

The Biological Components of aquaponics – How it Works The term ‘Aquaponics’ refers to the integration of two elements in one system (FAO 2014): ● Aquaculture; the practice of farming of fish, aquatic plants etc. ● Hydroponics; the practice of growing plants without soil.

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An aquaponic unit is a symbiotic environment. It functions as a recirculating unit in the following order/cycle: 1) Culture water exits the fish tank containing metabolic fish waste; 2) The water passes through a mechanical filter that captures solid waste; 3) The water then passes through a bio-filter that oxidizes ammonia to nitrate; The bio-filter provides a habitat for bacteria colonies, which convert fish waste into nutrients for plants.

4) These nutrients are dissolved in the water 5) The water then travels through plant grow beds where plants uptake the nutrients; The water is filtered in the nutrient removal process. Toxic material such as ammonia and nitrogen are removed from the water, thus allowing the fish to grow and continue the cycle.

6) The water returns, purified, to the fish tank.

The Biological Components in more detail: 1. The Nitrification Process What is Nitrogen?

Nitrogen (N2) is a chemical element, essential for the existence of life. In gas form, Nitrogen is the most abundant element in the Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere consists of approximately 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen (O2) and 1% other gasses including Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Argon (Ar) (Helmenstine 2018). Nitrogen is the most important inorganic nutrient for all plants. However, its molecular form (as found in the atmosphere) has to change before plants can use it for growth; the change process is called ‘nitrogen-fixation’ (FAO 2014).

The Nitrogen Fixation Process The Nitrogen Fixation process can happen naturally or synthetically (Britannica 2021): 1) The natural process: Micro-organisms (bacteria) in soil, harvest Nitrogen from the atmosphere, which results in the production of ammonia, nitrites and nitrates. The products of the Nitrogen fixation process are nutrients for plants.

2) The synthetic process: In an industrial context, Ammonia can be synthesized from atmospheric Nitrogen and Hydrogen using the ‘Haber-Bosch’* method. Commercially produced ammonia is used in fertilizers.

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* ‘‘The Haber-Bosch [chemical process] directly combines nitrogen from the air with hydrogen under extremely high pressures and moderately high temperatures. A catalyst made mostly from iron enables the reaction to be carried out at a lower temperature than would otherwise be practicable, while the removal of ammonia from the batch as soon as it is formed ensures that an equilibrium favouring product formation is maintained … For commercial production, the reaction is carried out at pressures ranging from 200 to 400 atmospheres and at temperatures ranging from 400° to 650°.’’

Britannica, 2021 In nature, Ammonia is also created by bacteria and fungi which metabolize decaying dead plants and animals. Ammonia is then metabolized by bacteria called ‘Nitrifying Bacteria’ and converted into nitrites and nitrates (absorbed by the plants using their roots).

2. The Nitrification Process in Aquaponics: The Bio-filter The nitrification by bacteria (in soil) also takes place in water in the same way. Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia from fish to nitrate, which is transferred to the plants in the grow beds. Nitrification in aquaponic systems provides nutrients for the plants and eliminates ammonia and nitrite which are toxic to the fish (FAO 2014).

The nitrification process consists of two groups of nitrifying bacteria: a) The Ammonia-oxidizing Bacteria (AOB) b) The Nitrite-oxidizing Bacteria (NOB) The above two groups bacteria metabolize the ammonia in the following order: 1) AOB bacteria convert Ammonia (NH₃) into nitrite (NO₂) 2) NOB bacteria then convert nitrite (NO₂) into nitrate (NO₃).

The ‘Bio-filter bacteria’ healthy growth can be maintained by ensuring adequate surface area and appropriate water conditions (pH 6-7, water temperature 17o – 34o, UV light protection).

Design and Installation of an Aquaponic Unit Things to consider before building an Aquaponic Unit (FAO 2014): 1. Location: ● Will the Unit be installed outdoors? Will it be shaded? Will it be installed in a greenhouse? ● What components do we need and how are we going to move them? Is the Unit stable with strong supporting structure? ● Is there a risk of obstruction to water flow? Is the ground level and solid?

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● How can we stabilize the fish tanks and thermally isolate them from the ground? ● Are we considering installing our Unit on a rooftop? How much weight can it hold?

2. Protection from the elements: ● Will the Unit be protected from the elements? ● How can we secure the power source and electrical wires and sockets? Is the Unit flood-proof? ● Will the Unit be exposed to sufficient sunlight? Do our specific plants require direct sunlight exposure or shade? How can we protect our fish from direct sunlight?

3. Accessibility and Utility ● Have we isolated our power outlets to reduce risk of electrical shock? ● Do we have access to a water source? ● Is our installation safe from theft, vandalism or invasions from other animals?

Essential Structural, Biological and Mechanical Components of Aquaponic Units 1. The Fish Tank Round tanks (made of UV resistant plastic or fiberglass) with flat bottoms are preferable.

Round tanks allow water to circulate uniformly, transporting waste towards the center of the tank by centripetal force. Other shapes (i.e. square) require more active waste removal. Fish tanks should be covered to prevent fish from jumping out; for example, materials such as agricultural shading nets block most the sunlight and can be used safely (FAO 2014).

2. The Fish The list of aquatic species that are proven to flourish in Aquaponic Systems include: Tilapia, Common carp, Silver carp, Grass carp, Barramundi, Jade perch, Catfish, Trout, Murray cod, Prawns and Largemouth bass. It is important to be aware of local regulations regarding the imports of new fish species. Some species, if released, can be a threat to the local ecosystems (FAO 2014).

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Fish Health and Disease Management (FAO 2014) The most important aspect of good fish health is the maintenance of good water quality. Good water quality strengthens the fish immune systems and makes it more resistant to diseases and parasites. Good practices that help farmers ensure their fish are healthy: ● Daily observation of fish behaviour; look for signs of stress, disease and parasites. The best time to observe fish behaviour is during feeding time. In general, fins should be extended, tails should be straight, normal and graceful swimming. There should be no marks along their bodies and no discoloration. Fish should not be breathing air from the surface; if such behaviour is observed, check water quality. ● Maintain a low-stress environment; maintenance of good water quality according to the needs of specific fish species. ● Stock the fish tank accordingly, do not overpopulate and do not overfeed.

3. Mechanical Filtration - Waste Separator/Clarifier Fish waste can be damaging to an aquaponic system in two ways (FAO 2014, HowToAquaponic 2021): a) If waste is left to decompose in the fish tank, harmful gasses are released by bacteria. Mechanical filtration is essential for removing waste and preventing any harm to the fish. Mechanical filtration is the process of separating and removing fish waste from the tanks. b) Solid fish waste can clog systems and disrupt water flow and oxygen supply to the plant roots.

Types of mechanical filters ● Clarifier: a reservoir with a plate in the middle, which separates solids by letting them settle at the bottom. The reservoir can be have any shape as long as it is big enough to retain the solids for above 20 minutes.

Source: www.howtoaquaponics.com

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● Radial Flow Separator: the most common method of mechanical filtration used in Aquaponics. It is structurally more complicated than a clarifier but similar in function as well as more efficient.

Source: www.howtoaquaponics.com

● Raft filters: filters made out of Matala (flexible fiber compounds) mesh sheets. They need to be cleaned manually when clogged up.

When the filters get clogged up, water will flow over the top of the mats, protecting the filter tank from overflow.

Source: https://aquaponix.wordpress.com/solidsfilter-for-domestic-aquaponics-systems/

● Filter Sock: used exclusively in small-scale Units.

They can be used to trap solid waste, in order to test the quantity that passes through the filtration system.

Source: www.howtoaquaponics.com

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Vortex Separator: used in small-scale Units. They are shaped like a barrel, and solid waste is collected at the bottom with the motion of water (swirl/vortex).

Source: www.howtoaquaponics.com

4. Bio-filtration: The bio-filter facilitates the process bacteria converting ammonia and nitrite into nitrate. In an quaponic Unit, the bio-filter is responsible for processing the waste particles that cannot be captured by the mechanical filter (FAO 2014, AquaponicTrend 2018). Biofilters in Aquaponic Units are designed to have a large surface area supplied with oxygenated water and are installed somewhere between the hydroponic containers with plants and the mechanical filter (FAO 2014, AquaponicTrend 2018).

Bio-filter media: ● Plastic balls: an ideal bio-filter material, because they have a very large surface area in relation to their volume; ● Volcanic gravel; ● Plastic bottle caps; ● Nylon shower poufs; ● Netting; ● PVC shavings; ● Nylon scrub pads.

The bio-filter should be filled as much as possible, to maximize the surface area. It is good practice to oversize the bio-filter during the construction of the Aquaponic Unit, while there is always the possibility to add more filters in the future if necessary.

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In terms of maintenance, bio-filters need: a) Occasional stirring/agitating to prevent clogging b) Occasional rinsing to avoid the creation of anoxic areas on their surface

Above: Two examples of Bio-filter media Source: www.howtoaquaponics.com

Starting a Bacterial Colony (Bio-filter) The process of establishing a bacterial colony in an Aquaponic Unit – also known as ‘System Cycling’ is a slow process usually taking three to five weeks.

The System Cycling process: ● It involves the introduction of ammonia into the bacterial colony, creating the biofilter. ● The progress is measured by monitoring the nitrogen levels. As the nitride oxidising bacteria increase and nitrite is converted into nitrate, the nitrite levels in the water will start to decline. ● The end of the cycling process is defined as when the nitrate level is steadily increasing, the nitrite level is 0 mg/litre and the ammonia level is less than 1 mg/litre.

Tip: During the cycling process there will be high levels of ammonia and nitrite, which could be harmful to fish. The process to establish the bio-filter should start before introducing fish into the system. Additionally, make sure all aquaponic components, in particular the biofilter and fish tank, are protected from direct sunlight before starting the process. Ammonia should be continuously, but cautiously, added to ensure adequate food for the developing colony without becoming toxic (FAO 2014).

5. The Media Beds – Hydroponic Component (RGJ Aquaponics 2018) In an Aquaponic Unit, the media beds act as the plant-growing section. Media Bed types: ● Media Bed Units: the most popular media for plant growth. They are simple in design, and can be made from low-cost/recyclable everyday materials such as 19

plastic, fibreglass or wood. In media bed units, the medium both supports the roots of the plants and acts as a filter. ● Nutrient Film Technique Units (RGJ Aquaponics 2018): In the context of NFT, plants are placed in the top of horizontal pipes through which flows a stream of aquaponic water.

Seeds are placed into plastic net cups filled with hydroponic media, which are in turn placed

An example of a Nutrient Film Unit setup Source: https://rgjaquaponics.weebly.com/aquaponic-systems.html

in the pipes. NFT is most useful in urban applications, due to space limitations. NFT Units require dedicated filtration unlike Media Bed Units.

An example of a Media Bed Unit setup Source: https://rgjaquaponics.weebly.com/media-bed-technique.html#

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● Deep Water Culture Units (RGJ Aquaponics 2018): Most commonly applied in large-scale Aquaponics, the DWC method involves suspending plants in polystyrene sheets with their roots submersed in aquaponic water. The water flow principles in DWC are similar to those seen in an NFT Unit; canals are used to circulate the water through the planting area. DWC Units require aeration (the process of air being circulated through or mixed with a liquid) since canals can be densely planted and lack of oxygen for the plants is a real risk. A simple way to

An example of a Deep Water Unit setup Source: https://rgjaquaponics.weebly.com/deep-water-culture.html

achieve aeration is by using small air stones and placing them in the canals.

6. Water Pumps: Water movement is essential for the survival of living organisms in an Aquaponic Unit. Without moving water, there will be a reduction in oxygen as well as accumulation of fish waste in the fish tank, killing the fish in a few hours (FAO 2014).

It is common practice to cycle the volume of water in a system once or twice in an hour, depending on the density of fish and plants; In densely stocked systems, it is recommended to cycle the water twice an hour. For example, if an Aquaponic system contains 1000 litres of water, the water pump of should be able to move 2000 per hour (FAO 2014).

There are three commonly used methods of moving water through a system: ● Submersible impeller water pumps are the most commonly used type of pumps.

It is important to install the submersible pump in an accessible location, to enable 21

easy periodic cleaning (every two to three weeks) or when necessary. Submersible pumps will take catastrophic damage if they work in dry conditions; they must always work in water (FAO 2014).

An example of a Submersible Water Pump Source: https://aquaponicsplansplant.blogspot.com/2016/09/diy-aquaponics-water-pump.html

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Airlift pumps: in an Airlift Pump, air is forced to the bottom of a pipe within the fish tank, forming bubbles which transport water as they move to the top of the tank.

Water is oxygenated through the vertical movement of the bubbles. Airlift pumps have longer lifespans that submersible pumps and are more economical since they can accommodate both aeration and water circulation. This way, there is no need to purchase a second pump (FAO 2014).

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Layout of an Airlift Pump Source: https://aquaponictrend.blogspot.com/2018/08/aquaponic-air-lift-pump.html

● Human power is also an option and some very small Aquaponic systems are designed to use it in a few ways; buckets, pulleys, modified bicycles, header tanks or other means can be used to move water around the system. When used together with other techniques, human powered water movement techniques can contribute to sufficient mixing of nutrients and oxygenation of water (FAO 2014).

7. The plants Plant Selection: Plant selection is influenced by the grow technique used. Media bed units are commonly used for polyculture of leafy greens, herbs and fruiting vegetables. Culture of

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fruiting plants needs larger grow pipes, so plants such as tomatoes are planted using NFT units (FAO 2014).

Additionally, vegetables vary as per their overall nutrient demand and are categorized as follows: a) low demand, b) high demand and c) medium demand. The list of popular plants/vegetables grown in Aquaponic Units includes (among others) (FAO 2014): ● Cauliflower (medium demand) ● Lettuce (low demand) ● Parsley (low demand) ● Cabbage (medium demand) ● Tomatoes (high demand) ● Cucumbers (high demand) ● Peppers (high demand) Root crops such as onions, beets and garlic are not preferred to be grown in Aquaponic Units due to their sensitivity and high nutrient demands. If root crops are the farmer’s choice, they are only grown in deep media beds.

Plant Harvesting: It is important to consider the balance of the ecosystem of the Unit before harvesting. Harvesting all plants at once should be avoided because the water will not be sufficiently cleaned. On the other hand, the presence of too many plants would result in ecosystem nutrient deficiency. Harvesting cycles should be balanced with re-planting cycles (FAO 2014).

Plant Pest and Disease Control: The term ‘Plant Health’ refers to ‘’the overall status of wellbeing that allows a plant to achieve its full productive potential’’ (FAO 2014). It involves the following aspects: ● Management of pathogens and pets ● Optimal nutrition ● Planting techniques ● Environmental management To maximize plant health, farmers need to have knowledge on the characteristics/needs of the plants they grow so they can address issues and prevent/combat risks (FAO 2014).

The ecosystem of an Aquaponic Unit is isolated from harsh weather conditions, thus it becomes a favourable habitat for microorganisms and small insects, including those that are harmful to plants such as whiteflies and cabbage moths. In ‘traditional’ agriculture, farmers solve this problem using chemical pesticides and insecticides. In the context of Aquaponics,

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this is impossible because such chemicals are toxic to the fish as well as the bacteria in the bio-filters (FAO 2014).

Plant health management in Aquaponics involves: a) Crop and environmental management b) Use of organic and biological pest deterrents In the context of Aquaponic ecosystems, Plant health management without the use of pesticides integrated in the production process is called ‘‘Integrated production and pest management (IPPM)’’ (FAO 2014).

IPMM Controls include the use of: netting and screens, multilevel installations, hand inspection and removal of pests and sticky traps, plant spacing, crop rotation and more.

Additionally, farmers can make use of beneficial predator insects to prevent infestations. In terms of environmental controls, farmers may be able to control ambient temperature and humidity in their space, water temperature, planting densities, plant choice and nutrition and more (FAO 2014).

THE BUSINESS PLAN The Business Plan is the most essential component of a start-up; it creates opportunity create a road map by thinking through and plan every aspect of a future business (European Business Review 2021, EU Business School 2021, GoGreenAquaponics 2021): ● ● ● ●

The Organization Marketing Strategy The Operation Strategy Financial Strategy

Ultimately, the aim of a Business Plan is to convince stakeholders (employees, partners, sponsors, investors, etc.) that a business idea is good and that the business will be a success.

Before beginning the development of their Business Plan, aspiring entrepreneurs should consider the following (GoGreenAquaponics 2021): ● The values of the business and the type of the organization (i.e. Non-profit organization, Social Enterprise, income source etc.) ● Personal experience and opportunities for training, or seeking expertise elsewhere both for business plan development and for business operations 25

● ● ● ●

The type of produce grown by the business Who will run the business and the location of business The available financial resources The environmental aspects of the business and local legislations

MAIN SECTIONS OF A BUSINESS PLAN: 1. The Executive Summary/Overview The Executive Summary is exactly what the title suggests; it summarizes the content of the business plan, the business idea and all main aspects. The overview should include: ● A brief ‘Vision Statement’; the statement incorporates the value of the business, target market, product overview, geographic reach of the business and profitability ● Overview of the business goals 2. The Organizational Plan The Organizational Plan is a lengthy section that must include: ● Description of the Business; What is the nature of the business? Why was the company formed? ● The Company Mission; definition of the key goals ● Strategy and Strategic relationships; What are the short-term and long-term goals and what is the strategy to achieve them? Who are the people/organizations that will be involved with the company and in what way? ● The Administrative Plan and Intellectual Properties ● Overview of products and services ● The location of the business 3. The Marketing Plan The Marketing Plan includes market analysis, advertising and sales strategy, public relations strategy and details on the products and services of the business. Specifically, the Marketing Plan includes: ● Details about the products and services of the business, and in the context of an Aquaponics enterprise; what is the growing/production process? Who are the suppliers of raw materials? What is the availability of raw materials? How will the products be promoted?

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● Market Analysis; identification of demographics and market specifics, identification of competition, market trends and market research results ● The Marketing Strategy; branding information, sales and distribution methods, pricing, product packaging, advertising strategy, public relations etc. ● SWOT Analysis 4. The Operation Strategy The Operation Strategy describes: ● The concept of Culture methods used (i.e. Aquaponics), Crop and/or Fish management ● Product management strategy, yield estimates, harvesting schedules ● Farm size and capacity, physical resource needs and management ● Management information; who will be running the business? What will be their responsibilities? ● Personnel information; How many employees will be employed? What will be their positions and what are the necessary qualifications for employment? How many hours will they work and at what wage? Will the business be employing more people in the future? ● Organization Chart ● Regulation requirements and policies 5. The Financial Strategy A Business Plan must contain a financial analysis of the business, including projections for the next three years. When presenting the Financial Strategy, the use of charts and tables is highly recommended. The Financial Strategy section of a Business Plan should include: ● Set-up costs; establishment, infrastructure and equipment costs. ● A three-year projection of income and expenditures (operational costs, staff costs etc.). ● Break-Even Analysis, Financial Risk Analysis ● Financial Risk Management strategy

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CEA Controlled Environment Agriculture

Controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) is a technology-based approach toward food production. The aim of CEA is to provide protection and maintain optimal growing conditions throughout the development of the crop. Production takes place within an enclosed growing structure such as a greenhouse or building. Plants are often grown using hydroponic methods in order to supply the proper amounts of water and nutrients to the root zone. CEA optimizes the use of resources such as water, energy, space, capital and labor. CEA technologies include hydroponics, aeroponics, aquaculture, aquaponics, etc. Different techniques are available for growing food in controlled environment agriculture. The more viable option is vertical farming. Vertical farming has the ability to produce crops all year round in a controlled environment, with the possibility of increased yield by adjusting the amount of carbon and nutrients the plants receive (Benke et al). In consideration to urban agriculture, CEA can exist inside buildings that already exist, such as repurposed abandoned buildings.

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Controllable variables: ● Temperature (air, nutrient solution, root-zone, leaf) ● Humidity (%RH) ● Carbon dioxide (CO2) ● Light (intensity, spectrum, duration and intervals) ● Nutrient concentration (PPM, EC) ● Nutrient pH (acidity) ● Pests CEA facilities can range from fully 100% environmentally controlled enclosed closed loop systems, to fully automated glasshouses with computer controls for watering, lighting and ventilation, to low-tech solutions such as cloches or plastic film on field grown crops and plastic-covered tunnels.

CEA methods can be used to grow literally any crop, though the reality is a crop has to be economically viable and this will vary considerably due to local market pricing, and resource costs.

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Types of Growing Environments Depending on country or region or type of grower, different words are used to describe the same thing. Here is a short description of the different growing environments for CEA: ● Indoor Growing / Indoor Farming Indoor growing and indoor farming refer to crop production that utilizes supplemental lighting, such LED lights instead of sunlight, and gives the ability to control the environment.

This type of controlled environment agriculture can include rooms, warehouses, containers, factories and other converted indoor spaces not usually created for growing crops. ● Vertical Farming Vertical farming is crop production that uses the vertical space. Plants can be stacked horizontally or in tall towers. This style of farming is great for small spaces like shipping containers or other high-density spaces as it requires less land to cultivate. ● Greenhouse A greenhouse is a glass or polycarbonate structure that uses sunlight in crop production.

Variables like temperature, humidity and sunlight need to be considered carefully when growing produce in greenhouses, particularly during the summer months. ● Protected Cropping Protected cropping refers to when crops that are grown outdoors with some protection against the elements, e.g. under hoop houses, tunnel houses or canopies. Pest control is harder to manage as the crops are exposed to the elements, however the protection can offer value when it comes to rain, hail and frost.

Types of Growing Methods Within a crop production environment, plants can be grown using different methods. By far the most popular method is hydroponics. Here are a few types of growing methods you can use in controlled environment agriculture. ● Hydroponics Hydroponics is the growing of plants without soil as a medium while delivering water, nutrients and oxygen. The plants can be grown in a variety of mediums like sand, gravel, rockwool, coconut fiber and oasis cubes. It is a great sustainable way of growing with water expect potential savings between 70% and 90% depending on the type of crop and your setup. There are different types of hydroponic systems including: - N.F.T. (Nutrient Film Technique) 30

- Drip System - Ebb & Flow (also known as Flood & Drain) - Wick - Water Culture (also known as Deep Water Culture) Crops grown using this method include microgreens, leafy greens, tomatoes, peppers, strawberries, herbs and medicinal cannabis.

● Aeroponics Aeroponics is the growing of plants without soil and using little water. The roots of the plant are suspended in air and sprayed with a nutrient and water solution. Generally, the roots are in an enclosed environment to ensure the nutrient mist is captured by the root structures.

Aeroponics is typically used within greenhouses, using sunlight as the main light source with supplemental lighting if needed. Aeroponics has been noted as the most water sustainable type of growing, using 90% less water than some hydroponic systems, which are already considered to be sustainable themselves. ● Aquaponics Aquaponics is a method of controlled environment agriculture that uses a combination of aquaculture (raising fish) and hydroponics. In a flourishing ecosystem, the waste from the fish 31

(ammonium and urea) and the bacteria in the system deliver all the required nutrients to the plants. Aquaponics relies on fast growing fish (tilapia, perch, catfish, trout, etc.) in order to supply the needs of the plants and can be set up indoors as they don’t require soil. Water can then be recycled back to the fish. Each species nurtures the other with no requirement for chemical fertilizers. ● Fogponics (also known as mistponics) Fogponics has been described as the next phase of aeroponic technology. Using the same basic premise of suspending the root system in the air in an enclosed environment and supplying the plant with water and nutrients, fogponics uses droplets that are practically vapor. The nutrient-rich fog is delivered to the stems, leaves and roots for faster and better absorption.

Key Points: Controlled environment agriculture has expanded rapidly since the late 1990s as growers use strategically located grow houses to extend production seasons and achieve transportation efficiencies. A few big growers control a large share of the CEA market and consolidation in the retail food industry will further enhance their market influence. High costs of capital, labor, and knowledge are barriers to entry for new, or small, CEA operations.

Many growers fail by not anticipating capital needs and not aligning scale to match sales. CEA growers using hydroponic technology are realizing lucrative price premiums, and are benefiting from significantly higher crop yields and an extended growing season, compared to field-grown produce. While risks are high for small producers, opportunities exist for those who capture price premiums in niche markets.

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The power of fresh, local and sustainable: Consumers, especially those in urban areas, are seeking locally produced food. Production increases have also been fueled by: • Price premiums that high-quality produce carries.

• Retailers’ need for a year-round supply of fresh produce.

• The consistency of indoor production.

The result is that CEA hydroponic produce – particularly tomatoes, cucumbers, and peppers – has evolved from a high-end niche category to being an important part of retailer produce programs.

High risk, high reward: Establishing a CEA hydroponic vegetable operation requires considerable capital investment. Depending on the size of the operation and the level of technology involved, the capex can run into the tens of millions of dollars. In addition, these types of systems usually have high operating costs. This is a huge challenge for growers and has implications for the length of time it takes for them to realize a profit. Knowledge is a further barrier to entry. The success of a CEA hydroponic venture requires skilled labor and a range of horticultural, engineering, and business skills. Hydroponics can be very profitable, but the stakes are high given the required level of investment and knowhow. Because of this – if and when businesses fail – the losses can be significant.

Recipe for success: CEA farming can be a very profitable business, but it is also very risky with a steep learning curve. While the failure rate is high, there are many successful growers. So, what does it take to succeed in this industry? Growers come in many shapes and sizes, and there is a lot of variation in the how, what, and where of production. But no matter the size of the operation or the crops produced, the following fundamentals are foundational to grower success: • Operational cost. The newer production systems are much more capital intensive with high startup and working capital needs. Growers often run into cash flow problems early on because they don’t realize just how high these costs are.

• Assessment of the market. It is imperative that growers target and serve a sustainable market. They need to practically assess demand and determine whether profitable margins are possible given their level of output and the market price. Producers should think carefully before scaling an operation to meet customer demand and follow a market-driven approach when making planting decisions.

• Assessment of competition. Differentiation from the commodity market and other competitors is key to having a profitable and thriving business. Successful growers have managed to create a better value proposition by producing a quality (branded) product that demands a price premium.

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Nevertheless, aside from the preceding fundamentals, there are several common misconceptions about CEA farming that can trip up prospective growers. These include, but are not limited to: • Assuming full production from the start when it usually takes a year or two to get to full production.

• Miscalculating and misunderstanding operational costs, especially labor and energy costs.

Costs can vary by crop type and production period.

• These types of production systems cut out pest and disease problems.

• Misunderstanding the importance and cost of providing adequate light.

• All product that is grown will be sold.

• Customers will remain loyal.

• Underestimating the importance, affordability, and availability of highly skilled labor and greenhouse managers. The value of having a reliable, capable workforce can’t be stressed enough.

• Thinking that the crop will grow itself. It may not be conventional agriculture, but CEA is still commercial crop farming.

Data visualization and analytics Furthermore, visualization of data through various CEA toolsets will further improve data analysis by providing a tool for reporting, interpretation and near-real time monitoring of growth performance. By leveraging climate data, comprehensive reports on environmental conditions of utmost importance, especially under field conditions, will be integrated in the farmers’ daily work, aiming to decrease experimental variability and increase objectivity in measurement of production and detection of potential problems.

Advanced toolsets will also be able to visualize geospatial information on a number of elements that will be and calculated by proximal, aerial and spaceborne images over time, such as crop physical and biophysical parameters and earth observation (EO) derived vegetation indices, and will be provided in the farmers’ mobile devices accompanied with useful statistics based on the relevant agricultural cycle. Hence, a database will be able to be assigned to each CEA location, containing a number of diverse data, collected during the agricultural cycle.

CEA will – sooner or later – disrupt traditional practices by exploiting various data sources and innovative ICT technologies, including mobile/cloud computing and the Internet of Things (IoT), location-based monitoring (earth observation, proximal and remote sensing, geotagged 34

information) and big data (web of data, linked open data), combining them with machine learning and advanced image recognition technologies, and delivering a valuable mix of tools to support efficient plant breeding strategies.

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Best Practices in Urban Farming 1. Definition of Urban Farming Urban agriculture, urban farming, or urban gardening is the practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in or around urban areas. Urban agriculture can also involve animal husbandry, aquaculture, agroforestry, urban beekeeping, and horticulture. These activities occur in peri-urban areas as well, and peri-urban agriculture may have different characteristics.

Urban agriculture (UA) can be used as a mechanism to contribute to food security in each of the four dimensions. The FAO (2007) has defined urban agriculture as “the growing of plants and the raising of animals for food and other uses within and around cities and towns, and related activities such as the production and delivery of inputs, processing and marketing of products.” further specifies this by maintaining that UA is integrated into the local economic and ecological system of cities and can include nearby towns and suburbs (peri-urban areas) that supply to urban areas.

Urban agriculture has become a means to increase access to locally grown food and a way of reintroducing the public to the many aspects of food that we have lost as a culture. How food grows, what grows regionally and seasonally are all important lessons and make a better informed urban consumer. Urban farms can be the front line of the food system.

For some the term urban implies inner city, like where Greensgrow is. For others, urban has come to mean areas that are on the perimeter of cities (what some refer to as peri-urban).

There is no single characterization of size or placement; some are on rooftops, on landfills, brownfields, or areas where housing or industry may have been demolished. Some cities are giving up part of their park systems to allow urban farmers to plant their seeds. Every urban farm is different just as every rural farm is different.

Urban agriculture (AU), recently indicated by FAO as a way out of poverty, actually plays a strategic role for the quality of life of the cities, where the majority of the world population is concentrated, helping to ensure security food in developing countries and to increase the offer of environmental services everywhere 36

2. Urban Farming in the world The architectural transformation of the rural environment will continue to accelerate as the growth of the urban population imposes greater demands. Consequently, the result will be the need for higher agricultural production, the use of less water, less energy and less land.

In fact, Urban Farming has several goals, not only to bring benefits to the economy, but also to improve the environment and create a sense of community. Some best practices can be found in Belgium, United Arab Emirates, Italy, and the Netherlands.

● Belgium The practices of urban agriculture present in Belgium are divided into the examples listed below.

Urban Crop Solutions Urban Crop Solutions offers end-to-end solutions for indoor vertical farming. The company carries out various activities: -

Helps to select the right plant varieties to get the best harvest Designs, manufactures and installs automatic installation units capable of adapting to the needs of each company.

Supports the customer in the production and sustenance of the crop. Any crop can be grown under LED light anywhere on the planet, all year round.

Thanks to a team of engineers, their activity is based on "Grow-How", ie the biology of indoor plants. In fact, the company has developed dedicated LED lighting, flexible fertigation, a dedicated air conditioning system and remote access control software.

Urban Smart Farm - De Punt The Urban Smart Farm produces micro greens, herbs, fish and giant shrimp in recycled transport containers. Their goal is the sustainable production of several layers of fresh food (vertical agriculture).

Urban Smart Farm is a combination of natural production and clean technology. Aquaponics, LED lighting and insect feeds improve the sustainable production of fresh vegetables, herbs, micro vegetables, fish and shrimp.

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Veggie Bros - Vertical Farming Systems from Urban Cultivator - Minigarden Véritable creates and produces innovative indoor vegetable gardens that make it possible to effortlessly grow, harvest and enjoy tasty aromatic herbs all year round. Véritable gardens are available in two sizes and with a choice of 3 variants: -

CLASSIC: with standard lighting for 16 hours per day, SMART: with adaptive brightness depending on the light intensity of the environment and CONNECT: with lighting programming, maintenance, pruning and culinary tips, can be operated and received via the Véritable iOS or Android app.

BIGH - Ferme Abattoir Their mission is to build a network of sustainable aquaponic urban farms in major cities of Belgium. They grow fresh & tasty produce locally for cities using an aquaponic system which is sustainable, highly productive, and pesticide free.

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BIGH integrates farms with existing buildings to benefit from waste energy and reduce their environmental impact. They design their farms with the circular economy in mind, their building materials are cradle-to-cradle where possible, sustainable and can be up-cycled. The farms are designed to make the best use of water and energy, and to reduce the heat island effect. Like most Urban Farming projects, one of their aims is to create spaces to encourage greater biodiversity in cities.

● United Arab Emirates Pure Harvest In the UAE, the focus is increasingly on greenhouses and vertical farming. One of the more recent examples is Pure Harvest Smart Farms, which is located in Nahel, and is currently capable of producing and selling high quality tomatoes. The great advantage of this country are the numerous European partnerships and that it has always relied on imports, thanks also to the great technological development it has had over the years. The industrial sector in the Arab Emirates is facing a great moment of advancement.

Pure Harvest is recognized as a futuristic reality for the local production of high-yielding fruit and vegetables for twelve months of the year. This is a very important reality in the country, as demonstrated by the presence of people of a certain kind, such as some ministers of the Arab government and the Dutch ambassador, at a high-level event, for exemple. Therefore, Pure Harvest confirmed that it will be committed to addressing challenges such as food safety, water conservation and sustainability. It is in these concepts that the future of the countries

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of the Middle East is threatened. For obvious geographical and climatic reasons, Middle Eastern countries have always been too dependent on imports from abroad.

Precisely for this reason, it is not surprising that the industry is experiencing unprecedented development, as mentioned above. As stated by Eurofruit, several greenhouses have recently been opened in the country. An example of this is “Ras Al Khaimah”, founded last year. The latter has set itself the goal of producing, to then sell, 1.2 million tons of sustainable vegetables, which benefit from Hydroponics technology and which do not contain pesticides.

However, once the expansion plan is completed, it is expected to reach 4 million tons per year.

Badia Farms Dubai is home to "Badia Farms", a company founded by Omar Al Jundi: this is the first vertical indoor farm in the Gulf region and is known for providing microgreens and herbs to the best restaurants, restaurateurs and chefs in the city. Badia’s mission is to close the gap between the farm and the chef’s kitchen.

Using the latest hydroponics technology, they are growing delicious, nutritious micro-greens and herbs without sunlight, soil, or pesticides. Their revolutionary farming methods use up to 80 percent less water, they are energy-efficient and sustainable.

The techy term for it all is hydroponics, which is a technique for growing produce without soil.

Seeds are planted in a sterile, soil-less growing environment and then grown in nutrient-rich water. Water is recycled, and everything from air and water temperature through to humidity and lighting are controlled to create the perfect growing environment.

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Vertical farms can grow non-native produce in locations where traditional agricultural methods are impossible. Also, there’s no exposure to the hazards of traditional farming, such as bugs, diseases, pesticides and weather.

The UAE has established strategic partnerships with the private sector to create a favorable environment and promote agricultural investment, underlining that the goal is to ensure a sufficient supply of products to the local market, while promoting food safety advances to place the UAE in the top ten in the global food safety index by 2022, in accordance with the National Food Security Strategy of 2051

Al Dahra BayWa Al Dahra BayWa greenhouse was founded in Al Ain in October last year. This is expected to produce 3,000 tons of tomatoes per year. Also in this case there is no shortage of European contributions: the greenhouse is in fact part of a 40 million euro joint venture (167 million euro in local currency) between BayWa in Germany and Al Dahra in Abu Dhabi.

They use a safer and more sustainable medium to grow their tomatoes. While soil is most common, they use Rockwool - made from rock fiber that it is reusable and provides roots with the ideal environment to flourish. Excess run off water is also collected and reused to maximize water efficiency and at the same time creating a safer alternative to soil, which has the potential to carry bad bacteria and fungi. This way, all the goodness gets to the plant and isn’t reserved in soil.

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● Italy The Urban Farming sector is experiencing rapid expansion in Italy. In fact, the trend has grown after Expo 2015 and the pandemic is accelerating the process, both due to the need to have

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greater self-sufficiency, quality and safety of what we eat, and because it is becoming one of the most promising green sectors on which to direct financial resources.

Planet farms Planet Farms was born in Milan, combining the great Italian agronomic tradition with the excellence of technical and IT specialization, without compromising the quality and taste requirements that are the pillars of the millenary Italian food tradition.

Planet Farms was the first to bring the revolution in cultivation methods to Italy. Their work is aimed at bringing benefits to everyone, from industry to the environment, and especially to consumers.

Their plants are grown in multi-layered structures within pristine and controlled environments which are independent from external environmental conditions to obtain truly exceptional produce.

Their products represent the new evolution in clean and sustainable farming. Every individual plant is constantly and accurately nurtured with the monitoring of every aspect of the growth process, from light to temperature, from humidity to the purification of air and water. The entire growing process, from seed to harvest, is meticulously studied in order to guarantee the absolute certainty of quality and traceability of their plants

Agricola Moderna Another Urban Farming reality born near Milan, whose mission is "We produce fresh and healthy vegetables. For people and for our planet ", deals with Vertical Farming, a technique based on the use of vertical structures, whether they are shelves or buildings. They aim to recreate the environmental situations suitable for the growth of various types of plants and vegetables, trying to reduce transport costs from the producer to the consumer and management costs.

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Vertical farming is a cultivation technique conducted in a closed environment in which the plants - for example carrots, broccoli, basil - are grown in an artificially controlled manner and with a hydroponic method. Its added value is the strong sustainability and the lower waste of water compared to traditional agriculture and the less intensive use of the cultivation land.

They use LED lights with a spectrum of wavelengths of light that are absorbed by plants for photosynthesis and use natural nutrients, filtered and recycled water, modified air depending on the CO2 needs of the plants and zero use of pests or chemicals.

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Hexagro Hexagro is a Milanese company that develops vertical farming technologies. During the Covid19 crisis they launched their product, Poty, which aims to be not only a market product, but also an Urban Farming project aimed at creating a community that shares lifestyle and values.

The urban garden of the Milanese company has a vertically modular structure, consisting of several four-leaf clover vases, which can be combined one on top of the other; each component is made of metal or recycled plastic to develop a circular economy model that fights waste and leads to the reuse of every material.

The technology supporting Poty makes this vertical garden attractive even for those who are not particularly inclined to gardening. In fact, there is an autonomous irrigation system, but also a chatbot that guides through the stages of cultivation and can help when the fruits are late in arriving or the leaves of a plant turn yellow: just take a photo and send it to receive the advice of an agronomist from Hexagro.

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The commitment of the public administration As for the Italian public sector, it should be noted that many public administrations are working on issues related to Urban Farming and agricultural production in the city, with two objectives: on the one hand to redevelop the abandoned areas of the city, on the other to pursue sustainability and resilience objectives that are now essential. Numerous urban plans are being created that often integrate agriculture and urban reforestation.

●

Olanda

In the early 2000s, the Dutch committed nationwide to a new form of sustainable agriculture, which has seen the elimination of chemical pesticides in greenhouses and a 60% reduction in antibiotics since 2009. Meanwhile, leading innovation on Urban Farming is Wageningen University & Research (WUR), an institution regarded as one of the world's leading researchers in agriculture.

The research result shows that the Netherlands mainly offers two rather relevant examples of Urban Farming.

Floating Farm The first example concerns the fact that the port of Rotterdam has been enriched by the Floating Farm: a farm built on water to make healthy and genuine food accessible to all the inhabitants of the city. The structure is 100% green and completely sustainable. Every day you can buy fresh milk, yogurt, butter and cheeses.

The project represents the right solution to flood problems. Indeed, since the city has to cope with the discharge of water from rivers, at ever higher sea levels and more violent rainfall, floating buildings represent the right compromise. By building a floating farm, food production can continue even during a flood.

The project was conceived by the Dutch Carel de Vries of the Courage agri-food institute, Johan Bosman of the association dedicated to the development of urban agriculture Uit Je Eigen Stad and Peter van Wingerden of Beladon, a leading company in the construction of buildings in water.

The farm is transparent, so that visitors can see what is happening inside the Floating Farm.

The milk is transformed into fresh products, the manure is separated and then reused as a 46

rich and organic fertilizer for the plants of the city, gardens and parks. Even the robots used for milking, for slurry and for feeding are exposed and visible to all.

Floating Farm contributes to the goal of a circular city by recycling Rotterdam's biomass into dairy products of value for the city's residents. All the necessary energy is provided by floating solar panels and rainwater is collected on the roof and then purified. Most of the livestock feed comes from the city. Cow food consists of wheat, bran, potato peelings, and grass from city playgrounds or golf courses. The cows turn these "waste products" into healthy dairy products for local residents.

Finally, by bringing food transport closer to the consumer, the Floating Farm offers an important contribution to food waste and obviously to pollution related to transport.

DakAkker DakAkker is a 1000m2 rooftop farm on top of the Schieblock in Rotterdam. Vegetables, edible flowers and fruit are grown and bees are raised. It is considered the largest rooftop farm in the Netherlands and one of the largest in Europe. The Smartroof is a test site for water storage and management. The substrate of the Optigrün vegetable garden is distributed throughout the roof.

The Optigrün rooftop system consists of several layers: an absorbent protective layer, a drainage buffer layer and a filter layer with the roof's plant substrate on top. No fertilizer is used and no poison is sprayed, a 6-year alternating growing schedule is used.

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References “5 things you need to know about climate change and hunger”, OXFAM, (15.11.2016).

(15.11.2016).

Mahama and Thomas pose with a crate of their fresh produce.

WIATTA THOMAS Kırklareli University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences (ISSN: 2146-3417) Year: 2016 - Volume: 5 - Issue: 2,, THE AFFECTING FACTORS OF CONSUMERS’ ORGANIC FOOD PURCHASE CHOICES.

Kurt Benke and Bruce Tomkins, “Future food-production systems: vertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture”, Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 2017

Christine Lensing, “Controlled Environment Agriculture: Farming for the Future?”, CoBank Knowledge Exchange, 2018

Maria José Palma Lampreia dos Santos, “Smart cities and urban areas—Aquaponics as innovative urban agriculture”, Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 2016

Shafeena et al., “Smart Aquaponics System: Challenges and Opportunities”, International Journal of Advance Research in Computer Science and Management Studies, 2016

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Redmond Ramin Shamshiri, Fatemeh Kalantari, K. C. Ting, et al., “Advances in greenhouse automation and controlled environment agriculture: A transition to plant factories and urban agriculture”, International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, 2018

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