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GeoffreyR.McKee
WhyMothersKill AForensicPsychologist’sCasebook OxfordUniversityPress,Inc.,publishesworksthatfurther OxfordUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellence inresearch,scholarship,andeducation.
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Whymotherskill:aforensicpsychologist’scasebook/GeoffreyR.McKee. p.cm.
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1.Filicide.2.Infanticide.3.Womenmurderers.4.Mothers—Psychology. 5.Forensicpsychology—Casestudies.I.Title. HV6542.M382006
364.3'74—dc222005025827
987654321
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Preface Fewimagesaremoresymbolicofoursenseofpeaceandsecuritythanamother protectivelyholdingherinfantchild.Ataculturallevel,thethemeofmaternal nurturinghasbeenrepeatedinallknownsocietiesthroughouthistoryinstories,statues,plays,drawings,paintings,photographs,andfilms.Themothers inthiscasebookaretragicexamplesoftheothersideofthecoin.
Mymotivationforwritingthisbookhasbeentohelpmedicalandmentalhealthclinicians,legalandprotectiveservicesprofessionals,andthepublicanticipateandideallyintervenebeforethesehorrificeventsoccur;thatis, topreventmaternalfilicide,infanticide,andneonaticide.AlthoughIhaveincludedthemostrecentresearchfindingsandhighlightednumerouspractical methodsofinterventionwithinthisbook,Ibelievethatitmayultimatelybe themothers’storiesthatwillhelpusalltobetterunderstandthesefractured, fatalrelationships.Thechaptersthatfollowintroduce:
Cathy,a14-year-oldstepfather-incestvictim,whothrewhernewborn againstthewallaftergivingbirthaloneinherbedroom.
Edna,acollegefreshman,whosuffocatedherminutes-oldbabyinanact ofdelayedabortion.
Francine,age22,whodrownedher5-month-oldchildsothatshecould returntoherlifeofnightlyparties.
Glenda,anexhausted39-year-oldobesemotheroffive,whoendedher infantdaughter’slifebysuffocationwhilenursingherinherbed.
AlcoholicHarriet,whoselastphysicalabuseofher4-year-oldsonresulted inhisdeath.
Janet,who,inanisolatedfitoffrustration,shookherinfantsoviolently thatherbabyexpired.
Kaye,amotherwithmentalretardation,whoseunattendedtoddlerson drownedinthebathtub.
Barbara,whoseperceptionofrealitywassoimpairedbydelusionsthatshe believedhertwodemon-possessedchildrenhadtodiesothatshecouldsave themandherhusband.
Impulse-riddenSusan,whoallowedthecarcarryinghertwosonstosink intothewatersofJohnD.LongLake.
ChronicallydepressedMarilyn,who,followingherfavoriteson’saccidentaldeath,killedherselfonhersecondtryafterpoisoninghertworemaining children.
Olivia,whosuffocatedhertoddlerdaughtertopreventhermother-in-law fromgainingcustodyonceagain.
Pauline,who,withherequallygreedyex-convictboyfriend,drownedher preteensoninastagedaccidenttocollecthisinheritancefromhisdeceased grandparents.
Samantha,acrack-addictedmotherofa9-year-olddaughterwhomshe prostitutedfordrugs,whopushedherchilddownastaircasetokeepherfrom revealingthesexualexploitation.
Rhonda,who,toobtainattentionandsympathyfromhospitalstaff,covertlycreatedmedicalemergenciesbyseriallysuffocatingandrevivinghertwo sonsuntileachdied.
Manypeoplehavehelpedmealongtheway.Gratefulappreciationisextended toKirkHeilbrunforhiswisecounselintheearlystagesofthebook’sformationandforhiscarefulcritiqueofaninitialdraftofthebeginningchapters. Thanks,too,forLitaSchwartz’sthoughtfulcommentsandusefulsuggestions asthemanuscriptwastakingshape.Iwasfortunateaswelltohavehadmany activediscussionswithGeorgeHolmes,whoseprobingquestionshelpedmeto clarifymygoalsandobjectivesforthisproject—hisunselfishprofessionalism hasmadethisabetterbookindeed.JoanBossert,anexceptionaleditor,and herOxfordUniversityPressstaffcreatedanurturingenvironmentthatallowed thistoddlerauthortolearnhowtowalk.SpecialthanksgotoSueAnn,who hasbeenanunfailingsourceofencouragementandsupporttomethrough38 yearsofmarriage.
Ialsothankmymotherandfather:a“goodstart”—finished.
20 Final Thoughts: What Have We Learned and What Do We Need to Do? 253
References 261
Index 283
WhyMothersKill 1 Introduction Barbarapeekedoutherlivingroomwindowandstaredatthestrangerswalkingby.Sheknewwhattheywerethinking.Theyweregoingtotakeawayher childrenandputherinamentalhospital.She’dseenothersintheneighborhoodlookingatherandmakingplanstoabducther.Shefeltexhausted,buta voicetoldhertostayvigilant.Sheknewheronlyplaceofsafetywasherhouse. Sherefusedtoallowherchildrentoplayoutside.
Barbara’slifehadbecomeconfusingtohersincethebirthofherfirstchild, Marcus,4yearsago.ShehadbecomedepressedafterMarcuswasborn,buther doctortoldhershewasjusthaving“babyblues”andwouldbebettersoon. TakingcareofMarcuswasmoredifficultthansheanticipated:Herarelyslept throughthenightandwasoftencrankyandcryingduringtheday.Although herhusband,Tom,helpedwhenhecould,hewasoftengoneonbusinesstrips, leavingheraloneathomewithMarcus.WhenTomwasoutoftown,Barbara wouldnotgetoutofbedinthemorningandwouldkeepMarcusinthebedroomwithher.Formanyweeks,sherarelyshoweredandfeltunabletoclean, cook,andmanageherhouseholdduties.Marcuswoulddeveloprashesonhis bottombecauseBarbarawastooexhaustedtochangehisdiapers.Shebegan tohavepanicattacksandworriedconstantlyaboutwhethershewasorcould becomeagoodmother.Tombecameveryconcernedaboutherinabilitytocare forMarcusandarrangedforhertoseealocalpsychiatrist,whorecommended thatshebehospitalized.Barbarawasterrifiedaboutbeingsenttoamental hospital,believingthatonceshewasadmittedshewouldneverbereleased. Sherefusedtogototheemergencyroombutdidacceptmedicationthatthe psychiatristprescribed.
Themedicationshelpedherbecomemoreenergetic,andforawhileshe feltmoreoptimisticandself-confident.ShewasabletotakecareofMarcus andwashappyabouthermarriage.Shehadalwayswantedalargefamilywith Tom,sotheybegandiscussinghavinganotherchild.Whenshediscoveredshe waspregnant,Tomwasoverjoyedandbeganorganizingthesecondbedroom asanurseryfortheirnewbaby.ThoughBarbarawasinitiallythrilledatbeing pregnant,herworriesandanxietiessoonreturned.
WhenTomwasgoneonbusinesstrips,shewasunabletostopherrecurrentpanicepisodes.Shewouldawakeneachmorningwithasenseofdread. Shewasnauseouswith“morningsickness,”butherfrequentvomiting,dueto excessiveanxiety,continuedintohersecondandthirdtrimestersofpregnancy. Thoughdepressedanddespondentoverhernewmaternalresponsibilities,she didnothavesuicidalthoughtsbutoftenfeltshewasgoingtodieduringher attacksofpanic.
ApproximatelytwoweeksafterHeatherwasborn,Barbarafearedthatshe waslosinghermind.Shebegantohearmumblingsandnoisesinthehouse.A fewweekslater,shebelievedshehadclearlyheardavoicetellinghershewasa badmother.Whenshereturnedtoherpsychiatricappointment,shedidnot tellherdoctoraboutthevoice,becauseshewascertainthathewouldputher inthehospital.
Barbarabecamefearfulandexcessivelyanxiousaroundotherpeople;then shebeganbeingsuspiciousoftheirreactionstoher.Thevoicewhisperingin herearwasclearerandmorefrequent;occasionallysheheardother“persons” talkingtoher.Thoughthevoicesinitiallyscaredher,astimewentbyshebegantotrustthattheywereprotectingherfrompeoplewishingtoharmher. SherealizedthatMarcus,her4-year-oldson,andHeather,her8-month-old daughter,hadbeguntoactstrangelyandhadstoppedlisteningtoher.They hadbecomeunrulyandrebellious,andshefeltunabletomanagethem.They lookedatherstrangelyandresistedherattemptstocomfortthem.Marcus begantowhispertoHeatherabouther,justliketheothersoutsideherhome whotalkedabouther.
Aweekbeforeshekilledthem,Barbarawasfinallyabletounderstandwhat hadbeenhappeningtoher:MarcusandHeatherhadbecomedemonizedby evilforces.Theywerecrazyandhadmadehercrazy,too—herchildrenhadto bestoppedbeforetheyinfectedTom.Todaywasthedayshewoulddoit.
Tomhadleftearlyfortheoffice.Hehadseemedsomewhatdistantand distractedandhadgivenherafunnylookashewentoutthedoor.Barbara knewthatTomwouldbesafefromthechildrenaslongashestayedatwork. ThehousewasquietbecauseMarcusandHeatherwerenotyetawake.Shewent intothechildren’sbedroomandwatchedthemsleep.Theylookedsoinnocent, butsheknewdifferently:Theyweresleepingtotrickherintolettingdown herguard.Avoicesaid“Doit,doitnow!”Shetookapillowfromthefloor andplaceditoverMarcus’sface.Hestruggledforonlyafewminutes.When Barbararaisedthepillow,Marcus’seyeswereclosed,andhelookedtobeat
1
peace. She turned to Heather’s bed w ith the pillow, and soon her daughter was alsostill.SheknewherchildrenwerenowinHeaven,safefromthedemons.
Shedressedthechildrenintheirfavoriteoutfits,madetheirbeds,andthen laidthemoutwiththeirhandscrossedovertheirchests.Barbarasmiledforthe firsttimeinmonthsandwalkeddownstairs.ShecalledTomatworktotellhim thatshehadsavedhimfromtheirchildren.ShewasalarmedbyTom’sshock anddisbelief.ShewasconfusedwhenTomtoldherthathewouldcallforthe policeandanambulance.Shethenrealizedthatshehadbeentoolate,that thechildrenhadalreadydonetheirdamagetohim.Barbarawasdevastated andbegantocryhelplessly.Whenthepoliceandambulancearrivedwithher husband,sheofferednoresistanceandwastakentothehospital.
Parentalmurdersofchildrenhaveoccurredforcenturiesandhavebeen documentedinvirtuallyeveryknownsociety,fromadvanced,industrialized countriestoindigenousgroups. Filicide pertainstothekillingofchildrenolder than1yearofage. Infanticide referstohomicidesofchildrenwhohavenotyet hadtheirfirstbirthdays. Neonaticide isreservedforchildrenwhoaremurdered ontheirfirstdayoflife.
Fewcrimesgenerategreaterpublicreactionthanthatofamotherwho murdersherchild.AftercasessuchasthoseofSusanSmithandAndreaYates arereportedbythemedia,weask:“Why?Howcouldamotherdosucha thingtoherownchild?”Ourreactionsvaryfromcompassionandsympathy torageandanger.Wearerepelledyetmesmerizedbytheemergingdetailsof thecase.Wearemorbidlycuriousabouthowamothercoulddestroythisfirst andmostfundamentalrelationshipwehaveallhadinourlives.Thesecrimes oftenevokememoriesofourownchildhoods,whenwemayhavefearedour parents’anger:Wemaywonderwhetherourmothersmayhavehadintentions tokill,harm,orabandonus.Forthoseofuswhoareparents,wemayrecall episodesinourliveswhenwefeltsoenragedatourchildrenthatourphysicaldisciplinewentbeyondacceptedlimits—wewereshockedtolearnthatwe werecapableofsuchviolence.Wemayalsoremember,withguilt,wantingto leavehometobefreeoftheburdensofinsistent,demandingchildren.Inour deepest,mostsecretthoughts,however,wemaybefearfulofwhetherwetoo, asparents,mightactonthisdarkestimpulseoffilicide.
Thepurposeofthisbookistopreventmaternalfilicide,infanticide,and neonaticide.Thiscasebookhasbeenwrittentohelpmentalhealth,medical, legal,lawenforcement,andprotectiveservicesprofessionals,aswellasthe generalpublic,understand,analyze,andideallyintervenebeforethesetragic eventsoccur.Thecontentsofthebookderivefromtwosources:(1)myforensic psychologicalevaluationsof32teenagegirlsandadultwomenwhohavebeen chargedwithkillingtheirchildren;and(2)theprofessionalliteraturerelevant tothedescription,riskanalysis,andpreventionofmaternalfilicide.
Becausethisbookcomprisesactualcasesofmaternalfilicidefrommy evaluationworkinnumerousstatesoverthepast26years,anumberofsteps havebeentakentomaskthewomen’sidentitiestoconformtoprofessional
ethicalstandards.WiththeexceptionofSusanSmith,eachwomanwasgiven afictitiousfirstname,andonlyfirstnamesareused.Manydemographiccharacteristics(e.g.,age,education,occupation,socioeconomiclevel,etc.)ofthe womenhavebeenaltered.Thenamesofthechildrenandotherfamilymembershavebeenchangedineverycase,andattimessohavetheages,sexes,and numberofchildvictims.Locationsaredescribedgenerically(e.g.,university, hospital).Tohidethewomen’sidentities,Ihavealsoexchangedinformation amongcaseswithinthesamefilicidecategory,aprocessdescribedbyHeilbrun,Marczyk,andDeMatteo(2002)as hybridizing. Thereisoneexception, however.In1994,Iconductedacriminalforensicpsychologicalevaluation ofSusanSmithwhileshewasawaitingtrialforthemurderofhertwosons. Becausethefactsofhercrimeweresowidelypublicized,IwasawarethatI wouldbeunabletohideheridentity.Withtheendorsementofherattorney,I wasabletoobtainherwrittenconsenttousehernameandcasestudy.
Inchapter2,thecurrentestimatesoftheprevalenceofmaternalfilicide aredescribed.Next,thedifficultiesinestablishingtrueincidenceratesare discussedintermsoftheproblemsofdiscoveringthebodiesofabandoned children,determiningthecausesofthechildren’sdeaths,andprosecutorial decisionsaboutwhethertobringthecasestotrial.Last,thedemographic, historical,clinical,victim,forensic,andoffensecharacteristicsofmaternalfilicidalcasesfromtheresearchandclinicalliteraturearepresented.
Chapter3illustratesthesimilarities,differences,andlimitationsofsystemsthathaveattemptedtoexplainthesetragicdeaths.Ifirstdescribethe existingclassificationsthatencompasschildkillingsbyeitherthemotheror fatherandfollowwithadiscussionofthoseexplanatorysystems,limitedto maternalfilicide.Thesimilaritiesamongthemodelsarethendiscussedin termsoftheircommonemphasisonthemother’smentalillness,lackofbondingtoherchild,orinadequateparenting.Thechapterconcludeswiththedescriptionofmymaternalclassificationsystem,drawnfrommyclinicalexperienceandempiricalresearch,comprisingthecategoriesofdetachedmothers, abusive/neglectfulmothers,psychotic/depressedmothers,retaliatorymothers,andpsychopathicmothers.
Inchapter4Idescribethescientificstudyofdangerousbehaviorandhighlightclinicalandeverydaysituationsinwhichriskanalysisiscommonplace. Thereaderisintroducedtotheessentialterms targetbehaviors,signalbehaviors,riskfactors, and protectivefactors. IthendiscussmyMaternalFilicideRisk Matrix,amodelforanalyzingmaternalfilicideriskandprotectivefactorsat fivedifferenttimeperiods:prepregnancy,pregnancyanddelivery,earlypostpartum(birthto6months),latepostpartum(6monthsto1year),andpostinfancy(after1year).TheriskandprotectivefactorsoftheRiskMatrixhavebeen drawnfromtheempiricalandclinicalmaternalfilicideresearchliterature.A MaternalFilicideRiskMatrixforBarbara’sfilicideofMarcusandHeatheris completedtofurtherillustrateitsutilitytoindividualcases.
Inchapter5,theongoing,interactiveprocessofriskanalysisandpreventionisillustratedthrougheverydayexamplesandsituationsfromclini-
calsettings.Thischapterintroducestheconceptof riskinterventionpoints (RIPs),behaviorsorinterpersonalsituationsthatprecedetargetbehaviors. RIPsaresignalsthat,ifidentified and modified,mayneutralizeriskfactors orstrengthenprotectivefactorsrelevanttoamaternalfilicidecase.TheutilityofRIPsishighlightedbyextractingexamplesfromBarbara’ssituationin whichherhusbandrecognizedherat-riskstatusandattemptedtointervene. Primary,secondary,andtertiarypreventionmethodsarethendescribed,with examplesfromthematernalfilicideliterature.
Inchapters6through19,thestoryofeachfilicidalmotheristoldinher ownwords,thoughts,worries,fears,andfeelings,aseachdescribedtheevents thatledhertocommitthisunthinkablecrime.Throughthecasestudies,the readermaybegintounderstandhowthesewomenarrivedatthepointatwhich theybelievedthattheironlycourseofactionwastoterminatethelivesoftheir children.
Eachofthecasechaptersbeginswithanarrativeofthemother’sideas andemotionsbefore,during,and/orafterherhomicidalact.Significantevents fromthemother’spersonalhistorybeforeandafterdeliveryidentifythoseexperiencesthathelpedtoshapeheruniqueperceptions,attitudes,beliefs,and personality.AnalysisofthecasethroughtheMaternalFilicideRiskMatrixdescribestheprimaryriskandprotectivefactorsthatwereuniquetothatmother. Theresearchandscientificliteraturerelevanttothemother’sclinicalcircumstancesissummarizedtoassistinunderstandingherbehaviorinthebroader contextofempiricalfindingsandclinicalknowledge.SuggestionsforriskreductionandfilicidepreventionatvariousRIPswithinthemother’scaseare presentedtohelpthereaderunderstandwhatmighthavebeendonetoavert thetragedy.Eachstoryconcludeswithanepiloguedescribingthelegalresolutionofthemother’scase.
Chapters6through9describefilicidecasesinvolvingdetachedmothers, inwhichthebondingbetweentheparentandnewbornneveradequatelydeveloped.Chapter6isbasedon Cathy, a14-year-oldgirlsooverwhelmedby herstepfather’srepeatedsexualassaultsthatsheunconsciouslyeliminatedany awarenessofbeingpregnantuntilshegavebirthaloneinherbedroom.Chapter7tellsthestoryof Edna, acollegefreshmansoindecisiveaboutendingher pregnancyorgivingbirththatshesuffocatedherminutes-oldbabyinanact ofdelayedabortion.Chapter8presents Francine, a22-year-oldsinglewoman whodrownedandthenburiedher5-month-oldchildbecauseshewasangry, tired,andboredwithmotherhoodandwishedtoreturntoherprepregnancy lifestyleofpartiesandrecreationalsubstanceabuse.Chapter9isthecaseof Glenda, a39-year-oldobesemotheroffivechildrenwhowassooverwhelmed bythedemandsofhernumerouschildrenthat,whilenursingher3-montholdbabyinbed,sherolledontoandsuffocatedthechild.Chapters10through 12describefilicidesbyabusiveandneglectfulmothers,accidentalchilddeaths duetomaternalphysicaldisciplineorinattention.Chapter10tellsof Harriet, a chronicallyalcoholicwomanwhoserepeatedabuseofher4-year-oldsonduringperiodsofintoxicationresultedinhisdeath.Chapter11isbasedon Janet,
who,inanisolatedfitofrage,shookher4-month-olddaughtersoviolently thatthechilddied.Chapter12depictsthestoryof Kaye, awomanofverylow intelligence,whoseunattendedtoddlersondrownedinthebathtub.
Chapters13through15illustratefilicidesbypsychoticanddepressed mothers,womenwhosementalillnesswasthemostsignificantfactorleadingtotheirchildren’sdeaths.Inchapter13, Barbara’s storyiscontinued,exemplifyingpostpartumpsychosis,andisdescribedthroughtheverdictinher insanitytrial. SusanSmith’s caseispresentedinchapter14.Chapter15isbased on Marilyn, achronicallydepressedmotherwho,inanorganized,deliberate manner,plannedherownandhertworemainingchildren’sdeathsbymedicationoverdose.
Chapter16describesaretaliatorymother, Olivia, whokilledhertoddler topreventthechild’spaternalgrandmotherfromgainingcustodyonceagain.
Chapters17,18,and19presentthreecasesoffilicidebypsychopathic mothers,situationsinwhichthemothers,forexploitativeandself-servingreasons,killedtheirchildren.Chapter17describes Pauline, whokilledhersonby staginganaccidenttocashinonhisinheritancefromhisdeceasedgrandparents.Chapter18describes Samantha, acrack-cocaine-addictedmotherofa 9-year-olddaughterwhomsheprostitutedfordrugsandthenmurderedafter herchildthreatenedtorevealhermother’ssexualexploitationtotheschool counselor.Finally,Chapter19presents Rhonda, awomanwithMunchausen syndromebyproxy(MBP),whorepeatedlysmotheredandrevivedhertwo sonsuntileachdied.
Thecasebookconcludeswithanenumerationofrecommendationsfor futureresearchandclinicalpracticeinmaternalfilicide.
2 Neonaticide,Infanticide, andFilicideResearch WhatDoWeKnow? Inthischapter,Iaddressthequestion“Whatdoweknow?”bydiscussingfilicideresearchinthreeareas.First,Ipresentcurrentestimatesoftheprevalence offilicide.Second,Ireviewthelegalandmedicalproblemsindetermining trueprevalencerates.Third,Isummarizethedemographic,historical,clinical, victim,offense,andforensiccharacteristicsofthosemotherswhohavebeen chargedorconvictedofmurderingtheirchildren.
FilicidePrevalenceEstimates Overthepast40years,manynationalstudieshavebeenconductedtodeterminetheincidence,circumstances,causesofdeath,anddemographiccharacteristicsofchildrenwhoarekilled.Forexample,theU.S.Departmentof HealthandHumanServices’(USDHHS)OfficeonChildAbuseandNeglect estimatedthatin2001,approximately1,300childrenunder18diedasaresult ofabuseandneglect—arateofmorethanthreedeathsperday,oronechild deathevery7hours(U.S.DepartmentofHealth&HumanServices,2003). TheUSDHHSreportindicatedthatalmostallofthechildrenkilledbyabuse orneglectwereveryyoung:85%wereunder6yearsofage,and41%wereundertheageof1.The1,300deathsrepresented0.14%,or14per1,000victimsof theestimated900,000childrenin2001whoweresubjectedtoneglect,physical abuse,sexualabuse,and/oremotionalmaltreatment.USDHHSreportedthat overthepast30years,theannualnumberofchildrenunderage1whohave diedfromphysicalabusehasmorethandoubled,toitshighestrateintheyear 2000.Mostofthechildrenwerevictimsoffilicidebyoneoftheirparents.
TheU.S.DepartmentofJustice(USDOJ)estimatedthatbetween1976 and1994,13,774childrenunderage10weremurderedintheUnitedStates,a yearlyaverageof765filicides,oronechildevery12hours(BureauofJustice Statistics,1997).TheUSDOJstudyalsofoundthatmostofthevictimswere theyoungestandmostvulnerablechildren:80%wereunderage5,and31% werelessthan1yearold.ThesedataareconsistentwiththestudiesofOverpeck thathavefoundthatapproximatelyonechildperdayiskilledbeforehisorher firstbirthday(Overpeck,2003).
Variousstudieshavedemonstratedthatthemostlikelyperpetratorsof childhomicideandabusearethevictim’sbiologicalparents(BureauofJustice Statistics,1997).Thestudydeterminedthat61%ofthechildrenunder5years oldweremurderedbytheirparentsandthatanother23%werekilledbya maleacquaintanceofthemother,oftenactingasadefactoparentduringher absence.Only3%ofthechildrendiedatthehandsofastranger.Biological mothersaccountedfor30%ofthechildhomicidesbetween1976and2000 atanannualrateashighas256,oranaverageofonechilddeathevery33 hours.
DifficultiesinEstablishingTruePrevalenceRates Theprincipalcausesofinaccurateprevalenceratesinvolvelegalandmedical factors.Toestablishthetrueprevalenceforfilicide,atleastthreeconditions mustbemet:(1)alldeceasedchildren’sbodiesmustbediscoveredandexamined;(2)theexactcauseofeachdeathmustbedetermined;and(3)the circumstancesofthedeathasaccidentalorintentionalmustbespecified,and theparentmustbeconvictedofkillinghisorherchild.
DiscoveryoftheBody Itisunknownhowmanybabiesdieeachyearfromfilicide,becausethedocumentedfilicidedataisbasedononlythosecasesinwhichabodyhasbeen found(Crittenden&Craig,1990;Overpeck,2003).Oncethefederalgovernmentbegantocollectdataonthenumberofabandonednewborns,inearly 1990,theratesofknowndiscardedbabieshavebeenastounding.In1991,accordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServices’AdministrationforChildrenandFamilies(USDHHS,2004a),over21,660newbornbabieshadbeenabandonedbymothersinhospitalsorotherpublicplaces.In 1998,themostrecentyearforwhichUSDHHShasdata,thenumberofabandonedbabieshadrisenbyover9,400infantsto31,000,anincreaseofmore than40%.
Itisunknownhowmanybabiesabandonedbytheirmothersarenever foundbecausethenewbornswerediscardedintocommunitytrashdumpsters, buriedinremotelocations,orleftinunoccupieddwellings.Forexample,in 1999,Texasbecamethefirststatetopassalawthatallowedmothersorfathers,
underspecialconditions,tolegallygiveuptheirinfants.Thestatutewasmade aftermorethan800babieswerefounddiscardedinasingleyear,including 50whowerediscoveredindumpsters.Currently,45stateshavepassedsimilar “safehaven”or“babyMoses”laws(NationalConferenceofStateLegislatures, 2003).
Themortalityratefordiscardedbabiesdiscoveredinnonhospitalsettings hasbeenstaggering:In1991,over12%werefounddead.By1998,nearly32% ofthediscoveredbabieswerefounddeceased,anincreaseofalmost300%(U.S. DepartmentofHealth&HumanServices,2004a).Inonesampleofneonaticides,morethan64%ofthenewborns’bodieshadbeenaccidentallydiscoveredonthebeachorintrashbins(Crittenden&Craig,1990).Noneofthe newbornshadbeenreportedmissing,thusconfirmingthatthenewmother hadintendedtoconcealthedeliveryandabandonmentofherbaby.
Manyresearchershavefoundthatanexpectantmother’sattitudetoward herpregnancyisastrongfactorinwhethersheemotionallybondswithherfetusandbaby(Ainsworth,Blehar,Waters,&Wall,1978;Bibring,1959;Fonagy, Steele,&Steele,1991).In1987,8%or120,000expectantmothersgavebirth tobabiestheydescribedasunwanted(Brown&Eisenberg,1995).Ahighproportionofthe120,000womenwithunwantedpregnancies,therefore,maynot havehadpositiveattachmentstonorcaredforthewelfareoftheirnewborn babies.Suchnegativematernalattitudeslikelymakeundetectedabandonment muchmoreprevalent.ThesefindingsappeartosupportMeyerandOberman’s (2001)conclusionthatmanyneonaticide(andfirst-weekinfanticide)victims areneverfound.
EstablishingtheTrueCauseofDeath Researchestimatingfilicideistypicallybasedonofficialreportssuchasdeath certificatesorotherstateagencydata.Causesofdeathsininfantsareoften verydifficulttoestablishevenforhighlyexperiencedpathologistsandmedical specialists.Inhigh-profile,well-publicizedfilicidecases,theissueofcauseof deathmayleadtoavigorous“battleoftheexperts”forboththeprosecution andthedefense,especiallyifthedefendantfacesthedeathpenaltyforallegedly killingaveryyoungvictim.Forexample,infantdeathsareoftenattributed tosuddeninfantdeathsyndrome(SIDS),adiagnosisofexclusion;thatis,a conclusionofanunknowncauseofdeathafterallotherpossiblecauseshave beenruledout(Emery,1993;Ewigman,Kivlahan,&Land,1993).Although deathsattributedtoSIDShavedecreaseddramaticallyduetomedicallyrecommendedchangesinsleepingproceduresfornewborns,thediagnosisisstill widelyrecorded.Bacon(2004)estimatedthatundetectedcoverthomicides ofchildrenmayaccountforasmanyas10%ofsuddenunexpecteddeaths ininfancy.ThehighfrequencyofSIDSpromptedtheAmericanAcademyof Pediatricsin1999torecommendimprovedinvestigationsofinfants’abrupt deaths(AmericanAcademyofPediatrics,1999).Ominously,Overpeck(2003)
hasbeenwidelyquotedasstatingthatchildhomicidesbymothersareamong theleastwell-documenteddeathsintheUnitedStates.
CircumstancesoftheChild’sDeathandProsecution Evenifthecauseofdeathcouldbeestablished,filicideresearchisfurthercompromisedbyproblemsindeterminingwhetherthechild’sdeathwasanaccidentoranintentionalhomicidebytheallegedperpetrator-parent.Infants’ deathsthataredeterminedtobeaccidentsareoftennotprosecutedorreported asinstancesofchildabuse,andthereforetheofficialnumberofinfanticides maybeunderestimated(BureauofJusticeStatistics,2000).Determinationof thecircumstancesofthechild’scauseofdeathisparticularlydifficultwhenthe victimisanewborn.Forexample,MeyerandOberman(2001)foundthat84% oftheneonaticidecasestheyreviewedinvolvedeithersuffocationordrowning.Insuffocationcases,itisoftendifficulttoestablishwhethertheinfant wasintentionallysmotheredbythemotherordiedasaresultofanaccidental “layoversuffocation”duringnursinginbed.Glenda’scase(chapter9)turned onthatissue:Thecoronerhaddeclaredthedeathasanaccident,butaftersuffering2weeksofoverwhelmingguilt,Glendaadmittedshehadintentionally killedherchild.
Researchhasindicatedthat,evenwhenamedicalexaminerfindsgrounds forhomicide,apolicereportmightnotbecompleted,resultinginanunderreportingofactualfiliciderates(Overpeck,Brenner,&Cosgrove,2002).For example,inoneU.S.studyoffilicide,only64%of171casesovera30-year periodwereprosecutedbythelocaldistrictattorneys(Crittenden&Craig, 1990).
MaternalFilicideCaseCharacteristics Verylittleconsistencyacrossthestudieswasfoundregardingwhichvariables ofthemothersweremeasuredandwhetherthosedatawerequantitativelyor qualitativelydescribed.Forexample,only10of30studyvariablesinMcKee andShea’scross-nationalcomparisonresearch(1998)werealsomeasuredin thefindingsofResnick(1969),d’Orban(1979),andBourgetandBradford (1990).Also,inmaternalfilicidestudiesbasedonsecondarysources,suchas newspaperreportsorlegalcases,thedatamaynotbeavailabletotheresearcher becausethesourceseitherdidnotreportorhadnotknownthemother’sparticulardemographicorhistoricalcharacteristics.Thestudiescitedundereach ofthemothers’andvictims’demographic,historical,andclinicalcharacteristicsprovidetheempiricalunderpinningformyMaternalFilicideRiskMatrix. Foreachcharacteristic,thespecificpercentagesfromthedifferentstudiesare comparedwithoneanotherinordertovalidatetheutilityofthatcharacteristic inclinicaldecisionmaking:thegreaterthedifferencesinpercentages,however, thelessconfidencetheclinicianmayhaveinrelyingonthatcharacteristicfor riskanalysis.
DemographicCharacteristics Age
Maternalageatthetimeofthechild’sdeathhasbeenoneofthemostconsistentlyreportedstatisticsinstudiesofmaternalfilicide.Mostoftheresearch, afterexcludingneonaticidecases,hasfoundthatthemothersweretypically intheir20swhenthefilicideoccurred.Spinelli(2003)foundthatin17cases ofinfanticide,themother’smeanagewas23;however,womenasyoungas15 andasoldas40havekilledtheirchildren.AlderandPolk’s(2001)sampleof filicide-suicidecasesreportedthatthemothersrangedinagefrom18to35 years.MeyerandOberman(2001)determinedthatintheircasesof“assistedcoerced”and“neglect”filicides,themotherswereonaverage25yearsold. However,inthe“abuse”filicidecategory,thewomenwereslightlyolder,27 years.Resnick(1969)foundthat,afterexcludingneonaticidecases,theaverageageofhissampleoffilicidalmotherswas31.5years,comparedwiththe mothers’meanageof27.3inthesampleofBourgetandBradford(1990),24.6 yearsinthestudybyd’Orban(1979),and29.3yearsinresearchbyMcKeeand Shea(1998).Lewis,Baranoski,Buchanan,andBenedek(1998)reportedthat theaverageageoffilicidalmothersintheirsamplewas29years.
Manystudieshavereportedthatthemothersinneonaticidecasesare generallyyounger.Forexample,MeyerandOberman’s(2001)sampleof37 neonaticidalmothershadanaverageageof19years—thoughonewoman was39yearsoldwhenshekilledhernewbornbaby.Overpeck,Brenner,and Trumble(1998)foundthatnewmothersunderage15wereseventimesmore likelytocommitneonaticideorinfanticidethannewmothersoverage25.
Intelligence Subnormalintellectualfunctioningisfrequentlyfoundasademographiccharacteristicofmotherswhocommitfilicide.Inthegeneralpopulation,approximately1%ofadultsandchildrenarediagnosedwithmentalretardation (AmericanPsychiatricAssociation,2000).However,inmaternalfilicidecases, theprevalenceappearstobemuchhigher.Forexample,MeyerandOberman (2001)foundthat13%oftheirsampleinthecategoryof“abuse”filicides sufferedfromlowintelligence,andSpinelli(2003)indicatedthatthemajorityoftheinfanticidalwomeninherstudyhadlimitedIQs.McKeeandShea (1998)discovered,intheirsampleoffilicidalmothers,that5%werementally retarded,whichisconsistentwiththe4%prevalencefoundbyd’Orban(1979).
Education McKeeandShea(1998)reportedthatthefilicidalwomenintheirsamplehad anaverageof11yearsofeducationandthat20%hadattendedsomecollege classes.Cummings,Theis,Mueller,andRivara(1994)citedalackofeducation (lessthanhighschoolgraduation)asariskfactorincasesofneonaticide:Only 7%ofthenewmothershadattendedanycollegeclasses.Wilczynski(1997) foundthatalmost80%ofthemothersinhersamplehadleftschoolbeforeage
16.Lewisetal.(1998)reportedthat44%oftheirsamplehadnotcompleted highschool.Overpeck,Brenner,andTrumble(1998)foundthatinfantswhose mothersdidnotcompletehighschoolwereeighttimesmorelikelytobekilled thantheinfantsofmotherswhohadcompletedmorethan15yearsofschool.
MaritalStatus Almostallofthestudiesfoundthatmostofthefilicidalmothers(from52% [Wilczynski,1997]to88%[Resnick,1969])weremarriedorinanongoing partnershipatthetimeofthechildren’sdeaths.Ifthemotherhadcommitted neonaticide,however,shewasunlikelytobemarriedorinastablerelationship: 97%ofMeyerandOberman’s(2001)sampleofneonaticidalmotherswere single.Unmarriedstatuswasalsocitedasariskfactorforneonaticideinthe researchofCummingsetal.(1994)andEmerick,Foster,andCampbell(1986).
SocioeconomicStatus Themajorityofstudieshavefoundthatfilicidalmotherscamefromimpoverishedsituationsatthetimeoftheirchildren’sdeaths.Manyresearchershave citedlackoffinancialresourcesasacommoncharacteristicofthewomen whocommitfilicideorabandontheirneonates.Forexample,McKeeandShea (1998)foundthat80%ofthemothersintheirstudyhadannualincomesof lessthan$20,000.MeyerandOberman(2001)determinedthat90%ofthe motherswhohadfatallyneglectedtheirchildrenlivedbelowthepovertyline. Crimmins,Langley,Brownstein,andSprunt(1997)reportedthatonly29%of theirsamplewerelegitimatelyemployed.ThemajorityofthefilicidalmothersreportedbyHolden,Burland,andLemmen(1996)wereunemployedat thetimeoftheirchildren’sdeaths.Wilczynski(1997)determinedthat61%of thefilicidalmothersinhersamplereportedhavinghousingproblemsdueto financialdeficitsandwelfareallocations.
HistoricalCharacteristics ParentalDivorce Ofthefewstudiesthatdescribethemarriagesoffilicidalmothers’parents, parentaldivorcewasacommontheme.Ind’Orban’s(1979)study,57%ofthe mothershadcomefrombrokenhomes,ashad80%ofthemothersinMcKee andShea’s(1998)sample.Crimminsetal.(1997)determinedthat64%ofthe mothersintheirsamplehadcomefrommotherlesshomes.
ChildhoodAbuse Filicidalmothers’childhoodhistoriesofvictimizationhavebeenreportedin manystudies.Spinelli(2001)discoveredthat53%oftheinfanticidalmothersshestudiedwerevictimsofphysicaland/orsexualabuse.McKeeandShea (1998)indicatedthat20%oftheirsamplehadbeenchildabusevictims,ashad 16%ofthemothersind’Orban’s(1979)study.Crimminsetal.(1997)found that74%oftheirfilicidalmothershadreportedhistoriesofseriousphysical
abuse or sexual molestation, which was somewhat higher than the 39% rate of childhoodvictimizationfoundinthemothersinWilczynski’s(1997)sample. Korbin(1986)foundthat78%ofhersamplereportedhistoriesofchildhood physicalorsexualabuse.
AbuseVictimsasAdults Manystudieshavereportedthatfilicidalmothersareofteninabusive,violent relationshipsatthetimetheirchildrenarekilled.Crimminsetal.(1997)found that52%ofthemothersintheirsamplewerelivingwithabusivepartners, comparedwith18%ofthemothersinWilczynski’s(1997)study.Meyerand Oberman(2001)indicatedthatcriminaldomesticviolencewasveryprevalentintheirsampleofwomenwhohadcommitted“assisted/coerced”filicides: 40%hadbeenabusedbytheirpartners.OfthewomeninMcKeeandShea’s (1998)study,43%reportedthattheywereinviolentrelationships,andhalfof thosewomenalsodescribedabusebyformerpartners.Thesedataweresomewhatconsistentwiththoseofthewomenind’Orban’s(1979)study,inwhich 19%hadreportedbeingpreviouslyabusedasadults.
PriorArrest Generally,filicidalmothersdonothavehistoriesoflegaldifficultiespriorto theirarrestsforkillingtheirchildren.D’Orban(1979)foundthat20%ofthe samplehadbeenpreviouslyarrested,comparedwith5%ofthemothersin thesampleofMcKeeandShea(1998).Holdenetal.(1996)foundthatasmall minorityoftheirsampleoffilicidalmothershadbeenpreviouslychargedwith crimesbythepolice.OfthemothersinWilczynski’s(1997)sample,18%reportedthattheyhadbeenpreviouslyarrested.MeyerandOberman(2001) discoveredthatofthemotherscategorizedas“purposeful”filicides,16%had previouslykilledotherchildrenintheircare,thoughitwasunclearwhether thosemothershadbeenarrestedfortheirpriorcrimes.
ClinicalCharacteristics PriorMentalHealthServices Ahistoryofmentalillnessandtreatmenthasbeenacommonfindinginmany studiesoffilicidalmothers.Ina1979studybyd’Orban,41%ofthesamplehad beenpreviouslypsychiatricallyhospitalized,comparedwith15%inthesampleofMcKeeandShea(1998).Morethan64%ofWilczynski’s(1997)sample reportedthattheyhadreceivedpriorpsychiatrictreatment,whichwascomparabletothe60%offilicidalmothersreportedbyLewisetal.(1998).Crimmins etal.(1997)foundthat59%oftheirsamplehadsoughtmentalhealthcare priortotheirfilicidalacts.AlderandPolk(2001)discoveredthatthemajority offilicidalwomenintheirstudyhadbeenreceivingpsychiatriccareatthetime oftheirchildren’sdeaths,whichwasconsistentwiththefindingsofSammons (1987)that40%offilicidalmothershadbeenseenbypsychiatristsshortly beforecommittingtheircrimes.
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